Datagram Forwarding

Asst. Prof. Chaiporn Jaikaeo, Ph.D.

chaiporn.j@ku.ac.th
http://www.cpe.ku.ac.th/~cpj
Computer Engineering Department
Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand

Adapted from the notes by Lami Kaya and lecture slides from Anan Phonphoem
© 2009 Pearson Education Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
© The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
 Outline
 Datagram forwarding/routing
 IP Datagram
 Fragmentation

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Node-to-node delivery

Ethernet WAN Token Ring

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Source-to-destination delivery

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Forwarding IP Datagram

BKK
123.10.0.0/16 Internet

A SKL
B
C

203.45.98.0/24
X
Y

Each router maintains routing table

It’s best effort !
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Routing Table Entries

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Next-Hop Forwarding

Alaska

Germany
New York

Bangkok

Bangkok  Germany
Bangkok 
 New
Alaska
York  Alaska
Next hop keep changing
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 Source Independence Routing
 Next hop depends on
 destination network of the packet
 Not the source!
 Source Independence

Bangkok  Germany  New York  Alaska

Forwarding packet uses the destination address in the packet

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 Example: IP Routing Table
Router# show ip route

Codes: I - IGRP derived, R - RIP derived, O - OSPF derived,

C - connected, S - static, E - EGP derived, B - BGP derived,
* - candidate default route, IA - OSPF inter area route,
i - IS-IS derived, ia - IS-IS, U - per-user static route,
o - on-demand routing, M - mobile, P - periodic downloaded static route,
D - EIGRP, EX - EIGRP external, E1 - OSPF external type 1 route,
E2 - OSPF external type 2 route, N1 - OSPF NSSA external type 1 route,
N2 - OSPF NSSA external type 2 route

C 162.100.0.0/16 is variably subnetted, 6 subnets, 2 masks

C 162.100.0.0/29 is directly connected, Ethernet0
D 162.100.0.8/29 [90/2195456] via 162.100.0.26, 00:03:27, Serial0
D 162.100.0.16/29 [90/2172416] via 162.100.0.33, 00:03:15, Serial1
D 162.100.0.28/30 [90/2195456] via 162.100.0.26, 00:03:27, Serial0
C 162.100.0.24/30 is directly connected, Serial0
C 162.100.0.32/30 is directly connected, Serial1

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 Packet forwarding (Routing)
 Router reads destination IP address
 Router finds out the network address
 destination IP & Mask  network address
 192.4.10.15 & 255.255.255.0  192.4.10.0
192 4 10 15
1100 0000 0000 0100 0000 1010 0000 1111 &
255 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 0000 0000
1100 0000 0000 0100 0000 1010 0000 0000

 Use network add to look for next hop

in routing table

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 Longest Prefix Match
 Internet forwarding tables can contain a default
entry
 that provides a path for all destinations that are not
explicitly listed
 A network manager can specify a host-specific
route
 it directs traffic destined to a specific host along a
different path than traffic for other hosts on the same
network
 An important feature of an Internet forwarding
table is that address masks can overlap

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 Example: Longest Prefix Match
 Router A's routing table contains two entries
 128.10.0.0/16 to Router B
 128.10.2.0/24 to Router C
 Router A receives a packet destined to 128.10.2.3
 Both entries match the destination address
 Which entry should be used?
 The one with the longest prefix
 Router A will choose the entry that corresponds to
128.10.2.0/24
 The packet is sent out to Router C

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 Dynamic Routing
 How is the routing table constructed anyway?
 Network admin inputs manually  too much work!
 Routers contain special software running a routing
protocol for automatic route computation
 Route computation works on a graph that models
the network
 Each node corresponds to a packet switch
 (individual computers are not part of the graph)
 An edge (link) denotes a direct connection between
a pair of packet switches

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Modeling Network

node

Edge

A Graph representation
Network

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Routing Table

node

Edge = (u,v)

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Default Routes

• One default
• Lowest priority
> 1 destination with same next-hop
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 Routing Table Construction
 Static Routing
 Manual configure
 Simple and low overhead
 Inflexible
 Dynamic Routing
 Automatic changing
 Change according to network problems
 Mostly use

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 Distributed Route Computation
 In practice, networks need to perform
distributed route computation
 All packet switches must participate in distributed
route computation
 No central entity to do computation
 There are two general forms:
 Link-State Routing (LSR)
 Distance-Vector Routing (DVR)

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 Link-State Routing (LSR)
 Also known as Shortest Path First (SPF) routing
 Dijkstra algorithm used it to characterize the way it works
 To use LSR, packet switches periodically send messages
across the network that carry the status of a link
 Every switch collects
incoming status messages
 and uses them to build
a graph of the network

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 Dijkstra's Algorithm
 Uses a greedy
approach to select
the next node into
the shortest path
tree
 Assumes non-
negative weight
edges

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 Dijkstra’s Algorithm Animation
http://www-b2.is.tokushima-u.ac.jp/~ikeda/suuri/dijkstra/Dijkstra.shtml

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 Distance Vector Routing (DVR)
 Uses Distributed Bellman-Ford Algorithm
 Like LSR, DVR arranges for packet switches to
exchange messages periodically
 In DVR, a switch sends a complete list of
destinations and the current cost of reaching each
 When it sends a DVR message
 a switch is sending a series of individual statements, of
the form:
“I can reach destination X, and its current distance
from me is Y”

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DVR Concept

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 Hop Count

2 hops

1 hop

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Routing table distribution

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 Updating routing table
 For router A

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Final routing tables

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 Updating the routing table
 Example

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 Routing Problems
 In theory, either LSR or DVR will compute shortest paths
 Furthermore, each approach will eventually converge
 meaning that the forwarding tables in all packet switches agree
 However, problems do occur
 For example, if LSR messages are lost, two packet switches can
disagree about the shortest path
 DVR problems can be more severe
 because a link failure can cause two or more packet switches to
create a routing loop
 in which each packet switch thinks the next packet switch in the set is
the shortest path to a particular destination
 As a result, a packet can circulate among the switches indefinitely

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IPv4 Datagram

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 IP Datagram (IPv4)
Payload
Overhead

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 IP Datagram

 Version
 Header Length
 unit: 4-byte word
 Normally: 5
 Type of Services
 prioritize, routing
 Datagram Length (data + header)
 Size limitation

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 IP Datagram

 Fragmentation ID Fragmentation

 Break/Group
 Flag and Offset
 Control
 MTU
 Maximum Transmission Unit

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Fragmentation

Ethernet FDDI Token Ring

1,500 bytes 4,352 bytes 17,756 bytes
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Fragmentation

Application Data

IP
Payload
Header

IP
Payload
Header
Smaller MTU
IP Pay
Header load

IP
Payload
Header

IP
Payload
Header

IP Pay
Header load
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 IP Datagram

 TTL
 avoid looping
 hop count (not
time count)
 TCP (60)

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 IP Datagram
 Protocol
 identify the protocol in payload

Protocol No. Protocol Name RFC

1 ICMP 792
2 IGMP 1112
4 IP encapsulated 2003
6 TCP 793
17 UDP 768
89 OSPF 2328
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 IP Datagram
 Header Checksum
 for header only  fast speed
 How about Data ???
 regular checksum detection is not really accurate
 1-byte data with 1-byte checksum
 add/subtract
 IP uses 1’s compliment checksum
 Overflow!

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IP Address

32 bits

32 bits

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