Ensuring adaptability in modular construction

Eleni Arvaniti

January 2020
MSc. Sustainable Design Engineering
Title page
Education institution: MSc in Sustainable Dsign
Institution: Aalborg University
School of Architecture, Design and Planning (SADP)

Project period: September 2010 - Jauary 2020

ECTS:30

Supervisors: Susse Georg

External collaborator: Vandkunsten Architects

Author: Eleni Arvaniti

Study No: 20172087

Type of thesis: Master thesis

Title: Ensuring adaptability in modular construction

Pages: 75

Appendix:
Index
1 INTRODUCTION 7
1.1 Background 8
1.2 Problem formulation 10
1.3 Structure of the report 11

2 RESEARCH DESIGN 13
2.1 Theory 14
2.2 Methods 14
2.2.1 Vandkunsten and social housing 15
2.2.2 Case study of 2 companies 16
2.2.3 Desk research 16
2.2.4 Field study 16
2.2.4.1 Evaluation tool 17

3 CHARACTERIZING THE CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY 19

3.1 The birth of the sector 20
3.2 1990-Present 22
3.3 A Sector as it is 24
3.3.1 Sources of lock-in 24
3.3.2 What is a lock-in and why it is relevant 25
3.3.3 A sector that it is locked-in 27

4 CONSTRUCTING ADAPTABLE BUILDINGS 29

4.1 Modular construction and advantages 30
4.2 Design for Disassembly and Deconstruction  31
4.3 Adaptability/ Flexibility 33
4.4 Exemplars 34
4.4.1Tinggården35
4.4.2 Lisbjerg Bakke

36
5 MODULAR CONSTRUCTION IN DENMARK 41
5.2.1 Manufacture stage 44
5.2.2 Assembly stage 45
5.2.2.1 off-site 45
5.2.2.2 on-site 46
5.3 Analysis of adaptability 50
5.3.1 Evaluation tool analysis 50
5.4 Comparing the adaptability of the current system with the exemplars 53
5.4.1 Conclusion of third part 54

6 DISCUSSION 57
6.2 Strategy to escape the lock-in in construction industry 59

7 CONCLUSION 64
References67
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.
I would like to give our special thanks to my supervisors, Susse Greog (academ-
ic) and Anne-Mette Manelius (external) for their support throughout the master
thesis. They were always available for giving feedback throughout the project.

I would also like to give a special thanks to all the participants of different inter-
views, and feedback conducted; Scandibyg, BM Byggeindustry A/S, Vandun-
sten Architects.

A special appreciation to Søren Nielsen and Kristian Martinsen for their contribu-
tion with their knowledge and feedback.

A special thanks to the archtiecture firm Vandkunsten for the collaboration, and
for giving life to the master thesis project.

And lastly, I would humbly like to thank my family and friends, who have been
providing me support throughout the period of my thesis.
Abstract

Sustainable development is growing, transforming and adapting according to the so-

cial, economic and environmental demands in different fields. More specifically, in the
building sector, due to the increased environmental pressure covering different stages
of building’s lifespan from the production phase to the management of building waste
(COM 2014,p2), an interest regarding the issue of adaptability in buildings is repeating
over the years as it involves actors from several disciplines including planners, ar-
chitects and engineers. This thesis explores how production technology/ practices in
prefabricated modular construction can influence the process of building adaptation
to future social alterations.

With a broader standpoint narrative, and using the theoretical base from previous
studies regarding adaptability and disassembly in buildings, together with my own field
study in production facilities and interviews with the experts, this research study ex-
plores the current construction sector.

Through case analyses focusing on the construction systems and applied strategies
for flexibility/adaptability, within construction, I expose the limitations of the current
industrialized system to deliver solutions that embrace the sustainable transition in
the construction sector.

The approach of the problem builts on two perspectives. The first is related with the
adaptability strategies as introduced by Schmidt III et al. (2012), and examines the
compatibility of the systems in adopting those strategies. The second perspective sees
through the glasses of the economic sociology of how the construction industry has
developed and how, after has fallen to path-dependencies, is now locked-in.

After observations and the (application) of the evaluation tool that corresponds to
the industrial phases of construction, I propose solutions that will have returns in the
short and long term for the industry. Finally, a plan to overcome industrial lock-in is
presented.
1. INTRODUCTION

7
 1.1 Background

It is a fact of the days we live in, that consumption of material resources and Over the next 40 years, we will need globally to enlarge the urban space more than
CO2 emissions increase respectively to the population increment and income. has been built up in the past four millennia (Biello, 2012).Therefore, the building sector
More specifically, only during the last century the world population has risen offers ground for opportunities to reach local and global environmental goals, such as
more than four times to 7,6 billion and global economic output (global GDP) the UN Sustainable Development Goals (United Nations, 2015).
more than 20 times (Krausmann et al. 2009; UN 2017). Furthermore, regarding
material consumption, its percentage has grown eight times, which means that
people use the equal of 1.7 Earths in order to provide resources for use as well
as absorb our waste (GFN n.d.). Nevertheless, in 2001, 100 million tonnes of
carbon were the outcome of CO2 emissions increment an annual rate of 3.5%
(Sherbinin et al. 2007).

The numbers of construction and demolition waste in Europe are alarming since,
according to the numbers of Eurostat in 2017, the amount of construction and
demolition waste in 2014 was 868 Mt, equivalent to one-third of total waste
produced across EU member states (Repolho, 2017).This amount includes the
waste produced during the construction, total or partial demolition operations
and refurbishment processes. However, the average percentage of recycling and
material recovery of activities related to buildings is only 55% varying widely
from country to country (COM, 2016).

Considering the EU goal for 2020, about the reduction of construction and
demolition waste in 70% (Official Journal of the European Communities, 2006),
motives regarding the design of adaptable buildings emerge. Lifetime extension
contributes to the reduction of their environmental impact, embodied energy
and waste production (Gosling et al, 2008). In 2011 the European Commission
(EC) (2011) released the “Roadmap to a Resource Efficient Europe”, which is
a description of the challenges the world is facing, along with the strategy to
convert those challenges into opportunities. It describes the transition in en-
ergy, industry, agriculture, fisheries, transport systems, producer and consumer
behavior. Particularly in the construction sector the main objective of the or”
conducted by the European Commission (EC) (2014), is to reduce the buildings’
environmental drawbacks by becoming resource-efficient and as a consequence,
Figure 1.1
improve the competitiveness of the construction businesses.
8
Political and industrial sectors on the other hand, have nowadays increased their Circle House demonstrates a paradigm of circular construction. It is located in
involvement to change from linear (take, make, use and dispose) to circular (re- Lisbjerg, and it consists of 60 new dwellings by 2020. The uniqueness of this pro-
duce, reuse and recycle) business models (Charlotte et al, 2019).That revision of ject is that 90% of its components can be separated and reused without down-
the business models will help to minimize environmental impact as well as secure cycling while its price remains in the borders of social housing (https://www.
future needs and at the same time utilizes the most of the material value and lejerbo.dk/om-lejerbo/byggeri/circle-house). The design followed the principle of
establish the desired economic growth (Advisory Board for Cirkulær Økonomi, Design for Disassembly and it is a load bearing construction (Repolho, 2017).
2017; Ellen MacArthur Foundation, 2015b; European Commission, 2016, 2017a; The key element of Circle House is that in its interior the assembly is visible and
United Nations, 2015). According to recent studies, the construction industry electrical cables and installations are placed in panels in the staircase. Therefore,
represents an environmental impact of 20-35% (European Commission, 2006), it is easy to repair, maintain and disassemble the house. Moreover, according
scoring a similar impact as categories like global warming and smog formation. to the Product-Life Extension principles of design , the components that have
In addition, the building industry represents an increment of 40% of the global longer life-span should compose the internal layers of the shell and vice versa
production and consumption of materials (Becqué et al., 2016). (Repolho, 2017).

There is a number of studies dedicated to studying the environmental impacts of With the Design for Disassembly it is possible to increase the end of life of a
buildings and suggesting opportunities on how to decrease those impacts. Chau product as the materials and components of can be deconstructed and reused
et al. (2015) present three types of life cycle studies, the Life Cycle Assessment, in other settings. That can also give the flexibility to products to be repaired or
the Life Cycle Energy Assessment and the Life Cycle Carbon Emissions Assess- upgraded and hence prologue its life. Moreover, due to the easy separation of
ment. They explain that all those three subdivisions provide the tools for evalu- the components, it enables the product to be recycled even with the reuse of
ation and comparison of the environmental impacts of buildings, however, some the whole components.
limitations of them reveal their weak nature as decision-making support tools.
Not only the occupants and users of the buildings concerned about the potential
One could say that material sustainability refers to the ability to use only re- obsolescence of their homes but also owners of large corporations and govern-
newable natural resources not faster than they can be renewed. Designers and ment agencies are involved in this matter too (Slaughter and Slaughter, 2010).
engineers could get closer to this ideal by applying Design for Adaptability and That is because facilities with short lifespan are cost and resource ineffective,
Deconstruction methods in the early design phases of a project since reclaimed since not only the time of which the building could return the costs of the in-
and recycled materials are considered to be alternatives for renewable resourc- itial investment is limited, but also because of the increment of demolition and
es (Kestner et al., 2010). A frequent application of early demolition is due to the waste disposal, that also affect the return on the initial investment (Slaughter and
reason that buildings are designed to be static rather than to be readjustableing Slaughter, 2010).
(Durmisevic, 2006). For building and construction projects, the application of
adaptability means that it will be still promoting usability and longer life-spans Benefits of adaptive design in buildings include durability, due to easier repair
because it is allows changes overduring the time, at a lower cost (Moffatt & Rus- and maintenance, reduction of replacement / upgrading costs, and the introduc-
sell 2001; CE Guide n.d). tion of more cost-effective subsequent modifications to the building through the

9
 application of standard connections (Kestner et al., 2010) . All those advantages most important, from a technical point of view, the building has to allow for par-
could be applied in projects that are produced based on mass customization in tial or complete disassembly of its elements and their components. With a pur-
the construction industry. Social housing is a form of affordable housing that pose to ensure building adaptation to future user needs, Brand (1994) examines
follows industrialized production. More specifically, the definition of affordable the application of design for disassembly in relation with the theory of building
housing was created and refers to housing that their price should not constitute layers in order to enable flexibility of building parts. Adaptable buildings seem
more than 30% of the median household’s income (UNHabitat, 2016). It is hard to be the solution in accomodate change and in that way extend the lifespan of
to conceptualize and measure affordability as complicated as defining the aspects the building, satisfy the purpose and needs and that has economical as well as
of housing affordability itself (Gabriel et al 2005). ecological benefits (Kronenburg, 2007).

In the Danish context, the group that affordable housing refers to is public sec- 1.2 Problem formulation
tor workers and middle class families with children (Bech-Danielsen, 2011). Co-
penhagens’ housing market differs considerably from the rest of Denmark. In
Copenhagen 18% of the housing stock are owner- occupied, private rental is The objective of this research is to examine the optimization of material re-
19%, private cooperative housing (private co-ops, in Danish “andelsboliger”) rep- sources in the construction sector by ensuring the longevity of building com-
resents 33 % and social housing 20 % (kk.dk/boligbarometer 2014). ponents. The approach in that problem is reflected in the two sub-questions
emerging that are inherently connected to long-term sustainability.
The way that low costs are sustained is due to the prefab production of housing
modules. There are different design concepts where different social housing as- What are the barriers in the current production technology, of prefab mod-
sociations have ordered a number of housing units within the same design, all of ular construction, which affect the response of the structures in demands
them having the same producer of modules. The structural system of the social of later adaptation?
houses, that is based on prefabrication during the last ten years is the volumet-
ric wooden modules with a load-bearing partition wall system. That means that How to promote sustainable transition in the building sector through the
each order comes in large volumes of 100-500 units which leads again to lower sociotechnical complex?
production prices (Ole and Gro, 2016).
This thesis draws on analysis of the Danish construction industry, and it is based
However, the world we live in, constantly changes from social, economic and en- on qualitative studies on the production industries of prefabricated volumetric
vironmental aspects, architecture and building development are affected by those modules and on their work for circular construction. In addressing the research
changes. The usual actions taken to respond to change, in the building sector, is questions, the current thesis evolves through linking topics that together illus-
demolishing and reconstruction even if those practices are highly not sustaina- trate the sector of industrialized construction.
ble since there is a huge amount of waste in resources. One of the strategies
for achieving sustainable architecture, an alternative to demolition, is prolonging • It describes the development of the construction industry over the last 60
buildings’ life by making it adaptable to respond in future changes. A number of years, in order to understand what are the effects of the developments in the
factors has to be taken into account when designing for adaptable buildings, but techno-institutional complex related to the construction industry.

10
• Through desk research, the advantages of Design for Adaptability as well as the
requirements to facilitate disassembly, in order to ensure later building adapta-
tion, are listed.

• Field research was carried out during this thesis concerning on how modular
construction takes place and what is the production technology used.It took
place in two facilities of production of prefabricated houses where the manu-
facturing process was observed and also the effects of the current methods at
the end of the product’s’ lifetime. Design for adaptability requires a partial or
complete disassembly of the house components, which implies reverse thinking
of production and assembly. Therefore, focus of the visits was to examine if the
current practices used in the production and off-site assembly phase, respond to
the requirements of disassembly to assure adaptability of the structures.
examples of innovating social housing as they have been selected as winning
competition projects and inspiring ideas of adaptable strategies. I use them in my
• Lastly, the implications of the current production technology are discussed in
research to examine the possibilities of their structures in response to potential
relation to the adaptability and social alterations that potentially could occur on
cases of adaptation, in the third part of my analysis, in comparison with the struc-
social housing.
ture of the prefab volumetric modules.

1.3 Structure of the report The next chapter aims to illustrate the full picture of the case companies as
well as the current practices they use and in its sub-chapters, I present the anal-
ysis of this study. The structure of the analysis is divided into three stages. The
The report is structured as follows: The second chapter provides a brief de- manufacture stage, the assembly stage, and the ‘unit’- adaptation stage. First, at
scription of the theoretical framework this project is based on, and discusses the manufacture stage, I take a closer look into the materials and the process of
the methodological been approach used for the collection of data. Moving on, production of the parts of the modules, later, at the assembly stage, I describe the
the third chapter illustrates the historical evolution of the Danish construction practice of assembly of the building elements, the relations, and interconnections
sector and analyses from a theoretical perspective the origin of the system’s’ of the building layers to understand how the DfD can be applied. In the last stage,
stability. the adaptability stage, I draw the response of the current system to different
scenarios of adaptability at the end of life in the current housing concept.
Following in the fourth chapter, I examine the state of the art in regards to
the building adaptability. I do that first through the definition of concepts and Chapter six is the discussion in which I give my proposals according to the re-
terms from the literature, second through the two past prize winning projects sults of my analysis as well as the reflections to the process of the project as well
that Vandkunsten was part of, the Tinggåarden case which is about a historical as proposals for further research. Lastly, chapter seven is the conclusion of the
paradigm and Lisberg Bakke case, the current one. These two cases are great project in which the research question is answered.

11
12
 2. RESEARCH DESIGN
In this chapter, I expand on the background theory of the project as
well as on my approach in addressing the research question. I build on
the theory of systems and related to the systems of production in the
construction industry. Moreover, I describe the methodology I followed
for the collection of data and the translation of them to valuable results.

13
 2.1 Theory

The background theory of this study is based on the socio-economic understand- Followed by the description of the current sector as it is, I target the causes that
ing of how the construction industry has been developed. Several researchers lead to the stability of the system and I explain in further detail the ingredients of
have addressed the theory of lock-in. organizational and institutional research the lock-in in the spectrum of the existing technological process of prefabricated
fields, they refer to it as the technological evolution and innovation in economics, modular production.
aiming to draw the picture of different kinds of lock-in across the economic,
institutional and organizational spectrum (Klitkou et al. 2015).
2.2 Methods
The meaning of the lock-in expresses the tendency of the systems to maintain
specific technologies due to their positive feedback (increasing returns) of adop-
tion (Arthur, 1994b; Unruh, 2000, 2002) despite the existence of new alterna- In the current chapter I discuss the method used in order to approach my re-
tives (Doganova and Karnøe, 2012). It has been broadly applied to describe the search questions. To get a feel for the field, I contacted the architecture firm
tendency in the use of fossil fuel-based technologies, regardless of their environ- Vandkunsten, known for its work on social housing, implying circular economy
mental impacts. In the current research, it is used as a fundamental description etc. They provided me space to work on, time and contacts of the relevant ac-
of the reasons, from technological, political and institutional perspectives, that tors to interview for my research, which brought me the opportunity to discuss
keep the construction industry locked in unsustainable practices.The technolog- in-depth different parameters of the project. The cooperation between me and
ical systems that fall in continuity, a path-dependence process, get fixed through the company was built upon the exploration of the research question with ref-
transformations across technological infrastructures, organizations, society and erence to the projects of Almenbolig+,Vandkunsten is part of, and also enriched
governing institutions establishing what is called techno-institutional complex my perception towards the adaptability concept, by analyzing the qualities of two
(TIC) (Unruh, 2002). A technological system is defined as a network that in- exemplars projects introduced by the company.
cludes interconnected components with physical, social and informational ele-
ments (Foxton, 2002). Planning for longevity the prefabricated modules is a way of building in order to
fulfill future social demands. Design for adaptability requires partial or complete
Adopting the work of Gottlieb and Frederiksen, (2019), firstly, I unfold the histor- disassembly of the house components, which implies reverse thinking of pro-
ical development of the construction industry in Denmark in order to map the duction and assembly. Therefore, part of this thesis focuses on two facilities of
influence on the industry, that comes with the techno institutional alterations. production of prefabricated houses in order to understand their manufacturing
The main issue regarding the rational clarification of the construction sector process as well as the impact of the different production and assembly methods,
was to overcome the traditional constructing practices, involving technologies, those factories use, at the end life of the product. Focus of the visits was if the
methods, regulations, so to meet the housing storage. The way to overcome the current practices, used in the production and off-site assembly phase, respond
housing storage was through the repetition of the rationalization of the manufac- to the requirements of disassembly to assure adaptability of the structures. .
turing industries. However, the production practices of the time were following
a series of irrational collection of building material such as bricks, which were After my observations in the field visits, I created an evaluation tool and used
preserved according to traditional crafts. Such a system could never support it as a method for analysing the response of the current production system in
social housing storage (Jensen et al, 2011). regards to the requirements for adaptability. In order to ensure the validity of the

14
chosen approach method, relevant actors from the industry accessed the grading reuse of buildings with the conversion of
of the system as well as myself according to my observations on the field visits. the Danish Navy concrete structure into
In the last stage of my research, I conceptualize the problem of the industrial a residential complex. With the project
lock-in in the building sector and its implication on sustainable solutions. Læsø the firm won the competition to
build a modern version of the traditional
2.2.1 Vandkunsten and social housing houses of the area. Combining innovat-
ing materials, the seaweed for insulation
and cladding together with prefab wood-
en modules they demonstrate alternative
As part of this project, I am collaborating with the architecture firm Vandkunsten, methods with a capacity for industrializa-
which are pioneers in social housing in Denmark. Vandkunsten is engaged with tion.
the circularity of building components and materials through research and prac-
tice. The cooperation between me and the company was built upon the explo- With the social housing concept Almen-
ration of the research question with reference to the projects of Almenbolig+, bolig+3, Vandkunsten contributed in the
Vandkunsten is part of, and also enriched my perception towards the adaptability social, economic and environmental sus-
concept, by analyzing the qualities of two exemplars projects introduced by the tainability of the concept and by being
company. In this section I am giving a brief description of Vandkunsten as an or- the winner of the competition of Almen+
ganisation. generation 5 in 2016 is Vandkunsten and
pushed the concept even further. In 2015,
Starting from the winning competition of Tinggården,Vandkunsten has a long sto- the architecture firm won Nykredit’s
Figure 2.1: Tinggarden plan
ry in the concept of social housing. The firm was founded in 1969 by a group of Sustainability Award due to their work
five architects preparing for the Competition Project 35 for low-rise, high-den- approach since for more than 40 years they manifest environmental awareness
sity, residential architecture. Their approach was involving the residents to the combined with high artistic architecture quality. Lastly, in 2018, the firm designed a
decision making processes such as programming, planning, daily operations, and wooden-based building concept, Lisbjerg Bakke, which allows flexibility in the design
renovations. Project 35 won the competition for architecture by conceptualizing of the facade and freedom to adjust the plan of the layout according to the needs
a new housing form coupling building apartments and detached homes. After of the occupants.
that success, the firm won all the housing competitions held in 1971-1978.
Given my interest in improving the production of social housing by making the
Moving further, another project the EcoHouse 99 won the competition for sus- housing units adaptable and flexible, so as to extend building’s’ lifetime, I started
tainably non-profit housing. The key of success of this project was the ener- with desk research and followed by field studies.
gy efficiency achieved and the well-regulated indoor climate using the existing
technology of the time. Furthermore, the firm provoked the quality of adaptive

15
 2.2.2 Case study of 2 companies 2.2.4 Field study

To get an understanding of the production processes, I visited and conducted In order to gather direct information about a project, I reached out to many
interviews with managers in two danish companies of production of volumetric actors related to prefabricated construction. During my stay in the archi-
housing modules. There are two reasons for choosing those two companies. tecture firm Vandkunsten, I gained knowledge regarding the field of study
First, they are the only ones in producing buildings in 3D boxes which is the through semi-structured interviews with the architects and engineers of the
system used in the social housing project I research on. Second, they differ in projects related to my study, or non-structured as the openness in the con-
practice since the one is a fully automated in production while the other relies versations seemed necessary. The purpose of the questions addressed to the
more on experienced craftsmanship. architecture firm intended to capture the idea, dilemmas, and requirements of
the designs under research as well as to unfold the standpoint of the profes-
Vandkunsten collaborates with both and therefore, they provided me with con- sionals regarding the construction system under this study. More specifically,
tact persons who would let me interview them and also give me a tour of the I carried out multiple semi-structured interviews and informal conversations
facilities to gather material for my observations. regarding the technical specifications of the prefabricated volumetric mod-
ules with the architect Kristian Martinsen and the architect and partner of
the firm Soren Nielsen. Furthermore, I conducted two structured interviews
with the architects Anne-Mette Manelius Gresien and Kim Dalgaard for Ting-
gården and Lisbjerg Bakke cases respectively. Those interviews supported
the third part of my analysis regarding the identification of the possibilities
of the exemplars’ structural systems in response to potential cases of adap-
2.2.3 Desk research
tation in comparison with the structure of the prefab volumetric modules.

On the other hand, the interviews with actors from the production facilities
To begin with, I read academic articles, reports, and books on the strategies of target the holistic representation of the practices and the sources of lock-in
prolonging the lifetime of buildings as well as the principles and applications of within the current industry. Those interviews included one sales-manag-
flexibility and adaptation in the built environment. er, Mogens Madsen, one project-manager, Dan Faber Madsen, and one HSE
(health, safet, environmental) manager Joan Thiesen. The goal in these ses-
This research was carried out to gasp the work previously done by Vandkunsten sions was for me to gain a concrete understanding of the production process
on social housing. As a result of the desk research I chose to narrow my focus and the practices used as well as the flexibility, the structural system provides.
on the type of prefabricated volumetric construction which is the same building
method used for the construction of social housing projects Vandkunsten was In general, the majority of the interviews took place during a tour on site
part of. were semi-structured interviews or informal conversations. A semi-struc-

16
 observations and interviews with relevant people in the two factories. The
tured interview allows for an open, uncontrolled dialogue with actors, allowing dimensions, listed horizontally, are the ones which affect building adaptability.
for it to elaborate in the path that sets the interviewee’s answer. However, there
is still a structure to navigate the dialogue into its purpose if and when needed.
These were usually simple notes/questions inspiring from the literature and pre-
pared previous to the meeting with the two authors. Many semi-structured in-
terviews and related conversations took part in the office of Vandkunsten, since
it was the place I was hosted in for my research, with professional architects and
engineers.

2.2.4.1 Evaluation tool

One of the most vital things I had to do in order to understand the technicalities
and challenges of the process of adaptation was to visit the two factories of mod-
ular construction. In that way, I would be able to experience the manufacturing
and assembling of the modules while keeping notes for later questions as well
as for my evaluation of the system regarding disassembly and further adaptation.

To follow up my conversations/visits to the companies, I created a table to eval- Figure 2.2: Building layers (Schmidt III et al.,2012)
uate the current system. The purpose of this evaluation tool was to display an
overview of the strengths and weaknesses of the current production system of
prefabricated modular houses in relation with the longevity of its products. The
structure of the table was inspired by the book of Schmidt III et al. (2012), and
‘grades’ the extent to which the current industrial system can adapt to different
types of social and physical change as well as the requirements for disassembly
of the modules.The current industrial system is divided into four phases that are
related to the topic of my research. The social and physical changes are related
to the building layers. Schmidt III et al.’s table, (2012), shows how different causes
and effects can influence the building layers s, (Brand, 1995).

The dimensions of the table listed vertically correspond to different phases in

the production process. The elements of those phases were gathered from my

17
 Figure 2.3: Relation between building layers and types of change(Schmidt III et al.,2012)

The cells of the table that are not directly associated with the question are
left blank.

In order to succeed in the overall evaluation of the table, I had to ask from the
specialists to fill it and also I filled it by myself according to my understanding
from my observations and interviews. For the facilitation of the assessment of
the table, I created a file with the description and instructions about how to
assist the table and I sent it via email to the relevant people.

18
3. CHARACTERIZING THE CONSTRUCTION
INDUSTRY

19
 When a construction project uses a high degree of industrialisation and prefabri- gained ground in the market in their light version (made of wood).Volumetric
cation it usually demands specificity (Beim et al., 2010). The use of new informa- systems provide a huge reduction of the amount of interfaces connected
tion technology brings the concept of mass customisation,industrially produced on site as well as allow the use of pre-fitted equipment in the buildings and
‘unique’ or individually customised solutions, in which huge amounts of custom- therefore maximizing prefabrication (Beim et al., 2010).The structural subsys-
ised data can now be handled in a standardised way(Beim et al., 2010, p.29). tem of the volumetric modules in this study is the load-bearing partition wall
However, the difference in architecture and construction systems, in contrast system and the description of it is presented more detailed in the chapter 5.
with other production industries (clothes, cars), is that their products (buildings)
have to be designed to respond in a great number of different purposes and us-
ers throughout their long lifespan (Beim et al., 2010,p.30). Due to the challenges,
in terms of money, time and complexity, of applying alterations in the building’s
structure, preplanning for complete or partial disassembly of its elements is re-
quired to enable a feasible solution that meets the changing social demands.
Therefore, my approach to the research question calls for investigation in the
production facilities of modular construction. The goal of the research is to un- 3.1 The birth of the sector
derstand if the requirements for adaptation, in terms of disassembly aspects, are
fulfilled by the industrial developers, who produce dwellings for social housing. The following section gives a brief description of the historical development
of the Danish construction industry from 1940s-now as it is presented in the
Looking closer at the construction industry practices, the strategies that apply article of Gottlieb and Frederiksen, 2019, page 7-15
prefabrication can be divided in three categories:
A) Traditional product delivery: “Developments in the Danish construction industry are marked by two
supply of the materials and components on-site with craft-founded interfaces political milestones that occurred in the1940 and 1990 respectively.
B) Integrated product delivery in which the house is organised and developed in The first milestone is associated with the establishment of the Ministry
a complex of sub-assemblies with clear interfaces. of Internal Affairs’ Construction Committee. This Committee, estab-
C) Turnkey delivery in which manufacturers have the authority of the entire sup- lished by the government, to deal with the influences on the growth of
ply chain, process and value chain through the creation of “all-inclusive” building the sector due to labor and housing shortage in the 1940ies. The next
systems. milestone came in 1990 with a document that revealed resource con-
This research project focus sumption and distribution in the construction sector. This expression
es on the ‘turnkey delivery’ construction strategy. In that case,concepts are cre- sparked in a debate and actions within the construction sector with re-
ated with different brand name of the production company itself(Beim et al., gard to improve productivity and efficiency. An example is the market
2010). In that way the social housing concepts Almenbolig+ use the product of ideal of the post-1990s which encompassed competing for discours-
the factory but named according to the client, the social housing company, and es regarding economic development and social unrest provoked by
not from the producer. the increased mobility of labor and capital (Gottlieb and Frederiksen,
The structural systems involved are volumetric systems/modules which have 2019).

20
During the 1940s-1960s, the industrialization of the Danish society took regime chided the law no.117 of April 26th, 1947 on prefab housing offer-
place: .along with the need to ensure the quality of the working environ- ing financial support to this specific construction method. That was the
ment in the sector, arises the ‘working class’. These were important mat- beginning of the establishment of principles for a national system of or-
ters of concern of a social-capitalist social order. The construction was ganization, logistics, and legislation in buildings and building elements. In
also framed as a tool for societal modernization. The post-war efforts took 1958 the Danish Standard on ‘Modular Agreement for the Building Indus-
place in the broader political and general economic sphere. The economic try’ was released. Following in 1961 the first national building code was
crisis of the post-war era and the lack of efficiency in production con- released which ensured that buildings were compatible with a series of
stituted the two major problems that ‘Denmark for the Future’ (a Social norms, standards, industry codes and guidelines which all of them pro-
Democratic post-war program) emphasized. The lack of efficiency was mote the political will to modernize the Danish society.
the result not only of particular economic conditions during the war but
also of a lack of planning and cooperation across business and industry.
The construction industry was regulated and supported by research con- Other major changes included major organizational changes such as re-
ducted by the national building research institute in 1947. configurations of roles and responsibilities of different actors and the in-
troduction of new contracting forms. The new professions arose in the
construction industry: such as the planning engineer. This way due to the
Following the changes in the field, the new practice arose in construc- increased complexity of the building process and affected the relationship
tion. The existing system was based on traditional construction activities, between other actors such as clients and consultants. In 1968, engineers
associations and tacit knowledge which were not harmonized across the and architects’ association was provoked to develop a set of general for
sector. The practice of construction also changed and developed into consulting services. In this way, consultants for the client a legitimate par-
separate functions that filter the temporal, spatial and managerial build- ty.
ing properties, supported by technical, organizational and regulatory
documents of that period. New building techniques and materials were Other professions were also reshaped by the new form of the construction
introduced with timber and bricks being replaced by pre-manufactured sector. The law of 1947, regarding prefabricated housing offered financial
reinforced concrete elements to facilitate the organization of construction treatment to buildings erected with this specific building method, and the
site into more ordered factory-like settings. The national building institute note in 1953, known as the ‘mason-circular’ on ‘non-traditional building’,
provided instructions regarding the optimization of solutions and methods, created a sharp distinction between skilled and unskilled labor by requir-
as well as measurement tools to alleviate problems created by the use of ing that 15% of the skilled labor could be used in non-traditional projects.
new materials. Moreover, planning and calculation procedures became This was followed by another department note in 1960 changing the mon-
extremely important and as a result, a phase-model for coordinating legal ey for subsidies non-traditional buildings, resulting in the replacement of
relations to establish coherence between strategy and operation (Gottlieb the traditional skilled craftsman, knowledge artisans with an assemblage
and Jensen, 2012) worker disciplines which did not leave space for the craftsmen to rely
on their practical experience. Regulatory measures presented them from
New regulatory regime ensures new operating methods and norms. This their traditional legitimate role.

21
 3.2 1990-Present

The approval of the Maastrich Treaty (Gottlieb and Frederiksen, 2019) in lowing years.
combination with the opening of Eastern European markets in the early
1990s required adjustments within because of a strong discourse on market The task force report of the construction industry led to a much strong-
efficiency and values. Regulations were adjusted into an attempt to 1) im- er emphasis on low voluntary exchanges between producers would be
prove the productivity of the sector and 2) to reorient and increase interna- enough for ensuring development, i.e liberalization, and increased mar-
tional competitiveness. ket-orientation.In a European context, the national standards were re-
This discourse was shaped by the extensive discussion between the gov- placed by international ones. With Denmark’s verification of the Maastricht
ernment and businesses regarding the lock-in situation of the construction Treaty came the ambition of being able to export in the internal market of
sector. actors within construction could not address on their own. The policy the European Union. However, by 2000, it was impossible to integrate
was, therefore, based on the idea of promoting a new market scheme in into the European market since Danish standards were putting limits on
which companies were equipped with the required competencies to com- the use of the products in other countries. Therefore, the Danish govern-
pete on the open market and create new modes of collaboration. ment committed in the development of Europian standards for construc-
tion products which with the aim of increasing international competitions
In the early 1990s, industrial economics and productivity analyses were in- reducing costs and promoting innovation in the Danish industry
troduced as tools for producing knowledge on construction and to integrate
the sector into the market, by considering it to be a ‘resource area’. The Parallel with these developments, regulation “changed from substantive
‘resource area’ notion was introduced by the Ministry of Business Affairs as or material regulation towards reflexive regulation” (Gottlieb and Frederik-
the way to frame the industrial sector with the aim of creating a more efficient sen, 2019). Reflexive regulation is when the law instead of being an instru-
enterprise policy. In addition to this, another tool was introduced by this ‘lib- ment that modifies patterns and behavioral structures, is performed as a
eral solution’, in the form of a shared development program, that would set system of coordination of action of semi-autonomous social subsystems.
priorities regarding innovation, capacity building and competences. The two This legal transition to international standards established the legislative
most important actions of this development program were the ‘Project Pro- and regulatory complex of the construction industry.
ductivity’ and the ‘Project New Forms of Collaboration’ which set the ground
for the evolution of relational contracting in Denmark, through partnering and With the rise of new contact forms such as partnerships, guidelines, and
various types of partnerships. standards could not perform in the same way as in traditional institutional-
ized contact forms. Accordingly, adjustments and exemptions in the tradi-
Despite heavy public investments during the 1990s’ in the construction in- tional system arose, in order to create space for innovation and value cre-
dustry, a new report in 2000 revealed a lack of development, prompting a ation for the client and society (Gottlieb and Haugbølle, 2013). These new
debate for the re-orientation of the political efforts. That re-orientation came contact forms could not be applied in construction products because the
a year after with the change in the political scene which led to the annulment building code was a barrier to the spread of new products and functions.
of the Ministry of Housing. Several councils, funds and support schemes
regarding the construction and housing sector were repealed over the fol- The political alterations in 1990s emphasizing nominal law industry prac-

22
tice. The performance-based regulatory regime called for accountability,
i.e responsible companies that could be held accountable for their actions function and form.Therefore, there is a need for a performance-based regulatory
(Bertelli, 2006). Emphasis was given to monitoring that companies live up to set the goals of the building’s’ purpose as well as a plan for its usable compo-
to performance goals. nents at the end of life of its utility.

In spite of these socio-technical changes, The Danish construction sector con-

tinues to be characterized by slow productivity growth than other dominant
countries e.g. Belgium and Austria and by lack of unity (Ellen MacArthur Founda-
tion, 2013). For that reason the Danish Productivity Commission underlined the
need for improving productivity, mostly in the construction sector, so to estab-
lish the system competitiveness (Danish Productivity Commission, 2014). More
specifically, the sector consists of many small and medium-sized firms employing
craftsmen, contractors, consultants, architects, and engineers. These are material
producers who are in charge of delivering the materials and components and
lastly all the actors involved with the operational management and maintenance
of the building (Smith Innovation 2016). According to Fernie et al. (2006), the
aforementioned practitioners of the sector have launched a number of initiatives
to address the fragmented client and contractor bodies. As a suggestion to this
issue, the writers conclude that the further consolidation of the various bodies
could provide high-level representation agencies. One of the trials to achieve uni-
ty in the sector is the CIB (International Council for Research and Innovation in
Building and Construction) initiative ‘Revaluing Construction’ (Barrett and Lee,
2005). The purpose of this attempt is to construct a shared vision within the
sector, that combines and coordinates the different notions between actors in
order to establish a useful coherent development (Ang, 2004).

The environmental problem arises, due to multiple actors’ varied motivations

without common operational best practices having as result big amounts of ma-
terial waste and minimum reuse of building components and materials (Joseph-
son and Saukkoriip, 2007). Buildings are built to be static products with a long
lifespan, more than 50 years usually; a fact that increases the complexity of the
scenarios for the end-of-life of the product. Moreover, the purpose of a building
can change during its lifetime changes in human needs with regard to humans’

23
 3.3 A Sector as it is
3.3.1 Sources of lock-in

As noted by (Gottlieb and Frederiksen, 2019) the construction industry has

been characterized as “locked-in” into particular production patterns. However,
on what follows, I expand on the notion of lock-in to further characterize the
construction industry as locked-in to production patterns that are not favorable
for Design for Disassembly.

The first source of technological lock-in is associated with the path-dependent

nature and direction of technological progress. Researchers have used different
terms to refer to those frames either as technological regimes by Nelson & Win-
ter (1982) or as technological paradigms from Dosi (1982). Both terms describe
the existence of specific ways of working within each technological community
(engineers, firms, technology institutes, etc.) and therefore, specific engineering
ideas and a set of possible alternatives are addressed to a technological problem.
The second source of lock-in is related to the idea of increasing returns to adop-
tion. According to David (1985) and Arthur (1989), in the case where there are
multiple technologies competing for market share, the one with the increasing
returns is more likely to be the adopted technology and dominate the market.
Once a technology arrives in adoption, it has benefits in comparison with the
rest of the options since it is inspiring for further acceptance, improvement and
lastly leadership. The rest of the technologies which were not chosen for early
adoption usually end up locked out of the market without the power to chal-
lenge the improved technology (Perkins, 2003).

Arthur (1994) identified four major categories of increasing returns: scale econ-
omies, learning effects, adaptive expectations, and network economies. First,
scale-economies refer to the fact when technology has a large investment, pro-
duction costs decrease asare they are spread over the increasing production
volume.Therefore, it is very unlikely that a company will invest in a more sustain-
able technology after the high cost of the previous investment. Learning effects
have to do with the improvements in practice over time, as a specific technology

24
is used and its ‘qualities’ stabilized. The idea of ‘learning by doing’ was first in- once technology starts evolving, it goes further due to the laws of increasing
troduced by Arrow, (1962), and accordingly technologies follow learning curves returns. That leads the industry to lock on a principle set up which gets the con-
which show a unit costs decline with cumulative production (IEA, 2000). Adap- trol of the marketplace (Utterback 1994: 24). Nevertheless, path dependence can
tive expectations arise when both producers and users are satisfied with the also be created by negative external situations such as budget constraints, spatial
quality, performance, and longevity of the chosen technology which leads to the constraints, or a time constraint (Page, 2006). Applications of constraints can be
lack of interest of the market to push for an alternative and more sustainable seen in competing technologies, legal doctrines and city locations (Page, 2006).
technology (Foxon, 2002). Lastly, network economies arise when actors adopt a Every time that there is a limitation of other alternatives path dependence has
specific technology in order to be compatible with other actors with the same been created (Page, 2006).
technology (Foxon, 2002).

All the aforementioned categories of increasing returns for technologies are also 3.3.2 What is a lock-in and why it is relevant
relevant for the institutions (North, 1990). He argues, “the interdependent web
of an institutional matrix produces massive increasing returns.” Special interest The industry of study in this project is the prefabricated construction industry
present political institutions are they are devoted to increasing returns for four which evolves manufacture, assembly off-site and in-site and transportation.
reasons: the central role of collective action, the big quantity of institutions, the Manufacturing and assembly off-site can be either following manual processes
options for using political forces to complement asymmetries of power, and the or automatized processes. Either of those processes of production does not
complexity and opacity of politics (Pierson, 2000). In politics, the actions of an address in their products to be part of the circular economy.The current tech-
individual or of a community and the results of them are interconnected with nological process of producing volumetric modules goes through the following
the actions of others.That leads to high start-up costs and adaptive expectations. steps:
Moreover, since institutions model behavioral and legal rules, by including learn- 1) Concept – the purpose of the volumetric modules needs to be defined in
ing, coordination, and expectation effects once they are established, it is difficult relation to a particular market demand such as the market of social housing.
to change (Foxon, 2002). Asymmetries of power arise when actors who have the
authority to apply rules to others, they make use of that authority to eventually 2) Design – the volumetric modules need to be engineered and detailed – this
empower their own position (Foxon, 2002). Finally, the complexity and opacity information is typically captured in engineering and architectural drawings.
of the actions of politics and the results of those actions, place politics in a ques-
tionable position and establishes it vulnerable to mistakes (Foxon, 2002). 3)Planning and control – the process of manufacture needs to be planned and
then controlled against the plan. Planning differs slightly if the factory uses au-
Taken together, these developments lead to path dependency on technological tomation or craftsmanship.
change. Throughout history, events played a role in technological evolution be-
cause they open space for some technologies to evolve (Arthur, 1989) and then 4) Manufacture – the discrete components and sub-assemblies of the final vol-

25
umetric modules must be transformed from raw materials into their final form.

5) Assembly – the discrete components must be assembled to create the finished

volumetric module.

6) On-site assembly – lifting, placing and connecting of the volumetric modules on-site.

The notion of lock-in refers to the tendency of the markets to not systematically
switch to new solutions (Doganova and Karnøe, 2012). The sources of lock-in can be
a collection of factors such as standardization, or management which are in favor of
established actors and of social institutions related to a specific economic domain of
activity (Doganova and Karnøe, 2012). Those factors are formed from heterogeneous
elements. The following table from Unruh represents the different sources of lock-in.
Examples from the case of the construction industry of prefab houses are visible in all
the categories of sources.

Types of lock-in Technological refers to dominant designs which in the case of prefab volumetric
modules that can be found in the structural used system (load-bearing partition
Lock-in type Examples
wall system) as well as to the lifting equipment connected to the inside of the
structural system. Organizational refers to the routines of work and management
Technological Load-bearing partition wall system,
that can be found in the craftsmanship and automatization used in the produc-
lifting equipment
tion facilities. Industrial involves industry standards, technological inter-relatedness
Organizational Craftsman work, automatization and co-specialized assets such as height floor standards, type of joints connections
or standards regarding airtightness. The type of societal lock-in is related to so-
Industrial Height floor standards, interconnec-
cial norms, practices and future expectations. Prefabricated housing is being used
tion of building layers, airtightness
broadly in social housing constructions due to the time and the low construction
Societal Social housing companies, cheaper cost. The social housing companies, as well as the manufacturer, do not have a sce-
to build new than adapt the old nario for the end of life of the structure against obsolescence. Finally, regarding the
Institutional Government policy goals and plan- institutional lock-in, Foxon, 2002, refers to institutions as ‘any kind of form of con-
ning, legal frameworks straint that human beings devise to shape human interaction’.These forms could be
Table 3.1.Types of lockin from legislation to informal constraints such as codes of behavior.

26
3.3.3 A sector that it is locked-in

These steps of production are subject to different forms of lock-in. With the of systems complexity and capability is another constraint that blocks structures
chosen theoretical background it is possible to describe the industrialized con- from being adaptable ( Heidrich et al. 2017). Therefore, it is challenging to alter
struction system as well as to understand the dependencies of technologies buildings’ spaces/functions if it is not planned, or systems due to the difficulty and
and systems which, not only are very costly to change but also change does not expense of relevant adjustments.
necessarily promise economic profit for the companies. Moreover, following the
learning effects of the established technologies, the manufacturers evolve their One other challenge in the construction industry is the lack of financial incen-
practices in order to minimize the time of production and which influences the tives to use recovery materials as well as measurement tools to ensure that the
organizational lock-in. There is no interest to shift the process of production to reclaiming materials are appropriate in terms of quantity and quality for reuse.
e.g to design for long life the 3D house modules, as such shifting would require Client awareness and the issue of cohesion between the actors during the build-
reverse thinking of production and assembly, processes that are part of the in- ing’s lifetime is another challenge that has been analyzed from Häkkinen and Bel-
dustrial lock-in. One way to change the industrial type of lock-in would be the loni,(2011), in the sustainable buildings’ framework. According to the survey of
enforcement of regulations including the compatibility of building elements and Adams et. al, 2017, not all the supply chains share the same benefits of adopting a
components in order to make them useful after the end of life of the buildings. If circular economy model construction. Even if there has been a lot of exploration
this type of regulation were introduced in the Danish construction sector could regarding resource efficiency of construction products and their life chain, still
become more competitive as a “first mover” in the global market industry since there is a lack of accuracy of the procedures that need to be undertaken from
environmental problems are likely to continue to be a global concern. each discipline of the construction sector to enable their practices more circular
(Adams et al.,2017). Some other limitations in the construction industry that are
From the side of the client, the main interest is the relationship between quality, related to deconstruction practice are the amount of extra time required, the
cost and time for every project, elements that have satisfactory delivery in the cost implications for deconstruction, the lack of building standards for reclaimed
current system and drive to the societal lock-in. Consequently, both producers and recycled materials, and lastly the lack of designs that enable deconstruction
and clients have fallen into adaptive expectations, another factor of increasing (Kibert, 2000a).
returns. The institutional lock-in of the industry much depends on political insti-
tutions. Those institutions affect the practices and requirements applied to the
prefabricated construction as they decide for the building regulations, which are
the boundaries that shape the concept of the projects. Regarding the creation of
regulations for the circularity of the products, including buildings, political/gov-
ernmental institutions would force the producers to makeshift to their practices
even though those shifts call for high investments.

The approach towards adaptability has changed over the years, in the past, there
was more the conception of functional aspects of buildings in contrast with the
present where adaptability has been approached more as systems integration
problem and architectural tectonics ( Heidrich et al. 2017). Budget, time and
regulatory constraints eliminate the building requirements while the increment

27
28
4. CONSTRUCTING ADAPTABLE BUILDINGS

29
 4.1 Modular construction and advantages
There are many definitions of prefabricated construction. Gibb (1999), refers to
prefabrication as off-site fabrication and includes the process of design, manu-
The challenging spaces within the building sector are listed in the paper of Man- facture of units or modules, transport, and installation on-site. The construction
ewa, 2016, and presented as “environment considerations”, “innovations in tech- method using prefabricated components can be seen in three types. First, is the
nology”, “planning and policy issues”, “social requirements”, “political forces” and semi-prefabricated construction where a part of the building has been built in
“economic considerations”. For buildings to meet the macro-level changes they situ, and complementary components are factory-built or modules. The second
have often to alter their ‘function’ the purpose they are made for, the ‘capacity’ is the case of comprehensive prefabrication, where all parts of the building are
to respond in the population they hold and the ‘flow’, the performance to inter- prefabricated in the factory and assembled on-site. The last case of prefabrica-
nal and external forces (Slaughter, 2000). Buildings that fail to meet the changing tion is when the whole building is produced in the factory as one module and
needs of society become obsolete and thus require demolition. That is one of called volumetric modular building (Tam et al., 2007).
the critical concerns within the existing building stock as demolition is not rec-
ommended as an option for sustainable construction while the existing building The main application of modular construction in the past was in portable or
stock constitutes important physical, economic, social and cultural capital to any temporary buildings; however, today’s’ prefabricated construction technology
nation (Kohler and Hassler, 2002). using volumetric units can now be used in a wide range of building types such as
schools, offices, hospitals, supermarkets and high-rise residential buildings (Law-
In a sustainable built environment, adaptable buildings are broadly known as a son).
basic ingredient that can provide tailored responses that are flexible according
to stakeholder needs (Kendall and Ando, 2005). Social housing in Denmark is There are some key definitions regarding off-site construction that describe the
provided and managed by social housing companies. Therefore, those companies components of prefabrication presented by Buildoffsite (Gibb and Pendlebury,
are the clients of the building industry and the created stock building belongs to 2006b), which are related to this study and are the following:
them. The benefits of producing and owning a stock that can be easily adjusted
to meet new market needs are seen in both the economic and environmental “• Modular construction—Three- dimensional or volumetric units that are
spectrum. generally fitted out in a factory and are delivered to the site as the main
structural elements of the building.
In this chapter, I explore the overall context of the study by introducing the type • Planar construction—Two- dimensional panels, used mainly for walls,
of construction under research and the notions of design strategies directly re- that can be prefinished with their insulation and boarding attached before
lated to my research question. Furthermore, I present two exemplars of social delivery to the site.
housing cases that constitute my inspiration material due to their approach to • Hybrid construction—Mixed-use of linear elements, panels, and mod-
adaptability and I conclude with the analysis of them after interviews with pro- ules to create a mixed- construction system.
fessional architects from Vandkunsten. Lastly, I present the adaptability strategies, • Cladding panels—Prefabricated façade elements that are attached to
as introduced by Neufville, (2009), that I based on for the creation of the evalua- the building to form the completed building envelope.
tion tool. This literature perspective serves fundamental background knowledge • Pods—Nonstructural modular units, such as toilets and bathrooms, that
of the field that I approach within this research. are supported directly on the floors of the building.”

30
 Moreover, according to the environmental evaluation by the European Program
The approach of modular design is described by Gosling et al, 2016 in three Eurohouse (Long,1999), modular construction has some positive impacts on sus-
parts. First, as a grid layout with repeatable spaces, second, thinking of buildings tainability. Those are the following:
as systems rather than an assembly of parts and third, underlines the importance
of repetition, standardization and interfaces to simplify buildings construction “- from 30 to 60% in the reduction of times on site through a more efficient coor-
(Gosling et al., 2016) dination of the different construction packages;

There are several advantages of the application of modular construction pre- - the reduction of 50% of water quantity in comparison to a traditional construction;
sented by Lawrson as following:
- 50 reduction% of the quantity of material utilized and produced by excavations;
1)Shorter duration of construction, resulting in shorter site management costs
as well as early return on the investment. - wider use of recycled materials (like timber, steel, aluminum, etc.);

2) Higher quality of modules due to the factory- based construction process and - up to 80% in the reduction of waste materials during on site works;
pre delivery checks.
- up to 60% in the reduction of CO2 emissions and of annual energy consumes
3) Economy correlated with production. Larger projects or in repeated projects during building life cycle;
using the same modular specification.
- possible reutilization and reuse of prefabricated elements.”
4) Excellent insulation from acoustic and thermal perspective because of the
double-skin nature of the construction, which means that each module is effec- Full modular systems are widely used for those buildings that their units’ layout has
tively isolated from its neighbours. been characterized by repetition such as multistorey apartments, student dorms,
hotels, hospitals, and prisons or security buildings while in houses, office buildings
5) Reduced design cost to the client or sports buildings are not that popular(table 1,3, Lawrson).

6) Use of lightweight, less material and less waste produced in comparison with
the on-site construction as well as providing greater opportunities for recycling
in factory production. 4.2 Design for Disassembly and Deconstruction

7) Reduced requirement for on- site labour which leads to safer construction in The goal of Design for disassembly approach is to facilitate the process and pro-
terms of the factory and site activities cedure of deconstruction through planning and design (Ellen MacArthur Foun-
dation, 2013). The DfD process is essential to maintain raw materials (Webster,
8) Less noise pollution to the neighbourhood during construction 2007). Deconstruction, on the other hand, is referred to as the process where
during the demolition of a building, the demolished materials are kept for future
9) Ability to disassemble the building and reuse the modules elsewhere. purposes (Ellen MacArthur Foundation, 2013).

31
 According to the study of Nelson in 2004, during the 30 years period between One of the challenges for the reuse of building materials and elements is the
2000 and 2030, it is estimated that 27% of today’s’ building stock in the US will damage of materials in-site during the deconstruction process that makes the
be replaced and also that the rise of new buildings until the year 2030 will be components lose their value ( Nakajima and Russel, 2014).This is caused by false
more than 50% of the existing buildings since 2000. There are two options here. building methods or because of the way that structural elements are used, with-
Either all that mass building replacement and construction can be a huge waste out considering the potential deconstruction process. It is very crucial for DfD
of resources for the generation after 2030, or Dfd building methods and strate- the joining methods of the structural elements to be in such a way that facilitates
gies can be integrated in order not only to increase building life through repair the process of demolition (Webster and Costello, 2005). Another factor that
and renovation but also to design buildings that compose the building stock for affects the ease of the process of deconstruction is the quantity and the size of
future building materials. The concept of Design for Disassembly (DfD) in the building materials as well as the joining methods that are not easy to disassemble
built environment scopes to the closing of material loops, which is one of the (Srour et al, 2010). Moreover, EPA (2008) find that construction materials and
most demanding goals for sustainable buildings (Kibert, 2013). Further research- their joints between the components have become extremely complex having as
ers have elaborate the concept of DfD such as Durmisevic (2006) who produced result to weaken the recyclability and reusability of reclaimed materials. DfD in-
a tool based on the disassembly potential of a building in order to estimate it’s volves standardization of size of components, mechanical joint methods instead
transformable space and Davico (2013) who introduced an approach for the of chemical products and materials that are simply composed in order to simplify
evaluation of the project’s’ capacity to be flexible and adaptable. Furthermore, the recycling and reuse processes.
the DfD approach emerges a new concept for buildings’ material and compo-
nents to be reused in future concepts, a thing that would be beneficial from an The time of deconstruction is also a constraint for DfD. In general, the time
economical and environmental perspective for the stakeholders of the building required for disassembly is from three to eight times more than the time for
industry. demolishing (Rios et al, 2015).That means that since time is a critical factor, dem-
olition practices will be preferred rather than deconstruction. However, with
The economic benefits include expect of the potential savings in resources, the DfD techniques we can reduce the time of deconstruction. According to Rios et
creation of a new market for the reclaimed materials and also of a service for al., 2015, those techniques include first to settle a pre-planning phase before the
the ease of DfD, deconstruction, reuse and recycling of building elements (Chini, beginning of construction, second to create documentation in order to facilitate
2005; Kibert and Chini, 2000). According to Webster’s argument (2007), building the deconstruction and the materials recovery processes, third to provide train-
with DfD features will have potential greater economical value. ing in human resources and last to label all the construction materials while at
the same time avoid materials that could be hazardous and require even more
Regarding the environmental benefits of DfD and deconstruction is the notion time in the deconstruction process than the rest.
of closing material loops. In relation to the cradle to cradle model, closed-loop,
is the case of ‘waste’ turns into ‘feed’, a metaphor to the biological metabolism
presented in Nature ( McDonough and Braungart, 2002).The advantages of clos-
ing a loop include 1) prolonging the life of raw materials, 2) decrease of the cost
of materials and lastly reduction of the embodied energy and C02 emissions of
the building sector (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 2008; Chong
and Hermreck, 2009) .

32
4.3 Adaptability/ Flexibility

The potential obsolescence of the building is a matter of concern from building design of the adaptable building is to prolong its life by accommodating new uses
owners and government building owners to house owners. That obsolescence is or patterns of use (Addis & Schouten, 2004). It refers to the design of a structure
the result of the building’s inability to adapt to the future needs over time. At the which empowers future additions and functions inside and around the house.
same time, it is not economically as well as resource beneficial to create struc- Moreover, it is very important to note that adaptable design housing etiquette
tures with a short life span due to the costs of demolition and waste disposal that demands simple and cost-effective adjustments to be implemented when they
do not return to the investment. are planned into the fundamental design of the house (Gu et al., 2004).

Flexible designs have a variety of forms that produce several types of responses Schmidt III and Austin, (2016), identified six adaptability types related to the type
according to different needs. In the building sector, the most common appliances of change. Those types are depending on the building layer which technical and
of flexible design are in regards to the use of underused space, expansion ca- social changes will affect. The strategies referring to spatial change such as versa-
pacity, demountable partitions, and mobile or modular furnishings (Bischof and tile and convertible seem to be more frequent than the physical changes. More-
Blessing, 2008). According to Edwards, 2005, and Shuchi et al. 2012, flexibility is over, it appears that spatial types of change influence all over the building layers
the ability to welcome change without affecting the environment. while physical types are applied in one or two building layers (Schmidt III and
Austin, 2016). The main goal for identifying the types is in order to translate the
According to Schmidt III et al.,2010, adaptability is the capacity of a building to needs of change to practical appliances on the building layers. Providing to the
transform either its functions, occupants or systems without impact on the en- stakeholders a common framework facilitates to clarify their goals during the
vironment. In other words, it is the ability of a building to evolve through its life design process (Schmidt III and Austin, 2016).
span according to the changing needs (Schmidt et al, 2010).The purpose of adapt-
able design, AD, is to expand the utility of the product in changing circumstances. The six types of adaptability can be spread along a spatial–physical spectrum that
AD is superior to the design with reusable or recyclable components since it corresponds with the 3Rs of sustainability.
does not require a new production process but reuses the same product in its
present state by expanding some of its functions for new operational modes (Gu SPATIAL PHYSICAL
GENERIC, SOFT, PASSIVE SPECIFIC, HARD, ACTIVE
et al., 2004).
Reduce Reuse Recycle
At this point, it would be meaningful to differentiate the terms, flexibility and
adaptability, as their definition is varied according to the researchers’ discipline
every time is being used. Flexibility is about the multifunctional use of the building
le t-
design, while adaptability defines the way that flexible use can be technologically Availab e le le
Versatil C o n v e r Scalable Refitable Adjustab Movab Recycle
implemented (Gijsbers & Lichtenberg, 2012). A flexible building has been de-
signed in order to provide easy rearrangement of its internal equipment in order
to complete specific needs at a specific time (Addis & Schouten, 2004). On the
Industralisation Flexible Demountable
other hand, an adaptable house has a structure that is able to change or extend
in order to fit in the changing requirements of the occupants.The purpose of the
Figure 4.1 (Schmidt III et al.,2012)

33
 Versatile bility in the above-mentioned layers with the service system layer being the most
Versatility is the competence of the building to change the spatial layout of the challenging layer when is associated with other layers.
rooms. The versatile strategy enables the easy and cheap modification of space
to address different user activities, new work patterns or the numeric capacity Adjustable
of the occupants. This strategy influences the the ‘stuff ’, ‘space plan’ and ‘service’ The design of an adjustable building ensures that the ‘stuff’ inside the buildings’
layers of the building as it alters its physical parameters such as the number and space, such as furniture, can be rearranged easily according to the changing needs
location of columns, the plan shape and depth, the overall area, the location of of eighter occupants, environment or technology.Adjustable designs increase the
services and lighting, and the portability of walls, furniture, and fixtures. indoor environment and users’ comfort and control within it as well as reducing
necessities for new equipment and furniture.
Convertible
Convertible strategies involve changing the function of the building due to social
conversions regarding the market, social demands, ownership or occupancy for Movable
instance. Convertible design is easier applied in akin structural typologies other- This strategy is the least to occur compared with all the other types, however, it
wise, it demands proper planning. Strategies to access the convertibility revolve is quite essential under specific conditions for specific building structural typol-
around the capacity and location of various physical elements such as services, ogies. The climate conditions and the movement of population
circulation, floor loadings, and fire design. One of the common tactics to allow
fluctuations of the load is the increased over-floor capacity from the first place.
Storey height, structural grid, plan depth and total usable area are some of the
other criteria related to that type of change.
4.4 Exemplars

Scalable In this section I am doing an analysis of the state of the art in adaptable social
Scalable buildings are the ones that can alter their size either vertically or hori- housing based on two success stories Vandkunsten was part of.The criteria for
zontally. Depending on whether vertical or horizontal additions, different building choosing the specific projects were based on the adaptability strategies applied
parts are addressed, for instance, the additional load capacity for the slabs and which differ in concept due to the changing social demands, technological devel-
foundation or the type of roof structure for vertical alterations. Building’s’ scala- opment, and environmental pressure. By analyzing the responses of the different
bility can emerge through transitions in the market and demographic conditions. construction systems that have been applied, their advantages and drawbacks, I
can have a complete evaluation of the construction system related to the re-
search question. In order to do so, I use those exemplars in the third stage of my
Refitable analysis, the adaptation stage, where three scenarios of building transformation
Refitable buildings convert their performance by transforming their space, skin are presented.
or services. Often social demands occur in this type of change. Those include
modifications in the law, regulations, environmental conditions, technologies or The information gathered for the analysis of the two exemplars comes from
materials. The response of the building in these social demands requires accessi- websites, interviews with professional staff in Vandkunsten as well as drawings

34
offered by them. energy crisis, the energy equipment was designed with the idea to implement
central heating plants under inclined ceilings, which can integrate solar col-
lectors (Schäfer,1979). Moreover, Tinggården has its own heating plant which
4.4.1Tinggården enables it self supplying with heating (Manelius Greisen, interview).

History Strategy for adaptability

Tinggården is a non-profit housing company and was built in two stages first in The reason for referring toTinggåarden as a case study of this project is be-
1978 and the second part in 1983. Tinggårdens’ world reputation is due to its cause of the spatial flexibility that is applied in this case. The adjustment of
position as a paradigm in the country’s’ building sector. It is established as one
of the first world’s first low-rise buildings and nowadays among other things
it hosts thousands of visitors related to the industry.

Typology
The houses of Tinggården were built with the traditional building method,
cast and concrete with wood and brick facades (Manelius Greisen, interview).
The housing complex is about 200 units divided into 12 family groups. Each
of those groups consists of 12 to 18 family apartments sharing a communal
house, with a kitchen and living room, and some common areas. The size of
the apartments ranges from one-bedroom apartment to 6-room apartment
while in the first stage of Tinggården there was the possibility of choosing the
size of the apartment by new arrangements in agreement with the neighbor
and the housing company. The rearrangements of the interior on an ongoing
basis are the product of the simple housing type in combination with the
flexible walls.
The design seeks to combine and form individually critically design parts,
residence units, and elevation elements. Considering the tense economy the
chosen construction strategy proposes the use of simple materials, the least
possible residential spaces, the coupling of compact spaces with continuous
heating and lightly constructed bedroom levels (Schäfer,1979). As we can see
there are 5 different basic housing types and on the top of it, multiple combi-
nations of housing forms due to the freedom of arrangement of the s room
and the t1,t2 rooms, the light bedroom levels.That means that space is divided
according to the needs of changing families during the time. Regarding the 4.2 Tinggardern 3D Typology

35
 houses are organized in two large groups of three building typologies and are
space in size by the middle light bedroom is a smart strategy that provides flex- sorted around small squares along a continuous city street. The project is us-
ibility with the minimum technical requirements. Since the extra room exists ing hybrid building technology and in combination with its pillar beam system,
between two dwellings by the default construction, the only extra intervention it provides great flexibility as well as promotes actions of future recycling of
will be the door opening which has already been pre designed on both sides the materials. For instance, the facade provides full freedom of the replacement
of the room to be applicable in both the attached dwellings (Manelius Greisen, of the facade cassettes and the making of window holes as it is consisting of
interview).That means that construction costs for adaptation as well as environ- a non-loading-bearing system. Facades and windows are prepared for balcony
mental costs are staying at the minimum. Facade renovation is an easy task since installation. Moreover, the interior layout, it provides spatial flexibility and it is
it is made of wood and every now and then it is painted since the community possible for the residents to apply the changes by themselves (Dalgaard,inter-
is very efficient in the maintenance of the facility (Manelius Greisen, interview). view). Since the whole structure is connected with mechanical joints it facilitates
Therefore, the building’s lifespan corresponds to the functionality of the build- the renovation of the house, but without applying changes in the structure of it
ing (Manelius Greisen, interview). As it provides spatial variations, strong and (Dalgaard,interview).
empowered community the only reason for demolition in a few decades could
be if it was too expensive to update the essential building parts such as thermal Materials
installations (Manelius Greisen, interview). All the components used are standardized with additional information for the
roof installation since it is important to set up the roof first on the structure
before the facade in order for the second to be protected from the humidity
4.4.2 Lisbjerg Bakke
of the weather (Dalgaard,interview). The main structure is connected with steel
History assembly units (steel brackets)(Dalgaard,interview). The result of the smart use
Lisberg Bakke is a newly built public housing with an experimental way of thinking of the materials is a strong combination that establishes the hybrid structure.
(Dalgaard,interview), which means that the building system is very new without For example, the exterior of the dwellings is made of untreated unprofiled red
the existence of a corresponding building construction industry (Dalgaard,inter- spruce, that is preferred to being replaced regularly rather than being painted.
view). The multi-story residential building is consisting by 3-4 floors and is locat- On the other hand, windows are made of untreated aluminum from outside
ed in the hills 10km from Aarhus. The first families moved into Easter 2018. The and of lacquered wood from inside while the staircase is made by untreated
homes are DGNB certified and in 2014, the building was named the Sustainable concrete interior. Floors and staircases are made of concrete while the interior
Public Housing of the Future by the Ministry of City, Housing and Rural Affairs layout uses gypsum walls.
(https://www.al2bolig.dk/selskaber/al2bolig/afdelinger/128-lisbjerg-bakke/). The
construction was awarded for the innovative facades of the apartments that The foundation of the structure uses the traditional danish system, concrete
have been made by wood and also for the good of daylight that the large win- with posts connected to the inside envelope of the building (Dalgaard,interview).
dows provide. It is easy to disassemble the wooden parts, but the concrete parts are difficult
since they are cast on site. However, the next series of the building might use
Typology prefab concrete elements which could facilitate the deconstruction of those
The complex consists of 40 dwellings of 50-115 m2 and a common room. The parts.

36
 https://www.licitationen.dk/article/view/586708/toptjekkede_traehuse_pa_

Even if the wood as a material

has good thermal characteris-
tics, however, its use should not
be considered sustainable unless Tinggarden
Lisberg Bakke
there is replanting the forest.
Nevertheless, one strong advan- First in 1978 and 2018
tage of wood in comparison with Year the second part in
the concrete is that wood can be 1983.
easily assembled and disassem- Non-loading bearing struc-
Building structure ture. post and beam.
bled with mechanical joints. That Load-bearing walls Infill system. Complete sep-
makes it reusable and recyclable. aration from the structure
Figure 4.3 Lisbjerg Bakke: The wooden houses at Lisbjerg and the skin.
Bakke north of Aarhus are main-
ly built of wood. The building was On-site, Cast and concrete, Concrete cast on-site with
named “Construction of the Year Building method with brick walls, traditional prefab wooden facades
2018” structure

Adaptation strategy Versatile Versatile, refitable,

scalable (horizontal)
Lastly, wood is considered to be a repository of CO2 as long as it is not burnt or It has been designed to Flexibility of layout because
composed and it is not so disturbing for the environment as the concrete produc- Process of spatial adapta- measure the rent and you you can adapt the interior
tion (Dalgaard,interview). tion pay by modules and also to different circumstances
negotiation between the in the lifetime. Services are
neighbors. The technical not changeable the system
Strategy for adaptability aspect is easy because even allows to put services where
The case of Lisberg Bakke housing complex is worth mentioning because of the if it is concrete the doors to facilitate flexibility. “In-
opening are planned. Noth- stallations are fixed in the
flexibility of its structure and because of the use of environmentally friendly ma- ing is changing with the plan because it is very dif-
terials. The non-load-bearing system opens the opportunity for easy renovation installations by taking the ficult to relocate them as
room. The housing organ- it has an effect at all the
and reuse of its components again and again. The capability of the building to have ization is the complicated building. Where to place
easy dismantling of its elements is a matter not only of prolonging its life, through part because their system is the installations is a critical
the renovation of its materials, but also of easily recycling each of its components not ready for that flexibility. thing. You could expand
the structure in technical
or downcycle them. terms.” (Dalgaard,inter-
view)
The following Table 4.1 summarises information from my interviews with the
professionals in Vandkunsten. Table 4.1. Summary table

37
 Tinggarden Lisberg Bakke Tinggarden Lisberg Bakke
First in 1978 and 2018 First in 1978 and 2018
Year the second part in Year the second part in
1983. 1983.
The building parts are not Only the things from inside The basic structure is not
Process of renovation designed for renovation. can be changed from the Foundation Traditional foundation movable. All the wooden
The concrete is not ex- occupants. The rest need parts can be deconstructed
posed, the roofs and they experts. Everything is con- but the concrete is difficult.
have new windows which nected with screws. The The next series of the build-
are extra elements. The first non-load bearing Big flex- ing may have prefab con-
generation has a better roof ibility if you want to reno- crete but this is cast on site.
than the second. It’s very vate the house but the main On top of the inside walls,
traditional everything you structure is difficult. The ex- there is insulation,gypsum
install. Walls are load-bear- terior is very easy to change, boards which is hard to de-
ing the interior requires more construct.
work due to the finishes. Is easier to deconstruction
The concrete is part of the partially that the whole.
Maintenance+repair costs load-bearing structure and
is not exposed. They can
renovate the extra elements Table 4.1
such as roof and windows.
The first version of Ting-
garden has a better roof.
The roof is on timber con-
struction. Easy renovation
the wood facades get paint-
ed, they are very good at the
maintenance of the facility.
The walls are load-bearing
the decks we don’t know
The lifespan is regarding the A lot for the wooden ones
Building Life-span functional part. It has noth- due to the fact that they are
ing to do with the life span, not that static as the con-
but is a political matter. The crete ones.
reason for demolition could Inside wood is protected
be in a few decades if it was with fire gypsum plates. The
too expensive to update only threat for the wooden
anything. Since the project buildings is the
is so iconic maybe in some fire. Wood lasts long be-
years it may be listed. May- cause of the flexibility that
be there will come some provides robustness.
regulations about demol-
ishing.
Robust system and easy to
renovate.

38
In sum, Tinggarden is an example of a traditional concrete structure cast-on site
with brick walls and wooden facades. The adaptation strategy used is versatility, in
which interior spaces have been designed in order to ensure easy rearrangement.
Concrete structures are very stable, however, Tingareden is characterized as a high
density-low rise project and won a competition for its design by empowering the
community. From a technical point of view, the process of adaptation is easily fa-
cilitated due to the diversity of the dwellings and the pre-designed plan for it. Re-
garding maintenance, renovation and repair costs, the system appears to be durable
since the concrete is protected by the wooden facade which is easily maintained
(e.g painted) by those responsible for the building maintenance.

Due to the flexibility of the complex and the strong community that has been
created, the building is considered to have a long life span since it is possible to
re-purpose the buildings according to the different families’ needs. The reason for
demolition would be in a few decades when it becomes too expensive to update
all the installations. Also, potential new regulations about building demolishing will
make it expensive.

The project of Lisbjerg Bakke constitutes an experiment of hybrid structure with

prefabricated wooden elements. The non-load bearing structural system facilitates
the change of space, performance, and size along the horizontal direction. The
prefabricated wooden elements can be disassembled and reused. The structure is,
however, is not movable due to the number of adaptable strategies it offers, Lisb-
jerg Bakke has the potential to accommodate changing needs. Moreover, the next
version of it will include prefabricated concrete elements and that will ensure full
flexibility and reuse of its elements.

Lisberg bakke also offers the possibility of partial disassembly which helps the lon-
gevity of the structure since the components can be upgraded and never end up
obsolete. Moreover, the mechanical joints and screwed connections prevent the
materials from hazards so to promote them for reuse and not down-cycling. Lastly
documentation for how to assemble the building is provided to the contacts and
also instructions for how to cover the building site during the wet periods due to
the high risk of some building elements.
39
40
5. MODULAR CONSTRUCTION IN DENMARK

41
Description

The object of this study is the off-site construction type using prefabricated volumetric modular construction
with wooden based modules. A volumetric system consists of three-dimensional modules of enclosed space
are combined and connected on-site to create one single building. Each volume has its own structural sub-sys-
3
tem, which in the case of this study it is a load-bearing partition walls system. It is about intersecting stabilized 4
1 2
longitudinal walls that constitute the structure of the dwelling. The interior walls are non-load-bearing and it
can come up to 4 stories.
Due to logistics, the boxes present some limitations to their size. The maximum width of 4,6 meters and
length 14 meters, but most commonly used is 12 meters. The height is a maximum of 4,6 meters. The dimen-
sions can vary from project to project and the combination of the boxes gives a bigger floor plan.The cabin of
the bathroom is a separate concrete module, and all the technical equipment is installed on the floors while
the roof is placed on-site. Also, the facade is put on site with hooks.

6 5

Figure 5.1

First layer of exterior wall Froor module

1 Figure 5.2: 2 Figure 5.3: 3 Figure 5.4: Interior gypsum
plates and paint

4 Figure 5.5: First layer of roof 5 Figure 5.6: Windbreakers 6 Figure 5.7: Insulation on the wall 7 Figure 5.8: Second layer of exterior
wall

42
5.1 The case companies

There are two companies in Denmark producing volumetric housing modules. building modules can be used for housing construction, offices, institutions and
These companies are BM Byggeindustri A / S and Scandiby, both of which will be research/ health facilities either for private or public clients. The production area
briefly described in the following. is 18,000 m2 and it is all under roof in dry heated walls in order to avoid moisture
in the structure of the modules. Their production is highly automated and it is
BM Byggeindustri A / S organized in four production lines to assure flexibility. The production capacity is
The first visited facility is the production line of BM Byggeindustri A / S located 100,000 m2 annually.
in Hobro. BM Byggeindustri A / S was among the first construction companies to
work with modular volumetric construction and carpentry (https://bmbyggeindus- The staff consists of building designers, engineers, production managers, sellers,
tri.dk/). Over the years the company has grown in a medium-sized company and tender calculators as well as plumbing and electrical installers. At the construction
after the development of core competencies the BM Tagkassetter ApS was founded sites they work with their own construction management and assembly teams.
in 1987 (https://bmbyggeindustri.dk/). The two parts BM Byggeindustri A / S and
BM Tagkassetter ApS merged in October 2011, and continued operating under the
umbrella of Byggeindustri A / S.
5.2 Analysis of the production processes
The factory is divided in different facilities each of them addresses a different stage
of the manufacturing of the modules. There is one which is the storage of the ma-
terials along with the production of floors and walls, one other for the production This chapter provides a detailed description of the construction processes taking
of bathrooms as a separate module, and one for the assembly of the building parts place in each stage of the modular construction. According to the talks with em-
into one volumetric module. From the production of building parts until the off- ployees in the prefab construction industry, the current technical limitations of ad-
site assembly and placement of the volumetric modules, experienced staff under- aptability (and therefore, the limited chances to prolong buildings’ lifespan), could
takes manual processes. In general, hand tools are used as opposed to robotics and potentially be overcome, depending on the requirements /concept that the clients
automated machinery. BM Byggeindustri A / S is the main construction partner of set. However, this thesis argues that all these stakeholders need to find a way to
Vandkunsten for the projects of social housing KAB. cooperate in order to effectively deliver adaptable buildings. Since the construc-
The staff team of the company consists of production managers, engineering man- tion of adaptable buildings expected to increase the construction costs, the only
agers, project managers, sellers as well as experienced craftsmen who construct way to promote that strategy of construction will be by altering the perception of
the building parts and assembly them off-site. stakeholders (Pinder et al., 2013).

Scandibyg The focus point of my analysis is what it takes to disassemble the structure and
The company Scandibyg is considered to be a pioneer within the Danish market the implications this can have for later adaption.The production process is divided
for industrialized construction, with specialization in the development, production into two stages: manufacturing and assembly, assembly and adaption. More specif-
and construction of modular prefabrication. Scandibyg produces space-sized build- ically, the analysis in the manufacturing stage refers to the process of creation of
ing modules containing turnkey living rooms, rooms, kitchen and bathroom. The the elements like walls and floors. Understanding the structure and creation of

43
 the building elements is significant for the later disassembly of them in order to is used for the distribution of lateral story
better be able to use the materials with the minimum or no hazards. The second loads to lateral load-bearing elements of the
stage is the assembly of the building elements. During this stage, emphasis is given volumetric structure (Ramaji and Memari,
to the assembly tools being used in the connections of the building layers as well 2013). However, many other components
as in the interconnection between them. Moreover, I look at the on-site process of the wall and floor elements are connect-
of assembly, how the volumetric modules are connected with each other as well ed with the use of fasteners and therefore
as how they are connected with the foundation. nails can be found in different places on the
material. An example of this practice is the
The two facilities I visited differ in many ways, i.e in terms of construction practices placement of windbreakers in parts of the
and technologies since one of the companies is using automatization and keeps all wall which are usually nailed in place (Fig-
the construction departments, from the storage to the assembly, under the same ure 5.10). Therefore, the disassembly of the
roof while the other is ‘ess automated nad is based on more conventional produc- components from the building elements has
tion processes. Some of the advantages of automatization are related to the time unpredictable results in terms of time and
savings, the high-quality achieved and the better working environment for the staff. quality of materials after separation. Figure 5.9
Moreover, a fully automated production line is more likely to create products that
can be easily disassembled with the same machinery that used to assemble them
e.g. the use of screws instead of nails for the connection of the elements. Scandibyg, on the other hand, uses robotics for the creation of walls and floors,
which means that machinery has taken place the handwork. Automatisation is
commonly recognized as being more cost-effective than craftspersons (Neelam-
5.2.1 Manufacture stage kavil, 2009).Some of the advantages of the automated process, which eventually
eliminate the overall costs, is the improvement of cost efficiency, increment of
Both companies use the same structural system consisting of a wooden load-bear- the buildings’ life cycle value and facilitation of the interoperability among the
ing partition wall system. In general, this type of structure consists of many discrete lifecycle systems of the project (Neelamkavil, 2009). In that sense, more efficient
floor elements (unit diaphragms) (Ramaji and Memari, 2013). These elements are joint tools could be used such as the ‘screwnail’ developed by Seliger et al., where
filled later with components such as wooden panels, e.g. OSB panels or mfd panels, nail edges ensure the tool on the rotation of the component while the screw is
but they are also fitted with insulation and gypsum or plaster walls. The elements compelled into the material in order to secure lateral direction (opposite direc-
of the volumetric modules are floors, walls, roofs and bathroom cabin.The process tion for the separation of the tool from the material). That type of connection
of constructing them in the two manufacturing companies differs significantly. is strong enough to transfer the required forces and torques for disassembly
(Neelamkavil, 2009).However, in the current production, screws, fasteners and
In BM Byggeindustri A / S the walls and floor parts lay around in the department of glue are used in a number of places in the components (Figure 5.11) while nails
production while the staff work on them manually.The floors of the modules con- and glue are used in the corners of connection of the building elements (Thiesen,
sist of a structural system, made of wooden elements, except the spot of the floor interview). When it comes to the assembly stage of the building elements, nails
of the bathroom cabin that is supported with metal brackets, that are screwed and are used the use of nails in the corners of connection of the building elements
bolted into place vertically in wooden timbers (Figure 5.9). This structural system since that practice requires less time and effort from the staff and does not de-

44
mand planning for holes or mechanical joints.

Both manufacturers install the plumbing

system, needed for the services (e.g. heat-
ing), and the piping system, needed for the
distribution of substances other than water,
on the floors and only some wiring passes
through the exterior walls. The attachment
of those pipes in the floor modules makes
use of bolts and screws.
Figure 5.10 Figure 5.11 Figure 5.12

5.2.2 Assembly stage

The lifting equipment (Figure 5.12) is also put into the elements at this stage 5.2.2.1 off-site
of the modules’ production. In BM Byggeindustri A / S they put fixtures on the
lifting wires which are passing from the bottom of the module and end up to
the side of the outside wall. Once they put the modules on-site they take off The sequence of assembly in both production facilities pursue the following steps:
the wires, in order to use them in the next one. As a consequence, the fixtures starting with the creation of building elements (walls, floors, wc cabin, technical
of the lifting equipment even if they are staying on the house, get lost due to equipment, roof), continuing with putting together all those elements and the first
their location (placed inside the walls) which does not facilitate the ease reuse layer of the roof, and in the final stage of the off-site process, the staff puts win-
of them. Scandibyg, on the other hand, uses different lifting equipment/system. dows, doors and paint the volumetric modules.The second layer of the roof is put
Through the lower part of the box, they pass a wire from one side to the other on-site. Both companies pinch together floor modules and exterior wall modules
on which has been installed a piece of lifting equipment. In this case as well, mainly with nails and a chemical product such as glue.The inside non-load bearing
when the boxes are put on-site the lifting equipment is detached to be used walls, since they are not that heavy, they are attached with the use of glue, as well
in the next building project. Since some of the fixtures of the lifting equipment as the roof, which is glued on the walls. The separate module of the bathroom is
remain inside of the structure of the volumetric module, the procedure of its the first element to be placed on the floor.The predisposition of pipes and instal-
removal from the site is not efficiently facilitated. Therefore, the volumes are lations on floors makes it difficult to disassemble the bathrooms from the rest of
not designed for further relocation, an effect that established the building as the building since such an action would require to disassemble first the roof and
mostly permanent in its position. the walls so to enable the access for the disassembly of the floor.

45
 5.2.2.2 on-site

Regarding the on-site process of assembly, things begin with the foundation (Fig- Continuing with the assembly on-site it is impor-
ure 5.13). The foundation consists of concrete slabs, insulation, heating pipes, and tant to note that the volumetric modules are not
a radon membrane, to which the volumetric modules are later attached to make fixed together with any mechanical joint either
sure that radon does not evaporate into the building. The foundation is made for the horizontal connection (when needed to
of concrete, and glue is only used at that level, the 0, to attach the boxes to the create one big space) or for the vertical connec-
foundation.Tape is used around the volumetric modules to make the seal airtight. tion (in multistorey buildings). In the case of hori-
Figure 5.16: Vertical connection/
Regarding the placement of the volumetric modules on site, first, screws are zontal connection for the creation of one single conceptual
anchored firmly to the ground and with the use of a chemical product the volu- dwelling, modules are produced with one side
metric module is anchored to the screws. open which has been reinforced (Figure 5.16).
After their location on-site with their open sides
facing each other, gypsum plates are put from the
interior side to cover the small gap between the
two volumes. The last step is to seal them from
outside. Figure 5.17: Veritcal connection
with gypsum plates/conceptual

In the case of vertical connection, boxes are

Figure 5.13: Foundation
installed one up to the other with the help of
some wooden blocks to ensure the anchor posi-
tion. If it is about the creation of one single-fami-
ly apartment, the volumetric module is equipped
with stairs from the production stage and only
the last two steps of the stairs are put on site
together with gypsum plates so to connect the
boxes from the interior side. Finally, there are
some connections in the corners because of the
wind. The horizontal and vertical joints in the fa-
cade for the wind and driving rain sealants are
closed as quickly as possible when the volumet-
Figure 5.18: Horizontal connection/
ric modules are mounted on -site (Figure 5.19). conceptual
Figure 5.14: Vertical connection Figure 5.15: Placing on site

46
According to ScandiByg (Thiesen,interview), it is usually easier to separate the
whole module from the site in order to refurbish or reuse it than it is to separate
the elements (walls, floors etc) of each module (Thiesen,interview). The only
obstacle in doing so is the current lifting practice, which does not facilitate the
removal of the modules after being placed on-site. As mentioned previously, once
the modules are stacked to the desired position, the lifting mechanism detaches
from the lifting equipment, which is included in the volumetric module, and there-
fore it is very challenging for the lifting mechanism to find the lifting point again.
However, this practice could change if a new system of lifting equipment were
to be implemented. This is something that could be done (Thiesen,interview).

Figure 5.19: Vertical connection with facade/

conceptual

47
 Conclusion regarding the production processes

From the conversations with the experts, I gained a solid understanding of their Scandibyg BM Byg
system’s production approach. According to (Madsen, interview) the current
modules are not designed for future disassembly/deconstruction and, as a con- Foundation The foundation is concrete the
sequence, the production system is not designed to ease future changes, result- radon membrane is added to
make sure that the substance
ing in limitations of the building lifespan. The modular construction system of
does not evaporate through.
volumetric wooden modules could, however, become more competitive if it is They put tape around to make
designed to be responsive to different societal needs. Nevertheless, the man- the connection airtight.
ufacturers’ current priority is to create a robust construction with respect to
the physical aspects of the structure, and to make the structure compatible with Blocks, insulation in foundation,
heating pipes, they put the boxes
future user/owner’s demands in order to avoid building obsolescence, which is on the top of the radon mem-
the main reason for demolition. brane
They use a chemical product
The following table (Table 5.1) summarizes material from the interviews taken to anchor the box by putting a
screw. Those screws need to be
during my visit to the facilities.
anchored firmly to the ground.

Dimensions Maximum width 4,6 meters and Height can be about 4 meters and
length 14 meters but mot com- width is a maximum of 5 meters.
Scandibyg BM Byg
mon 12 meters. The height is
max 4,6. Dimensions can vary
Load bearing partition wall sys- Volumetric system with a
from project to project.
Building structure tem. The main building structure load-bearing partition wall sys-
is wood and on top of that they tem. It can be up to 4 stories. The How easy to disassemble Floors and walls are pitched to- “It is not planned for the mod-
have some wooden boards, like inside walls are not bearing. gether with nails. It is not easy ules to be disassembled. You can
osb plates or mfd boards, and but it can be done. dismount all.
together with that, they have in- The whole element is easier to You can have a concept to be re-
sulation and gypsum or plaster separate than a plate. You have to usable and movable but it should
walls. take the roof out first. Bathrooms be planned from the beginning
are not movable. because you have to find another
Connections Screws are used for some con- The connections are made with
nections and in the corners a screws. way to put them together. “
chemical product (glue) is used.

Table 5.1. Sumary table

48
 Scandibyg BM Byg Scandibyg BM Byg

How easy to separate the The inside walls are not heavy “If you want to take out a part of Process of adapt. (spatial) There is no connection between If you want to take out a part
elements and they are attached to the floor the outside wall you have to plan the modules. They have some air of the outside wall you have to
by glue and the roof is attached it from the beginning so to rein- in between, and they will be con- plan it from the beginning, so to
to them by glue. However, it is force something on the top and nected from inside the walls and reinforce something on the top
preferred the use of mechanical bottom. It can be done but it’s floors and sealed outside. and bottom. Like make a tim-
connections in the building el- more work and if you want to do “First, you have to take part of ber frame. It can be done but it’s
ements, instead of the chemical it for the owner you have to plan the facade which it’s not a big more work and if you want to do
ones, in order to render them re- them to be non-bearing.” deal and then put the box next to it for the owner you have to plan
usable (Addis & Schouten, 2004). the other, then the gypsum plates them to be non-bearing. In prin-
The outside are more difficult. in between them. Outside you ciple, if you take something out
1rst make sure about electrical put windbreak plates and sealed you have to replace it with some-
wiring (depending on the plugs) them with tape to be airtight. thing else.”
. After you put the facade plates.
“If you remove the entire wall The facade plates are sitting on
you need calculation to take it hooks. They are put manually on
out. Maybe a part can be taken the hooks. The new bricks will be
out. You don’t remove the entire shown. “
wall, you just cut the wall. If you
want to take it all out then you
Lifting equipment There is a wire in the down part “But you cannot lift them easy
could make it in three parts and of the box passing from one side from each other again because
take one out. to the other and has some con- they take off the wires. They have
it ‘s easier to make adaptation necting lifting equipment. They to lift them in a specific way be-
when the houses are spread in don’t leave the equipment in the cause of it the weight of the mod-
the space instead of having long box. They remove it to put it in ule. Those wires are connected to
raws of houses.” another box . There is little space the bottom and then they take
down from the boxes so to put out the wires to use them to the
Airtightness The airtightness is checked on They control it from the begin- something underneath to take it. next one. The connections are
the construction site by blowing ning. In general, they take the staying in the house but it is not
some air. 1rst module of a line and they easy to find them again.
Typical failures of the airtight- test it for the whole line. They
ness: check them one by one when When you want to make a house
If things are not sealed up cor- they have a series. movable you have to think about
rectly. Or the assembly. the lifting equipment in the be-
ginning so as to not get lost. “

49
 Scandibyg BM Byg 5.3 Analysis of adaptability
Access for deconstruction They don’t have cases yet when The assembly is not visible. If you
the people are taking down the were doing on-site the building it
building. Partial decosntruc- would be visible.
In order to access adaptability in more detail, I created a matrix that staff of the
tion:First, you have to take part two case companies were asked to assess how well the current industrial system
of the facade which it’s not a big of prefabricated houses responds in physical and social demands as well as de-
deal and then put the box next to mands of disassembly requirements. With the evaluation tool, I could visualize the
the other, then the gypsum plates weaknesses of the production system as well as what kind of improvement would
in between them. Outside you
put windbreak plates and sealed have the most impact on the total design of prefabricated modules. The left verti-
them with tape to be airtight. cal column of the table introduces the four phases of the industrial system. Each
After you put the facade plates. element of that column represents the specifications of each phase of the system.
The facade plates are sitting on Moving on the x-axis, it is divided in three dimensions. The first dimension is re-
hooks. They put manually on the
hooks. The new bricks will be
lated to the social changes that might occur during the lifetime of a building.The
shown. other two dimensions refer to the physical changes and disassembly requirements
How they handle the They refurbish by taking back so to consolidate the building adaptable. The conceptualization of the tool was a
waste from deconstruc- the modules. But they did not result of my observations and interviews from the facility in combination with lit-
tion
disassemlby the roof they just erature by Schmidt III et al. (2016) and Brand (1995).The elements of disassembly
got inside the boxes and took requirements are also taken by the literature related to Design for Disassembly.
everything apart except the walls.
They didn’t change the location
of the bathroom just change the 5.3.1 Evaluation tool analysis
toilets.
During the research period of this project, I gained a solid understanding of the
prefabricated construction process and how the building’s systems can be de-
signed and produced to correspond in future social needs. According to Adams
et al. (2016), the discipline of Sustainably Design in order to adopt more systemic
approaches has as starting point social issues along to technological interventions.
With that in mind, the evaluation tool, I created, intended to map the impact of
production practices to the building layers and the disassembly demands in order
to ensure future adaptability relating to potential alterations in the society. My
In sum, the ways in which the modules are assembled has implications for how feasible first goal was to get the opinion of the experts regarding the capabilities of the
it is to disassembly and re-arrange the modules. According to Scandibyg, everything it industrial system by requesting them to fill out the evaluation tool. However, it
is possible if it is planned for. turned out that this was not an easy process since the tool was long and required

50
too much time from the actors to complete it. Moreover, the instructions of as- As can be seen from the figure 5.2, for each layer of the building there are prob-
sessing it was conceptually loaded, revealing the gap between our disciplines. The lematic processes with regard to disassembling the building.he low scoring in
result was the very limited feedback on the matrix from the stakeholders of the ‘Component accessibility’ and ‘interrelation of elements’ indicates a limitation of
two factory staff. Since these results were not sufficient for my analysis, I modified the system in applying changes to specific layers without affecting other layers.
the tool by limiting its size /scope by excluding the social parameters, as it turned First,since the system is assembled off-site, the connections of the components
out it was a matter of disorientation, and I made a second attempt to collect the and elements are hidden inside the structure causing difficulties in the later disas-
feedback I needed. sembly. Secondly, elements such as exterior walls and floors are pinched together
since they constitute the structure of the volumetric module, hindering the latter
In order to detect which of the assembly processes were problematic, I developed separation of them.‘Functional separation’ is also scored with acceptable compat-
a color-coding scheme as shown in Table 5.2 and I translated the evaluation tool ibility in those layers which means that their functions are interdependent and
in ‘sources of dilemmas’ due to the qualitative nature of those defects. To do so, therefore, changes applied to one layer, have an effect on the function of another.
I structured the outcomes of the evaluation tool in a colored variation and then For instance, it is preferred the bathroom cabins of each apartment in a multisto-
I identified the degree that the existing practices affect the building layers and rey building to be placed in the same place on each floor since they are the only
respond to disassembly requirements. heavy concrete modules of the wooden structure (Madsen, interview).Therefore,
under specific social circumstances, that require the modification of the layout of
Use Use Use of C o m p o - Functional I n t e r r e l a - Production of ba- the box, such as market changes, the layer of space is not fully compatible with
of of screws nent acces- separation tion of ele- sic modules the relocation of the bathroom cabin (on the services layer) since , services,skin
nails glue sibility ments and structure are interconnected. Moreover, disassembly requirements such as
Space ‘time required to dismantle the elements’, ‘separation of components’ and ‘sepa-
Services ration of elements’ scored acceptable compatibility in relation to the criterion of
‘ Functional Separation’ and ‘ Component accessibility’. That result suggests that
Skin there is no plan for the process of partial disassembly of the volumetric modules.
Structure As a consequence, the industrialized construction system is not easily adaptable
to long term changes that alterations in the market, ownership or demographics
Site
could prompt. Another disassembly requirement that had the lowest score in the
Time required evaluation was ‘information required for dismantling the elements’ which means
to dismantle the that either the information of assembly for disassembly being provided is ineffi-
elements cient or information is not provided at all.
Information pro-
vided
Furthermore, BM Byg Industry does not produce ‘basic volumetric modules’ that
Table 5.2
can be used as extra additions in case of renovation or adaptation of existing
Full compatible
buildings. However, some basic components of floors and walls or bathroom
Good compatible
cabins are produced either for sale to third parties or for the needs of several
Minimum acceptable compatible
Poor compatible

51
 projects. The absence of multiple lifting strategies is considered in the scoring as time and human effort to drill the surfaces and screw on them, in comparison
‘acceptable compatible’ with the requirements of disassembly. The result is based with the use of a fastener such as nails. The use of screws and chemicals (such
on the extended need in time and human effort as the current system does not as glue) in the foundation appears to have no influence in the later detachment
facilitate the relocation and easy disassembly of the building elements or even of of the structure from it.
the whole volume. Also, the operation of relocation of the volumetric modules of
a multistorey building from the site is constrained from the unique option provid-
ed as a lifting strategy. When the ‘boxes’ are mounted on-site there is not enough Conclusion of the evaluation tool results
space between the floor of the top one and the roof of the one underneath to fit In conclusion, the feedback from the actors of the industrial sector reveals
the lifting mechanism and extract the lifting equipment. Since the lifting equipment some limitations of the system regarding the time and effort needed to disas-
is attached to the modules from the production stage of the building elements, semble the building components and their elements. The current production
that implies a predetermined lifting strategy of them. Moreover, another criterion system has limited compatibility with regard to disassembly of the structure,
with low scoring accessed in all the building layers are the foundations’ capacity to leading to complications in future scenarios of adaptation of the structure.
carry greater load which plays an important role in the scalability of the building,
in case of vertical addition (Schmidt III and Austin, 2016). The reasons that justify the aforementioned statement are mainly the inefficien-
cy of the system to meet the disassembly requirements. First, the load-bearing
Regarding the practice of assembly, the joining tools used to connect the build- wall structural system of the volumetric modules does not present flexibility
ing elements and their components affect their disassembly, since it is possible as it is closely interconnected with the rest of the layers, except from the site,
to cause implications in their later separation and also to be hazardous for the and that implies difficulties concerning the partial disassembly of the boxes.
material of them. The use of nails in the skin and structure layers seems to be Secondly, the analysis highlights the extended time and effort needed to disas-
ambiguous regarding the time and effort for the disassembly of components and semble the building elements and their components a fact that does not favor
elements. However, in the layers of space and services, the ’use of nails’ scored future adjustments. Lastly, the lack of instructions for building’s’ disassembly
full compatibility. That proves a routine that nails are rarely used in those layers clearly does not facilitate such a process.
as other joining methods are preferred, such as the use of glue or the use of
screws. That can be confirmed from the interview with Thiesen from Scandibyg
stating “The inside walls are not heavy and they are attached to the floor by glue
and the roof is attached to them by glue”. The use of glue was evaluated as ‘good’
concerning the facilitation of later disassembly of components and elements in
the layers of services and space. However, it requires the same amount of time for
the separation of elements as a nailed connection. The use of screws on the oth-
er hand, requires less time to dismantle the elements, as it was evaluated on the
matrix, than the aforementioned types of connections. Using screws can, however,
present challenges when it comes to the separation of structural parts or parts of
the skin. That might be due to the not extensive use of them as it requires more

52
5.4 Comparing the adaptability of the current
system with the exemplars

This section focuses on how the industrialized construction processes present- the family homes can change size by the rearrangement of the non-load bearing
ed in this study respond in three scenarios of adaptation (scalable, and movable partition walls. The hybrid system offers full flexibility of space plan since there
and refitable) presented by Schmidt III et al., (2012), in comparison with the is no floor span limit unlike with the volumetric modular system which has clear
exemplars, Tinggaarden and Lisbjerg Bakke. The use of those scenarios reveals restrictions regarding the three dimensions.
the limitations of the different concepts’ to respond to potential social demands.
Relocation of services and installations
Space expansion The social pressures that could be the reason for this demand could be related
Buildings’ space enlargement can be demanded when there are changes in own- to the building’s age and need of renovation, shifts in ownership or adjustments
ership (e.g. from social housing company to student apartments), market needs of the building’s size according to the new market demands. From the conver-
(e.g. from houses to offices) as well as for demographic reasons (e.g. changes sation with the experts, this is one of the hardest adjustments to make. It is,
in the number of inhabitants). This is my attempt to make a clearer distinction therefore, preferred to locate the services’ installations in the floors rather than
between what is possible with the production system of this study and the struc- in the walls. Indeed, both companies of modular construction I researched, are
tural systems of Tinggarden and Lisbjerg Bakke. installing most of the services in the floors in order to allow for the inside non-
Space expansion in ‘boxes’ implies partial disassembly of the exterior wall, struc- load bearing walls to be relocatable.
tural element of the building, and the facade. This is feasible since the layer of
the skin is separated from the layer of the structure, and also it is mounted on- However, to increase adaptability in the future, stakeholders should consider
site. As mentioned above the volumetric module system structure is based on how to relocate services in the space plan of the building in order to enable it to
a load-bearing partition wall system, and therefore, the removal of one of the expand or modify the interior.
exterior walls requires first, reinforcement of the specific side of the volume.
Hence, from the production phase the exterior walls that have space for expan- Changing buildings’ services and installations is also a challenging form of adap-
sion should be pre reinforced maybe in three parts so to allow flexibility in the tation for the two exemplars to respond to. The structural systems of the case
size of the wall opening. studies do not facilitate relocation as it is post and beam cast on site. From the
interviews with the architects in Vandkunsten it was made clear that installations
In contrast, the structures of the two exemplars allow for structural expansion, for the services are the ones who fix the floor plan because it is very difficult
albeit in different ways due to their different structures. In Tingaarden designers to relocate them as it has an effect on the entire building (interview with Kim).
had foreseen the need for this kind of alteration, and tackled them by placing the “Finding strategic locations for the installations is the challenge for the archi-
extra room in strategic spots within the buildings’ layout. For instance, pre-de- tects” (interview with Kim)
signed door openings simplified the spatial transitions. The hybrid structure of
Lisbjerg Bakke, on the other hand, is expandable as it uses a non load-bearing Removing a whole building to a new site
structural system that completely separates the building structure from the skin Building relocation is a very challenging adaptation strategy as it requires the en-
and also allows for the re-use of detachable components, since they are screwed tire structure to be movable. This could, perhaps, be relevant when demographic
to the building skeleton. Moreover, it provides a very flexible interior layout since changes create the demand. The structural system of the volumetric boxes is

53
 suitable for moving, since by regulation, boxes are built to be very airtight. plan without limitations on the size of the floor plan. All the three structural
Moreover, the whole structure could be detached from the foundation as it is systems under this study provide some limitations, however, the combination
placed on the radon membrane and taped together. of them can give some advantages in the design of adaptable structures. The
question is what it takes, from the production process perspective of the boxes,
However, the different lifting types of equipment both companies use do not to achieve compatibility with the combination of the structural systems of the
facilitate later lifting, because the lifting fixtures get lost inside the building’s exemplars.
structure once they have been detached from the lifting mechanism. This ob-
stacle could potentially be removed by applying different technology (Thiesen, The concept of future social housing can be updated by drawing inspiration
interview) but according to the manufacturers, since there is no demand from from the Tinggarden project’s’ value of the preplanned flexible floor span, which
the clients for that kind of system, there is no need to change the system (Mad- led to the project’s success, and eventually to offer an opportunity for fami-
sen, interview). lies to grow, develop neighbors’ negotiation and create communities (Figure
5.20). That could be done by the combination of the hybrid structural sys-
Comparing the current structural system with the ones of the two exemplars, tem of Lisberg Bakke, as the structural system of the extension, which offers
it is clear that the current one has more possibilities to respond to this kind of easy rearrangement of the interior layout, with the system of prefab volumetric
adaptation.Tingaarden has been built on-site with the traditional building meth- modules equipped with the needed services and installations so to achieve full
od, which renders the structure static. The post and beam structure of Lisbjerg flexibility of the extension’s’ layout. Moreover, the settlement of the installations
Bakke is, one the other hand, not movable. However, the option this post and and services on the boxes creates a holistic movable structural system as the
beam structure provides is the disassembly of all the wooden parts such as structural system of Lisberg Bakke alone does not facilitate the relocation of
walls, which can be reused, but not the concrete parts such as floors and stair- those elements. From the production phase of the modules, it would required
cases, which are connected with the foundation. However, still, the inside walls reinforcement of the exterior walls, together with the plan for the later disas-
are equipped with insulation and gypsum boards which also makes it difficult to
disassemble (Dalgaard,interview).

5.4.1 Conclusion of third part

Although the production companies of prefabrication claim flexibility of the

modules, due to the fact that users can decide the position of the interior walls,
this is limited considering what have been achieved in the structures Tinggarden
and Lisberjg Bakke. The design of Tinggarden allows for spatial enlargement of
a dwelling after negotiation with the neighbors. The hybrid system of Lisberg
Bakke, on the other hand, allows for complete reconfiguration of the spatial
Figure 5.20: Concept volumetric modules together with hybrid stucture
54
sembly of them, as well as preparation for the later integration of mechanical
joints in their exterior corners.

However, the practical development of this structural typology presents restric-

tions regarding the construction work taking place on-site. Firstly,due to the fact
that the adaptation process will occur some decades after the first occupation,
it is impossible to use the building method on-site with a crane as it is used in
the prefabricated construction. Moreover, even if pillars and beams were pre-in-
stalled, due to weather conditions hazards would be created in those elements
while the pre-installed foundation in the empty space between the modules
would not provide any benefits.

55
56
 6. DISCUSSION
The first part of this chapter examines solutions from the literature that
respond to the deficiencies of the production system under this study, re-
garding the freedom of alterations the existing processes provide. Those
solutions according to the time that will have returns, in comparison with
the size of investment for the developers, are distributed in short term
and long term solutions. In the second part, the strategy for escaping
the lock-in of the construction sector is discussed. The proposal for the
transition of the building sector into a more sustainable one requires mo-
bilization in all types of involved actors and stakeholders. The last part
of the discussion explains the procedure of this research, the reasons
for the steps not taken as well as proposal of further investigation after
overcoming the barriers I met.

57
6.1 Proposals

Framed structure Wireless sensors and control systems (Guy and Ciarimboli, n.d)

The first proposal entails altering the structure of the volumetric modules. The ‘Functional separation’ is another criterion that has also scored as ‘acceptable
feedback of the stakeholders on the evaluation tool exposed limitations that oc- compatible’ within all the building layers, except the site. Since some of the build-
curred in the structure of the volumetric modules. More specifically, the load-bear- ing elements involve installations of systems for the services and wiring, this com-
ing wall system presents a functional delimitation as it is hard to remove the out- plicates the relations of different uses and also the potential for partial disassem-
side wall, since it is a structural element, and this blocks the future expansion of the bly. In order to optimize the volumetric modules so as to be easily disassembled,
structure of the volumetric module. One solution could be designing the modules one of the goals is to eliminate the wiring for HVAC systems and control systems
by a combination of the load-bearing wall system and a framed wooden structure as much as possible. One way of reducing the wiring in buildings is to use sensors
to reinforce the sides that allow space for expansion. Even though this strategy and transmitters, which do not have wiring.This allows for the systems’ compo-
constitutes a low rise in the cost of manufacture, it will provide spatial freedom to nents to be replaced and relocated without any further influence on the rest of
the structure and thus, returns certain benefits regarding future use and ease of the the building systems. Some of the advantages of those systems are the reduction
process of adaptation (Figure 6.1). Moreover, it implies a short term solution as it is of complexity of service systems, the reduction of hazards to the components
easily applicable from the production perspective and if contractors adopt it now from the attachment systems and the faster disassembly process (Guy and Ciar-
they will increase the value of their products and also make them more suitable for imboli, n.d). Lastly, wireless systems can store the building’s information regarding
any kind of reuse with no further changes. its components by reading radio frequency identification (RFID) tags and other
sensors (Guy, and Ciarimboli, n.d). Those systems are considered to be a high
investment in production, however, the benefits of it will show returns in the long
term since it is likely to increase their capabilities to respond to future policy
demands.

Connections

BM byg does not provide ‘information for the disassembly of the elements’. Doc-
umentation of assembly procedures, component interfaces are as well as provi-
sion of visual material, e.g pictures, to indicate the installations’ location inside
the structure are strategies that should be considered from the manufacturers.
Moreover, given the ‘component accessibility’ and the ‘use of nails’ as material for
Figure 6.1: Proposal with timber frame
connection, the process of disassembly is rated as ‘acceptable’. Creating less and
larger building elements such as walls, floors in order to minimize the number of

58
connections is not always enough to ensure the flexibility needed for reuse or easiest way would be to place the connections of lifting equipment for the lifting
recycling. Such a process requires accessible connections and clear instructions mechanism on the top part of the volumetric modules. Since the modules are
to be efficient. Moreover, the use of nails and chemical products in the structure very airtight such an action is feasible. All those applications call for the system’s’
and skin layers does not ease the disassembly of their elements and the later reconfiguration and a monetary investment which does not offer tangible advan-
reuse of them. Clips, angles and plates, bolts, double-headed nails, are means to tages for the contractor in the short term. However, future policies and changes
make the wood members easier to disassemble (Guy and Ciarimboli, n.di). This in market needs could eventually force the developers to technologically to im-
solution can be adopted in short term from the production industry while the prove the strategy of the relocation of their products and thus, anticipation for
benefits of its adoption will ease the process of disassembly of building elements that kind of alteration will make them more competitive in the industrial sector.
and components for future adaptation and reuse.

Lifting equipment 6.2 Strategy to escape the lock-in in construction

industry
One of the main factors that prevents the development of adaptability in build-
Neither the Lisbjerg Bakke project, nor the volumetrice modules, both struc- ings is the cost due to the belief that adaptability results in higher construction
tures that include off-site construction, do not enable the movability of the whole costs (Pinder et al, 2013). For instance, according to Norwegian Building Institute
structure. Indeed, there are housing companies in Denmark, such as CPHVillage study, solutions such as higher floor-to-ceiling heights, system walls and sound-
that want to invest in a number of modules that in a span of 10 years, they will proof suspended ceilings, lead to the increment of the initial construction costs
relocate them. Another reason for the relocation of a structure could be for in office buildings (Arge and Landstad, 2002). However, according to Slaughter
the need of disassembly of it back in the factory’s’ facility in order to extract its (2001), from a sample of 48 buildings in the US, the design strategies of adapt-
components for reuse. The hybrid structure of Lisbjerg Bakke allows for full dis- ability resulted only in a 1% increase in initial construction costs in comparison
assembly of the components except for the concrete parts that have been cast with less adaptable strategies. Therefore, it seems that costs of increased adapt-
on-site, and therefore, one could say that still is possible the detachment of the ability are not yet conclusive. Moreover, conflicting interests of stakeholders can
whole in pieces. The relocation of the volumetric modules, On the other hand, it be seen as another obstacle to constructing adaptable buildings. For instance,
becomes challenging in the case of multistorey buildings. Such a process requires stakeholders with a long-term interest in buildings, such as owners, institutional
modifications in the manufacturing stage where parts of the lifting equipment investors, and developers, investing in adaptable solutions will provide them fu-
are placed inside the floor or wall elements of the box. That position does not ture returns since it will minimize the rates of depreciation (Pinder et al., 2013).
facilitate the access of the crane of the lifting mechanism since it is hidden from On the contrary, the developers that construct buildings for sale are likely to
the boxes on the side or under. To simplify the process and therefore create the have doubtful benefits of such a strategy since it is not predestined which actor
value of such an action, since it is less frequent but can be very demanding, cal- will launch the future action of adaptation and, therefore, benefit from the initial
culations, different methods, and different lifting mechanisms will be needed. The investment (Pinder et al., 2013). Furthermore, the property estimation plays an

59
 Acknowledge th economic, environmanetal and social benefits

important role in the market, however, Social

Valuers
its valuation can be an obstacle in the
innovation of property markets (Pinder
et al., 2013). Indeed, without the proof Technological + Organizational Owners, Designers, Construc- Producers reinverst in sustainable
that a design strategy has added value tors, Investors, Developers technology
to the building in the past, valuers will
not estimate any further value to those • Financial grand for ad-
Industrial Banks, Industry bodies, Researchers, Plan-
characteristics in the present. This fact ners, Educators aptable buildings
can create a loop where developers do • Spread knowledge within the
not include those characteristics in de- profession • Client loan-evidence to keep
value of materials
sign, since valuers do not estimate the
value those characteristics offer, and val- Institutional/Political
Policy makers
uers have ignorance of the characteris- • Taxes of waste from demolition
tics that add value since developers will and refurbishment
not include them in their designs. • Documentation for disassembly

Figure 6.2

To escape lock-in, a collective action from various stakeholders is required (Fig- will have to re-invest to a more sustainable technology for their products in or-
ure 6.2). Since monetary investments aim in the reduction of production costs der to avoid taxes coming from their future products, and not in the technology
and in the improvement of the existing products, this limits the development of of improving the existing one. Policy makers, therefore, should evaluate whether
new solutions by re-investment in dominant design competencies. Those invest- the manufacturers are going to follow the policy action or block it instead(Unruh,
ments provide usually permanent solutions, which mostly are specialized, durable 2002). Moreover, governments can directly provide support for R&D with fund-
and non-tradable assets (Ghemawat, 1991). Cutting these investments requires ing or can also promote the industry R&D ( Seto et al.,2016).
first to address the institutional lock-in, which has the biggest influence on the
other sectors. In the case of sustainable prefab production, political forces, such Moving on the industrial lock-in, goals should be set for researchers and indus-
as policy makers, by raising the taxes of waste from building demolition and re- try stakeholders to rate the adaptability potential as an ingredient to address
furbishment create a greater interest amongst producers since they will have a the ‘green’ building certification schemes such as BREEAM and LEED (Pinder
responsibility of particular building elements and components (Guggemos and et al., 2013), which now gives 1 point credit for Design for Flexibility and only
Horvath, 2003).That will have an impact on the scale economies since companies applied for healthcare buildings. DGNB on the other hand, includes the criterion

60
of Flexibility and Adaptability (ECO2.1). However, information for disassembly of Eventually, that will draw a positive effect on the developers (eg Scandibyg) who
building elements is not included in the documentation needed (ECO2.1 REF). aim for higher prices of sales and to prevent obsolescence of their products.
For instance, SBI, the Danish Building Research Institute, could set design criteria (Pinder et al., 2013). Therefore, the aforementioned long term solutions for the
regarding the potential of building’s’ adaptation to include in the Ecolabelling Den- optimization of their products regarding disassembly, if they adopted now from
mark in order to ensure that new constructions, especially regarding the social the industrial facilities, they will have big returns for the developers.
housing sector, are taking those criteria into account. Furthermore, even though
cost estimation of planning for adaptable structures is uncertain, the fact that is
perceived by many more expensive serves as one of the economic barriers. A
proposal to overcome these barriers could be addressed by banks through the
provision of a financial grant with favorable interest rates for adaptable buildings
even if those are less risky investments (Pinder et al., 2013). That type of grants
could act as a matter of influence for network economies because industry bod-
ies will tend to become more compatible and coordinated with each other to
achieve financial help. Continuing further with the actors related to the construc-
tion industry, the educational system and researchers could limit the learning
effects of a dominant technology by spreading innovative knowledge within the
profession and by substantiating the benefits of sustainable technology.
All the aforementioned will have an impact on the adaptive expectations of the
valuers who will recognize the economic, social and environmental benefits of
opening the space for adaptable buildings. Moreover, as Seto et al. (2016) state,
competitive economic markets benefit several types of innovation and disruption,
and that introduces a transition in the marketplace. One of these markets could
be promoted banks by the provision of a favorable client loan under the evidence
6.3 Reflexions
that the building has been built according to methods that keep the component/
material value high. By altering the client’s’ and users’ expectations, a push will The aforementioned proposals regarding the improvements in modular construc-
force the technological actors to design and build according to the criteria for tion are the product of the analysis of my empirical data.That analysis is, however,
disassembly and design for adaptability. As follows, actors from the technological subject to some limitations which are presented in the following text. The empir-
and organizational complex will be driven to change their practices in more sus- ical material was based on the two production facilities of volumetric modules
tainable ones. More specifically, designers and constructors will produce adapt- in Denmark that the architecture firm Vandkunsten cooperates with. This means
able structures by fulfilling disassembly aspects in order to meet the expectations that the industrial system I describe is limited and I cannot speak for the norms
of clients and society for the reuse of products or components. Investors, on the of the whole industrial system of volumetric timber modules. The existence of
other hand, will acknowledge the big returns and the higher-value growth po- companies within the sector that use more sufficient practices regarding the
tential of such design through the political pressure and development of niches. disassembly requirements needs further investigation. A wider view on the sum

61
 of prefab housing production facilities would presumably also have had an in- knowledge through our disciplines would have ensured further data validation.
fluence on the short and long term proposals for the system. Moreover, topics
for further research regarding the combination of structural systems and their
advantages from both economical and environmental aspects, such as reduction
of resources through reuse, is also needed.

Another factor that proved troublesome is the variety of stakeholders I came in

contact with during my research. My initial idea was to approach the occupants
living in buildings composed my modular construction, to gain experience of
people’s’ spacial needs and how these might change over time, potentially affect-
ing the need for adaptation. To do so, I created a file with a brief description of
my interest and I delivered it in the post-boxes of residents of those structures.
However, I failed to establish contacts with them, in order to understand social
needs, and hence I researched through the literature to find the potential cases
of adaptation. Furthermore, another stakeholder that I did not include in the
research and further analysis is the Danish social housing companies. Having
the chance to discuss with actors from AKB and KAB would have enriched my
knowledge about the needs of the housing concepts they produce as well their
financial interests in respect with the lifespan of those structures. A scenario
that requires further study would be the investment in concepts which invest
in a number of volumetric modules that will need to be relocated in a specific
timeframe. Currently, that kind of concept arises with the housing company for
students, CPH Village, showing the first interests.

Lastly, the gained knowledge came from the unique visit I had on those facilities,
as they are placed in the center and north of Jutland.The construction phases of
both factories’ projects were in the production stage of the modules and there-
fore, my observations are limited in the off-site construction. That defined the
descriptions regarding the on-site assembly since they were based completely
on the statements of the interviewees. Moreover, the evaluation tool proved to
be a weak boundary object between the researcher and the actors from the
industry since due to the difficulties that arose for the last in assessing it. That
result reveals the gap between the various disciplines of the building sector.
The possibility of a workshop for the facilitation of the tool and exchange of

62
7. CONCLUSION

63
 The objective of this thesis was to investigate the strategies to prolong build- constraints involve implications of the current production of the modules such
ings’ structures and their components’ lifetime in order to enable material as the weak strategy of lifting mechanism that does not ensure movability, the
waste reduction. Based on this objective, this study sets two questions. The load-bearing structure of the modules which restricts its spatial possibilities as
first is regarding the limitations of the current production in prefab modular well as the inflexibility for the services’ layer.
construction, which affect the response of the structures to demands of later
adaptation. The second is related to the transition of the building sector to a The second question aims towards reconfiguration of the industrial system con-
more sustainable one through reconfigurations in the sociotechnical complex. cerning the construction industry. In this study, the answer to this question is
firstly based on an evolutionary approach of the Danish building sector that has
The division of my analysis in three parts provided the following sub-conclu- drawn the tendency of transitions, over time, to follow co-evolutionary pro-
sions regarding the effect of the current industrial practices in each production cesses that are restricted by path-dependencies. More specifically, from the post
stage and how those affect future decision making. The first part confirmed the second world war period, major solutions came from the institutional regime
initial assumption about the product disassembly impairment given the current to overcome managerial problems, such as the lack of productivity and planning,
practices on the studied industries. The most important finding of this part was with regulation and support from the national building institute (Gottlieb and
the limitations in the current lifting strategies regarding the relocation of the Frederiksen, 2019). Those changes gave the opportunity to the industrial sector
whole volumetric module after assembled with the others on-site, creating a to evolve in new construction practices, such as the use of prefabricated con-
multistorey building. crete. Again to stabilize and promote those practices, institutions established
evaluation tools to overcome implications created by the materials.The rational-
In the second part, the assessment of the experts’ evaluation tool in terms ized building system and industrialization developed in the modern period were
of the product structure and human effort, which keeps the system inflexible. enabled due to the practices created during the previous developments. Heavy
Such reasons involve the hazardous assembly practices for the material, causing public investments in the 90’s and political alterations, (Gottlieb and Frederiksen,
reduction of the component value due to the lack of provision of information 2019), guide the industry to scale economies, learning effects adaptive expecta-
for dismantling the building elements for the facilitation further actions of ad- tions, and network economies, all four categories of increasing returns of adop-
aptation, along with the difficult access to building components and the weak tion.
separation of building’s’ functions. Gosling et al., 2016 suggest the conceptual-
ization of buildings as systems in terms of functionality, not as an assembly of Social housing constitutes an important form of the Danish housing market and
parts, a fact that comes in contrast with the previously described characteris- hence, designing for optimization of the building resources requires adjustments
tics. However, the structural system of the volumetric modules is the result of in the industrial system, through the promotion of disassembly and adaptability
the exterior walls subassemblies providing only a single function, that is linked in the building’s planning phase. However, those adjustments often lead to the in-
with all the rest of the building parts, the load-bearing support. Moreover, Rios crement of production prices, an undesirable consequence in the market of that
et al, 2015 underlined the importance to reduce the time of deconstruction in model of accommodation. Moreover, the analysis showed the lack of developers’
order to be preferred instead of demolition, and therefore, documentation for interest to alter their practices and the system’s design in order to enable future
dismantling the building is needed. The last part of my analysis looks at future adaptability of their structures if it is not a requirement set by the client. That
adaptation scenarios in order to target the constraints of different construc- lack of interest is due to the aforementioned increasing returns of adoption of
tion systems in the assurance of compatibility with possible adaptations. Those the industrialized system.

64
The sector calls for reorientation from the political, institutional, industri-
al-technological and social spectrum. Therefore, considering the systemic tran-
sition of the building sector, I built my approach to the theory of techno-insti-
tutional lock-in which blocks the construction industry and industrialization
in a path-dependency that is hard to escape. I used the theory to explain
how to break the increasing returns of adoption both in the technological and
institutional spheres. Starting the transition from the institutional complex, I
indicated the power of policymakers to influence the industrial regime through
regulations for documentation and the taxes for building waste. After that first
step, a collective action within the industrial sector is suggested where banks
offer financial interest to the clients in return documentation that ensures the
longevity of the structure along with the researchers and innovators to bring
knowledge and alternative strategies within the profession. Through these al-
terations in market mechanisms, it is feasible to increase the interest of the
adoption of new solutions in production and assembly practices on companies
as the ones explored under this study. Implementation of this strategy to the
industrial system of prefabricated construction is possible to lead to the crea-
tion of new business models that will keep the material value high and prolong
building’s’ life.

65
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Interviews:

Anne-Mette Manelius Greisen, Architect, 17/10/2019

Kim Dalgaard, Architect, 15/10/2019

Joan Thiesen, HSE Manager, 25/10/2019

Mogens Madsen, Sales Manager, 24/10/2019

Den Faber Madsen, Project manager, 24/10/2019

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