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TECHNICKÁ UNIVERZITA V KOŠICIACH

LETECKÁ FAKULTA

FLUID MECHANICS

Študijný program: LaKT_Bc_D_sk 2

ADIKA OKELO
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Table of content…………………………………………………………………………… i
Aircraft hydraulic system………………………………………………………………. 3
Introduction……………………………………………………………………………3
Modern hydraulic system……………………………………………………….4
Basic components of hydraulic systems……………….…………………4
Hydraulic accumulators…………………………………………………………..4
Role of accumulators……………………………………………………………….5
Types of accumulators……………………………………………………………..6
Cylindrical accumulators…………………………………………………..………9
Spherical accumulators………………………………………………………….10
Principle of operation of accumulators……………………………………11
Application and distribution of accumulators………………………….13
Accumulators servicing and troubleshooting……………………………….15
Safety issues……………………………………………………………………………..17
Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………….17
References………………………………………………………………………………...18
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AIRCRAFT HYDRAULIC SYSTEM

INTRODUCTION
Hydraulics is a word derived from Greek word for water, which meant study of physical
characteristics of water at rest and motion, however today the meaning is used to describe the
physical behavior of all liquids.

A liquid is a substance that takes the shape of its container and maintain a nearly constant
volume independent pressure

Hydraulic systems are not new to aviation, the first hydraulic systems in aviation were
introduced in 1920s and 1930s but were mainly used to operate landing gears and brakes by
1934 DC-3 planes had hydraulic powered wing flaps

[fig1 Douglas aircraft began operation by July 1934 , image from aviation-history.com]

Aviation hydraulics further developed in 1940s and the p-80 and the Lockheed aircraft had the
flight control surfaces powered by hydraulic systems. Most hydraulic innovations happened in
1960s where the variable hydraulic was extensively advanced and so was the commercial jet
hydraulics. By 1970 hydraulic system specification of military aircrafts were introduced.
Development of light weight design hydraulic system, smart pump and actuators followed in
1980s
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[Fig2: Lockheed R5O-1/4/5 “Lodestar” (1940) image from cgaviationhistory.org]

MODERN HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS

Modern aircraft use hydraulic power for flight control surfaces, brakes, and landing gear. Basic
design and functionality of aircraft hydraulic system are same either in large multi engine
aircrafts or in small aircrafts

However, the complexity varies based on the type of aircraft, but with a goal that the aircraft
hydraulics should be durable and reliable

BASIC COMPONENTS OF HYDRAULIC SYSTEM

Basic components of a hydraulic system are:

 Hydraulic pump: which is used to generate power to the system by pressurization

 Reservoir: used to store the hydraulic fluid
 Actuator: that converts hydraulic energy to mechanical energy.
 Pressure safety valve: that protect the system from being over-pressurized
 Heat exchanger: to keep the hydraulic fluid at the right temperature.

This article is going to focus on hydraulic reservoirs and actuators and their properties

hydraulic accumulators
A hydraulic accumulator is a storage reservoir under pressure with a non-compressible
hydraulic fluid is held, the pressure is usually provided by an external source. The external
source of pressure used can either be a spring, weight, or compressed gas. one of the main
reasons that an accumulator is used in a hydraulic system, is that so the pump doesn’t need to
be so large to cope with extremes of demand of the hydraulic circuit, and the supply circuit can
respond quickly to any temporary demand and smooth pulsation.
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accumulators are closely related to hydraulic systems; they also have applications in different
aircraft systems. There are different capability sizes, and depending on the system of
application, are either filled with a gas or use mechanical force to store energy within the sort
of pressurized fluid. Accumulators pressurized by gas (Pneumatically pressurized accumulators)
are used primarily in hydraulic systems, and mechanical accumulators are utilized in varied
applications like fuel for Auxiliary Power Unit (APU) and grease for stab trim lubrication
systems. Accumulator varies in construction and has changed over the years, with the
cylindrical accumulator being the dominant type being used.

In aircrafts an accumulator is a steel sphere divided into two chambers by a rubber diaphragm
made from synthetic material

The chambers of the accumulator are filled with different matter with the upper chamber
containing fluid under pressure and the lower chamber having nitrogen gas or air

Many modern aircrafts may have several accumulators in their hydraulic system to serve the
following functions

Role of accumulators
To supplement pump flow: one of the most common uses for accumulators is to supplement
pump flow. Some hydraulic circuits require high-volume flow for a short time and then use little
or no fluid for an extended period. When half or more of the machine cycle isn't using pump
flow, the appliance may be a likely candidate for an accumulator circuit.

One disadvantage of using accumulators to supplement pump flow is that the circuit must
operate at a pressure higher than needed to perform the work.

To maintain pressure: Another common application for accumulators is to take care of

pressure during a circuit while the pump is unloaded. This is useful when using fixed-volume
pumps on long holding cycles.

To absorb shock: Fast-moving hydraulic circuits can produce pressure spikes that cause a shock
when the flow is stopped abruptly. Accumulators are often installed in such shock-prone
circuits to scale back damaging pressure and flow spikes to a suitable rate -- or eliminate them
completely.

 Provide supplementary power to the hydraulics system

 Store power for limited operation of the hydraulics system when the pump is not
operating
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 Provide fluid under pressure to compensate non desired leaks in the hydraulic system

Types of accumulators
Accumulators can be divided into different type based on shape or physical properties

Direct-Contact Gas-to-Fluid Accumulators:

Direct-contact gas-to-fluid accumulators mainly are utilized in very large installations where it'd
be costly to use a piston or bladder-type accumulator. This accumulator has an enclosed
cylinder and is mounted in a vertical position, containing a liquid port bottom and a gas
charging port at the top This accumulator is used in some airplane elevator hydraulic systems
were several gallons of hydraulic fluid is required to supplement the output of the hydraulic
pumps for raising the elevator. The direct contact between the air or gas and therefore the
hydraulic fluid tends to entrain excessive amounts of gas within the fluid.

due to this reason, direct contact accumulators are generally not used for pressures over 1,200
per square inch (psi). The use of this sort of accumulator with flammable fluid is dangerous
because there's an opportunity for an explosion if any oxygen is present within the gas, and
pressure surges generate excessive heat. For this reason, safety fluids are utilized in this sort of
installation.

Bladder- or bag-type accumulators have a shell or case that has a flexible bladder inside the
shell The bladder is larger in diameter at the highest (near the air valve) and gradually tapers to
a smaller diameter at rock bottom. The rubber is thinner at the highest of the bladder than at
rock bottom. The operation of the accumulator is predicated on Barlow's formula for hoop
stress, which states: "The stress during a circle is directly proportional to its diameter and wall
thickness." This means that for a thickness, a large-diameter circle will stretch faster than a
small-diameter circle; or for a particular diameter, a skinny wall hoop will stretch faster than a
thick wall hoop. making, the bladder stretches round the top at its largest diameter and
thinnest wall thickness, then gradually stretch downward and push itself outward against the
walls of the shell. As a result, the bladder can squeeze out all the liquid from the accumulator.
Consequently, the bladder accumulator features a very high volumetric efficiency. In other
words, this sort of accumulator is capable of supplying an outsized percentage of the stored
fluid to try to work. The bladder is precharged with air or nitrogen to a specified pressure. The
fluid is then forced into the world around the bladder, further compressing the gas within the
bladder. This type of accumulator has the advantage that as long because the bladder is
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unbroken, there is no exposure of the fluid to the gas charge and thus less danger of an
explosion.

Gas-charged bladder: Most of the modern accumulators use a rubber bladder to separate the
gas and liquid. they have a poppet valve at the discharge port that keeps the bladder from
extruding when the pump is off.

Gas-charged piston: have a cylindrical body (barrel), with closure heads on both sides, and an
internal piston. The piston may be fitted with a tailrod, which extends through one end of the
cylinder or it may not have a tailrod at all In the latter case, it is referred to as a floating piston.
Hydraulic fluid is pumped into one side (head) of the barrel, forcing the piston to move towards
the opposite side of the cylinder against a captive charge of air or nitrogen gas. occasionally the
amount of air or nitrogen charge is limited to the volume available within the accumulator; to
increase the volume other installations may apply the use separate air flasks, which are piped
to the airside of the accumulator. Piston accumulators may be mounted in any position. This
type of accumulator has a free-floating piston with seals to separate the hydraulic fluid and gas.
It functions and performs similarly to the bladder accumulator but has more advantages in
certain applications. with a limitation that it is expensive compared to bladder accumulator

Spring-loaded piston: Spring-loaded piston accumulator is similar to a gas-charged unit, with

the exception of spring forces against the liquid. No gas to leak is one of its main advantages
with a disadvantage that it is not good for high pressure and large volume situations.

Weight loaded: As fluid discharges, the gas-charged accumulator loses pressures. This is
because the nitrogen gas or air is usually compressed by incoming fluid from the pump and
during discharged the gas expands to push fluid out thus losing pressure. However, the weight-
loaded accumulator does not lose its pressure until the ram bottoms out. Thus, all of the fluid is
useful at full system pressure. The main disadvantage of weight-loaded accumulators is their
physical size and weight.

Diaphragm accumulators:

The diaphragm-type accumulator is constructed in two halves that are either screwed or bolted
together. A synthetic rubber diaphragm is placed between both halves, dividing it into two
chambers. Two threaded openings exist in the assembled component.

The opening at the highest contains a screen disc that forestalls the diaphragm from extruding
through the threaded opening when system pressure is depleted, thus rupturing the
diaphragm. On some designs, the screen is replaced by a button-type protector fastened to the
middle of the diaphragm. An air valve for pressurizing the accumulator is found within the
death chamber end of the sphere, and therefore the liquid port to the mechanism is found on
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the opposite end of the sphere. This accumulator operates in a manner almost like that of the
bladder-type accumulator.

[image 1 Diaphragm accumulator image by engineeringlib.org]

Accumulators in aircrafts are divided into two based on their shape, the general accumulators
used in aircrafts are:

 Spherical accumulators
 Cylindrical accumulators
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[fig3 different accumulators’ image from

Cylindrical accumulators
properties
 They consist of an assembly of a cylinder and a piston
 Have end caps attached at both ends of the cylinder
 Consist of internal piston that separates fluid and nitrogen/ air chamber
 Consist of gaskets and packings that seals the end caps and the internal pistons to
prevent inter-chamber leakage
 Hydraulic fitting at one end cap to attach fluid chamber to the hydraulic system
 Gas servicing valve to top up the air or nitrogen gas
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[fig4 spring and gas filled accumulators image from engineeringlibrary.org]

Spherical accumulators
Properties

 Spherical in shape
 Consist of two halve chambers which are either fastened and threaded or welded
together
 Have two threaded openings
 The top port connects the accumulator to the hydraulic system
 The bottom port connects to gas servicing valve
 Consist of a synthetic rubber diaphragm or bladder to separate the two chambers
 Pressurized hydraulic fluid is contained in the upper chamber and nitrogen or air in the
lower chamber
 A screen at fluid pressure port to keep the diaphragm or bladder from extruding
through the ports when the lower chamber is charged, and hydraulic fluid pressure is
zero
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Fig7[ A spherical accumulator with diaphragm (left) and bladder (right). Image from aircraftsystemtech.com]

principle of operation of accumulators

Gas compression

In hydropneumatics accumulators, hydraulic fluids are maintained under pressure by a pre-

compressed gas, mainly nitrogen. Therefore, some principles on the compression of gases,
useful then in the calculation of the accumulators. The important characteristics of a gas are

 Volume
 Temperature
 pressure.

The law leading these functions is the one on the ideal gases of Boyle and Mariotte, which
states that in every condition under which we place a certain amount of gas, the product
between its pressure and its volume is constant. The gas laws show that this remains constant

even if it passes from one state to another with equal heat exchange with the external
environment. This means that, for a given quantity of gas, if the volume available is about half,
the pressure is twice; the product of the volume for the absolute pressure is constant.

P1*V1=P2*V2=P3*V3=………………. =constant

According to Gay-Loussac’s law: at constant volume, for an ideal gas, the absolute pressure
and the temperature are directly proportional. Maintaining a constant pressure in an ideal gas,
its volume V varies directly with temperature

T: V1:V2=T1:T2
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And maintaining a constant volume, the pressure varies in proportion to temperature changes:
P1:P2=T1:T2

From the above it shows that rise in pressure leads to an increase in temperature and a
decrease in pressure causes a decrease in temperature. Boyles and Mariotte and Gay-Lussac
laws are relevant only for ideal gases; the nitrogen gas or air used in hydraulic system, being a
real gases, are in bound to small and influential changes than the laws of the compression of
ideal gases. Additional vital feature alarms the alteration of the aeriform state.

Change in gas state the state change of the gas may be:

 isochoric
 isothermal
 adiabatic
 polytrophic

Changes in isochoric

This change of state is characterized by a constant volume of gas. It occurs when the gas area
of the accumulator is pre-charged at low temperature and then subjected to a pressure
increase at constant volume due to heat exchange with the environment.

Equation of state:

P/T=P1/T1=constant Isothermal change This variation, characterized by the constant

temperature of the gas, occurs when the charging or discharging of the fluid to or from the
accumulator occurs in long times, allowing for the complete heat exchange between the gas
and the environment (more than 180 seconds).

Equation of state: P x V = P1 x V1 = constant Adiabatic change The adiabatic change occurs

when the discharge and charge of the fluid to or from the accumulator is so fast as to prevent
any heat exchange between the gas and the environment

Equation of state: P x V k = P1 x V1k = constant The relationships between temperature and

volume and between temperature and pressure are expressed by the thermal equations of
state: T x Vk-1 = T1 x V1 k-1 T x P (1-k) / k = T1 x P1 (1-k) / k In these equations, “k” is the
adiabatic exponent, which for a diatomic gas such as nitrogen under normal conditions, is equal
to 1,4.
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In summary Accumulators are basic devices that are consist a piston, a cylindrical sleeve, and
two end caps. The piston is liberal to move through the whole length of the cylinder sleeve,
almost like a rod-less piston during a hydraulic actuator. Pressure from the aircraft hydraulic
system enters the fluid side and forces the piston toward the pneumatic end of the cylinder. As
the piston is forced far away from the fluid end, it compresses the trapped gas on the
pneumatic side. When the pressures equalize, the piston stops moving, and therefore, the
accumulator is now storing a predetermined amount of pressurized fluid. A check valve from
the pressure supply, and selector/shut-off valves keep the pressurized fluid trapped until it is
needed to perform work. The main physical principles at work here are the theoretical
incompressibility of the fluid (hydraulic oil) and therefore, the highly compressible nature of
another fluid (nitrogen or air). During the accumulator preload stage, the compressed-air
chamber is set to a predetermined pressure that is lower than the hydraulic system operating
pressure. let’s take an example of accumulator operation, let’s take that the cylindrical
accumulator or the spherical accumulator is designed for a preload of 1,500 psi in a 3,200-psi
system the initial preload charge of 1,500 psi is introduced into the unit, hydraulic system
pressure is zero. As air is applied through a gas servicing valve the pressure increases and, it
pushes the piston toward the opposite end until it reaches the bottoms. If the air behind the
piston has a pressure of 1,500 psi, the hydraulic pump must create a pressure within the system
greater than1,500 psi for the hydraulic fluid to actuate the piston. At 1,501 psi the piston starts
to move within the cylinder, thus compressing the air as it moves. At 2,000 psi, it has moved up
several inches. At 3,200 psi, the piston has moved up to its normal operating position
compressing the air until it occupies a less than one-half the length of the cylinder. Actuation
lowers the system pressure, making the compressed to air expands against the piston, forcing
fluid from the accumulator. This supplies fluid to the hydraulic system component, in case of
hydraulic pump failure, the charged accumulator may supply fluid pressure to actuate a
component briefly

Application and distribution of accumulators

Accumulators provide backup power for brakes, landing gear, emergency applications, and APU
starting. They are also used as system dampers, absorbing pressure spikes in hydraulic systems
with large volumetric output piston pumps. In the dampening role, the accumulator is plumbed
into the pressure tubing downstream from the pump(s), and therefore the capacity for this
function is typically 100 cubic inches. Accumulators within the 10- to 25-cubic-inch capacity
range are used as local dampers, and counting on system requirements, subsystems like flight
controls or undercarriage may have protection from pressure spikes or plumbing design-
induced flow characteristics. Large aircraft have a minimum of one brake accumulator, and a
few have up to four.
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Brake accumulators are used for ground towing operations, and intrinsically, they get a good
amount of use. With an inflight mechanism loss, the brake accumulator can become the
difference between staying on the pavement and becoming a 100-ton mud buggy. Another
component of the many brake systems may be a return system compensation. This device may
be a spring-operated accumulator that compensates for volume changes within the brake
return system when the hand brake is about, or when system design requires expansion room
in the return tubing. Temperature changes during this trapped fluid situation can cause
elevated pressures (heat) or loss of brakes (cold). Most commercial aircraft use electric power
for APU starting, but the military uses hydraulic accumulator starting on many air frames. With
hydraulic starting, the design philosophy is such that when the troops are in the middle of
nowhere, they can hand-pump an accumulator and get out of town without having to deal with
potentially dead batteries.

Image1: aircraft hydraulic accumulator[ image from easa module 11a book]
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[image2: Accumulator servicing point - 737NG image from b737.org.uk]

DISADVANTAGES OF USING HYDRAULIC ACCUMULATORS

One disadvantage of using accumulators as a supplement to pump flow is that the accumulator
must operate at a pressure higher than needed to perform the work. This means the
accumulators must be filled to better pressure in order that they can supply extra fluid without
dropping below the minimum pressure. take an accumulator that uses 3000-psi maximum
pressure to store enough fluid to cycle the cylinder within the allotted time and still have ample
force to try to do the work. The flow control within the circuit is important to stay the cylinder
from cycling too rapidly. An accumulator discharges fluid at any velocity the lines can handle
regardless of the pressure drop is when a flow path is opened.

Accumulator servicing and troubleshooting

There are two general servicing rules to keep in mind. First, an accumulator must be purged of
fluid charge before servicing and the second, is to follow the servicing instructions provided by
the aircraft manufacturer to take into account that the accumulator will have the right capacity
or dampening characteristics.

Servicing charts are usually stuck to the aircraft within the vicinity of the servicing valve, and
therefore the gas of choice is nitrogen. Accumulators develop pneumatic leaks within the
tubing, gauges, and servicing valve. When this happens, the piston moves toward the
pneumatic port until there is no room on the pneumatic side for the right charge. This problem
manifests itself when constant servicing is required, or the number of component cycles is less
than expected. Another sign of leakage is manifested by a rapid pneumatic pressure drop-off
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after servicing. One way to troubleshoot this problem is to connect the pneumatic pressure
source to the servicing valve and apply 2,000- to 3,000-psi pressure. Use of leak detection fluid
like soapy water helps find the pneumatic leak; many times, the servicing valve is leaking
because the swivel nut has been over-torqued past the 50- to 70-inch-pound limit and the valve
seat damaged. after finding the leak depressurize the accumulator and repair the leak, after
which reapply 2,000-to 3,000-psi pneumatic pressure. Cycle the components until they do not
operate then service the pneumatic side to the right pressure. This process forces the surplus
fluid out of the accumulator so there is enough volume to urge the right pneumatic charge.

Another problem with accumulators is internal leakage. This is harder to identify in aircraft with
vented or air pressurized reservoirs, but it is quite evident in aircraft equipped with piston type
reservoirs. When the system is pressurized, fluid leaks past the piston seals and fills the
pneumatic cavity, and when the system is depressurized, gas leaks the opposite way into the
mechanism. If this sort of leak is suspected, crack open the servicing valve and if an out sized
amount of fluid foams out, then the piston seals need replacement. It is acceptable to possess a
little amount of fluid escape when the servicing valve is opened, because pistons are designed
with grooves and holes that carry a little amount of hydraulic fluid that seal and also used for
cylinder wall lubrication.

Sometimes may piston get stuck against the cylinder wall, and no amount of pressure will set it
free. This is usually easy to identify because the pneumatic pressure will not change, and
components will not operate without system pressure applied. Check mounting clamps too,
they usually must be torqued to specific values, and if they are too tight it could deform the
cylinder enough to bind the piston. Accumulators utilized in the dampening mode are harder to
troubleshoot for a stuck piston because there is no obvious problem. Depending on the aircraft,
removal and bench check could also be the sole thanks to find a stuck piston during this sort of
application. Accumulators must be bled when changed, and this is especially true for the self-
displacing kind. Because of the return chamber and added fluid volume, any air trapped within
the pressure or return chamber affects the pneumatic charge by allowing more pneumatic
volume than is required. Trapped air within the fluid spaces compresses quite fluid and can
force the piston toward the fluid end. Aircraft using this sort of accumulator have unique
hydraulic bleeding procedures to eliminate this problem.

On some aircraft, correct reservoir servicing depends on accumulator fluid charge. Check the
reservoir servicing instructions to ascertain if the accumulator has got to be dumped before
fluid is added, or an overboard dump of fluid could occur. Always consult the aircraft
maintenance manual before doing any of those procedures to form sure they will be
accomplished safely. Many maintenance manuals do not contain detailed accumulator
troubleshooting procedures, so system and component knowledge is extremely useful in these
situations.
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Safety issues
Accumulators store large amounts of pressurized gas and fluid and are dangerous to the
untrained and uninformed. The mean amount of pneumatic charge in an accumulator is about
1,000- to 2,000-psi pressure. This is more than enough pressure to puncture the skin and cause
severe health problems - even death. Another hazard is the fully charged accumulator. With
3,000 psi or more fluid pressure stored, a little leak can traverse clothing and skin sort of a
razor. Never use your bare hand to see for any hydraulic or pneumatic leaks, believe sight and
hearing to locate leaks. Generally, large pneumatic leaks are immediately evident using soapy
water, and hydraulic leaks struggling will create a mist that appears like smoke. Always wear
eye protection when servicing any pneumatic component. Sometimes gauges, plumbing, and
components may fall back when being re-pressurized, and an unexpected air release from the
servicing equipment could cause damage to your eyes or skin.

Respect the energy stored in these devices and therefore the hazards they impose, and always
consult the upkeep manual for aircraft specific practices and cautions when performing on
pneumatic and hydraulic systems.

Conclusion
Hydraulic accumulators have several advantages and use in modern aircraft from starting APU
in military aircraft to proving backup power for the hydraulic system their size and weight add
to its advantages
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References
hydraulic accumulators
https://www.aviationpros.com/home/article/10387187/accumulators-hydraulic-energy-storage

turbine aeroplane aerodynamics structures and systems

http://ebooks.lib.tuke.sk/zoom/333/view?
page=9&p=separate&view=0,0,3572,4938&modal=infopage&id=1