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Level III Study Guide: Liqaid Penetrant

Testing Method, second edition

Text Corrections

The following text corrections apply to the first printing of kvel III Study Guidt: Liquid
Penctrant Testing Metlnd, second. edition Subsequent printings of the document will incorporate
the corrections ino the published text.

Prye2l: Change question 3.1 to read:

3.1 Two-basic properties of a liquid that control its penetrating capability are:
a. contact angle and viscosity.
b. contact angle and capillary action.
c. surface tension and contact angle.
d. capillary action and surface tension.

Answer: c.

Page 44: Delete question 6.6.

Page 5E: Change question 8.5 to read:

8.15 Which of the following combinations of physical properties of a liquid has the most
effect on its penetrating properties?
a. Vaoor nressure and boilins ooint.
b. Flash point.and bulk density.
c. Capillarity ggl wet ability*nd*urfaeetensien.
d. Specific gravity and viscosity.

Answer: c.

Catalog #2255R
8 January 2004
lv

Thixotropic Penetrant .r4

DilutionExpansionDevelopers ....14
PlasticFilmDevelopers .....14
Chapter2-ReviewQuestions ....15
Chapter3 - Mechanismof PenetrationrEmulsificationandDevelopment .,,...,I7
Penetration . . .17
WettingAbility ......11
Contact Angle .17
Capillary Action .17
Effect of Temperature .t7
Emulsification. .....18
LipophilicEmulsifierAction ......19
HydrophilicRemoverAction ......19
SolventRemoval.MethodC ......20
Developer Action 20
Chapter3 -ReviewQuestions ....21
Chapter4 - BasicPenetrantProcessing .,..23
Precleaningof Parts ......23
Effect of Surface Contaminants . . . .23
Effectof ContaminantsWithinDiscontinuities .......23
Typesof Contaminants .....23
CleaningMethods ....23
PenetrantApplication .....24 ,

Application by Immersion . . .24

Application by Spraying . . . .24 ,

ApplicationbyBrushing ....25
PenetrantDwell ....25 ,

FactorsthatlnfluenceDwellTime .......25
VoidSize .......25
PenetrantMaterial .....25
TypeofDiscontinuity .......25 |
PenetrantViscosity ....25
Cleanliness of the Discontinuity . . . . .25 I
Types of Dwell . ... . .25
Removal of Surface Penetrant . . . .26
FactorslnfluencingRemovability .......26
PartSurfaceCondition .......26 r
PartShapeorGeometry ......26
DiscontinuitySizeandShape .......26 |
PenetrantRemovalProcesses ......26
SprayRinse ....21
Recommended Rinsing Procedure . . .27
PostemulsificationProcesses ......28 |
LipophilicMethod .....28
HydrophilicMethod ....28
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Automated Equipment .56

Lighting .56
Chapter8 -ReviewQuestions ....57
Chapter9 - Safety, Health andDisposal .. .......61
GeneralSafetyPrecautions ... ...61
Flammability.. .....61
DermatologicalConsiderations ...64
RespiratoryConsiderations ......64
PhysiologicalEffectsof UltravioletRadiation .......64
Disposal of Penetrant Materials . . .64
Chapter9 -ReviewQuestions ....66
Chapter L0 - Test Procedure . . .67
ControllingliquidPenetrantTests .....61
Standards ......61
Specifications .......67
ReferenceDocumentsSection ......67
MaterialsSection ......67
EquipmentSection .....67
PersonnelQualificationSection .....67
ProcessControlSection ......61
WrittenProcedure .....67
WrittenPractices ....67
Chapter 10 - Review Questions . . .69

Appendix 1 - SampleSpecification-PenetrantTestingProcess .....71

Appendix l-ReviewQuestions ...77
Appendix2 -Answers to Review Questions ......79
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there are a number of outdated process of one manufacturer's penetrant with another
specifications still in use with these designations. manufacturer's lipophilic emulsifi er or hydrophilic
By 1980, it became apparent that additional remover may not produce optimal results.
designations were necessary to include: Therefore, a manufacturer's penetrant and
1. types ofpenetrant dye, emulsifier/remover are considered to be a system
2. methods of removal, and the components are not interchangeable from
3. penetrant sensitivities manufacturer to manufacturer. Developers and
4. forms of developers, and solvent removers are not part of the system and,
5. classes of solvent removers. therefore, any qualified material may be used.
However, because each manufacturer has its own
The MIL-I-25135D revision, released in June proprietary formula, the specification prohibits the
1985, incorporated these designations. A mixing or combining of developers or solvent
subsequent revision, MIL-I-25 1 35E, was released removers of different manufacturers. Table 1.2 rs a
in June 1989. A consensus document (SAE/AMS) listing of material designations and their
superseded MIJ--I-25I35E in August 1996, descriptions.
however, the designations are identical. The
revisions also eliminate the family group Advantages and Capabilities of
(penetrant, emulsifier and developer) and substitute
the system concept for postemulsifiable penetrants.
Liquid Penetrant Testing
Liquid penetrant testing offers a number of
The system concept is based on the fact that
advantages and capabilities when compared to
manufacturers formulate their penetrants and
other nondestructive testing methods. Some
emulsifiers/removers to be used together. The use
advantages are that:

Table 1.1: MIL-l-25135E family group classifications

MIL.I.25135E
Designation Materials/Family Description
Penetrant Remover Developer
Group I solvent removable, visible solvent dry, wet, or
dye nonaqueous (wet)
Group II postemulsifiable, emulsifier dry, wet, or
visible dye nonaqueous (wet)
Group III water washable, none dry, wet, or
visible dye nonaqueous (wet)
Group IV water washable, none dry, wet, or
fluorescent nonaqueous (wet)
Group V medium sensitivity, emulsifier dry, wet, or
postemulsifiable nonaqueous (wet)
Group VI high sensitivity, emulsifier dry, wet, or
postemulsifiable nonaqueous (wet)
fluorescent
Group VI A high sensitivity, hydrophilic dry, water soluble or
postemulsifiable, nonaqueous (wet)
fluorescent
Group VI B ultra high sensitivity, hydrophilic dry, water soluble or
postemulsifiable nonaqueous (wet)
Group VII high sensitivity, solvent solventremover nonaqueous (wet)
removable, fluorescent
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l. liquid penetrant testing will not reveal
discontinuities that are not open to the surface
- subsurface discontinuities cannot be detected
by penetrant testing;
2. the part surface and the interior of any
discontinuities must be clean and free of
contaminants, soils and moisture - materials
on the surface of the part, at the discontinuity
edges or inside the discontinuity can interfere
with the penetrant entering and filling the
discontinuity void;
-). porous materials, materials with
interconnecting subsurface networks or
materials with seeped in penetrant that is not
removed during postcleaning, cannot be
inspected by the liquid penetrant testing
process - the penetrant will enter the pores and
migrate through the network, producing an
overall fluorescence or color background that
would mask any discontinuities;
4. penetrants usually contain petroleum based
liquids that can soften, craze or attack some
nonmetallic materials such as some plastic and
rubber compounds; and
5. penetrants, emulsifiers and developers all
contain chemicals that have good wetting and
detergent properties, however, they can
dissolve and remove the natural oils from
human tissue if they come into contact with
and remain on skin surfaces for any length of
time. This causes drying and cracking, which
are sources for secondary infections.

Reference A
Reference B

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1.10 The ultimate reliability and confidence in

liquid penetrant testing is based on the:

a. penetrant material.
b. developer material.
c. quality of the part.
d. operator of the process.

1.11 Military specifications for penetrants list

penetrants by systems. Which of the
following systems is the most sensitive?

a. Type I, Method A,level ll2.

b. Type I, Method A and B, level 2.
c. Type I, Method C,level2.
d. Type I, Method C, level4.

l.I2 The groups listed in the military

specifications have five levels of sensitivity.
The lowest sensitivity level is:

a. level Il2.
b. level 1.
c. level 3.
d. level4.

,n
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Corrosive Properties Fluorescent Dyes
Penetrants, emulsifiers and developers must not Some minerals and chemical compounds have
react with metals to cause pitting, etching, cracking the ability to emit visible light when exposed to
or tarnishing. Complicating this requirement is the short wavelength energy (X-rays, ultraviolet light).
fact that many of the parts tested by the penetrant This property of converting short wavelength
method are subsequently subjected to varying energy to visible light is termedfluorescence;
temperatures. There may be no chemical attack at materials with this property are calledfluorescent.
room temperature, but if traces of penetrant are left The mechanism of fluorescence involves the
on the part and it is subjected to elevated atomic structure of the fluorescent material and the
temperatures, then pitting, intergranular corrosion energy level and quantity of the exciting radiation.
or stress corrosion may occur. A1l penetrant A material will fluoresce only if it has a specific
materials must be subjected to three corrosion atomic structure. The energy holding the electrons
tests: moderate temperature corrosion, high in orbit in the outer shells must be low and there
temperature stress corrosion and high temperature must be a vacant space in the outermost ring.
corrosion of nickel based alloys. When a photon of short wavelength radiation
Corrosion testing of penetrant materials is impacts a fluorescent material, some of the
detailed in SAE-AMS-2644 photon's energy is transferred to an electron in the
outer ring, displacing it from its normal shell to the
next higher ring. This is an abnormal or
Color
The carrier or vehicle in liquid penetrant is unbalanced condition; the displaced electron
practically colorless and transparent. This makes it quickly returns to its normal shell. In returning to
very difficult to see when it is entrapped in small equilibrium, the electron releases the excess energy
as electromagnetic radiation.
surface openings and voids. A dye or blend of dyes
Fluorescent penetrant dyes are designed to
is dissolved in the vehicle to provide a high
fluoresce when exposed to 365 nm wavelength
contrast, readily visible indication. Two types of
dyes are usually used, visible or fluorescent.
ultraviolet light. The released energy always has a
longer wavelength than the exciting radiation. The
released energy in fluorescent materials has a
Visible Dyes
wavelength of 400 nm to 700 nm, which is in the
Visible dye penetrants, also called color contrast
penetrants, are viewed under visible light and are
visible light range. The wavelength of released
energy depends on the type of dye used.
available in red, orange or purple. The most
Fluorescent penetrant dyes are usually in the range
frequently used dyes are red because they provide
of 475 nm to 575 nm, which is in the visible
high contrast with the developer and many metallic
spectrum of green to yellow.
surfaces. They are inexpensive and readily dissolve
in the penetrant oil. When used with emulsifiers or
solvents to remove the excess surface penetrant, Viscosity
the small amount of penetrant trapped in the Viscosity is a measure of a liquid's resistance to
surface discontinuity is diluted when it spreads a change in physical shape. Viscosity varies widely
through the developer. To compensate for this, the with temperature, decreasing when temperatures
deepest shade of red and the highest concentration are raised and increasing when temperatures are
of dye that can be dissolved in the oil without lowered. Viscosity is an important factor in the
precipitation is used. The red dyes are visible in application process of both penetrant and lipophilic
very thin films, however, fluorescent dyes are emulsifiers. Viscosity has no effect on penetrating
visible in even thinner films. One of the basic ability; some very viscous fluids, such as molasses,
reasons that a visible dye is considered to be less have very good penetrating ability, while some low
sensitive than a fluorescent dye is that fluorescent viscosity fluids, such as pure water, have very poor
penetrants can locate an indication with a smaller, penetrating ability.
thinner volume of oil. The primary advantage of a From an application viewpoint, viscosity affects
visible penetrant is that it can be used with the rate of penetration and higher viscosity fluids
ordinary shop lighting and it can be applied from a require a longer penetration time. Viscosity also
small portable kit. determines how much penetrant or emulsifier
remains on the part surface at the end of the dwell
time. High viscosity penetrants cling to the part
surface and require increased effort in removal,
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10

Selection of the sensitivity level to be used

depends on potential discontinuity size, width and
volume of the discontinuity, part size, shape,
surface finish, residual stress and intended function
of the part. The general rule is to use the lowest
sensitivity that will reveal the possible
discontinuities. Difficulties can arise if the
sensitivity is either too low or too high. Low
sensitivity levels may not reveal potentially
harmful discontinuities, while a sensitivity level
that is too high can result in a residual background
that could obscure any discontinuity indications.

Reference B

Fluorescent Intensity
Fluorescent intensity is the amount of visible
light given off when fluorescent dye is exposed to
ultraviolet light. There are a number of variables
that influence fluorescent intensity. Some of these Standard Test Method for Comparing the
are: B ri ghtnes s of F luore s c ent P enetranls. Reference

1. the thickness of the penetrant film, standard sensitivity level 4 penetrant is used as a
2. the intensity of the ultraviolet light impinging baseline. A thin film is achieved by accurately
on the surface, diluting both the standard and material to be tested.
3. the amount or concentration of fluorescent dye Four small squares of filter paper are dipped into
in the penetrant, the diluted reference standard and four squares are
4. the capability of the dye to absorb ultraviolet dipped into the diluted test material. The samples
light (absorptivity), and are then dried. This produces a thin, uniform film
5. the efficiency of the dye in converting the of penetrant on the filter paper squares. The
released electrons to visible light (quantum fluorescent intensity on both the reference standard
yield). and test material are measured using a fluorometer'
For sensitivity level4 penetrant, the fluorescent
Variables that can be controlled by the operator intensity of the test material must be atleast95Vo
are the intensity of the ultraviolet light impinging of the intensity of the reference standard.
on the surface and the thickness of the penetrant Sensitivity levels 1/2, 1,2 and 3 penetrant are also
film (emulsifying, washing and developing). The compared against sensitivity level 4 reference
other variables are controlled by the penetrant standard penetrant. Sensitivity level ll2 must be at
manufacturer. Increasing the amount of dye in least 50Va, sensitivity level 1 must be 65%,
solution proportionally increases the fluorescent sensitivity level2 must be 807o and sensitivity
intensity. The absorptivity and quantum yield are level 3 must be at least 90Vo of the intensity of the
characteristics of the dye system. These are reference standard penetrant.
controlled by the dye blends, because most
penetrant systems contain a blended dye. An Reference A
activator dye, which has an optimum absorptivity Reference B
in the 365 nm wavelength region, may have a high
quantum yield but not in the 475 to 575 nm range Ultraviolet Stability
(yellow-green). A second dye can be selected that The efficiency of fluorescent dyes in converting
has a good absorptivity where the activator dye has ultraviolet light to visible light is reduced by
its peak emission. The second dye, called a prolonged exposure to ultraviolet light. The test for
colorforming dye, will emit tn the 475 to 575 nm ultraviolet stability is performed in a manner
range. This interaction of different dye types is similar to the test for fluorescent intensity
called cascading. (ASTM E 1135) with the following changes. No
Measurement of fluorescent intensity is reference standard specimens are necessary. Ten
performed in accordance with ASTM E 1135,
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Jo IBAorueJ esneceq lsel ,fir.,rrlrsues erp SuFnp e1eld pleru ueolo e uo peceld aJe suerurJods e,tg
pelsq sI IeAoIuoJJeAo JorJrslnue e^rlre eJoru Surureurer eql 'lueJrnc JrB pue leeq lq8qSuorls
e elnber sged ace;rns qSnor elrq^\ 'perJrslnue ruory .,(une uorlecol e ur peceld ere suerurceds
.,{psee ere sged peurqcetu
qlootus 'lsel eql uo lsot eq] Jo e^rd 'pelsq eq ol lue4aued pelnpp olur
lreJJe uB seq ruelr lsel eql go sseuq8noJ eceJrns oql peddrp eJp sueruroeds reded JetIIJ uel'pequcsep
'luerleued s.JeJnJOEJnueu lueJeJJrp e uo flelenbepe .(lsnornerd s1se1f1rpqe1s telorns4ln eql pue
rurogred lou ,(eru JeJruceJnueu euo ruo{ slsa] .,$rsuelur lueJSeJonIJ eql oi Jelrrurs sr ,{lqrqeis
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ou A\oqs fieqs stuelouad y poqtolN ',ftesseceu ur JeJeruoJonlJ eql ur peJnseeu sr suerurceds eql
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ore (V poqtery) stuerleued elqeqseA\ reled[ suerurceds pelJp oql Jo onrd 'polso] eq ol Iuueleul
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II
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t2
standard. Penetrant systems should leave no more viscosity emulsifiers diffuse more slowly than low
residual penetrant than the same sensitivity level viscosity emulsifiers. A highly active emulsifier
reference standard. with a low viscosity can be adjusted by blending it
with a more viscous emulsifier to provide the
Emulsifier/Remover Properties desired washing characteristics. Emulsifier stations
Petroleum based penetrants are not soluble in are generally located next to the wash/rinse
water, however, there are chemicals that will stations and water contamination from overspray
combine with the penetrants to form a mixture that or splashing can occur. As water is added to the
can be removed with a water spray. These emulsifier, the emulsifier gels, separates or
chemicals are called emulsifiers. coagulates. A specification requirement is that the
Emulsifier/removers are a complex mixture of emulsifier tolerate 5Vo water by weight without
chemicals. Ideally, during removal of surface gelling, separating or coagulating and still be
penetrant, all excess surface penetrant should be capable of passing the penetrant removability test.
removed from all surface areas (including fillets, As parts are processed through the emulsifier,
corners and recesses) without removing penetrant some of the surface penetrant dissolves in the
entrapped in discontinuities. Formulating the ideal emulsifier. Because Method B emulsifiers are
emulsifier mixture is a delicate balancing act. A 1007o soluble in penetrant, a gradual buildup of
mixture that is too aggressive will leave a clean penetrant slows the emulsification rate. With
surface but will also remove entrapped penetrant, continued buildup, the emulsifier begins to
while a low aggressive mixture will leave an function as a penetrant. Method B emulsifiers must
excessive background. Each manufacturer has its tolerate at least one part penetrant to four parts
own formulation for penetrants and the emulsifiers emulsifier and still pass the removability test.
must be formulated for that specific penetrant Method B emulsifiers are supplied in the
(except for solvent removers). Emulsifiers from ready-to-use form and do not require further
one manufacturer may not perform satisfactorily mixing.
on a different manufacturer's penetrant. Generally, Hydrophilic emulsifiers are often called
emulsifiers are tested for sensitivity and removers to differentiate them from lipophilic
removability during the penetrant tests. emulsifiers. They consist of a mixture of chemicals
Water washable or selfemulsifiable penetrants called surfactants. Surfactants are supplied as
(Method A) contain emulsifier as an integral part concentrated liquids and are mixed with water
of their formulation. Adding a lipophilic emulsifier either before or during the removal process. The
to a postemulsifiable penetrant will not produce a concentrate is required to contain a maximum of
satisfactory water washable penetrant. Because 5Vo water.
water washable penetrants already contain an
emulsifier, they are susceptible to water Developer Properties
contamination. A specification requirement is that Developers assist in the withdrawal of
water washable penetrants tolerate atleast 57o entrapped penetrant from discontinuities and
water addition without gelling, separating or provide contrast between an indication and the part
coagulating. They must also meet the requirement background. They must provide a smooth even
for tank life without separation of emulsifier from coating covering the entire surface to be tested.
the penetrant. Their sensitivity and removability are tested using
Lipophilic emulsifier (Method B) is a type of reference standard materials and are compared
liquid soap that will diffuse into the penetrant, only to the developer action of the material being
producing a mixture that can be removed with a tested. Dry powder (Form a) and nonaqueous
water spray. These emulsifiers are required to be a developers are supplied in the ready-to-use form.
distinctly different color from the penetrant. Water soluble (Form b) and water suspended
The three properties of lipophilic emulsifiers (Form c) developers are supplied as concentrates to
that control the washing characteristics are activity, be mixed with water according to the
viscosity and water tolerance. These properties are manufacturer's instructions. No form of developers
factored against the characteristics ofthe oil based shall contain compounds of hexavalent chromium.
penetrant. If a penetrant is highly resistant to water, Developers for Type I penetrants (fluorescent)
an emulsifier with a high activity is needed. The must not exhibit any green, yellow or orange
rate of diffusion of the emulsifier into the penetrant fluorescence and fluorescence of other colors shall
depends on the viscosity of the emulsifier. High not be greater than that of the reference standard

f
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'slse] uorsoiloc uo ^,{1ar op ,teqt lnq lua}uoo JnJIns osle lsnru redole,rep pepuedsns Jele1ysecuelsqns
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t4
the discontinuity. After removal of the excess Plastic Film Developers
surface penetrant, a two-step developer is used. Plastic film developers are either one-part or
The first developer is a solvent that redissolves the two-part developer systems. One-part plastic film
penetrant, expands its volume and extracts it from developers consist of a variety of organic or resin
the discontinuity. The indication can be increased polymers dispersed or dissolved in a volatile
by applying additional layers ofthe solvent solvent. In some cases, a powder is added to
developer. When the indication reaches the desired scatter the light and add contrast to the indication.
size, a plastic developer is applied as a top coat. Because adsorption/absorption is not involved, the
This freezes the indication and allows it to be indication does not spread and the resolution is
removed or stripped from the part surface for a high. In two-part developers, the first part consists
permanent record. of, or is similar to, a solvent suspended developer
or a dilution expansion developer that forms the
Reversed Fluorescence Method indication. The second part is then sprayed on,
The reversed fluorescence method is similar to stopping the developer action, freezing the
that of a photographic negative of the standard indication and forming a clear plastic layer that can
fluorescent penetrant. The penetrant, similar to be peeled from the part surface to form a
standard visible dye penetrant, is applied to the permanent record of the indication.
surface of the part. After a dwell period, the excess
surface penetrant is removed in the standard Reference A
manner. Under ultraviolet light a special developer Reference B
powder containing a low intensity fluorescing dye
is applied by spraying. The entire part surface will
fluoresce except where an entrapment is present.
The penetrant will quench the developer
fluorescence and the indication appears as a dark
line where the penetrant bleedout occurs.

Thixotropic Penetrant
A thixotropic material is one that changes form
or structure as a function of time or shear stress. A
thixotropic penetrant is applied as a solid or gel
that changes to a liquid after application. One
example is a high temperature penetrant in the
form of a crayon or stick that is used to test welds
before they are cooled.

Reference B

Dilution Expansion Developers

Dilution expansion developers do not use the
conventional blotter adsorption/absorption action.
Powder or pigment particles are not required in
dilution expansion developers and may even
interfere with the action. In dilution expansion
developers, the small film of penetrant that exudes
from an entrapment is diluted and its volume is
expanded into the liquid developer layer. Because
no pigment particles are used, the resolution of the
resulting indication is improved.

Reference A
Reference B

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SI
t6

2.10 Many specifications, including AMS-2644'

require corrosion tests of penetrant
materials with:

a. aluminum.
b. magnesium.
c. steel.
d. all ofthe above.
e. both a and b above.

2.lI Activity, viscosity and water tolerance are

the three ProPerties of:

a. lipophilic emulsifiers.
b. postemulsified Penetrants.
c. hydrophilic emulsifiers.
d. wet develoPers.

2.12 Viscosity is measured with a:

a. viscometer.
b. hydrometer.
c. surface diffractometer.
d. Cleveland open cup.

2.13 Which of the following properties of a

fluorescent dye penetrant is the most
important?

a. Viscosity.
b. Capillary action.
c. FluorescentintensitY.
d. Contamination resistance.

2.14 Evaporation of volatile constituents of

liquid penetrant processing materials will
result in:

a. increasedviscositY.
b. changes in fluorescence.
c. higher developer concentration.
d. all of the above.

2.I5 Which of the following developers is

purchased as a dry Powder?

a. Dry develoPer.
b. Water suspended develoPer.
c. Water soluble develoPer.
d. All of the above.

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sr sse13 pue Jele,ll ueon\loq e13ue eq; 'pe1o,4a eq ol to Kltpqo Suutam eq] se ol peJloJeJ sr oce3:ns eql
eJuelsqns eql qlr^\ ,{.re,L osle ilm e13ue }Je]uo3 er{I re.to peerds o1 ,gryqe eq; 'ece;rns eql luor ,(pe,re
'finqe 3ur11ern, oql sourrrrJelep e1?ue ]c€luoc eqJ pue ged oql JeAo peerds ,tptoorus o1 luerleued
'e13ue lceluoc oql rellerus eql serrnber srql 'lueurder]ue lueleued e se ereql
eql ',(l11qe 8urpe.ro. eql req8rq eql 'I"uorUodord ureruoJ puu serlmurluocsrp aql Jeluo o1 lue.rleued
.(lesrenur e.re prnbq-p{os pue se?-prnbg eqt eqt;o ,tlqrqe eql uo puedep serlrnuquoosrp
uee^\leq e13ue lculuoc pue ,{1qrqe Surpam eq; oc€Jrns Jo uorloelop roJ slsq lue4eued pFblT
eFuV lreluoJ uorleJlauad
lueIudoleAo(
puB uollBrlJrslnlufl 'uollBrleued Jo rusluBrlJetr^l
reldeqJ E
LI
---"il
18

Generally speaking, satisfactory performance from The heating of parts to increase sensitivity is not
penetrants can be achieved between a low recommended. The advantages that might be
iemp"ratore of 4 'C (40 'F) and a high temperature gained by heating a part are offset by the
of 38 "C (100 "F). Iisadvantages of heat on the carefully compounded
Temperatures below 4 "C (40 "F) have penetrants in use todaY.
noticeable effects. The viscosity of the penetrant
Reference A
will increase and slow the capillary action of the
Reference B
penetrant. Or, using Method C, an inspector might
iinO thut the aerosol containers may not produce a
spray.
- Emulsification
At part temperatures above 49 "C (120'F), the Oil and water are mutually insoluble; however,
evapoiation of lighter constituents can affect the if a very small amount of oil is added to water and
color intensity or the fluorescence of the penetrant the mixture is violently shaken, the oil will form
and reduce the effectiveness of the test. small globules. Depending on the droplet size,

Figure 3.1: Relationship between contact angle and wetting ability

ContactAngle 0

Liquid

0 Greater than 90' 0 Equals 90o 0 Less Than 90'

Very Poor Wetting Poor Wetting Good Wetting

Figure 3.2: RelationshiP between contact angle and liquid level inside a
small diameter tube
Capillary Thbes

0 Equals 90" 0 Less than 90'

0 Greater than 90'
Results in neither Results in CapillarY Rise
Results in DePression
Rise nor Depression (Good Wetting)
(Very Poor Wetting)
(Poor Wetting)

,m
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JerJrslruxe eql pu€ JerJrslnrue eql olul sesnJJrp 'sJerJrslnrua pue slue4eued qlr.Lr esec eql sl sIqJ
luerleued eql 'JerJrslnua pue luer1eued;o es€J eql 'oJnlxrru olqerJrslnruo,{psee ue uuoJ o} pue slro
uI 'uorler1uoJuoc urroJrun Jo sr prnbq go ,{1r1uenb qll.4d xIIu o1 fi111qe aqt o^€q leql spcruleqo ureueo
eJrlue eql uaqlt runuqqrnbe seqcueJ uorlnlos oql eJe oJeqJ 'uolslnwa ue poil€c sr sJnlxllu srql
',t1en1ue,ng 'Jaqlo qoee otur esnJJrp ro eler8rur 1lu 'ecueruedde .{4rur ro ,(pno1c e eJnlxrru eql 8ur,rr8
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6t
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20

Figure 3.4. Mechanism of action of hydrophilic emulsifiers

Apply Penetrant Prerinse Detergent Action Begins

p
ot .--f dp Nz2*

Detergent Action Ends Rinse Clean Surface

penetrant. Figure 3.4 illustrates the mechanism of and the transfer of at least some of this
action of hydrophilic emulsification. penetrant to the surface,
2. increasing the effective size of the surface
Reference A film of penetrant exuded from the
Reference B penetrant entrapment, and
3. increasing the contrast between the
Solvent Removal, Method C indication and the background.

A1l oil based penetrants are soluble in a large Developer action is a combination of solvency
number of organic liquids. The most commonly effect, adsorption and absorption. Adsorption is the
used are color contrast, Type II and postemulsified surrounding of the developer particles by adhesion,
Type I. Because chlorinated hydrocarbons are no which coats the surface of the particles. Absorption
longer available, the solvents are usually volatile is the assimilation of penetrant into the bulk of the
mixtures of aliphatic petroleum or alcohols. The particles. As the thin layer of exuded penetrant is
mechanism of removal is through solvent and adsorbed/absorbed, surface tension draws
dilution action. Some petroleum distillates contain additional penetrant from the entrapment, which
slowly evaporating oils; however, when used as a enlarges both the thickness of the surface penetrant
penetrant remover, this does not affect its exit from layer and its size.
discontinuities. Developers also increase contrast for observing
penetrant indications. Under ultraviolet light, the
Reference B developer appears blue-black, whereas the
entrapped penetrant fluoresces yellow-green.
Visible dye developers provide a dull white
Developer Action background for viewing red indications.
The basic function of all developers is to
Developers also reduce light reflection from shiny
improve the visibility of penetrant indications. The
surfaces of test parts, which can lessen eye fatigue.
improvement in visibility is achieved through a
number of mechanisms, including: A
Reference
1. aiding in the extraction of the penetrant Reference B
from an entrapment below the part surface

T
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))

3.10 Lipophilic emulsifiers have limited water 3.15 The primary developing action associated
tolerance. Excessive water can reduce their with dry developer is:
activity, change their viscosity and change
their appearance. What is the tolerance a. capillary action.
percentage by volume of water to b. expansion ofthe developer in a crack.
emulsifier? c. provision of a uniform film surface for
a contrasting background.
a. IVa. d. dissolution of the penetrant in the
b. ZVo. discontinuity.
c. 5Va.
d. t0%. 3.16 Nonaqueous developer forms an indication
by:
3.11 Many penetrants are oil based and
flammable. What is the OSHA requirement a. forming capillaries for the penetrant.
for the minimum flash point of a penetrant b. expanding the penetrant in the crack.
used in an open tank? c. providing a uniform white coating.
d. all ofthe above.
a. 38'C (100'F).
b. 93'C (200'F).
c. 100 "C (212"F).
d. 200 "c (392"F).
3.I2 The primary requirement of a developer is
to form an indication. The primary duty of
developer action is to:

a. draw a sufficient amount of penetrant

from a discontinuity to form an
indication.
b. expand the width of the indication to
make it detectable by the eYe.
c. increase the apparent intensity of the
indications.
d. all of the above.
e. only a and b above.

3.13 The most sensitive developer is:

a. dry developer.
b. water suspended developer.
c. nonaqueous developer.
d. plastic film developer.

3.14 Which developer is not recommended with

a water washable penetrant?

a. Dry developer.
b. Plastic film developer.
c. Solvent suspended developer.
d. Water soluble developer.
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pasn esoql sE erues oql aJe sessecord ?uruzelc eq; sopFulluorslo
'sluaurur€luoc;o sed.ft IF aloruoJ pm enbruqcel uIqtIA\ EueulruBluoJ Jo lraJJfl
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24

processes, such as peening or grit blasting, deform

the surface of the part and smear or close surface
Penetrant Application
Penetrant can be applied by immersion
openings. Blasting with organic media, for (dipping), spraying, brushing or swabbing and
example plastic beads or walnut shells, tends to pouring. The method to be used depends on the
leave very fine particles from the media entrapped size, shape and configuration ofthe part to be
in discontinuities, reducing the void volume. Some tested, the accessibility of the area to be tested and
of the factors that must be considered are: the availability of test equipment. There are
1. the types of soil or contaminants to be specific conditions that must be met for each
removed, technique.
2. the composition or alloy of the test object, The recommended operating temperature range
J. the availability of cleaning equipment, and for application of conventional penetrants is
4. the cost and time factors. 4-49 "C (40-l2O "F). Operation below 4 "C (40 "F)
can result in unsatisfactory tests.
Table 4.1: Mechanical Cleaning
Processes Application by Immersion
Immersion (dipping) is the preferred technique
Abrasive Blasting of applying penetrant when the entire surface of
the part will be tested. The technique is limited by
the size of the penetrant container. There are a few
aluminum oxide conditions that must be observed. When batch
processing a number of parts, they must be
separated from each other during the immersion
and dwell periods. Complex shaped parts
containing convex or reentrant surfaces can trap air
bubbles during the immersion, preventing the
penetrant from contacting the surfaces. Complex
shaped parts should be inverted or turned over
while being immersed to dislodge any air bubbles.
Precautions must be taken when immersing parts
containing air cooling, oil passages and blind
holes. During immersion, the passages fill with
penetrant that will bleed out during development
and obscure any discontinuities in the area. Air or
oil passages and blind holes should be plugged or
Table 4.2= Chemical Cleaning stopped off with corks or wax plugs before
Processes penetrant immersion.

Application by Spraying
There are several types of spray applications,
including air or pressure spray, electrostatic spray
and aerosol spray.
vapor degreasing* Penetrants, emulsifiers and developers may be
applied by any of several handheld, semiautomated
and automated spray techniques. Spray application
is especially suitable for parts that are too large to
be immersed, parts that are moved on conveyor
lines and for testing only a portion or local area of
a large part or component. Automated systems and
portable field systems also use spray application.
When applying penetrant by the spray technique,
only a thin film or layer that completely covers the
*Since the ban on production of halogenated hydrocarbons, area to be tested is required. Spray application has
vapor degreasing is being phased out.
two distinct advantages over the immersion
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26

similar parts, materials and potential layer, the removal time is increased because of the
discontinuities. MIL-STD-6866 and reduction in mechanical force of the spray. Also,
ASTM E 1417, Standard Practice for Liquid the thickness of the penetrant layer is usually
Penetrant Examination, require a minimum of greater in recessed areas. This occurs because the
10 min dwell time. This is usually increased when penetrant drains from higher points down to lower
tight discontinuities and discontinuities containing areas. Accessibility and layer thickness
soluble soils are suspected. complement each other, further compounding the
difficulties encountered during removal.
Reference A
Reference B Discontinuity Size and Shape
Reference F Discontinuity size and shape complicate the
removal process. Deep discontinuities with a
Removal of Surface Penetrant nuurow opening require a long penetrant dwell time
After the penetrant dwell, the excess surface and provide a large reservoir to hold entrapped
penetrant must be removed to provide a surface penetrant. During the removal process, the narrow
with a relatively clean background. Removal of the opening restricts diffusion of emulsifier into the
excess surface penetrant is a critical step in the entrapped penetrant and also reduces the
process. Except for automated processes, it is mechanical force of the spray rinse on the
highly dependent on the skill and knowledge of the entrapped penetrant surface. Narrow, deep
operator. Underremoval leaves excess penetrant on discontinuities produce highly visible indications
the part surface, which produces a residual with minimal removal problems. Narrow, shallow
background that may obscure or mask valid discontinuities present a slightly bigger challenge
indications. Overremoval will remove some or all when they must be detected because they do not
of the penetrant trapped in discontinuities, have a large reservoir to hold entrapped penetrant.
resulting in an indication with reduced visibility or The visibility of an indication depends on the
complete failure to form an indication. amount of penetrant exuding from the
discontinuity after excess penetrant removal.
Removal of any entrapped penetrant from narrow,
Factors Influencing Removability shallow discontinuities will reduce an already faint
The main factors that influence removability are
indication. In addition, any background
the part surface condition, the part shape or
fluorescence will tend to obscure the faint
geometry and the discontinuity size and shape.
indication. Broad, shallow discontinuities present
the most demanding case of penetrant removal. A
Part Surface Condition discontinuity is considered to be broad and shallow
Part surface condition has a major effect on when the surface opening is equal to or greater
removability. Penetrant is so easily removed from than the discontinuity depth. With broad, shallow
smooth polished surfaces that special procedures discontinuities, the surface opening does not
may be required to prevent overremoval. Rough reduce the mechanical force of the water spraying,
surfaces reduce removability by retaining penetrant but it does restrict the emulsifier diffusion rate.
in the indentations or recesses. Rough surfaces also Exercise extreme care if broad, shallow
reduce the mechanical force of the water spray. It discontinuities are to be detected.
is not always possible to produce a background
free surface on rough parts. A completely clean
surface may remove some or all of the peneffant
Penetrant Removal Processes
Generally, the term washing is used to define
trapped in discontinuities. A compromise is
the removal of water washable penetrant and the
necessary; the wash or emulsification time must be
term rinsing is used to define the removal of
shortened leaving some residual background. The
Method B and Method D penetrant. Often, the
intent is to leave a background surface that allows
terms are used interchangeably and this is the case
valid indications visible through the background.
in this study guide. Washing or rinsing is
performed in a stationary tank or booth equipped
Part Shape or Geometry with a hose, a nozzle and a drain. In the case of
Part shape or geometry affects the removability
fluorescent penetrant, an ultraviolet light is
by reducing the mechanical force of the wash
essential.
water spray. When the part geometry restricts the
water from directly striking the surface penetrant
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28

Method - The part should be immediately washed mechanism between immersion and spray is
or flooded with clean water. This stops any further slightly different. Immersion hydrophilic
detergent action of the hydrophilic remover. emulsifiers are strictly detergents or surfactants
Postrinsing is then accomplished as described that react with a particle of emulsifier, surround
earlier. particles of penetrant and remove them from the
penetrant layer. The concentration of immersion
Postemulsification Processes removers is usually 5-35Vo by volume, depending
There are two techniques of changing the oil on the manufacturer's directions for mixing. A
based, postemulsifiable penetrant into a mixture slight agitation is necessary to remove the colloidal
that can be rinsed from the part surface by a water suspension of penetrant-emulsifier from the surface
spray. They are Method B (lipophilic) and Method and to expose fresh penetrant. Agitation is done by
D (hydrophilic). Lipophilic comes from the Greek gently moving the submerged part in the remover
word lipos for fat or oil whereas hydro means or by an air manifold in the bottom of the tank.
water. The suffix philic means an affinity for or The amount of air is very small, just enough to
loving. Hence lipophilic means oil loving whereas cause a slight bubbling. If the remover starts to
hydrophilic is water loving. The two techniques foam, the air pressure is too high and must be
have completely different mechanisms in reduced.
converting the oil based penetrant into a mixture Spray hydrophilic emulsifiers work in a
that can be washed. combination of chemical and mechanical action. A
much lower concentration of emulsifier is used
Reference A because the spraying increases the quantity of
Reference B emulsifier striking the penetrant layer.
Concentration of spray removers is usually 0.5-IVo
Lipophilic Method by volume; however, up to 5Vo may be used.
Lipophilic emulsifier is applied by immersion to Immediately following the remover, a fresh water
prevent mechanically mixing emulsifier into the rinse of the entire parl is required. This stops the
penetrant. In some automatic installations, the action of any remover remaining on the part.
emulsifier is applied as a fog or mist. The
mechanism of lipophilic emulsification is by Reference A
diffusion. Molecules of emulsifier enter into the Reference B
penetrant layer while at the same time molecules
of penetrant enter the emulsifier layer. Emulsifier Solvent Remover Process
dwell time allows the process to continue and, if Most solvent removers are packaged in aerosol
left long enough, the entire mixture will be made containers though bulk containers are also
up of equal parts of developer and emulsifier. The available. Caution must be used when removing
emulsifier dwell should continue only until the excess surface penetrant with solvent removers
emulsified mixture just reaches the part surface because improper procedures seriously degrade the
without diffusing into any entrapped penetrant. process. Removers should never be sprayed or
Emulsification time is critical and must be flowed onto the part because excessive solvent will
carefully controlled for reproducible results. remove or dilute entrapped penetrant, which
Diffusion is stopped by spraying the part as degrades the testing process.
described in the preceding paragraphs. The recommended procedure after penetrant
dwell is to initially wipe the surface of the part
Hydrophilic Method with a clean, dry cloth or paper towel. This
Hydrophilic emulsifier or remover is a water removes the major porlion of penetrant from the
based solution. Because postemulsifiable penetrant surface of the part. Do not simply scrub back and
is incompatible with water, prerinsing before forth over the area because this spreads the
application of remover is recommended. While not penetrant and makes the task more difficult. The
essential, prerinsing removes 60-807o of the proper procedure is to make only a single pass,
surface layer of penetrant, which greatly reduces then fold the cloth or towel to provide a clean
contamination of the emulsifier. It also provides an surface for each succeeding wipe.
even layer of surface penetrant. When the surface penetrant has been reduced to
Following the prerinse, hydrophilic emulsifier a minimum with dry rags or towels, any residual
or remover is applied by immersion or spray. The

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30

drying process. Nonaqueous developer is normally

not difficult to remove because it is usually used in
small areas. As a general rule, the longer a
developer remains on a part the more difficult it is
to remove.

Entrapped Penetrant Removal

Some parts, such as those used in liquid oxygen
systems, require total penetrant removal. Penetrant
removal after the completion of a test can be
accomplished by hot tank cleaning. This technique
is one of the more effective. Ultrasonic cleaning
has been found to also be effective in removing
entrapped penetrant.

Postinspection Tfeatment of Parts

Penetrant testing usually leaves the part's
surface clean and exposed. The exposed surface of
the part is often susceptible to corrosion. All efforts
should be made to protect the part after the
peneffant test.
The next use of the part must be considered
when selecting a technique to protect it. The
application of some protective substance could
interfere with the part's use or the next
manufacturing stage.
To protect steel parts, a commercial corrosion
preventive compound is applied and to protect
magnesium parts a sodium chromate treatment is
often used.

Reference A
Reference B
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4.IO One surface condition that is not classified 4.16 A certain soil on the surface of a service
as a soil is: part cannot be removed by normal cleaning
techniques. What steps should be taken to
a. residue from previous penetrant tests. find other cleaning techniques?
b. smeared metal from machining or
polishing. a. Analyze the soil chemically to
c. lubricating oil. determine its constituents.
d. scale. b. Call in a consultant.
c. Grind the soil off and pickle the metal.
4.lI One cleaning technique used to remove d. Burn the soil off and pickle the metal.
smeared metal is: e. None of the above.

a. etching. 4.17 When dipping hot parts, the maximum

b. abrasive cleaning. temperature of a penetrant in a tank should
c. salt bath descaling. be:
d. ultrasonic degreasing.
a. 32'C (90'F).
4.12 The cleaning technique recommended to b. 38 "C (100 "F).
remove paint and varnish before penetrant c. 50'C (120'F).
testing is: d. 57'C (135'F)
a. abrasion. 4.18 The penetrant application technique that
b. solvent. provides the greatest sensitivity is:
c. etching.
d. vapor degreasing. a. to keep the part continuously
submerged in the penetrant during the
4.I3 The metal that will smear with machining dwell time.
and grinding is: b. to dip the part into the penetrant for a
short time and then remove and drain
a. steel. for the remainder of the dwell time.
b. aluminum. c. to apply the penetrant with a brush and
c. titanium. continue applying penetrant to keep the
d. all ofthe above. surface fluid.
e. bandcabove. d. all of the above.

4.I4 Intergranular stress, fretting and exfoliation 4.19 When using a higher viscosity penetrant,
are terms related to: what adjustment should be made in the
dwell time?
a. oxidation.
b. corrosion. a. Viscosity does not influence dwell
c. erosion. time.
d. fatigue. b. Higher viscosity requires an increase in
dwell time.
4.I5 To detect cracks under corrosion: c. Higher viscosity requires a decrease in
dwell time.
a. the surface should be scrubbed with d. None of the above.
detergent.
b. the corrosion deposits should be ground
away.
c. the surface should be solvent cleaned.
d. the surface corrosion deposits should
be selectively removed by chemicals in
a process similar to etching.
e. is impossible.
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4.3I The best technique for applying solvent

suspended developers is by:

a. dipping.
b. brushing.
c. flowing on.
d. spraying.

4.32 Lipophilic and hydrophilic emulsifiers

should be applied by:

a. dipping.
b. spraying.
c. flowing on.
d. any ofthe above.

4.33 Prior to penetrant testing of turbine blades,

the carbon and oxidized metal must be
removed from the blades. This is done by:

a. grinding and sanding.

b. chemical strippers.
c. liquids honing.
d. all ofthe above.
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36

be acceptable, yet in another industry, that same discontinuity or a defect. While a discontinuity is
minor surface porosity may be cause for rejection an intemrption in the normal structure of the part,
and is, therefore, a defect. it may not be a defect. If during the evaluation
Generally speaking, relevant indications are phase it is determined that the discontinuity
divided into continuous line indications, interferes with the serviceability of the part or it
intermittent line indications and round or dot does not meet the acceptance and rejection criteria,
indications. Within these groups there are large, the discontinuity is then classified as a defect.
small, weak and diffused indications.
Continuous line indications are discontinuities Acceptance and Rejection Criteria
such as cracks, seams, cold shuts and forging laps. The parameters for acceptance and rejection of
They can be jagged, like most cracks, or very penetrant indications varies widely between
straight, like a seam indication. The degree of industries. It is important that inspectors
bleedout depends on factors such as the width and understand the criteria that are being used during a
depth of the indication and the penetrant and test. If the test is being performed under a contract,
developer dwell times. then the contracting agency must determine the
Intermittent line indications are caused by the specifications for acceptance and rejection of
same discontinuities as continuous line indications. penetrant indications.
The difference is that these indications have been General criteria for the acceptance and rejection
affected by previous processing steps, inservice use of parts include the:
or are partially subsurface. Therefore, they are not 1. part's material,
continuous lines.
Round or dot indications are caused by porosity,
2. part's configuration,
pin holes, a porous surface or a coarse grain
3. part's use,
structure. Round indications also can be caused by
4. known stress factors,
crater cracks because they tend to trap large
5. location and number of penetrant indications,
and
amounts of penetrant. A round indication becomes
a linear indication when the length of the
6. part's failure history.
indication is more than three times the width. While there may be other factors, the above list
is a starting point for establishing the accept/reject
Reference A evaluation criteria for penetrant indications. Often,
Reference B extensive research by strength and design
engineering personnel is required to develop
Discontinuities evaluation criteria.
Every nondestructive testing inspector must
have a through knowledge of the different types of Reference A
discontinuities that can be found in a part. This
knowledge should include the part's material, Recording of Indications
manufacturing process, service use, the types of Inspectors are often required to record a
discontinuities likely to be found and the penetrant indication. The techniques used are
acceptance and rejection criteria for the part. sketching, photographing the indication, transfer of
An excellent glossary and definition of terms the indication to transparent tape and using special
used in evaluating penetrant indications is wax and plastic film developers.
contained in Reference A. Reference B contains
definitions of some of the more common penetrant
discontinuity indications. Reference C contains Reference A
excellent photographs of some of the more Reference C
common penetrant discontinuity indications
inspectors will find in various parts.

Evaluation of Relevant
Indications
A relevant indication must be evaluated and
determination made that it is either a harmless
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38

5.11 A cold shut in a casting would be observed 5.16 Two forged aircraft wing attach fittings
AS: were submerged in a tank containing
Type I, Method B, level 3 penetrant; they
a. a line of dots. remained submerged for 30 min and were
b. a group ofdots. then put on a drain rack. The operator
c. a continuous line; nrrrow and not processed one before going home; no
jagged. indications were found. The next morning,
d. an intermittent line. the penetrant on the second part was dry
and the part had to be redipped to wash it.
5.12 Forging laps can be partially welded along Solvent suspended developer was used on
their length. In some instances, they can be the second one (as it was on the first);
full of scale and at other times they are however, this fitting showed a group of
deep and tight. Which of the following very fine indications on each side of the
indications is probably not from a forging bottom clevis holes. The indications are
lap? most likely:

a. A wavy, intermittent line of bright dots. a. fatigue cracks.

b. A short, sharp, fine indication. b. stress corrosion cracks.
c. A curved, bright line. c. grinding checks.
d. An intermittent line, somewhat fuzzy d. forging laps.
and dull.
5.I7 Stress corrosion appears as very fine, sharp,
5.13 Around group ofdot-type indications is jagged indications. It is also common for a
detected in a casting. The discontinuity is number of small, sharp, parallel indications
probably a: to be found. If stress corrosion is suspected,
which of the following developers should
a. quench crack. be used?
b. misrun.
L. hot tear. a. Dry powder developer.
d. gas porosity. b. Water suspended developer.
c. Solvent suspended developer.
5.I4 Grinding burns are usually observed as: d. Water soluble developer.

a. an area of short and long parallel sharp 5.18 During the testing of turbine blades, the
indications. inspector wiped the indications off the
b. an area of fine cracks that are bright leading edge and reapplied the developer.
and run in all directions. Some of the small indications did not
c. a few very short, fine, dim indications. reappear whereas some of the larger
d. all ofthe above. indications did. What is the proper
evaluation?
5.15 An aircraft landing gear part was tested
with a Type I, Method B, level2 penetrant; a. The indications were irrelevant.
no indications were detected. Later, the rod b. The indications were false.
was retested with a Type I, Method D, level c. The indications were fine, shallow,
3 penetrant using solvent suspended tight cracks that held a very small
developer from a spray can. Many fine, dim amount of penetrant.
indications were scattered over all the part. d. The wrong developer was used.
These indications could be caused by:

a. fatigue cracks.
b. grinding cracks.
c. cracks normally found in hard chrome
plate.
d. stress corrosion.
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40

5.30 Which of the following is not a welding

discontinuity?

a. Slag inclusion.
b. Lack of root penetration.
c. Cold shut.
d. Longitudinal crack.

5.31 Which of the following is not found in

forged metal?

a. Inclusions.
b. Die tears.
c. Lack of fusion.
d. Laps.
e. Chevron cracks.

5.32 Unless a forging is pickled, penetrants may

not detect:

a. inclusions.
b. laminations.
c. bursts.
d. quench cracks.

5.33 Machining will not smear:

a. aluminum.
b: brass.
c. steel.
d. titanium.
e. all of the above can be smeared.
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42

To further assist the inspector, additional

equipment can be used with the stationary
Lighting
Lighting is essential when performing visible
equipment. Hoists are used to raise and lower
dye penetrant testing. A general rule is that as
heavy parts and some tanks may incorporate
lighting levels increase, smaller discontinuities will
lowering and lifting grilles for dipping large parts.
be detected. For gross indications, an intensity
Stationary systems also include devices and
level of 300-500 lx is sufficient. An intensity of
controls necessary for maintaining process control.
1000Ix is normally considered sufficient, however,
Wash tanks require devices to control the water
in some cases, such as critical tests, a more intense
pressure and temperature whereas dryer stations
light may be required.
require a thermostat to control the temperature of
Ultraviolet light requirements for fluorescent
the dryer.
penetrant indications should be specified in the
standards or specifications controlling the testing
Reference A process. Normally, an ultraviolet light intensity of
Reference B 1000 pWcmz atthe normal working distance is
Reference C
sufficient. As the distance from the light and the
part increases, the ultraviolet light intensity must
Automated Test Equipment increase. In addition, 20lx (2 ftc) is considered to
Automated test equipment is designed to be the maximum ambient white light during a
process large volumes of parts in short periods of fluorescent penetrant test. When a20lx (2 ftc)
time. While these units can have a high initial cost, ambient white light level cannot be achieved, the
their savings in hours and process control make inspector must consider moving the part or using a
them desirable. Versatility should be a primary hood of dark material to shield out the white light.
consideration when selecting automated As the ambient white light intensity increases, the
equipment. Often, automated systems are designed need for a higher intensity ultraviolet light also
for one application that limits their value and often increases. There is a point where the ambient white
requires expensive modifications when adapting light intensity will interfere with the test. At that
the equipment to other applications. point, the test should not be attempted until the
required lighting conditions can be met.
Reference A To ensure that all fluorescent penetrant is
Reference B removed during the washing process, an ultraviolet
light should be placed over the wash station. Inside
Equipment Selection the test booth there should be at least one
The selection of penetrant testing equipment is ultraviolet light and one white light source.
not a simple task. The following factors must be Cleanliness of lighting equipment is important.
considered in selecting equipment: A dirty filter on an ultraviolet light will reduce the
1. the type and size of parts to be tested, ultraviolet light intensity greatly. Line voltage is
2. the types and size of discontinuities sought equally important in the operation of an ultraviolet
during the test, light. A 10 V decrease in line voltage can decrease
3. the factors that affect the production rate (for the ultraviolet light intensity by 10Vo or more.
example, location of the operation within the Ultraviolet lights used in the test booth must be
manufacturing process), checked for intensity and strength on a regular
4. the processing requirements, basis. The standard or specification covering the
5. safety and health code requirements, test should state the ultraviolet light intensity and
6. facility limitations, the frequency for checking the intensity.
7. personnel qualifications, and Ultraviolet lights have the potential to cause
8. preventive maintenance requirements. serious health problems when not handled properly
By considering these factors, a good selection and carefully. The filter and light housing can
can be made that will meet the penetrant test become very hot with temperatures reaching
requirements and save valuable resources. 399 "C (750'F). Precautions should be taken to
protect the inspector. In addition, when using a
Reference A mercury vapor bulb, do not use the lamp as a
source for white light or view the white light
without the ultraviolet light filter installed. Use
only approved ultraviolet lights in areas with
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44

Chapter 6
Review Questions

6.1 The human eye does not respond the same 6.5 Which of the following should have the
to all colors in the visible light range. If all least consideration when determining
have the same intensity, the color that is whether the equipment should be stock
easiest to detect is: modular units or a specially designed
automated penetrant processor?
a. red.
b. yellow-green. a. Optimum reproducibility.
c. blue. b. The production rate.
d. purple. c. The penetrant process that will be used.
d. The type and capacity of the utilities in
6.2 When fluorescent penetrant is used without the proposed test area.
developer, the ultraviolet light intensity
recommended at the test surface is: 6.6 The ultraviolet light intensity necessary for
the detection of very fine indications is:
a. 800 pWcmz.
b. 1200 pWcmz. a. 750 prWcmz.
c. 1500 pWcmz. b. 900 prWcmz.
d. 3000 pWcmz. c. 3000 pWcm2.
d. 5000 prWcmz.
6.3 For dip tank applications, the developer that
requires the least maintenance and quality 6.7 The wash station for fluorescent penetrants
testing is: should be illuminated by:

a. dry developer. a. fluorescent light.

b. water suspended developer. b. ultraviolet light.
c. solvent suspended developer. c. incandescent light.
d. water soluble developer. d. infrared light.
e. mercury vapor light.
6.4 Which of the following is not considered
when evaluating fluorescent penetrant 6.8 For the best results, visible penetrant should
equipment for a specific facility? be illuminated with white light of what
intensity for critical seeing operations?
a. The size of the material and parts to be
tested. a. 800Ix.
b. The production rate. b. 900Ix.
c. The type of light in the room. c. 1000 lx.
d. The floor space needed for the d. 1200 PWcmz.
equipment and material storage.
6.9 The wavelength unit with the shortest
increment is the:

a. angstrom.
b. micrometer.
c. nanometer.
d. millimeter.
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48

that can be allowed before the reliability and safety

requirements are exceeded must be known and
considered. The type and size of the discontinuity
will also influence the penetrant dwell time. A
small discontinuity normally results in longer
penetrant dwell time. For instance, penetrant
testing for stress corrosion cracking can require
extended penetrant dwell time.
The surface condition of the part also influences
the selection process. On a very rough surface, a
water washable penetrant with less sensitivity may
be required. A rough part will also require special
cleaning measures, thus increasing processing time
and hours. An aircraft engine part with a smooth
surface will require a high sensitivity,
postemulsifiable penetrant.
The end use of the part will also be a factor in
determining the penetrant process to be used. Each
industry has requirements for penetrant removal
and sensitivity. Aircraft technicians are limited to
fluorescent penetrants for detection of inservice
discontinuities. The nuclear industry has unique
testing requirements for penetrant testing. In some
cases, color contrasting penetrants must be used
where visibility is often a problem. The marine
industry uses penetrant on many different metals
and parts and, in many cases, a different class or
severity level is used for each component.
The selection of the developer is also an
important step in selection of the proper process.
While a nonaqueous solvent developer may have
the highest sensitivity, it also has the highest cost
and can be difficult to remove. As with penetrant
selection, the number, size and condition of the
pafis are factors in determining the type of
developer.
The entire selection process is invalid without
acceptance and rejection criteria. It is important to
match the penetrant process and materials to the
acceptance and rejection criteria. Acceptance and
rejection criteria are based on stress and fracture
mechanics and engineering evaluations. These
evaluations are designed to analyze the critical
points of a material or part and provide accurate
discontinuity tolerance data. Equipped with this
data, the proper selection ofpenetrant, developer
and process procedures can be made.

Reference A
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Jo ]uoc f,reeq e pu? lu€4eued elqrsr,r 'c 'luerqredep lured
:edole,rep lel\ ur peddrp lI
eql ol pues pue gud eql 1se1 luerleued 'c
gud llue4eued lods sncsruoru il"tus 'q 'luerulredep lured eqt ol ]r pues
:edole,rep frp pe88og itue.neued pu? u€d eql lsel ]uerleued pue ueelcud 'q
e13ue lceluoc qBFI .,{lrsocsr,r q8rq 'e 'luer4redep
lured eql ot ]r pues pue ged eqt
:u Sursn ,(q peurulqo oq ill.ll sllnseJ ]soq eql ueelclsod pue lse1 luer1aued'ueelca.rd 'e
'puno-r81ceq
Jo lunorue e3re1 eqt Jo esneceq
$lceJc loelep ol lFcrJJrp fre,t uelgo sr :01
ll 'sprol lerrJelur esoq] olur Sururqcuur rege sr ssecord luerJgJe lsoc pue luercgJo erurl
.re,telroq lSuqsec,lo.eJ eql SuDsq
luerleuad lsotu oql 'Surlurud pue Sulzlpoue '8uruee1c
ueq.{\ ruelqord ou flensn oJu serlrnuquocsrp rog lueruuedep lured eql ol lues Sureq
eseql'flrsorod se8 pue e8eluuqsorcrur eJoJeq yeuuosred ?urlsel elrlcrulsepuou
Jo lunollle elqeJoprsuos B e^eq ,(q pelsel luerleued eq ol sr luerupedep
.{ypru.rou runururnle pue runrseuSeru }seJ 9'L 8urp1e.r eql ruoq ped urnununp peplel\ V
:edo1e,lep .e^oqe p puP E qloq .e
snoanbeuou pue g poqtory'ZIe^eI 'p 'slBueluln
'redolenep ,,fip pue JelorueJ pelorueJ luerleued eql ur euuolqo ou oler{ 'p
luo^Ios qll^\ 'g poqlelN'g 1a.Le1 'c 'lueluoc ueSoleq pue JnJIns A\ol 'c
'redoyenep 'tueluoc ueSopq pue rn;1ns q8rq 'q
pepuedsns luellos pue JelorueJ 'slurod qs€U 'e
polorrreJ luellos qlr^\ lue4aued elqrsn 'q 'l\ol
:edolelep :eABq lsnlu uorsoJJoc sseJ]s
snoenbeuou qll,r\ 'g poqlentr'€ IeAoI 'e JoJ slslrelelu eseql lsq 01 pesn sleuo]€Iu
lueleued 'uorsoJJoc sso4s ol lcelqns
ipesn eq pFoqs enbruqcel ere (sernleredruel pe1e,re1e 1e) runruelp pu€
1eq11 'parrnbeJ ueryo em q I Jo serut1 [o1y\p s,(o11e
eseq le{cru '1ee1s sselurels crlrue}snv
lller1ouad 'slcnpord uorsorroo ureluoc uego
pue eurJ rtre,r, em s{33Jc uorsoroc sse4s 9'L 'a^oqB eql Jo II€ 'p
'$lceqJ Surssecord e'rordur o1 'O
'sped;o Jeqrunu eql .p 'Suunlcegnueu Suunp
'.(lmuquocsrp to ed,t eql .c sorlrnurluocsrp luucgru8rs ]Jolep ol 'q
.leuo1uru yo ed,fi eql .q
1se1 Sur.r,recer eql
.E
'flrnurluocsrp oql Jo ezrs eql le sleuol€Iu e^rlJoJep ]no peea\ o1 'e
^\?J
:,tq pelcegu eq :sr Suqsq lue4eued
]ou ilI,l\ lsal lue4aued e;o 1e,re1 ,figenb eql V'L ]celes 01 luerue8eueru JoJ uo$eJ euo
suorlsano /llal^eu
L rctdvT4J
6V
50

7.7 The first step in preparing a penetrant 7.ll Welds at construction sites are usually
procedure is to determine: tested with:

a. the smallest discontinuity a technique a. visible dye penetrant that is solvent

can detect. removed.
b. the size of discontinuities that are in the b. postemulsified penetrant with solvent
part. suspended developer.
c. the size and type of discontinuities that c. water washable visible penetrant and
it is necessary to detect. dry developer.
d. the cost of the test. d. fluorescent penetrant that is solvent
removed.
7.8 A large tank has a welded liner on the
inside surface and the welds must be tested 7.12 Liquid penetrant testing used for
for porosity and cracks. The tank has a maintenance testing of cracks on aircraft
number of openings in the top and bottom must have the highest sensitivity. Which of
around which the liner is welded. The best the following penetrant techniques is the
approach is to use: most sensitive?

a. Type I,level2, Method D with water a. Type I, Method A, level 2 penetrant,

spray. solvent removed, solvent suspended
b. visible penetrant with water spray. developer.
c. Type I, level2, Method D with wet b. Type I, Method B, level 3 penetrant,
towels to remove penetrant. solvent removed, solvent suspended
d. Type I, level2, Method B with developer.
hydrophilic emulsifier and water spray. c. Type II, Method C penetrant, solvent
removed, dry developer.
7.9 For production testing of forgings, the d. Type I, Method B, level 2 penetrant,
recommended penetrant technique is: solvent removed, dry developer.

a. solvent removed fluorescent penetrant. 7.I3 The first step in evaluating the use of
b. water washable fluorescent penetrant. penetrant on a plastic material is to:
c. postemulsification visible penetrant.
d. postemulsification fluorescent a. degrease the part.
penetrant. b. check the compatibility of the penetrant
test materials with the plastic.
1.10 High integrity casting and forgings require c. apply a water washable fluorescent
high reliability in the penetrant material and penetrant.
test methods used. The most recommended d. remove oxidation from the surface.
combination is:
7.14 Which of the following nonmetallic items
a. water washable fluorescent penetrant, can be tested with penetrants?
level 3 penetrant, dry developer.
b. postemulsification visible penetrant, a. Distributor caps.
solvent suspended developer. b. Spark plug insulators.
c. postemulsification fluorescent c. Nylon orthopedic implants.
penetrant, level 2 penetrant, dry d. All of the above.
developer. e. Both b and c above
d. postemulsification fluorescent
penetrant, level 3 penetrant, dry
developer.

'*1!I
 ',(erds cqelso4oolo qlr^\ 'p
'suelsrts ,(urds rna q1r.tr '3
'selzzou ^{erds ernsserd qlul 'q
's4ue1drp qlvrre
:sr serlrleo Jouelur pue seduqs
xeldruoc qtrm sged ile{us o} tuurlauad
?ur,(1dde ro; qceordde Iecrruouoce ]sotu eql
'enbpqcq luereued
perJrslnuetsod ,{lr.ttltsues q8tq y 'p
'enbruqcel
lue4eued efp e1qrsr.r, 'uoqnloseJ qBIq V 'c
'enbruqcel
elqeqse,{t rele,l '-(lr,tqrsues q?rq y 'q
'enbruqcel
peloruoJ ]uollos tlrn4rsues qBIq V 'e
eueJsJrB
oorlJesur JoJ pesn lsoru sI senbruqcel Sutlsel
]ue.rteued plnb11 3uuro11o; eqt Jo qclqr\\
IS
 52

Ir.
 J :: -:-:_:u --::::J ua.ra .(lqrssod pue Surlsel ecuetruoyed fpep
g :I -:-:-.:x :-:.'::r esn f.teeq qlr^\ sruelsfs tele,^aoq iSurlsel
Y ::::-:-:U ::.:lru:oyred luenbe4 ertnber ]ou op uego pesn
- - :
:J€ 1eq1 SruelsfS 'solre^ sessecord luurleued
's3ldtu"s e3u3J3_l:: :--_ ;-. -.*E1uo3 puE ep€J8op uo Surlsel ecueuuog.rad;o ,(cuenbe4 eql
m,4Aleql suoL::-_ I :_ s:-JruEXo eJe soJr^ep 3u11sag eJuBruJoJJod
pOl"uruI€luo-i :------ : ---:--ues puE SJouIuluO3
Jrlseld'sernleledruat'.:-. - :. --t:,r suorlrpuo] .ureql
v eJueJo.+ou
epeJSop plno \1 -:,'- : - _ .-.f uoJ rrro4 pelseloJd
oq lsnru saldulps 3l*:--:-:: :--r 's3sec qloq q .lda)i 'fpedord
eq plnoqs Jedol:".:: :-'t -: :ldues € .lueleuod ::*?turpur oJE sleueleru lue4eued pue lueudrnbe
acueJsJeJ eqt - _ _ _ ::E uJ 'luEJleued ,rau
aql leql oJnsuo ol uorlJe e,l,rsse"r33e o{Bl osle
eldlu€s ol pu€ 1L:--: -:: : _-- -Jo eJII eql JoJ pasn
-sru tuerue8eue6'ssecord eqt puu :olcedsur eql
eq o1 lusrsrJJns aq : - _ l. :-jJlES oql Jo ozrs 3qJ
'sso3oJd Surlsat :-- -'. "--.!JJOU suorteorJrceds
:. :,-ueprJuoc Sururelurcu ur eloJ.roferu e ,(e1d uec
s=d a.rqca;ep eldrues Jo esn oqt pue suoqenlule
esusrrrroped eqt st::'- ' -: --- - jEJlsued unoul u -Jo ...ds aurlnou 'luercrJJns oq lou ,{eiu I IoAe-I e sr
eldu"s ? sI Ju€Jlaua; ::- -.-< lo JJuJJOJaJ eqJ ::':::dsur ue leql Suunsue ,(1ere141 'ssecord eql pue
slBIJalBJ\ luErlauad eJuaJoJeu ::,:-':dsur aql Jo suoqenlele lo4uoc ,$rtenb ruroy.red
ot sdels .{resseceu oql elel lsruu luerue8eueur
't\al lusJleued u .{lpqelleJ oq} urelurBru oI
3o
'eusJrJJ
rsat illrqeleeder pue z{lrrrrlrsues ureueJ s}oeru lr
-: ::r-Irpnb pue pe.Lordde aq III^\ ssecord luurleued
JAIruil: :_..:: -t?\e eql uI peSSACOJd aqg 'ssacord Suqsq pergrrcnb pue pe.l,ordde
3q lsnrx sleued S-1.-,:- : -.: Ieued Jo Ued eq] uo uE 3q tsnru eJeql toloedsur oq] o] uoqrppe uI
uolleJlldde pue a6Ela -i .' : --: uorlEurureluoJ ruoJJ .rolcedsur
pelJeloJd eq tsnlu s3'i:. i .;;.r1a.r3p pue lu?4eued eql 'oJoJeJeqI .}sel
=.ql uo luepuedep sr ,{lqrqerlar
'pelloJluos .i11r,::-. - - ::'Jusel Jql luql 3Jnsu3 :qt,1o ,ftrpnb eql eunruetep ol llnrrJJrp uego sr tr
'p3tsat u3eq seq ged e regy 's1se1
ol uele] oq ]sn'.t- ::rt -:.,J.!\oH .ssUeIrUOIed luep8r.n ruoped
ruots,{s .iu:-,-:,-: -:,: :nbruqcel poloJdde 111 p3t€.\rlour pue porJrlBnb .{1p1 3q }snlx srolcedsul
pue pqu^ e sr:r*.-.:- -_s-_:zdruo3'ruelsfs eql 'ssarotd Surlsel tuerleued aql pue rolcedsur eql uo
JO eJUBrrrJOJJed --q: -:.,:t ::?ur sr uolleuruilelep tuepuadep sr Surlsel luerleued Jo ,fiUqeller aqJ
E pu€ peJedruot .r:--- ::: stlnseJ eql .oues eql
'sseco;d tuer1eued eql ftrTrqerlor pue ,t111enb
Jo
eq plnoqs suorlrpuor --\ :_.: sures eql 1" Ieueleul aqt ur Ie^aI eouoprJuo3 qAIq E eJe loJluoc ssecord
luelouedJo eldues 'r:- :- ;sn ur u€ pu€ IerJeleur pooS;o stlnser eql ',ttnq€ller pue ,ftqrqu1eede"r
lue;1oued aldrues -"r-,'-]" : Surssecord sellolur qtr^\ uorlucrJrceds eql .{q pe"rrnber eJe leqt
qcolq Jo sleuEd 5- -- .' j tsat JJueuuoJJed saurnurJuoosrp eql lcelap lrm sseco.rd luereued
'Surlse] uosu::'- _ ' ,F ot s{Jolq Jo sleued aqt leql eJnsuo ol sr IoJtuoJ ssecord Sunu.ro;red
Jo,JuoseeJ urerrr eql 'sernpeco:d eqt pue luarudrnbe
Jo urJoJ eql ur spl"pL:-! )-rii-1 asn (Z) puu sllnsoJ
elqeldecce pu? u.i. -:; -ti \\ isel eql Jo sllnssJ aql 'sl"ueleru aql sepnlJur ssecord lue4eued
Jql oJ€druoc pu€ su?d : .---t:-:l u.\\orDl ssaJoJd (I) eql 'sllnseJ 1se1 leruqdo oJnsue o1 ssecord
- s,{em ol\l ur pelelduc' .. S::tsal aJueuuoJJed tue:laued u uo peuuoJred slceqc IoJluoo flrpnb
's1red Sursseto:d ::::::. ::tsol eJu?rrrJo.JJod aq 3q1 eurJsp ol pesn ruJel eql sr IoJ]uoc sseJoJd
rue1s,{s oq} leql sr turcJ. -*:-;odrur oqJ 'Urqs qcee IoJluoJ ssoJoJd Jo AtoraJaAO
IorluoJ sseJord
g rolderlJ
"_.-!t
54

Standards and Test Panels Reference A

Several different comparison test panels are in Reference B
use today. Three commonly used panels are the Reference C
cracked nickel-chromium plated panel, the
penetrant system monitor panel and the quench Process Variables
cracked aluminum block. Each of these panels Penetrant processes variables must be checked
contains known discontinuities. and controlled if the penetrant process is to have
The cracked nickel-chromium plated panel is a acceptable reliability and repeatability. Three areas
thick brass plate with a predetermined thickness of of variables are equipment, materials and process.
nickel plating on one side. The nickel plating is The equipment variables are those items that
then plated with a very thin layer of chromium for can change or vary during the process. In the
protection. The panel is then stressloaded on one cleaning process, the variable is the automatic
side, which produces fine cracks in the nickel cleaning unit. In the penetrant line, the wash
plating. Two panels containing identical or nearly station water temperatute and pressure are
identical crack patterns are used to perform the variables. In the dry station, the variable is the
checks. These panels can also be used to indicate dryer temperature. Ultraviolet lights are variables
penetrant process sensitivity. The cracked nickel- in the test booth because they can change in
chromium plated panel is normally the preferred intensity if the line voltage drops. All of these
technique for testing penetrant materials. variables must be checked and controlled regularly.
The penetrant system monitor panel is made of Penetrant material variables are related to the
stainless steel. One half of one side is chromium individual materials that are used. These variables
plated and the other half is grit blasted to a include:
medium rough surface. The chromium plated strip l. penetrantcontamination.
contains five evenly spaced cracked centers that 2. water content for Method A penetrants,
vary in size. Unlike other test panels used for 3. penetrant separation,
performance tests, no two penetrant system 4. water tolerance,
monitor panels are exactly the same. The panels 5. penetrant intensity,
are normally supplied in pairs - one for the system 6. penetrant removability (Method A), and
check and the other for the reference standard. The 7. penetrant sensitivity.
grit blasted side can be used to verify the
effectiveness of the penetrant removal process. For systems using emulsifier, the variables also
Penetrant system monitor panels do not indicate include:
penetrant process sensitivity, they are used to 1. emulsifier contamination,
detect degradation in the system performance. 2. water content (lipophilic emulsifier), and
Quench cracked aluminum blocks or panels are 3. emulsifier concentration (hydrophilic
used to perform comparison tests of penetrants. An emulsifier).
aluminum block is heated and then quenched to
produce cracks. The block is then divided in half For developers, the variables are:
by a deep groove and in some cases the block is 1. developercontamination,
cut into two pieces. During the system 2. developer dryness (dry developer),
performance test, the reference penetrant is placed 3. dry developer air pressure, and
on one section and the sample penetrant placed on 4. wet developer concentration.
the other. The block is then processed and the
results are compared. Because of the large cracking The process variables for manual systems
that often results in these blocks, they are used for primarily involve the operator. The operator must
low and medium sensitivity penetrants. process parts in a standardized manner knowing
Several precautions are necessary when using that any variation to the process can cause serious
the above panels. The panels must be thoroughly degradation of test sensitivity.
cleaned after each use and in between uses they For automated systems, the process variables
should be kept in a suitable solvent. Because they are the equipment, the personnel monitoring the
are testing panels, they should be handled very equipment and the inspectors who test the parts.
carefully. In addition, some specifications limit the While there are many advantages associated with
number of times that a panel can be used. the use of automated systems, the advantages are
lost if the variables are not controlled.

Reference B
 'uorl€3rJrslnrue 'ged eql
Jo eruu eql Io4uoJ ,{1eso1c 01 ue>lel
oq lsnru eruc 'pesn oJu suoqels JerJrslruue JI JJo lusleued ssecxe eql edrl\ ueql pue qtolc eer
'pouruluretu oq pFor{s Surlsel
IIe Jo uoDeluetunJoc
luq e uo Jeueelo ,(erds o1 sr enbruqcel elqeldecce
'?ur1sq .,{1rsue1ur luecseJonlJ pue 8uqsel eql '€eJe lsel eqt oluo ,(pcerrp pe,{erds eq lou lsnlu
lueluoc Jelent opnlcur u€3 slsel esoql '8uqse1 lue4eued ssorxe elorueJ o] pesn ueqll teueelc
JoJ sauoleJoqel o] lues oq ]u€Jleued go seldurus e{I 'sued ueelcerd ol posn eq uec pu" anprseJ
P e^eel lOU Op SJaUBoIC eSAqI 'Ja\Oruat/tauoalJ
1uq1 errnber suo4ecrgrceds oruos 'pecelder eq lsruu
lue4eued e qcrq,,rl. 1e lurod eql ourrrJelep luurleued peleqel ere .(epo1 sreuuelc lsol{ .onprseJ Iro
ue onuel IIy( pue e1e"r uorlurodele .&\oIS ,ftel e seq
;o edft qcee roJ suoqecgrceds 'uorleurrueluoJ
pue uorlurodene ol luerleued oqt slcelqns qclq,l\ 'JeloruoJ B se pe{Juru }ou sr pesn reueelcerd
qolqa\ 'Juerleued eql ureluoc jeql $[uul esn surals,(s eql leql ernsue ol ue)pl eq plnoqs oreJ 'enprsor
1sop1 ',{1r,l,rlrsues eperSep uec
e 8ur.r.ue1 lnoqlrl\ ped eqt ueelcerd,(lelenbepe
l"ql sJoloeJ IuJa,^.es
o1 lcelqns erz lueurdrnbe ,fteuor1e1s ur sluer1euod ol alq€ eq lsruu ll 'ued u ueelcerd ol pesn
'peJolsoJ 3J8 sr Jeuuelc oql JI 'roueelc e ureluoc slH elqeuod
suoqecr;rceds ecueuuoJlred eyqeldecce plun ecrlJes esn ur qJl€q oql ruoJJluuetelu
ruo4 penoruoJ oq lsnru lsel eoueuuo3:ed ue1s,{s luerleued go eldues u^\orDl e lsure8e pe{caqc
eqt ssed louuec ]Bql ruolsfs V'ernpecoJd eql pue eq plnoqs ll 'pe^receJ sr qcleq ,\\eu E usqrv\
']l uo Jequnu qoleq € seq ueJ qcee ilueurdrnbe
lueurdrnbe eq] 'slprJeleru luerleued eql Jo {lr1rqerleJ
pue flqunb eql SururruJelop JoJ luelrodrur elqegod ur pesn,{lerurou eJe suuc IosoJeV
sr lsel aoueuuoyed rue1s.{s aql 'sleueleur luurleued 'ocueulroped leueleur r{;rre,L ol uoqeluoruncop
ocueJeJeJ pue leued pe>lceJc u qlr,r paur-royed ,(resseceu aql seqsr1qulso srql JepJo eseqcrnd eqt
dgeru.rou ]sel ecueuuoJred rue1s.,(s ? sepnlJur ur pelsenber oq plnoqs suorlecr;rcads ecueru_rogred
lueudrnbe ,{reuoqels Jo IoJluoc ssecord crseg 'ra.rnlcegnuetu eql ruoq sleuo1errr ]uer1eued
'sernpecord pue sleuoleru 'lueudrnbe eql Suqceqo Suuepro uer{rq! 'lpl }ue4euod eql go luerudrnbe
JoJ slelJelur eruq ,{yceds ilr,4t suorlecrgrceds peleroosse pue slerJeleru Suplceqc sellolur
.(ueprg'ecueru.rogred rue1s.(s Sururuuelep rog lueudrnbe elqupod Jo Io4uoc ssecord eq;
ssecord aq] apnlcur plnoqs suorlecrgrceds 'uonrppe lueludlnbfl elqulrod
uI 'uoqels qcue Surlcaqc roJ sls{{Jeqr luellarxe
pue JelJq suruluoc g ecueJoJeg 'ssecord luerleuad ',{1r1rqeleeder pue,{lqrqeqer
oql ur uoDels qcee go uoqcedsur ue sopnlcur qAIq WIr!\ slFser 1se1 ecnpo-rd louuuc rolcedsur
luerudrnbe ,{-ruuorlels Jo Io4uoc ssecord eq; ]seq eql 'pe1s4 pue poumlureur fpedord sr teql
luorudlnbfl .drBuolt?ls Ieuoleru pue lueudrnbe lnoqlqq'lo4uoJ ssecord
Jo lueruale Ke>1 e sr sleuoluru puu luarudrnbe
g eJuoJeJeu ]ue.rleued Jo eJueuelureru pue ?uqsel aq;
v scueJeJeu slslralBtr J
',{1rsue1ur uo slJeJJa olqeecrlou secnpord e?e11o,t
puB luourdpbg fuErlouad
ourl 1r\ol esneoeq pe{ceqc oq osle plnoqs e341o,r, Jo aruBualulBtr tr pue Eu$sal
oql . aol sr ,0rsuelur ]q?I ]elol^e4ln eql.il .,{Ep
qcee pesn lsrrJ uoqa po>Ireqc eq o11q8q ]elorl€4ln g ecuoJoJeu
eql errnber suorlecr;rceds,{ue;41'uoqecr;rceds
elqecrlddu eqt tsure?e po{3eqc oq }snru 'elrJ uo 1da>1pue potuerunoop eq
.{1rsue1ur tq?rl lelorlerln eql'$Iourc elqrssod pue plnoqs sllnseJ pue fcuenber; 'luaurqsqduocce rreql
sseuqueelc sual roJ pa{caqc eq lsnru s1p1 elqegod 'slueruerrnbeJ eql 'lueurdrnbe oql Jo peolryol\ eq]
luerleued luecserong ur lq8q telor^e4ln eql uo pessq peqsllqBlse eq plnoqs sle^relur ruruuluru
'redo1e.r,ep erou 8ur,{1ddu eql 'ecuuprn8 les ou sr oJeql;1 ',{cuenberg Jreql pue
eroJeq drp ot redole,lep eql 'Suruedduq queuelnbeJ lo4uoc sseco.rd eql oluls ,{1eru;ou
11r.r\ sluerueer8e pnlce4uoc pue suorlecgrced5
^{ollu go Surlsuru
Luo4 srql lue.r,erd oI 'senrnu4uocsrp
elqrssod e pue .,(1r,rr1rsuos Jo ssol B ur sllnsal qJIq,!\ 'perutoyed ere
'pepeeu sr ueq] ]red e ol redole,,ep erou ,{1ddu o1 leql seJnseeu Io4uoc ssecord eW qlll\ ,{cuenberg
s.rolcedsur asneJ uec srq; 'r(plcrnb se elerodele ]ou eql tsnipe ppoqs sroluredo 'peo11rom eures
seop qorql\ 'e1crqe.t e se luellos ppbll lueJeJJrp eq] oleq sruels.{s me; ,{-rel ocus 'slolel peoplroly\
B esn A\ou sredoleneq 'ged eqt uo pe,{erds ererrr ruelsfs ]ueJeJJIp eql Jo JolceJ B sr pue seuzl
feqt se peup sredolenep 'lsed eql u1 'sree.{ oql JeAo seJnseeru lo4uoc ssecord go ,(cuenbe4 eq;
pe8ueqc seq stDI luerleued ur redolenep eq; .dcuanbeJd IoJluoJ ssoJoJd
56

The drain station should not drain back into the Inside the test booth, the ultraviolet light must
emulsification tank because it will contaminate the meet the intensity specifications. Ultraviolet lights
emulsifier. Lipophilic emulsifier should be checked normally produce higher intensities than the
for contamination by a removability test. 1000 trrWcm2 at a distance of 38 cm (15 in.) that
Hydrophilic remover concentration should be many specifications require; however, lights
checked by either a refractometer test or weaken as they age and a dirty lens or low line
colorimetry. voltage can seriously lower intensity levels. Daily
Wash stations are often the most abused and checks of ultraviolet light intensity is a necessity
neglected areas of the penetrant line. The wash for adequate process control. For systems used
station should be kept clean and free of excess during multiple 8 h shifts, ultraviolet lights should
penetrants. If fluorescent penetrants are used, the be checked at the start of each shift.
station should have an ultraviolet light to ensure The darkness of the fluorescent peneffant
the adequate removal of excess penetrant from inspection area is important. Most specifications
parts. Water pressure and temperature must be require no more that20 lx (2 ftc) of white light in
monitored at all times. Excess water pressure or the area. In addition, inspectors must allow their
high water temperatures decrease the effectiveness eyes to adjust when first entering the darkened test
and sensitivity of the testing process. area. Normally, 5 min is enough time for the eye to
Dryer stations must be kept clean and the proper adapt to a dark environment; however, some
temperature must be maintained. High inspector's eyes may require more time. Tests
temperatures cause excess evaporation of the should not start until the inspector's eyes have
penetrant and decreases fluorescent intensity, adapted to the darkened conditions.
resulting in decreased inspection sensitivity.
Test stations must be clean and free from Reference A
penetrant materials. Visible dye penetrant test Reference B
stations must have sufficient lighting. Fluorescent
peneffant test stations must be darkened and have
ultraviolet lights with the necessary intensity.

Reference A
Reference B
Reference C

Automated Equipment
Automated systems are designed to process
large volumes of parts and require process controls
like the other penetrant systems. Penetrant
materials require sampling and checking on a
regular basis. Performance checks are made by
sending cracked test coupons through the system
before and sometimes during the testing process.
Even though the systems are automated, personnel
must monitor the equipment for adequate penetrant
application, washing, drying, developing and
processed part inspection.

Reference A
Reference B
Lighting
Confrol of lighting is a key part of the process
control. To see faint indications with visible
penetrants, adequate white light is required.
Fluorescent penetrant systems require ultraviolet
lights at the wash station and in the test booth.
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58

8.10 Quench cracked aluminum blocks are 8.15 Which of the following combinations of
useful for comparing: physical properties of a liquid has the most
effect on its penetrating properties?
a. low sensitivity penetrant.
b. medium sensitivity penetrant. a. Wet ability and surface tension.
c. high sensitivity penetrant. b. Surface tension and contact angle.
d. all of the above. c. Capillarity, wet ability and surface
e. both a and b. tension.
d. Specific gravity and viscosity.
8.11 Cracked chrome plated panels are usually
processed in pairs to: 8.16 A drop test for comparing surface tension is
influenced by:
a. verify performance results.
b. verify that the panels are identical. a. the size of the drop.
c. compare the in use and reference b. the roughness ofthe surface.
penetrants. c. the temperature of the liquid and test
d. verify the testing process. surface.
d. all ofthe above.
8.12 The penetrant system monitor is designed e. both b and c above.
to be used:
8.17 When the contact angle of penetrant on
a. for daily performance monitoring. aluminum is compared to the contact angle
b. as a substitute for the cracked chrome of penetrant on stainless steel and chrome
plated panel. plate, the contact angle on aluminum is:
c. to compare material performance.
d. to indicate sensitivity. a. larger.
b. smaller.
c. the same.
8.13 For evaluating background after a water d. not a function of the type of material.
wash test, what type of ultraviolet light
should be used? 8.18 Scratches on a smooth surface cause a drop
of penetrant to spread:
a. Incandescent lamps.
b. Tubular BLB fluorescent lamps. a. faster.
c. 100 W ultraviolet light lamp. b. slower.
d. Appropriate white light. c. to the nearest scratch and then stop
spreading.
8.I4 In the water tolerance sensitivity test, the d. more slowly if the penetrant is of high
standard penetrant sample should contain: viscosity.

a. no water dilution. 8.19 In a capillary tube test of a penetrant, the

b. 5Vo water dilution. surface of the penetrant in the capillary
c. the same water dilution as in the test tube:
sample.
d. 20Vo water dilution. a. should be flat.
b. should be a positive meniscus.
c. should be a negative meniscus.
d. cannot be determined with this test.
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60

8.31 To best determine whether a penetrant

facility is being operated properly, a
customer or manager should:

a. check all of the records of the facility.

b. perform periodic unannounced audits
of the facility.
c. issue directives to specify how the test
must be performed.
d. personally inspect the facility on a
specific day once a week.

8.32 Quality control of aerosol penetrant cans

that are in long term storage requires the
cans to be:

a. shaken every 6 months.

b. weighed after 2 y from the date of
manufacture.
c. used before 2y or discarded.
d. left alone because there are no
requirements for long storage because
penetrants in aerosol containers have an
infinite shelf life.
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62

Figure 9.1: Page 1 of a manufacturer materials safety data sheet

(From Magnaf lux Corporation)

MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET

ZYGLOO PEilETMNT ZL.27A
1. I IDENTIFICATION
Company: MAGNAFLUXo
Address: 3624 Wost Laka Av€nu6. Glenview, lllinois 60O25
Talephone No.: 847-657-5300 (off-Hour Em6rgency Number - CHEMTREC - t-8oo.42+93oo).
hoduct Use: Fluoroscont inspsction pengtrant
Packages: 1 gsllon cans, 5 gsllon peils, 20 gallon and 55 gallon drums, aerosole.
NFPA Rating: Hoalth 1, Flammability 't, (Asrosol Flsmmabilitv 4), Rsactivity O
PIN: None
Revision Date: May 2, 1996

2. HAZARDOUSINGREDIENTS
hatdiat %
Vtt.hyt. CrS t !LV. EL LD_" LCr"
Whir. mindd oil lp6trol.uml 3060 gO42-47.S not.vjl. not.vil. noi !v.il. not.vril.
liodcryl ciph.ryl ph.sph6r! 3G6C, 2s7at-21-s r,or !v!it. not lvrit. 1S.8 o/ks ld.tkltl
,a n1ii.fflj6,,,
Crlid oil lG30 SOOI-79.4 not.vdl. noi.v.il, not.v.il. not dil,
l3obutrn. lprop.llanl) 30 75-2A-S not rv.it. t OOO ppm nol rvil. not rylil.

3. HAZARDSIDENTIFICATION

EMERGENCY OVERVIEW
Bland. oily liquid which mry irrir.tc thc gkin and cycr. Diflicult to ignhc, but will burn vigorouely,
if engulfod in firc. Acrcd is .nromcly fllmmrbL.

POTENTIAL HEALTH EFFECTS

Skin Contact: Can irritate by removing natural skin oils on long or rop€ated oxposures.
Eyes: May causo irritation.
lnhalation: Not significsnt at room temperatures. When heatod or sprayed, ZL-27 A vspora may caus6 dizzinass and nausea.
lngestion: Not significant in small (mouthful) amounts.
Medical conditions known to be aggravated by axposure to product: None

4. FIRST AID
Skin Contact: Wash off with soap and water. Uso soothing lotion.
Eyes: Rinse carelully under uppet and lowor oyolids using plonty of wat6r.
lnhalation: Remove to fresh air if dizzy or nausoated.
lngestion: 0o not induce vomiting. Accid6ntsl ingestion of a small mouthlul is not 6xpoct6d to causs significant harm.
NOTE: ln all sovere cases, contact physician immediatsly. Local tolsphono opsrator6 can furnish numbor of regional poison control cent€r.

5, FIRE HAZARD
Conditions of flammability: Bulk; Hoating above 2OOoF (93oC) in prosonco of ignition sources.
A6rosol: Spraying near flamss or arcs will ignito th6 spray mist.
Hash point: Min. 2OC, F (93" C) (penrky-Maaens clored cup)
Flammable limits in air: 1 % to 696
Extinguishing media: Carbon dioxide, foam
Special fire fighting procadures: Koop contain6rs cool with w6tor spray, Do not spray watc. diroctly on burning ZL-27 A. lt may float and
spresd the fire.
Hazardous combustion prcducts: Smoko, soot, oxidos of carbon and nitrogen.
Unusual fire hazdrds: Aorosol cans may burst st temporaturos ov€r 13OoF(S4oC) and spray cont€nts into a lir6.

6. ACCIDENTAL RELEASE MEASURES

Mop up or sweep up with absorb€nt. (For disposal, see Section 1 3.)

7.
Avoid broathing sprsy mist.
Avoid eye contact.
Avoid repeated or prolongod skin contact.
Store away from h6at source,

8. EXPOSURECONTROLS/PERSONALPROTECTION
Contrcls: Nono, unlass sppliod 8s spray. Use wh6ro vontilation will carry spray mist away trom occupied areas.
Personal prctection: Woar safoty glassos to prot8ct €yss. Waar nitrile rubbor glovos if hand exposuro is unavoidablo.
Rospirator with filtor if sprayod in enclosed, unvontilatsd space.

Page 1 o{ 2|ZL-27A1

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64

All penetrant materials should be stored in areas Reference A

away from sources of flame and heat. Storage Reference B
areas should be well ventilated or approved Reference C
flammable materials storage lockers.

Reference A
Physiological Effects of
Reference C Ultraviolet Radiation
Hard ultraviolet radiation (4 nm to 280 nm) is
used to sterilize and disinfect materials and
Dermatological Considerations surfaces. Ultraviolet radiation from 280 nm to
When used according to the manufacturer's 320 nm will redden the skin in the same way a
recommendations, penetrant materials normally do sunburn does.
not pose any health problems. However, there have Ultraviolet light radiation from properly filtered
been some cases where people have developed lights peaks at about 365 nm. Serious effects from
skin irritations and allergies from penetrant ultraviolet radiation occur at below 320 nm. It is
materials. In most cases, skin irritation is a form of important to note that the National Institute for
dermatitis that most commonly appears on the Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has
hands and arms. In more severe cases, personnel recommended that personnel working with
have had to refrain from doing penetrant work. ultraviolet light between 315 nm and 400 nm limit
Rubber gloves may prevent most skin irritations. the exposure oftheir eyes and unprotected skin to
Another condition associated with penetrant 1000 pWcm2.
testing is the drying out of the hands from the Personnel who use ultraviolet lights to perform
continual exposure to penefant and cleaning tests should consider wearing yellow glasses to
materials. The use of nonaqueous solvent cleaner block ultraviolet light from their eyes. These
on cloths or paper towels, without wearing glasses should be used only by personnel who
protective gloves, is a primary cause of this perform penetrant tests with fluorescent penetrant
condition. These materials remove the natural oils that glows in the green-yellow range.
from the skin resulting in drying and cracking.
Wearing rubber gloves will prevent this problem Reference A
and the application of hand lotion often will Reference B
remoisturize the skin. Reference C

Reference A
Reference B Disposal of Penetrant Materials
Reference C Supervisory personnel should routinely verify
compliance with federal, state and local regarding
atmospheric, water and land pollution.
Respiratory Considerations Most state and local codes will not permit the
Respiratory equipment is not usually required disposal of these materials into their sewer systems
for penetrant testing as long as adequate ventilation because these chemicals kill the bacteria used by
is maintained. The fumes and vapors from the sewer treatment facilities to treat waste water.
penetrant and associated materials can cause These facilities go to great lengths to protect and
headaches, nausea and/or tightness or pain in the grow the bacteria to remove harmful toxins from
chest. However, these problems are almost always waste water.
resolved by increasing the ventilation in the work Effluent penetrant waste should be collected and
area. It is important for personnel to avoid working treated to meet federal, state and local codes and
with penetrant materials in closed areas for regulations. This can be very expensive; the best
extended periods. OSHA has specific rules that way to reduce this cost is to control the amount of
must be followed when working in confined areas. penetrant materials used. Penetrant material usage
Personnel working with dry developers must be can be controlled by the following:
careful. Dry developers are powders with very
1. using application techniques such as
small particle size that can easily become airborne.
electrostatic spray equipment that limit the
Operators should ensure that dry developers are
amount of penetrant used on each part;
applied under hood equipment and/or adequately
2. allowing increased penetrant drain times;
ventilated work areas.
 Y ecueJeJeu
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66

Chapter 9
Review Questions

9.1 The flash point of a liquid is the: 9.6 Effluent from a water washable penetrant
system can be disposed of by:
lowest temperature at which vapors
will ignite in the air if exposed to a a. discharging it into the sewers because
flame. is water washable.
b. highest temperature at which vapors b. mixing it with water before discharging
will ignite in the air if exposed to a it into the sewers.
flame. c. collecting and treating it before
c. lowest concentration of vapors that will disposal.
ignite in the air if exposed to a flame. d. having it processed by a licensed
d. highest concentration of vapors that chemical company because it is
will ignite in the air if exposed to a classified as a hazardous chemical.
flame.
9.7 A problem caused by some penetrant waste
9.2 The minimum flash point for penetrant in materials in sewage and streams is that it:
open tanks as established by OSHA
regulations is: a. makes the water toxic.
b. leaves an oil slick on the water.
a. 63 "C (150'F). c. can deplete some of the oxygen supply
b. 93'C (200'F). in the water.
c. I2I"C (250'F). d. both b and c above.
d. r49 "c (300'F).
9.8 Water washable penetrants can be removed
9.3 Caution must be used when applying some from water by:
nonaqueous type developers because of:
a. reverse osmosis.
a. their possible flammability. b. absorption materials.
b. their possible toxic solvents. c. activated carbon.
c. both a and b above. d. all ofthe above.
d. there are no hazards associated with
nonaqueous developers. 9.9 Properly formulated penetrant effluent will:

9.4 A health hazard that results from the a. sink in a tank of water.
concentrated exposure to the fumes and b. mix with the water in a tank.
vapors from penetrants and associated c. float on the water in a tank.
materials is: d. layer in the water in a tank.

a. headaches. 9.10 One of the most important features of new

b. nausea. slow solubility penetrants is that they:
c. tightness or pain in chest.
d. both a and b above. a. mix completely with water.
e. all ofthe above. b. disperse in water and undergo
emulsifi cation rapidly.
9.5 The wavelength at which ultraviolet light is c. disperse in water and undergo
hazardous to humans is: emulsification slowly.
d. disperse in water and do not undergo
a. 280-380 nm. emulsification.
b. 320 nm and below.
c. 320 nm and above.
d. 360 nm and above.
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68

Some written practices are very specific and are

written for one kind of test object, whereas others
are general and cover many different parts. Often,
a company will require a subcontractor to provide
a written practice for a specific pafi. In this case,
will be written to the
the written practice
company's specification document.
A written practice should contain, at the
minimum, the following:
1. penetrant materials to be used,
2. details of precleaning the part,
3. complete processing parameters,
4. inspection and evaluation requirements,
5. specific information of part to be inspected,
6. acceptance/rejection criteria and
7. postcleaning procedures.

Many times, inspection personnel will find that

testing documentation is a combination of the
specification and written practice. This is
acceptable and, in some cases, can be a more cost
effective way to control penetrant tests.
An example of a combined specification and
written practice is the way one aircraft
manufacturer combined the documents. The
combined document was placed in the general
section of the aircraft maintenance manual.
Whenever a part in other areas of the manual
required a penetrant test, the inspector was referred
to this document. This simplified the process and
was more cost effective.

Reference A
Reference F
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69
70
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 72

d. Lux (1x) shall be used for e. Inspection stations should be

measurement of visible light. equipped with ventilation systems.
4.3 Removal Station 4.7 Portable Kits
a. The removal station shall be a. ultraviolet lights used in portable kits
equipped with a water pressure gage, shall have a minimum intensity of
water temperature gage and spray 1000 pWcmz atthe working surface
nozzles that produce a coarse spray of the part being inspected.
that is cone shaped or fan shaped. b. Portable kits shall maintain the
b. Maximum water pressure allowed is system concept for penetrants and
276Wa (40 psi). developers.
c. Water temperature shall be between
10 and 38 "C (50 and 100 "F). 5.0 Personnel Qualification Section
d. ultraviolet light intensity at the rinse 5.1 The training, qualification and
station shall be 1000 pWcmz and a certification of personnel performing
maximum of 100 lx of ambient white penetrant operations and inspections for
light at the parts surface. acceptance/rejection shall be in
4.4 Developer Station accordance with ASNZ R e c ommende d
a. Dry developer stations shall be Practice No. SNT-TC- 1A.
equipped with a system to inject dry
air into the chamber and disperse the 6.0 Process Control Section
particles. 6.1 Quality Checks
b. Aqueous suspendible developers a. The following tests of penetrant
shall be equipped with a system to materials used in open tanks shall be
keep the developer agitated and made, in accordance with
maintain the developer materials in AMS 2644, on a monthly
suspension. 1. penetrant intensity,
4.5 Dryer Station 2. sensitivity,
a. Dryers shall be equipped with a 3. water content (Method A only),
temperature control and a monitoring 4. lipophilic emulsifier water content
device. and
b. Thermostatic controlling devices 5. hydrophilic remover
shall be calibrated per 4.2. concentration.
c. Dryer temperatures shall not exceed b. Dry developers shall be checked
72'C (160'F) in the area of the daily for caking and penetrant
component. Recommended dryer contamination.
temperature is 49'C (120 "F). c. Wet developers shall be checked
4.6 Inspection Station daily for penetrant contamination and
a. The area shall be kept clean and free wetting ability and weekly for
of contaminating products and concentration.
clutter. d. ultraviolet light intensities shall be
b. ultraviolet lights used in the checked at the beginning of each
inspection station shall have a shift and after bulb replacement.
minimum intensity of 1000 FWcm2 e. Ambient light intensities shall be
at the working surface of the part checked weekly.
being inspected. f. White light inspection intensities
c. Ambient light in the inspection shall be checked at the beginning of
station during fluorescent penetrant each shift and after bulb replacement.
inspection shall not exceed 20 lx. o
b. System performance checks shall be
d. White light used in the inspection made daily.
station for interpretation and 6.2 Process Limitations
evaluation of visible penetrant a. Do not use form a or b developers
indications shall have a minimum with Type II penetrant systems.
intensity of 1000Ix. b. Do not use Type II penetrants for
final acceptance inspection of

lr
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'eruq 'llo^\p pue uolleclldde luerleued '7
Jr pelBlor eq IFqs sued
Ilea\p luereued Suunp luerleued '?uruuelcerd '1
ur pesJormur urBIueJ lou ileqs sued 'e :eq ileqs ecuenbes uorlcedsur I€uJoN 'q
'Surtrog ro Suunod'8urqsruq 'secuenbos
'Surferds 'Surddrp ,{q peqdde penordde pue peqsrTqslse
'P
^\oIIoJ
eq il€qs luerleued;o uotlucrlddV [eqs suolleJedo uor]cedsur ]ueleuad '3
'e?uur uorlcedsul
ernluredtuel ruilulx€ru eql o,{oq" lu"reued .ro3 suorleredg;o ecuenbeS E9
peleeqe.rd eq ]ou IIBqs slueuodruo3 'peru:ogred ueeq eleq selllnulluocslp
'uorlecqdde tuerloued roJ ({" 0II ece;.tns ecnpord ro esodxa plnoo leql
pue 0S) J" €t pue 0I uoeluoq suorleredo IIe lllun peuuo;red eq ]ou
'a
eq IFqs JIs ]uelqrue pue lue4eued fieqs stueuoduoc;o uoqcedsur l?uld
lueuodtuoc etp Jo emlsJeduel 'c
'ZI;T, A INISV red esn
's,(o1u lunullunle uo eJoJeq ,tlr,rqrsues lcedur JoJ polse]
pesn eq ru^\ (I poqlentr ro g poqlentr 'q eq plnoqs sleueleru ]uerleued 'trlue]
'I'IV elqel ut pol"clpur slueuodtuoc Jo seuq ue8,(xo ?u4cedsur uoqrvt 'P
otll JoJ pesn oq selll^Illsues pue 'suorlcedsur eclnJesur IIB
III^/Y\
sluerleued 3urmo11o; eq1'sSurrrrerp ro; pennber sr redole.tep Jo asn oql '3
Suueeur?ue uo pel€clpur ssopll 'e 's8uvrrerp Sugeeur8ue uo per;rceds
uorlecqddy pue uorlcelos luereuod 9'9 se ldecxe slueuoduroc ecudsoree
EL
74

Table A1.1 : Penetrant selection

Type Sensitivity MateriaUComponent

Level
I I Castings, other than precision.

I 2 All materials not otherwise covered by

this table.

I J Aluminum alloys.
I 3 Method C for suspected localized damage
or rework.

il N/A Ground handling or support equipment

and tooling.

Minimum time will be determined prerinse time is 90 s for any one

by experimentation on a test atea.
component. 2. Hydrophilic remover may be
3. Maximum dwell time is 3 min for applied by immersion, flowing or
Type I penetrants and 30 s for spraying. If a spray rinse is used,
Type II penetrants. do not exceed recommended
4. Emulsifier action shall be stopped limits for remover concentration.
by water immersion or quick Spray rinse parameters Ne in 6.7f .
water spray of the entire J. Remover dwell time will be
component. determined by experimenting on
5. Rinse of the component shall be test components. The dwell time
performed as specified in 6.7f will be the minimum time
d. Method C, Solvent Removal necessary to produce an
1. Type I and II penetrants shall be acceptable background. Dwell
removed by first using a clean, time will not exceed 2 min.
dry, lint free cloth or towel to 4. Final rinse will be performed as
remove excess penetrant. The specified in 6.7f .
remaining background penetrant f. Rinsing
shall be removed, under 1. Removal stations shall conform to
appropriate lighting, by wiping 4.3.
with a clean, lint free cloth or 2. Hydro air nozzles are permitted
towel dampened with solvent. only with Type I, level 1
Repeat until all excess penetrant sensitivity penetrants. Maximum
is removed. air pressure is I72 kPa (25 psi).
2. In no manner will penetrant be 3. Rinse spray will be a coarse spray
removed by spraying or flushing that is cone shaped or fan shaped.
the surface of the component with Spray nozzles will held about
solvent. 30 cm (L2 in.) from the part.
e. Method D, Postemulsifier, 4. Rinse water contaminants that
Hydrophilic Penetrant may leave residue on the
1. Prerinse the component with a component after drying are not
water spray for the time necessary acceptable. Filtering of water may
to remove the bulk of the excess be required.
penetrant. Water spray shall be in
accordance with 6.7f. Maximum
 :pesn eq ol slsrlolelu ]uer1euod eperu eq tou il"qs lueuodruoc
;o Klr.r4rsues pue enbruqcel'eddl eq] 'q orll Jo uoqredsur pug tenemoll
lpesn eq o1 'f,rp sl redola.tep se uoos
sernpecord pue sleuel€{u aql epnlsur se 'pepueururoceJ sI 11 pue ur8eq
plnoqs suorle.redo Sutueelcerd 'e ,(eu slueuodruoc Jo uorlledsul '1
: uollsrruoJur 3umo11o3 uo4enle,4.grrtloqcedsul'l
eql lseel lu ulsluoc 1pm sernpecord 'Surleoc
uepuln 11y'elqeldecce sr slueuodruoc ruJoJlun lq?g u ecnpord ol Jeuueru
JslT-tuls ro; ecrlcerd ueguA\ preueS e ug lueuodruo3 eql oluo pe,(erds
V'uoDetrJrceds srq] 3o s1ueruarmber eq ill,ll redo1e.r.e6 ',(1tue1cg;ns
eq] sloeru l€tp aJnpesord uenrr,t. e ol pelelr?e ro ue{€qs oq IIBqs
Surprocce suorlcedsur ]uerleued IuJoJJed Z'L srouletuoJ 'Sur,terds ,(q pelldde
'Surlsel ere sredole.l,ep snoenbeuoN '9
'lueuodruoc eql luo4
]uerleued ur 1'g red pelJruer III Ie^e'I
e ,{q pe.,rordde puu Suqum ut eq peuIBJp seq redolenep ssecxe
Ilsqs slueuoduoc ro; sernpecord uolllJ/Vt I L rege flelerpeurun sped,ftq
lueurernbeg eJnpetord ue$l{y\ 0'L 'elqeldecce lou sI uo 3uqsrug
'Surferds pue Surnog'Surddtp
'pepoou se pelcelord pue Surueelc fq peqddu eq '(eur sredole,rep
Jeu€ pelJp oq u,v\ slueuodtuo3 'g elqrpuadsns pue elqnlos snoenby '7
'sredolelep lellr oAoIueJ 'lueuodruoc
ot pesn eq,(eur Surqqrucs pIIW 'z Surddq .{pue8 dq penorusr
'sleuoleru ]ue.qeued ile eAoIueJ eq ,(eru redole'rep ,{-rp ssecxg
o] luellos Jo qse^\ rele,l reqlle .{q '3ur33og ro Surlsnp 'Surddrp
peueelclsod eq pA\ s1ueuodruo3 '1 pelldde eq,{eu sredole,rep ,ftC 'g
'(q
3uruee1c1so4 | ',ftp pue wd
'empecord ue1ua\ eql uo st redole,Lap ueqm su6eq
eql ut pepnloul pus pelcedsur eturl IIe^\p redole,req 'uoqcedsur
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eueluc uoqceler pue ecueldelly 'L eq ruA\ setuq llolr\p redoleneg '7
'ecuo fluo pelltu.red st redole,rep :edolenap snoonbeuou
snoenbeuou ;o uotlecqdde ro ,ftp;o uorlecqdde ero;eq PeuP
pue uoqutrpul uu Jo Ie^oueu '9 ,(ialeldruoc oq ilpl. slueuodruo3 '1
'e1up Suueeur?ue ?urdole,teq 'q
red slueruerrnber uoqectyceds 'suor]res Ja>lclql qlrm slueuoduoc
leeru slueuodtuoc ;t euruuolep qll^\ pexru eq lou ileqs suoqJes
ol suoll€3lpul Jo uollsnl?.{e ssoJo urql qlr&\ slueuoduto3 '9
pue uolleloJd;e1ut ruo;.le4 '9 '3uilry
'suoq?clpur elenlene ro lerd:elur Supnp pFbll;o Surlood pro.l'e
o] posn eq.{eu sregru8elAl o1 pelelor eq l11rrr
sged 'perrnber JI 'S
'f1e1e1duroc queuodruoc lcedsul'7 'q I sI3qdry ernleredruel
'sluouodruoc rrrooJ JoJ eruq 8ur,ftprunrurx€W 't
uoqcedsur oJoJeq Jnoco 'pessecorder
ol Suruotlrpuoc {JBp JoJ ur-ur S eq IIBqs u1ru 0€ teql re8uol ro;
lseel le A{olle il?qs suoqlpuoc sre,trp uI uel sued 'urju 0g poecxe
peue>IJep ur Sunlror*r srolcedsul 'g lou fiuqs sre,ftp le Surlelncrrc
'g'Vq pegrceds roJ'olurt aulP iuruurxel4l '€
se suoqrpuoc 8ur1q?g eteudordde .{,rp sr ecepns
pue redord eql ur peqsrldtuocce eql se uoos se re,fup eql uro4
eq 11eqs slueuoduroc;o uorlcedsul '7 penorrroJ eq Iluqs queuodtuo3 '7
'pesdele '9't ol uuoJuoc [L{\ suoqels ,ftC 't
seq eruD ge.tp redolenep oql plun 8ur,ftq '3
ct
 76

c. detailed procedures on the

application and dwell time of
penetrants, the removal of the
penetrant, drying parameters,
developer and application technique,
developer dwell time, inspection and
evaluation requirements and
postcleaning of components;
d. inspection and evaluation criteria will
include areas of high interest on each
component and acceptable and
rejectable criteria based on
engineering data. Allowable limits of
mechanical evaluation should be
included;
postcleaning operations should
include the materials and procedures
to be used; and
documentation requirements for each
inspection.

hrtli
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'tq311 telor.rrritl :s;:t.Irr ol arnsodxe ,{q
SuDse] luerleued ?uurnber lueuodruoc eug 6'V
pe?reqr aq u:t r::lauad luooseJonld 'P
'pesn eJe c pue e fPo 'o 'luerauaC i ::r[TsluoJ qll. a pexr-ur
'posn eJ? e.^.oq? eID Jo IIe 'p eq .ieu l-t:up.J e^Illsues eJolu V '3
'pesn sI redole,raP ,ftP 'c '(1. >;: ir: 0sI) 3. l0I pu? 99
'pesn sI redole.tep snoenbeuou 'q uee.\uac p:::eq:rd aq ,(eu sued eq1 'q
'pesn sr redole,rep larn snoenbe 'e '(d" ost) J" 99
or p::e:q;:j :q .ieru lue4eued eq; 'e
:ueqn{ pennber sy re.{rp e 'sged ilerus Jod 8'V
l.tuer;ua; :n lo uoqecqdde ero;eq euop
'1ueuru.re,Lo? IeJePod'P aq .ilu 5u: no11o; eql Jo qoltl/!\ 'ssecold
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:eql :q iq S:-riu r ur pelsenber JoAeueI{rK '3
'paqsqdurocoe sr slsuoleru
,{q pepr.tord er€ sleeqs elep ,$e;es lelJe}entr L'Y
_Io r:.lLr3;uEqc aielduroc e Je,{ouoq/v[ 'q
'perrnber lou sr uoIleJqIIsS 'P 'peeu
or Sum:o::e ilecrpoued pepueuuocoJ
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lpannber s1ue1 uedo ur sl€ueleru
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ernleredure] e;o ,(curncce urnululu eql 9'Y
'lueruerrnbe.r
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pelcr4seJ eJB sleueletu luerleued elqe^\oilv E'Y ssecord eq1'?ur1se1 luerleued rog I'V
suollseno
^{eFau
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78

A.10 According to the specification, which of the A.l4 According to the specification, Type II
following reference documents is used for penetrant can be used with:
qualification of testing personnel?
a. Form a developer.
a. ATA Specification 105. b. Form b developer.
b. SNT-TC-1A. c. Form c developer.
c. MIL-STD-4108. d. both a and b above.
d. ISO 9712. e. both b and c above.

A.11 Your company has entered into a contract to A.15 According to the specification, Type II
produce components for XYZ penetrants can be used for final acceptance
Manufacturing. A requirement of the inspection of aerospace components.
contract is to use this specification for
penetrant testing of the components. The a. True
date of the contract is January l, 1996; b. False
components were not produced and tested
until June 1996. The Specification was A.16 The system concept for penetrant materials
originally approved for use in January is required for:
1980. It was superseded and revised in May
1985 as the B Revision, again inApril 1992 a. water washable penetrants.
as the C Revision and also in August 1996 b. postemulsifier penetrants.
as the D Revision. Which revision is in c. solvent removed penetrants.
effect for the purpose of your company's d. all penetrants.
contractual requirement? e. The system concept does not have to be
used.
a. The original January 1980 version.
b. Revision B. A.I7 According to the specification, etching of
c. Revision C. components shall be accomplished:
d. Revision D.
e. Any of the above, according to your a. per engineering data.
preference. b. according to MIL-STD-6869.
c. according to the Level IIL
A.l2 Emulsifier dwell time shall be: d. Etching of parts is not permitted.

a. as recommended by the penetrant A.18 The maximum lipophilic emulsifier dwell

material manufacturer. time for Type I penetrants is:
b. as specified in Table 1 of the
Specification. a. 30 s.
c. determined experimentally on each b. 1min.
part. c. 2 min.
d. controlled by use of a stopwatch. d. 3 min,

A.13 According to the specification, specifying

acceptance criteria is the responsibility of:

a. the Level III.

b. Quality assurance personnel.
c. engineering personnel.
d. the Federal government.

m
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 80

Chapter 4 4.2t b. 5.7 b.

Reference B Reference B
4.1 d.
Reference B 4.22 b. 5.8 d.
Reference B Reference A
4.2 d.
Reference A 4.23 a. 5.9 a.
Reference B Reference A
4.3 b.
Reference A 4.24 c. 5.10 c.
Reference A Reference A
4.4 d.
Reference B 4.25 b. 5.11 c.
Reference A Reference A
4.5 a.
Reference A 4.26 e. 5.r2 b.
Reference B Reference B
4.6 a.
References A, B 4.27 c. 5.13 d.
Reference B Reference B
4.7 c.
Reference B 4.28 b. 5.r4 d.
Reference B Reference B
4.8 d.
Reference B 4.29 b. 5.15 c.
Reference A Reference B
4.9 d.
Reference B 4.30 a. 5.16 b.
Reference A Reference B
4.r0 b.
Reference A 4.3r d. 5.17 c.
Reference B Reference A
4.II a.
Reference A 4.32 d. 5.18 c.
Reference C References A, B
4.r2 b.
Reference A 4.33 b, 5.I9 c.
Reference A Reference A
4.t3 d.
Reference A 5.20 e.
Chapter 5 Reference B
4.14 b.
Reference A 5.1 b. 5.2I a.
Reference A Reference B
4.r5 d.
Reference A 5.2 c. 5.22 e.
Reference A Reference A
4.16 a.
Reference A 5.3 b. 5.23 c.
Reference A Reference A
4.I7 c.
Reference A 5.4 d. 5.24 a.
Reference A Reference C
4.18 b.
Reference A 5.5 a. 5.25 b.
Reference B Reference A
4.19 b.
Reference B 5.6 c. 5.26 b.
Reference B Reference A
4.20 b.
Reference A

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82

8.19 c. 9.6 c.
Reference B Reference A
8.20 b. 9.7 d.
Reference B Reference A
8.2t b. 9.8 d.
Reference A Reference A
8.22 a. 9.9 c.
Reference A Reference A
8.23 e. 9.10 d.
Reference A Reference A
8.24 b.
Chapter 10
Reference B

8.25 c.
10.1 b.
Reference A
Reference B
8.26 c.
I0.2 c.
Reference A
Reference A
8.27 d.
Appendix I
Reference B

8.28 d.
A.1 a.

Reference B A.2 d.

8.29 e. A.3 e.
Reference A
4A a.
8.30 c.
A.5 d.
Reference A
8.31 b.
,4'.6 a.

Reference A 4.7 c.

8.32 b. A.8 d.
Reference A A.9 c.

A.10 b.
Chapter 9
A.11 c.
9.I a.
Reference B A.l2 c.

9.2 b. A.13 c.
Reference A A.l4 c.
9.3 c. A.15 b.
Reference A
4.16 d.
9.4 e.
Reference A A.I7 a.

9.5 b. A.18 d.
Reference B