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Social Science AML NMAT Reviewer

Sociology is the scientific study of human society and social behavior. It examines how societies are structured and how social institutions influence individual behavior. There are several major theoretical perspectives in sociology, including functionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic interactionism. Functionalism views society as a system striving for equilibrium, while conflict theory focuses on social change through conflict between groups. Symbolic interactionism examines how people interact and how meanings are constructed. Culture refers to the beliefs, values, and behaviors that are learned and shared by members of a society. It includes material and non-material elements that are transmitted between generations.
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100% found this document useful (2 votes)
642 views11 pages

Social Science AML NMAT Reviewer

Sociology is the scientific study of human society and social behavior. It examines how societies are structured and how social institutions influence individual behavior. There are several major theoretical perspectives in sociology, including functionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic interactionism. Functionalism views society as a system striving for equilibrium, while conflict theory focuses on social change through conflict between groups. Symbolic interactionism examines how people interact and how meanings are constructed. Culture refers to the beliefs, values, and behaviors that are learned and shared by members of a society. It includes material and non-material elements that are transmitted between generations.
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SOCIAL SCIENCES

SOCIOLOGY – is a scientific study of human society and its origins, development, organizations, and institutions. It is
social science which uses various methods of empirical investigation and critical analysis to develop a body of knowledge
about human social activity, structures, and functions.

SOCIAL THEORIES
1. Functionalism – a society is always trying to come into equilibrium or is trying to stabilize.
2. Conflict Theory – focuses on how society has changed and adopt over time through conflict. In CT, there are two
opposing sides that lead to a creation of a new synthesized society.
3. Social Constructionism – looks at what the society is rather than how it exists or changes. In SC, everything is
created from the mind of the society. There is an agreement that something has meaning and value that the
thing does not actually have. Example, money.
4. Symbolic Interactionism – it focuses on the individual and how they behave. Example, a tree means differently
to ten different people. People act based on their past experiences and the meanings they have given things but
not everyone gives the same meaning to everything and those meanings can even change over time.
5. Feminist Theory – focuses on gender inequalities inherent to patriarchal capitalist societies. In patriarchal
societies, men occupy the governing positions both in families and in the community whereas women are
marginalized, objectified, oppressed, subordinated, and discriminated though it is not always apparent. Both
women and men are often forced into socially acceptable gender-based roles. FT can focus on the effects of:
a. Gender differences – like how women’s experience and position in social situations differ from men’s -
different values associated with femininity and masculinity.
b. Gender inequality – women subordination is viewed as an inherent feature of the society because of
the way institutions are structured.
c. Gender oppression – where women are not only viewed as unequal to men but they are actually
oppressed and even envious because of it.
d. Structural oppression – that views women subordination as a result of capitalism, patriarchy, and
racism. FT does not attempt to replace men at the top of the social ladder but rather to shed light on
gender inequalities engrained in our society in the hope of achieving equality.
6. Rational Choice Theory – people always take rational actions weighing the cost and benefit of each action so
that the outcome benefits them the most. A rational choice is part of the pattern of choices that is consistent.
RCT makes three (3) main assumptions:
a. Completeness – that all actions can be right;
b. Transitivity – if A is preferable to B and B is preferable to C (A > B > C), then A is also preferable to C;
c. Independence of irrelevant alternatives – if an additional choice is available it will not change the
relative ranking of the previous choices.
7. Exchange Theory – application of RCT to social interaction. It is used to study family and work relationships,
partner selection, parenting, etc. ET states that people behave with the goal of maximizing their own rewards
while minimizing the punishments; that people have the information they need to make rational choices within
social norms; that self-interest and interdependence guide human interactions and; that human relationships
are formed because people analyze their interactions using cost-benefit analysis. Along with all that, the
standards of what is a reward or what is a punishment change over time or it is different from person to person
– people behave according to a subjective analysis of rewards and punishments of each interaction.

If any of you lacks wisdom, let him ask God, who gives generously to all 1 I NMAT Reviewer for Social Sciences
without reproach, and it will be given him. – James 1:5 Compiled and formatted by Angel Melody L. Legera – Year 2018
ENCULTURATION – is a process in which members of one cultural group adopt the beliefs and behaviours of another
group. It is best shown when people talk, act, and think in acceptable ways.

COMMUNITY – group of people who share a common sense of identity and interact with one another on a sustained
basis.

INSTITUTION – any structure of mechanism of social order and cooperation governing the behaviour of a set of
individuals within a given community.

KINSHIP – the network of social relationships which link individuals through common ancestry, marriage or adoption.

CULTURE – is the sum total of ideas, beliefs, values, material cultural equipment and non-material aspects which man
makes a member of society (E.B. Taylor 1860s). Culture can be conceived as a continuous, cumulative reservoir
containing both material and non-material elements that are socially transmitted from generation to generation.

COMPONENTS OF CULTURE
1. Material Culture – consists of all the physical objects people have borrowed, discovered, or invented and to
which they have attached meaning, example: natural resources, trees, plants.
2. Non-material culture – consists of intangible creations or things that we cannot identify directly through the
senses, example: beliefs, values, norms, folkways, and mores.

COMPONENTS OF NON-MATERIAL CULTURE


1. Beliefs – first component of non-material culture is beliefs, conceptions that people accept as true concerning
how the world operates and where the individual fits in relationship with others. Can be rooted in blind faith,
experience, tradition or the scientific method.
2. Values – represent society’s stipulations about what is acceptable in life.
3. Norms – standards of behaviour governing social situations that are established by a society’s values. These are
patterns of belief that serve to guide, control, and regulate conduct.

TYPES OF NORMS
a. Folkways – customary patterns of everyday life that specify what is socially correct and proper in life. It refer
to minor issues and do no not carry much moral weight.
b. Mores – norms that are tied to a society’s core values and to which people must adhere. Unlike folkways,
they are seen as forms of truth that all people should understand and follow. It reflect much larger issues
necessary for the functioning of society and have more moral significance. Example, a girl wearing the latest
fashion is influenced by folkways, but the need to wear some form of clothing is a reflection of mores.
c. Taboos – is a norm that society holds so strongly that violating it results in extreme disgust. Often times the
violator of the taboo is considered unfit to live in that society.
Example, Incest - sex between close relatives.
d. Laws – norms that are enforced formally by a special organization.
Example, Sanction - a threatened penalty for disobeying a law or rule.
e. Language – system of symbols that have specific and arbitrary meaning in a given society.

If any of you lacks wisdom, let him ask God, who gives generously to all 2 I NMAT Reviewer for Social Sciences
without reproach, and it will be given him. – James 1:5 Compiled and formatted by Angel Melody L. Legera – Year 2018
CHARACTERISTICS OF CULTURE
1. Culture is learned
2. All people have varied culture
3. Culture is a group product
4. Culture is transmitted from generation to generation
5. Culture is adaptive and continually changing

SUB-CULTURE – refers to attitude of certain group from the habitual practices of the majority. Example, new styles of
dressing, language and other practices of a group of people which are different from the majority.

CULTURE PLURALISM – the toleration of cultural differences within a common society allowing different groups to
retain their distinctive cultures.

CULTURE RELATIVISM – concept that the function, meaning, and desirability of a trait depend upon its cultural setting.

CULTURAL TRAIT – the smallest unit of culture perceive by a given observer.

STEREOTYPE – is any commonly known public belief about a certain social group or a type of individual.
Example, gender stereotypes and / or sexual orientation stereotypes. Many people interact initially with the stereotype
rather than with the true person.

SOCIAL CHANGE – is a complex and multi-faceted phenomenon. There are both endogenous (internal to the society
concerned) and exogenous (external to the society) factors influencing social change.

SOCIAL STRATIFICATION – socioeconomic layering of society's members according to property, power, and prestige.

DIFFUSION – spread of cultural traits from one sociocultural system to another.

SOCIALIZATION – is the lifelong process of learning how to become functioning, contributing members of society.
It is through this mechanism that the heritage and culture of a society can be passed on from generation to generation.
This allows society to survive and even proliferate beyond the lifespan of individual members.
1. Primary socialization – first experiences with language, values, beliefs, behaviours, and norms of your society.
2. Gender socialization – learning the psychological and social traits associated with a person’s sex.
3. Race socialization – the process through which children learn the behaviours, values, and attitudes associated
with racial groups.
4. Class socialization – teaches the norms, values, traits, and behaviours you develop based on the social class you
are in.

OPEN CLASS SYSTEM – is an economic system that has upward and downward mobility, is achievement-based, and
allows social relations between the classes. Industrialized nations tend to have open class systems.

CLOSED CLASS SYSTEM – have been confined to their ancestral occupations and their social status has mostly been
prescribed by birth. Most closed class systems are found in less industrialized countries. An example of a closed class
system with limited social mobility is French society before the French Revolution. Under the Ancien Régime, French
If any of you lacks wisdom, let him ask God, who gives generously to all 3 I NMAT Reviewer for Social Sciences
without reproach, and it will be given him. – James 1:5 Compiled and formatted by Angel Melody L. Legera – Year 2018
society was divided between the first estate (clergy), second estate (nobility), and third estate (commoners). Members
of each estate were likely to socialize only with others in the same group.

ASCRIBED STATUS – the social status of a person that is given from birth or assumed involuntarily later in life. It is the
social position one is born into and personal characteristics beyond one's control, such as race and sex.

ACHIEVED STATUS – a social status of a person that is acquired, such as being an Olympic athlete, being a criminal, or
being a college professor. It is one's social standing that depends on personal accomplishments.

In an open class system, people are ranked by achieved status, whereas in a closed class system, people are ranked
by ascribed status.

STRUCTURAL MOBILITY – opportunity for movement in social class that is attributable to changes in the social
structure of a society rather than to changes in an individual.

CASTE SYSTEM – is a form of social stratification characterized by endogamy, hereditary transmission of a style of life
which often includes an occupation, ritual status in a hierarchy, and customary social interaction and exclusion based on
cultural notions of purity and pollution.

CONFORMITY – is an individual’s adopting of attitude and behaviours of others because of pressure (real or imagined) to
do so. Example, a cheerleader who wants to do an original routine but goes along with the majority of the squad in
voting to do a stolen routine exhibits conformity. Conformity can be positive or negative.

DEVIANT ACT – actions or behaviours that violate social norms. Four distinct form of deviance:
1. Innovation – human action out of the ordinary, unique, and unprecedented.
2. Ritualism – a deep devotion to the rules because they are the rules.
3. Retreatism – a person basically “drops out” of society, rejecting both the conventional means and goals.
4. Rebellion – a rejection of goals and means but in the context of a counterculture – one that supports the pursuit
of new goals according to new means.

STIGMA – a powerfully sort of master status that affects a person’s self-concept, social identity, and interactions with
others. Labelling.

ROLE STRAIN – happens when contradicting roles for the same status are both tried to be attained. A teacher very
friendly with her students but must grade them objectively can succumb to role strain; although it is possible to
maintain both role prescriptions, it can also lead to psychological stress.

TWO ORDERS OF SOCIAL ORGANIZATION


1. Primary Group – small social group whose members share close, personal, enduring relationships.
2. Secondary Group – interact on a less personal level than primary group. Relationships are temporary rather
than long lasting. Established to perform functions and people’s roles are interchangeable.

If any of you lacks wisdom, let him ask God, who gives generously to all 4 I NMAT Reviewer for Social Sciences
without reproach, and it will be given him. – James 1:5 Compiled and formatted by Angel Melody L. Legera – Year 2018
GEMEINSCHAFT AND GESELLSCHAFT – somewhat similar to the concepts of primary and secondary groups. Developed
by German sociologist Ferdinand Tonnies. Rough English equivalent are the terms “community” (Gemeinschaft) and
“society” (Gesellschaft).

MECHANISMS OF SOCIAL INTERACTION


1. Imitation – means copying an object or action.
2. Suggestion – tendency to react is already present and can be directed in any situation almost automatically. The
tendency towards an action has to be motivated and aroused.
3. Sympathy – ability to put one’s self in the place of another and to feel as the latter would if confronted by the
same circumstances.
4. Identification – closely akin to sympathy. It is the ability not only to place one’s self in the position of another
but also actually to feel that he is that other person.

MARXIST’S MODEL OF SOCIETY – is an economic and socio-political worldview and method of socio-economic inquiry
based upon a materialist interpretation of historical development, a dialectical view of social change, and an analysis of
class-relations within society and their application in the analysis and critique of the development of capitalism. The
most valid criticism of Marxist’s model of society is the overemphasis on the importance of economic class to explain
historical trends.

MODES OF PRODUCTION – stages of history. Example: primitive communism, feudalism, and capitalism. Defined by a
combination of forces of production (the technical, scientific, and material parts of the economy like tools, buildings,
material resources, technology, and the human labour that makes them go) and relations of production (how people
organize themselves around labour; do people work for wages or do they sell their own goods, how does ownership or
property work), in terms of social constraints, RP specifies how the surplus is taken from the people who produced it
and who gets to decide how the surplus is used.

ECONOMIC CLASSES:
1. BOURGEOISIE – the capitalists. Owners of the means of production in industrial societies whose primary
purpose is to make profits.
2. PROLETARIAT – the working class. They want revolution to benefit from the efforts of their labour.

THEORY OF AUTHORITY BY MAX WEBER


1. Legal Authority – foster belief in competence of the individual discharging statutory obligation.
Statutory means controlled or determined by law.
2. Charismatic Authority – found in a leader whose mission and vision is to inspire others. Leader of a new social
movement who is instilled with divine or supernatural powers, example, a religious prophet.
3. Traditional Authority – the ability and right to rule is passed down through heredity. It does not change
overtime and does not facilitate social change. It tends to be irrational and inconsistent.
4. Functional Authority – the right which is delegated to an individual or department to control specified
processes, practices, policies, or other matters relating to activities undertaken by person in other departments.

BUREAUCRACY – a system of organization noted for its size and complexity. Responsibilities, jobs, and assignments exist
to achieve some goal. It is a formal organization characterized by rules, hierarchy of office, and centralized authority.

If any of you lacks wisdom, let him ask God, who gives generously to all 5 I NMAT Reviewer for Social Sciences
without reproach, and it will be given him. – James 1:5 Compiled and formatted by Angel Melody L. Legera – Year 2018
THREE DIMENSIONS OF WEBER’S NOTION OF SOCIAL CLASS
1. Economic resources
2. Political power
3. Social prestige

FASCISM OR FASCIST SYSTEM – is a form of radical authoritarian nationalism. Fascists seek to unify their nation through
a totalitarian state that seeks mass mobilization of the national community relying on a vanguard party to initiate a
revolution to organize the nation on fascist principles. View political violence, war, and imperialism as means to achieve
national rejuvenation and asserts that stronger nations have the right to expand their territory by displacing weaker
nations.

COMMUNISM – an equal society without social classes or class conflict in which the means of production are the
common property of all.

SOCIALISM – is an economic system characterized by social ownership of the means of production and cooperative
management of the economy. "Social ownership" may refer to cooperative enterprises, common ownership, state
ownership, or citizen ownership of equity.

NEUROTRANSMITTERS – endogenous chemicals that transmit signals (chemical messengers) from a neuron to a target
cell across a synapse.
1. Acetylcholine – plays a major role in the peripheral nervous system. It is released by motor neurons and
neurons of the autonomic nervous system which plays an important role in the central nervous system in
maintaining cognitive function.
2. Dopamine – are monoamines. There are several dopamine pathways in the brain and this neurotransmitter is
involved in many functions including motor control, reward and reinforcement, and motivation.
3. Serotonin – are monoamines. Project to various parts of the nervous system. As a result, serotonin is involved in
functions such as sleep, memory, appetite, mood, and others. It is also produced in the gastrointestinal tract in
response to food.
4. Glutamate – primary excitatory transmitter in the central nervous system.
5. Gamma Aminobutyric Acid (GABA) – major inhibitory transmitter.
6. Noradrenaline (Or Norepinephrine) – are monoamines and is the primary neurotransmitter in the sympathetic
nervous system where it works on the activity of various organs in the body to control blood pressure, heart
rate, liver function, etc.
7. Histamine – the last of the major monoamines which plays a role in metabolism, temperature control,
regulating various hormones, and controlling the sleep-wake cycle, amongst other functions.
8. Endorphins – are neurotransmitters that inhibit the transmission of pain signals and promote feelings of
euphoria. These chemical messengers are produced naturally by the body in response to pain, but they can also
be triggered by other activities such as aerobic exercise. See also, Enkephalins.

EXTRASENSORY PERCEPTION (ESP) – involves reception of information not gained through the recognized physical
senses but sensed with the mind. The term was adopted by Duke University psychologist J. B. Rhine. ESP is casually
referred to as the sixth sense, gut instinct or hunch, and intuition. The term implies acquisition of information by means
external to the basic limiting assumptions of science, such as that organisms can only receive information from the past
to the present.
If any of you lacks wisdom, let him ask God, who gives generously to all 6 I NMAT Reviewer for Social Sciences
without reproach, and it will be given him. – James 1:5 Compiled and formatted by Angel Melody L. Legera – Year 2018
TYPES OF EXTRASENSORY PERCEPTION
1. Clairvoyance – is used to refer to the ability to gain information about an object, person, location or physical
event through means other than the known human senses.
2. Telepathy – is the transmission of information from one person to another without using any of our known
sensory channels or physical interaction.
3. Psychokinesis / Telekinesis – "distant-movement" with respect to strictly describing mental movement or
motion of solid matter. It is a term coined by publisher Henry Holt which refers to the direct influence of the
mind on a physical system that cannot be entirely accounted for by the mediation of any known physical energy.
4. Precognition – precognition (from the Latin præ-, “before,” + cognitio, “acquiring knowledge”), also called
future sight and second sight. It involves the acquisition or effect of future information.

PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS
1. Schizophrenia – a long-term mental disorder involving a breakdown in the relation between thought, emotion,
and behaviour leading to faulty perception, inappropriate actions and feelings, withdrawal from reality and
personal relationships into fantasy and delusion, and a sense of mental fragmentation.
2. Delusional or Paranoid Disorders – accusatory. Generally distrustful and suspicious of other people.
3. Affective or Mood Disorder – psychological disorder characterized by elevation or lowering of a person’s mood
such as depression and bipolar disorder.
4. Anxiety disorders – commonly associated with fear; characterized not only by distressing, persistent anxiety but
also often by the dysfunctional behaviours that reduce that anxiety.
a. Panic Attack – an acute overwhelming attack of fear or anxiety producing personality disorganization
that may persist.
b. Phobia – persistent, irrational fears of specific objects, activities, or situations which lead to avoidance
behaviour.
c. Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD) – characterized by unwanted repetitive thoughts which become
obsession and sometimes accompanied by actions which become compulsions.
d. Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTST) – a result of a very traumatic event/s.
e. Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD) – continually tense and apprehensive, experiencing unfocused,
negative, and out-of-control feelings.
f. Social Anxiety Disorder – characterized by anxiety related to interacting or being seen by others.

EGO DEFENSE MECHANISMS


1. Conversion – the expression of an intrapsychic conflict as a physical symptom. Examples include blindness,
deafness, paralysis, or numbness.
2. Denial – refusal to accept external reality. Example, death of a loved one, failing a test.
3. Projection – attributing one’s own feelings, shortcomings, or unacceptable impulses on others rejecting his own
unacceptable attributes. Example, you justify your cheating on exams claiming that everyone else does it.
4. Aggression – failure to do something or doing it slowly.
5. Displacement – substituting a different target for impulses when the original would be dangerous and
unacceptable; redirecting emotion to a safer outlet. Example, you are angry on something at school and you
poor it out on your little sister.
6. Intellectualization – separates emotions from ideas.
7. Isolation – separation of feelings from ideas and events. Example, describing a murder with graphic details with
no emotional response.
If any of you lacks wisdom, let him ask God, who gives generously to all 7 I NMAT Reviewer for Social Sciences
without reproach, and it will be given him. – James 1:5 Compiled and formatted by Angel Melody L. Legera – Year 2018
8. Rationalization – justifying a behaviour by giving reasonable and “rational” but false reasons for it. Example,
paper due dates in school and you did not have it done cause the printer was broken or the computer crashed.
9. Reaction formation – preventing dangerous impulses from being expressed in behaviour by exaggerating the
opposite behaviour. Example, you know that you are mad but you act that you are totally fine.
10. Regression – temporary reversion of the ego to an earlier stage of development rather than handling
unacceptable impulses in a more adult way. Example, stamping your foot and throwing objects in all directions.
11. Repression – unconsciously preventing painful or dangerous thoughts from entering awareness. Example, child
abuse, childhood trauma.
12. Undoing – a person tries to “undo” an unhealthy, destructive or otherwise threatening thought by acting out the
reverse of the unacceptable.
13. Withdrawal – withdrawal is a more severe form of defense. It entails removing oneself from events, stimuli,
interactions, etc. under the fear of being reminded of painful thoughts and feelings.
14. Identification – the unconscious modelling of one's self upon another person's character and behaviour.
15. Introjection – identifying with some idea or object so deeply that it becomes a part of that person.
16. Somatization – the transformation of negative feelings towards others into negative feelings towards self, pain,
illness, and anxiety.
17. Sublimation – transformation of negative emotions or instincts into positive actions, behaviour, or emotion.
Example, when you are angry instead of expressing what you feel you run for 5 miles or write a song.
18. Supression – “conscious” exclusion of painful memories, thoughts, etc.
19. Altruism – while we are in service of other people, we feel fulfilled, gain pleasure, and satisfaction.

PSYCHOTHERAPHY – involves a therapist using a range of techniques to help a patient overcome troubles, gain insights,
and achieve personal growth. Has four major schools or orientations: psychodynamic, existential-humanistic,
behavioural, and cognitive.

1. PSYCHODYNAMIC
Psychoanalysis – system of psychological theory and therapy which aims to treat mental disorders by
investigating the interaction of conscious and unconscious elements in the mind and bringing repressed fears
and conflicts into the conscious mind by techniques such as dream interpretation and free association until the
patient gains some self-insights. Sigmund Freud is the father of psychoanalysis.

2. EXISTENTIAL-HUMANISTIC – inherent capacity for making rational choices, achieving self-acceptance, and
attaining their maximum potential. Focuses in promoting growth rather than curing an illness.

Client-centered therapy – developed by Carl Rogers. Therapists help their clients by providing an empathetic,
genuine, and accepting environment and using active listening while the therapist echoes and clarifies what
their clients are saying and feeling. This technique provides a safe, non-judgmental place where clients could
accept themselves, to feel valued, and work towards self-actualization.

3. BEHAVIOUR THERAPY – the problem behaviour is the actual issue. It is the treatment of neurotic symptoms by
training the patient’s reactions to stimuli – the best way to eliminate unwanted behaviour is to replace it with
functional behaviour through new learning and conditioning. Rooted in the experiment of Ivan Pavlov; the
classically conditioned dog that drooled with the sound of a bell and worked by E. L. Thorndike and B. F. Skinner
by operant conditioning or changing behaviour by using a positive or negative reinforcement.
If any of you lacks wisdom, let him ask God, who gives generously to all 8 I NMAT Reviewer for Social Sciences
without reproach, and it will be given him. – James 1:5 Compiled and formatted by Angel Melody L. Legera – Year 2018
4. COGNITIVE THERAPY – focuses more on what people think than what they do. Helps patients understand that
changing what we do to ourselves is a very effective way to cope with our anxieties and modify our behaviour.

OTHER PSYCHOLOGICAL THERAPIES


1. Gestalt therapy – psychotherapeutic approach that focuses on insight into gestalts in patients and their
relations to the world, and often uses role playing to aid the resolution of past conflicts.
2. Rational emotive therapy – comprehensive, active-directive, philosophically and empirically based
psychotherapy which focuses on resolving emotional and behavioural problems and disturbances and enabling
people to lead happier and fulfilling lives.

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING – learning process that occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired; a response which is
first elicited by the second stimulus is eventually elicited by the first stimulus alone.

OPERANT CONDITIONING – conditioning in which an operant response is brought under stimulus controlled by virtue of
presenting reinforcement contingent upon the occurrence of the operant response.

STIMULUS GENERALIZATION – transfer of a response learned to one stimulus to a similar stimulus.

DESENSITIZATION – process of reducing sensitivity.

MODELLING – form of learning where individuals ascertain how to act or perform by observing another individual.

SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY – phenomenon of learning and memory which was first seen in classical conditioning and
refers to a re-emergence of a previously extinguished conditioned response after a delay.

GESTALT PRINCIPLE OF PERCEPTUAL ORGANIZATION – the brain is holistic, parallel, and analogue with self-organizing
tendencies.
1. Proximity – objects or events that are near to one another are perceived as belonging together as a unit.
2. Continuation – there is innate tendency to perceive a line as continuing its established direction.
3. Closure – innate tendency to perceive incomplete objects as complete and to close or fill gaps and to perceive
asymmetric stimuli as symmetric.
4. Common fate law – aspects of perceptual field that function in a similar manner will be perceived as a unit.
5. Similarity law – parts of a stimulus field that are similar to each other tend to be perceived as belonging as
unity.

PIAGET’S STAGES OF COGNITIVE GROWTH


1. Sensorimotor – birth through 18 – 24 months. Only aware what is immediately in front of them; focus on what
they see, what they are doing, and physical interaction with their immediate environment.
2. Preoperational – toddlerhood to childhood (6). Think about things symbolically. Language becomes more
mature and develop memory & imagination which allows to understand the difference between past and future.
3. Operational – ages 7-12. Demonstrates logical and concrete reasoning. Thinking becomes less egocentric and
increasingly aware of external events.
4. Formal operational – adolescence through adulthood. Able to logically use symbols related to abstract concepts.

If any of you lacks wisdom, let him ask God, who gives generously to all 9 I NMAT Reviewer for Social Sciences
without reproach, and it will be given him. – James 1:5 Compiled and formatted by Angel Melody L. Legera – Year 2018
MASLOW’S HEIRARCHY OF NEEDS – theory of human motivation. Basic needs are found at the bottom of the triangle.
1. Physiological – breathing, food, water, sex, sleep, homeostasis and excretion.
2. Safety – security of body, employment, resources, morality, family, health and property.
3. Love / belonging – friendship, family, sexual intimacy.
4. Esteem – self-esteem, confidence, achievement, respect of others and respect by others.
5. Self-actualization – morality, creativity, spontaneity, problem solving, lack of prejudice and acceptance of facts.

OTHER SOCIOLOGICAL TERMS AND CONCEPTS

PROVERBS – a short, well-known saying, stating a general truth or piece of advice.

INVENTION – unique or novel device, method, composition or process.

DISCOVERY – initial awareness of existing but unobserved elements of nature.

PEPINSKY – effective form of social control among Chinese communists is by group manipulation of guilt and shame.

PRIMARY FUNCTION OF RELIGION IN HUMAN SOCIETIES – establish orderly relationship between man and
surroundings.

FIXATION – concept originating from Sigmund Freud. It is the state in which a person becomes obsessed with an
attachment to another person, being or object.

ILLUSION – distortion of the senses, revealing how the brain normally organizes and interprets sensory stimulation.

HALLUCINATION – perception in the absence of apparent stimulus which has qualities of real perception.

AUDITORY IMAGERY – form of mental imagery that is used to organize and analyze sounds when there is no external
auditory stimulus present.

EIDETIC IMAGERY – the Eidetic Image has been identified in psychological literature as a vision, as a source for new
thought and feeling, as a material picture in the mind which can be scanned by the person as he would scan a real
current event in his environment.

THORAZINE / CHLORPROMAZINE – synthetic drug used as a tranquillizer or sedative.

PERCEPT – an object of perception; something that is perceived.

THRESHOLD – magnitude or intensity that must be exceeded for a certain reaction.

SUBLIMINAL – below the threshold of sensation or consciousness.

VON RESTORFF EFFECT – aka isolation effect, predicts that an item that “stands out like a sore thumb” is more likely to
be remembered than other items.

ZEIGARNIK EFFECT – people remember uncompleted or interrupted tasks better than completed tasks.

If any of you lacks wisdom, let him ask God, who gives generously to all 10 I NMAT Reviewer for Social Sciences
without reproach, and it will be given him. – James 1:5 Compiled and formatted by Angel Melody L. Legera – Year 2018
GREENSPOON EFFECT – experimental effect found in some studies of verbal conditioning in which the speaker’s use of
certain classes of words may increase in frequency when reinforced by the listener making appropriate diffident
gestures of assent.

MULLER-LYER ILLUSION – optical illusion consisting of stylized arrow.

A loving parent who is firm and consistent produces a competent and self-reliant child.

Man’s impulses most frequently conflict with moral standards of society: sex and aggression.

SELECTIVE ATTENTION – being able to focus one’s auditory attention on a particular stimulus while filtering out a range
of other stimuli.

SENSORY ADAPTATION – change over time in the responsiveness of sensory system to a constant stimulus.

JUST NOTICEABLE DIFFERENCE – smallest detectable difference between a starting and secondary level of particular
sensory stimulus.

ROGER’S SELF THEORY – Roger’s rejected the deterministic nature of psychoanalysis and behaviourism and maintained
that we behave as we do because of the way we perceive our situation. Believed that humans have one basic motive,
that is the tendency to self-actualize- to fulfill one’s potential and achieve the highest level of human-beingness we can.

NEGATIVE TRANSFER – the obstruction of or interference with new learning because of previous learning.

DIFFUSION OF RESPONSIBILITY – socio-psychological phenomenon whereby a person is less likely to take responsibility
for action or inaction when others are present, example: being in a public place.

PROBLEM WITH EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH IN PSYCHOLOGY – demands characteristics, Hawthorne and Halo effects.

DEMAND CHARACTERISTICS – experimental artifact where participants form an interpretation of the experiment’s
purpose and unconsciously change their behaviour to fit that interpretation.

HAWTHORNE EFFECT – the alternation of behaviour by the subjects of a study due to their awareness of being
observed.

HALO EFFECT – tendency for an impression created in one area to influence opinion in another area.

RANDOM ASSIGNMENT – experimental technique for assigning subjects to different treatments.

HEURISTIC AVAILABILITY – mental shortcut that relies on immediate examples that come to mind.

CONTRAST – to set in opposition in order to show or emphasize differences.

HABITUATION – decrease in response to a stimulus after repeated presentations.

REPETITION – act or process or an instance of repeating or being repeated.

If any of you lacks wisdom, let him ask God, who gives generously to all 11 I NMAT Reviewer for Social Sciences
without reproach, and it will be given him. – James 1:5 Compiled and formatted by Angel Melody L. Legera – Year 2018

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