Calibration of Geopressure Predictions

using the Normal Compaction Trend:

Perception and Pitfall
Selim Shaker
Geopressure Analysis Services (G.A.S.), East Stroudsburg, Pennsylvania, USA

The prediction of pore pressure (PP) is primarily established Background

based on the divergence of the petrophysical measurements
from the normal compaction trend. In the transition zone Generic subsurface pore pressure profile is usually divided
between the hydrostatically pressured and geopressured into three segments:
systems, formation water is expelled gradually from sedi-
1. The shallow, upper, unconfined section is usually subject to
ments due to pressure gradient drop from deeper to shal-
free flow surface water. In an offshore setting, sea level
lower depth. In this transition zone velocity, density and
fluctuation, brackish water encroachment, and sediment
resistivity increase downward concurrent with the rate of
influx have a direct impact on the hydrostatic behavior of
dewatering process. The Normal Compaction Trend (NCT)
the normally pre s s u red system (Fig. 1). This shallow
represents the optimum fitted linear trend of these measured
unconsolidated sediment extends between the mud-line
data in the low permeable beds in this transition zone.
(sea floor) down to the depth where the compaction dise-
Inversely, in the geopressured system (where water is no
quilibrium dewatering (CDD) process commences. Surface
longer capable of escaping) velocity, density, and resistivity
casing (drive pipes) is usually hammer-driven through this
measurements decrease in the low permeable beds.
unconsolidated section.
In this study PP prediction and analyses, based on the effec-
tive stress models of numerous wildcats in the shelf and deep
water in the Gulf of Mexico, reveal the significance of
correctly defining the slope and extent of NCT.

Defining the NCT is an intricate process, which relies on

several aspects. Stratigraphy and frequency of seals to reser-
voirs determine the slope and extent of NCT. In the outer-
shelf paleo-environment a short extent and higher slope of
NTC is usually associated with higher pore pressure gradient
(PG). On the other hand, in the inner-shelf and deep water
paleo-environments where NCT has a long extent and lower
slopes a low PG is found. Moreover, structural setting has an
immense impact on the slope and extent of the NTC slope.
Structural high is usually associated with higher NCT slope
(higher PG) and, conversely, structural low shows low NTC
Figure 1. The three generic subsurface zones illustrated as unconfined, hydro-
slope (lower PG). dynamic, and confined geopre s s u red. Hydrostatic, pore pre s s u re, and principal
stress are shown as H, PP, and PS, consecutively.
The manual change of the slope on NCT leads to artificial
alteration of the ratio of extrapolated normal petrophysical 2. The middle hydrodynamic section, where upward dewa-
value to the actual observed petrophysical measurements, i.e. tering process takes place between CDD down to a depth
the value of ΔTn /ΔTo at a specific depth. Therefore, swaying where stress and stratigraphy prevent fluid from breaching
the NCT slope for the purpose of calibrating and fine tuning the top seal. The upward fluid flow in this section is a result
the predicted pressure compromises the effective stress – of the gradual pressure gradient drop from the deep to the
pore pressure transformation process. Breaking the NCT to shallow layers. The depth where dewatering is seized is
several segments for the same purpose is a compromising referred to as fluid retention depth (FRD) or top of geopres-
adjustment process. sure (TOG). This Transition Zone (TZ) represents the phase
where compaction disequilibrium is active between the
Moreover, because the structural setting of a lead or a
lower confined geopressure and the unconfined upper
prospect has a direct impact on the NCT’s slope, and there-
sections. Drilling water flow hazards are common in this
fore assuming a common NCTC for the whole explored area
zone among young deep-water sediments. These hazards
is another pore pre s s u re interpretation mishandling.
are usually initiated by the vertical flow generated by the
Noteworthy, petrophysical data acquisition; processing and
pressure differential and permeability contrast in this zone.
quality affect the outcome results and calculations.
3. The lower confined section is geopressured and the pore
Recommendations concluded from this study treat the NCT
pressure gradient exceeds the hydrostatic. Although sand
slope and extent as a constant predetermined geological
beds (reservoirs) show a hydrostatic pressure gradient,
component in the process of PP prediction – effective stress
pressure gradient in shale (seals) is higher and tends to be
transformation models.

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Calibration of Geopressure Predictions…
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analogous to the principal stress (PS) pre s s u re gradient. Geological aspects affect the slope
Drilling in the geopressured section requires several casing and extent of NCT
points contingent on the subsurface drilling tolerance window
(Shaker, 2002). Stratigraphy
In the TZ, formation water is expelled gradually from sediments Age: the PP profile in younger clastic sediments shows more
due to pressure gradient drop from deeper to shallower depth active pressure build up and compartmentalization than older
and consequently velocity, density and resistivity increase down- sediments that have been subjected to pressure decay over time.
ward concurrent with the rate of dewatering process. The Normal Therefore, NCT exhibits faster development and higher slope in
Compaction Trend (NCT) represents the optimum fitted linear younger basins, compared to older ones.
trend of these measured data in the low permeable beds. On the
other hand, in the geopressured system (below TOG) where Stratification and the sand/shale: The ratio of reservoir beds (sand)
water is no longer capable of escaping, velocity, density, and to seal beds (shale) impacts the slope of NCT and the depth of
resistivity measurements retreat in the seals. the TOG. Delineation of NCT in a predominantly sandy
lithology is incongruous. Shale picks on the SP/gamma and the
The effective stress model of transforming the petrophysical corresponding R/DT have to be carefully chosen. For example,
measurement (e.g. sonic slowness) to pore pressure in the fine the sand rich middle-lower Miocene (Amph. B-Siph.D) section in
clastic (shale, mud, fine silt) beds is based on:
PP = PS – ES Terzaghi 1943
PPz = OBz – (OBz – Pnz) * (ΔTn/ΔTo)^X Eaton 1975
Where:
PP = predicted pore pressure
PS = principal stress = Overburden (OB) in case of passive struc-
ture areas
ES = Effective stress
Z = depth to point of measurement
Pn = the normal pressure at depth Z
ΔTn = the assumed normal sonic slowness at depth Z (calculated
from the NCT)
ΔTo = the observed (measured) sonic slowness at depth Z
X = PP transformation exponent (variable with age/basin loca-
tion)
Figure 3. Shows an example of sand rich sequence in West Cameron 38, Well #2. A
Therefore, the keystone for this prediction practice is the value of short TZ and higher slope NCT are observed.
ΔTn /ΔTo, which is mainly conveyed as a result of establishing
the slope on the NCT (fig. 2).

Figure 2. Shows the mathematical model that transforms the petrophysical proper-
ties (i.e. ΔT) to predicted pore pressure (PPP). Measured pore pre s s u re expressed as Figure 4. A shaley sequence in West Cameron 208, Well #1 where the TZ has a long
MPP. extent and the NCT has gradual slope.

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West Cameron 38 Well #2 (Fig. 3), the NCT is only identified Offshore shelf – shale based basins: A thick shale section of deep
between 8500 and 11000 feet (TZ is about 2500’). On the other paleo-environment forms the base of the sedimentary column in
hand, in shale prone sections the CDD starts at a shallower depth the offshore Texas Shelf. Ridges and intra-basins were created as
and NCT exhibits a gradual slope. This case can be exhibited in a result of differential stress due to the progradational load of
West Cameron Block 208 Well #1 (Fig. 4) where the middle sediment input throughout the Oligo-Miocene time (Fig. 6).
Miocene (TxW – Cris.I) is a predominantly shaley section. In this
well CDD is at 4500 feet and TOG at 11500 feet (7000’ of TZ). Wells drilled on the crest and in proximity of a ridge (e.g. Brazos
Ridge) show higher NCT slope gradient and consequently a
Structural Setting higher PP gradient. This is the case in Mustang Island block 90-
A Well #1 where TZ covers a short interval (about 2000’) and
In the clastic extensional sedimentary basins, tectonic interaction NCT shows high slope gradient (Fig. 7). Note the mud-weight
between shale/salt diapirisms and the input sediments load has profile shows a sharp increase crossing the TOG zone to the
a direct impact on the orientation and the strength of the prin- geopressured compartmentalization below.
cipal stress. The principal stress, which is the main driving mech-
anism for generating the excess pre s s u re, can exceed the
overburden (sediment weight) on top of structural highs (loca-
tions A and B in Fig. 5). On the other hand, in a basinal position,
where shale and salt base withdrew to accommodate for influx of
expanded coarser sediments, principal stress may be retarded
and slows down the pore pressure development (location C in
Fig. 5). Consequently, NCT slope shows a higher gradient on
structural highs and, conversely, low gradient in structural lows
(Fig. 5). Several cases from the Gulf of Mexico follow:

Figure 7. Shows the impact of the shale diapirism on the pore pre s s u re development
in Mustang Island 90A, Well #1. A short TZ and high slope NCT were calculated.

Wells drilled in the intra-basins show a slower pressure build up

as a result of low slope gradient of the NCT. In case of Matagorda
Island Block 712 Well #1, the CDD-TOG interval is about 6000
Figure 5. A conceptual model shows the relationship between subsurface structure
feet and shows a low NCT gradient (Fig.8). Note the mud weight
setting, overburden, shear stress, principal stress and the NCT slope. profile slowly increases crossing through the TZ interval to
compensate for the gradual PP increase.

Figure 6. An offshore Texas seismic section shows the compressed thinning sedi- Figure 8. A case of pore pressure development in an intra-basin structure setting.
ments on the top of the shale ridge (Mustang Island 90A) and the expanded section An extended TZ and gentle NCT slope were observed.
in the intra-basin area (Matagorda Island 712).

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Deep water salt basins: The salt has unique physical properties expected to be higher than the assumed OB. As a result, NCT shows
such as low density, impermeability and a ductile nature. high gradient associated with short transition zone between 11,500 and
Interacting with sediment loads creates a different form of salt 14,000 feet (Fig.11). Pore pressure shows a strong pressure ramp (about
tectonic related features such as diapirs, ridges, withdrawal 2000 psi) below the TOG. As a result, high sealing capacity in the
synclinal basins, overhangs, canopies, etc. During formation of geopressured section of this structural feature led to the prolific
these features, the force and orientation of the stress fields producing zones in the Auger Field.
change (Fig. 5). In general, pore pressure shows a high gradient
above salt and low gradient below salt (Shaker, 2005). The NCT The predicted pore pressure profile in GB 426 Well #1 was calcu-
on the top of diapiric structural high features in the transition lated using the resistivity to determine the effective stress – pore
zone shows high gradient and, consequently, higher PP gradient. pressure transformation model in the shale beds. Measured pore
On the other hand, salt synclinal basins exhibit low NCT pressure in the sand beds was plotted from RFTs tests (Fig. 11).
gradient and, accordingly, slow pressure gradient build up. For Note compartmentalization settings and entrapment sealing
the purpose of this paper two examples will be given: capabilities concurred with the predicted and measured PP.

1. Salt diapirs

Auger field (Garden Banks 426, 427, 470 and 471) has been chosen as
a case history. The Auger dome (Fig. 9) created a structural trap within
the ponded facies assemblage (Prather et al., 1998). Differential
compaction of sediments and the adjacent salt created a salt-cored
structural high. The PP geopressure model (Fig. 10) shows the down-
ward gravity overburden stress due to the weight of the sediments (OB)
in addition to the upward stress field created by the salt buoyancy
and/or the diapiric force. This creates a total vertical principal stress

Figure 9. Shows a geological cross section at the Auger Basin. During salt
diapirism, sediment thins on highs and expands in surroundings salt withdrawal
mini-basins. On the other hand, shallow sediments were layered down evenly post Figure 11. Shows the short extent and high slope of the NCT in Garden Banks 426,
intrusion. Well #1 & St #1. This led to effective geopressure compartmentalization and conse-
quently high sealing capacity.

2. Salt withdrawal basins

Hydrocarbon entrapment in a basinal structure setting is usually

associated with pinch out on its flank and fault traps. In the case
of Green Canyon Block 908 Well #2, the well was targeting an
amplitude anomaly at the flank of this mini-basin (Fig. 12).
Withdrawal of the salt base from west to east created the GC
908mini-basin in the west and a salt ridge to the east. An
expanded section was deposited in the basin as a result of salt
giving way to deposit influx and consequently retarded the prin-
cipal vertical stress. The geopressure model (Fig. 13) sheds light
on the possible low pressure profile gradient and the slow devel-
opment of the transition zone and long NCT due to salt with-
drawal.
Figure 10. A geopre s s u re model shows the effective development of pore pressure Geopressure analysis was conducted on this well using resis-
(PP) on top of salt diapirism. Overburden, principal stress and fracture pressure tivity to predict PP in the shale and the measured RFT’s in sand
consequently are expressed as OB, PS and FP.

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beds. This analysis showed a possible weak TOG at 17,300 feet,
as indicated by minor pressure transgression. Meanwhile, the
measured pressure in the sands between 14,850 and 17,294 feet
shows a linear trend. The gradient of this trend is slightly higher
than the regional Gulf of Mexico (GoM) hydrostatic gradient
(0.465 psi/ft) and it might represent a typical transition Zone
(TZ) gradient. Noteworthy, salinity of the formation water in salt
basins is slightly higher than the salinity of the open water and it
might have contributed to the increase of the linear slope on the
RFT data (Fig. 14). NCT has a very gentle slope and thick TZ
interval which exceeds 10,000 feet. Pore pressure build up is very
slow and compartmentalization – sealing capacity is very weak.
Therefore, this well was deemed as P&A.

Noteworthy, the calibrated models and exponents used in the above-

Figure 12. Shows the trajectory of Well #2, Green Canyon 908. This well was drilled mentioned two cases are specifically designed to predict pore pressure in
in a salt withdrawal basin.
the GoM upper Tertiary-Quaternary mini-salt basins cases.

Data source acquisition and quality

B e f o re drilling, predicting pore pre s s u re is a challenging
endeavor. Seismic interval velocity extracted from RMS velocity
is widely used for this purpose. Velocity picks from NMO
(normal move out) gathers should be checked against semblance

Figure 13. A geopressure model illustrates the slow pore pressure development due
to the salt withdrawal. The salt evacuation leads to retard the principal stress (PS)
and consequently low pressure gradient and poor sealing capacity.

Figure 14. Shows possible ineffective geopressure compartmentalization with a long Figure 15. Defining the top of geopressure TOG is contingent on data source, acqui-
extent of TZ and very low slope of NCT. sition, and quality. Drilling records associated with well logs images are the ulti-
mate method to delineate TOG.

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for quality control. Sequence stratigraphy can help in picking the Check shot surveys are not favorable for pore pressure predic-
shale velocity intervals. During drilling, a bundle of data tion if they are used as they were acquired. They are mostly shot
becomes available for PP prediction, measurements and calibra- for the purpose of time-depth conversion, horizons mapping,
tion. LWD, MWD, conventional logs, mud log, direct PP meas- and synthetic calibration. A check-shot survey is usually
urements in the sand (RFT, MDT, DFT, FPWD) and engineering sampled at equal depth without regard to lithology and conse-
drilling records are used to establish the subsurface geopressure quently, acoustic impedance. This is contrary to velocity picks
profile to reach the target objective in a safe and economically extracted from seismic. Figure 17 shows two interval velocities
feasible manner. extracted from check shot surveys of High Island Block 88 Well
#1 and High Island Block 171-A Well #1. The first one was
Establishing the slope on the NCT and defining the TOG at a sampled every 500 feet and the second one every 100 µs. Notice
specific location can be varied from one data set to another (Fig. on both of them NCT and the TZ are not well defined. TOG was
15). Using seismic velocity is usually limited to acoustic imped- established from resistivity (TOG-R), mud log and drilling
ance difference picks. In case of well logs, the digital data alone records at depths 9800 and 11,200 feet, consecutively. The defined
does not distinguish between the changes in values due to the NTC/TOG from the two check-shot velocity surveys is not in
CDD or TOG. Visual plotting incorporated with digital data is agreement with the TOG-R on both surveys. Special processing
favorable for assigning the NCT slope and the TOG depth. of velocity from check-shot surveys can improve PP prediction
In case of large volume seismic velocity (3D), NCT can not be (Sayers et al. 2005).
generalized in an area (i.e. common NCT). Figure 16 shows the
discrepancy of NCT slope between two nearby interval velocities. Dividing NCT into multiple segments
These RMS velocities were extracted from two gathers half a mile
apart. SP 610 is on a structurally higher position than SP 580 and Breaking the NCT into selective segments to fit the predicted
consequently SP 610 has a higher NCT gradient than SP 580. pore pressure with the drilling records and the measured pres-
sure data during and post drilling is another interpretation
pitfall. This leads to an artificial monitor of the ΔTn/ΔTo values
for the purpose of calibration and compromises the effective
stress transformation model (Fig.18).

Figure 16. Defining the NCT from RMS velocities can be varied in different loca-
tions due to subsurface geological setting.

Figure 18. Two examples of data manipulation and breaking NCT into several
segments for calibration purposes.

Conclusion
Defining the NCT slope and extent from the petrophysical meas-
urement (velocity, density, and resistivity) is the backbone of the
effective stress-pore pressure transformation procedure. They
represent the subsurface interval where the dewatering process
takes place between the free flow percolating shallow section
and the fluid retention depth (TOG). Transition Zone (TZ) is the
Figure 17. Shows the difficulties of establishing NTC from check shot surveys due
to the sampling process. arbitrary physical description for this interval in this article.

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Calibration of Geopressure Predictions…
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Velocity, density and resistivity increase in correspondence with Data acquisition, processing and quality affect NCT slope and PP
the water expulsion rate in this zone. The Normal Compaction prediction results. Therefore, choosing the adequate petrophys-
Trend (NCT) represents the optimum fitted linear trend of these ical measurements from seismic, well logs and check-shot
measured data in the low permeable beds in TZ. surveys is essential for PP analysis. Well logs images in collabo-
ration with digital images are very helpful in establishing NCT
Subsurface stratigraphy and structural settings directly impact slope and extent.
NCT slope and confinement. In inner shelf paleo-environment and
basinal structural settings where course sediments dominate, NCT Sway, tampering and breaking the NCT into multiple segments
shows a gentle slope and a long TZ interval. On the other hand, for the purpose of calibrating the predicted PP can lead to serious
high gradient NCT slope and short TZ interval characterize the pitfalls in pressure modeling results. Pore pressure prediction is a
subsurface profile in middle-outer shelf environments associated function of geological setting rather than data manipulation. R
with high stru c t u res such as shale
ridges, salt diapers and domes.

Suggested reading
Terzaghi,K., 1943, “Theoretical soil mechanics,”
John Wiley and Sons Inc., New York
Sayers, C.M et al., 2005, “Regional trends in
undercompaction and overpresssured in the Gulf of
Mexico,” SEG, 75th Annual Technical Program,
expanded abstract
Eaton, B.A., 1975, ”The equation for Geopressure
prediction from well logs” Society of Petroleum
Engineers
Shaker, S.S., 2002, “Causes of disparity between
predicted and measured pore pressure” TLE, Vol.21,
No. 8
Shaker, S.S., 2005, “Geopressure compartmentaliza-
tion in salt basins: their assessment for hydrocarbon
entrapments in the Gulf of Mexico,” 55th
GCAGS/GCSSEPM annual convention
Prather et al., 1998, “Classification, Lithology
Calibration, and Stratigraphic Succession of Seismic
Facies of intraslope Basins, Deep Water Gulf of
Mexico,” AAPG Bulletin Vol.82/5A
Sik Huh, et al., 1996, “Region Structure and
Tectonics of the Texas Shelf,” a special publication
of Gulf Coast Association of Geological
Societies, pp 39-51

Contact: Geopressureinc@cs.com

January 2007 CSEG RECORDER 35