Chapter 1: Introduction 

1. Industrial Power Distribution 

Industrial units rely on an efficient flow of electricity for production. The power
supplied to different units varies as per the power availability in the system.
 The new age power distribution systems dismiss the power into different circuits
as per the requirement.
 The system also considers other factors that protect the system from a
fluctuating power supply that can result in breakdown of machinery or any component
due to sudden power deficiency. Moreover, for a system with multiple operations, any
delay due to the interrupted power supply will hamper the process.
The advanced or comprehensive systems are used to monitor and track the power
consumption and electricity leakage in the circuit. The machine operators can engage
the machinery in a manner that power consumption is optimised. 
One of the major factors affecting uninterrupted power flow is – strategically
placed transformers,
 capacitors, 
switchgear,
other electrical equipment.

Fig1. Industrial power Distribution

In addition to this, Smart Panels are used to pinpoint even the minutest overload or
power shortage in the system. It helps in decision-making processes with an aim to
improve the operational efficiency of the entire system. 
 When working in coordination with the Modular Power Distribution system,
mitigates the need to predict the future requirements and configurations of your data
centre.

Benefits are:

a.  Manageability – The entire system can be monitored under a single control unit. The
operations of the machinery can be controlled remotely.

b. Network management capability – It is a fully feature loaded network management

interface. It offers smart management control with the help of Web, SNMP, and Telnet.

c. Current Monitoring – Monitors aggregate the value of current that is drawn per power
distribution unit and the checks if there is any leakage.

d. Ease of system expansion – Power Distribution Modules can be scaled easily. It

provides an option to expand data centre power distribution capability as power
demands increase or cut down the flow where there is no demand.

e. Modular design – It is designed to fit in high-tech industrial office spaces. Efficient

system monitoring reduces the risks involved and maintenance cost of the machinery
because of self-diagnosing and field-replaceable modules.

f. System mobility – It is a mobile unit that can be relocated to a distant place. It can
accommodate a changed data centre environment.

g. Protection – The system protects the machinery from fluctuating power supply.
Sudden power deficiency can result in the breakdown of machinery or any component.

h. Safety – The power distribution system prioritises the safety of the machine operator
and individual components and electrical switches. The system ensures that all touch
points are isolated with a positive locking mechanism. It reduces the chances of
accidental disconnection.

i. Tool-less installation of breakers – It can be installed without tools or any other

equipment and integrated with the existing systems.

2. Some Terminologies

a. Connected load:

The sum of the continuous power ratings of all load-consuming apparatus connected to
an electric power distribution system or any part thereof is known as connected load.

Conductors should have an ampere sufficient to carry the load; the ampere of the
feeder-circuit need not always be equal to the total of all loads on all branch-circuits
connected to it.

The demand factor permits a feeder-circuit ampere to be less than 100% of the sum of
all branch-circuit loads connected to the feeder.

b. Maximum demand

Maximum demand (often referred to as MD) is the largest current normally carried
by circuits, switches and protective devices. It does not include the levels of current
flowing under overload or short circuit conditions.
 Assessment of maximum demand is sometimes straightforward. For example, the
maximum demand of a 240 V single-phase 8 kW shower heater can be calculated by
dividing the power (8 kW) by the voltage (240 V) to give a current of 33.3 A. This
calculation assumes a power factor of unity, which is a reasonable assumption for
such a purely resistive load.
There are times, however, when assessment of maximum demand is less obvious.
For example, if a ring circuit feeds fifteen 13 A sockets, the maximum demand clearly
should not be 15 x 13 = 195 A, if only because the circuit protection will not be rated at
more than 32 A. Some 13 A sockets may feed table lamps with 60 W lamps fitted,
whilst others may feed 3 kW washing machines; others again may not be loaded at all.
Lighting circuits pose a special problem when determining MD. Each lamp-holder
must be assumed to carry the current required by the connected load, subject to a
minimum loading of 100 W per lamp holder (a demand of 0.42 A per lamp holder at
240 V). Discharge lamps are particularly difficult to assess, and current cannot be
calculated simply by dividing lamp power by supply voltage. The reasons for this are:
1. Control gear losses result in additional current,
2. the power factor is usually less than unity so current is greater, and
3.C hokes and other control gear usually distort the waveform of the current so that it
contains harmonics which are additional to the fundamental supply current.

So long as the power factor of a discharge lighting circuit is not less than 0.85, the
current demand for the circuit can be calculated from:

current (A) = (lamp power (W) x 1.8) / supply voltage (V)

For example, the steady state current demand of a 240 V circuit supplying ten 65
W fluorescent lamps would be: I = 10X65X1.8A / 240 = 4.88A
Switches for circuits feeding discharge lamps must be rated at twice the current
they are required to carry, unless they have been specially constructed to withstand
the severe arcing resulting from the switching of such inductive and capacitive loads.

c. Demand factor
Demand factor is always less than one.  
Demand Factor = Maximum demand / Total connected load on the system

Example 1: if a residence having 6000W equipment connected has a maximum

demand of 3300W,
Then, D.F = 3300W / 6000W = 55%.

The lower the demand factor, the less system capacity required to serve the
connected load.

Example2:
 
One Machine Shop has
Fluorescent fixtures=1 No, 5kw each,
Receptacle outlets =1 No, 1500w each.
Lathe=1No, 10 Hp,
Air Compressor=1 No, 20 Hp,
Fire Pump=1 No, 15 Hp.
After questioning the customer about the various loads, the information is further
deciphered as follows:
The shop lights are on only during the hours of 8 a.m. to 5 p.m.
The receptacle outlets are in the office only, and will have computers and other
small loads plugged into them.
The lathe is fully loaded for 5 minutes periods. The rest of the time is setup
 
time. This procedure repeats every 15 minutes.
 
The air compressor supplies air to air tools and cycles off and on about half the
time.
The fire pump only runs for 30 minutes when tested which is once a month after
hours.
  Demand Factor = Demand Interval Factor x Diversity Factor.
= (15 minute run time/ 15 minutes) x 1.0 = 1.0
Lighting Demand Load = 5 kW x 1.0 = 5 kW
Receptacle Outlet Demand Factor = Demand Interval Factor x Diversity Factor
= (15 minute run time / 15 minutes) x 0.1 = 0.1

Receptacle Outlet Demand Load = 15 x 1500 watts x 0.1 = 2.25 kW

Lathe Demand Factor = Demand Interval Factor x Diversity Factor.
= (5 minute run time / 15 minutes) x 1.0 =0 .33
Lathe Demand Load = 10 hp x .746 x .33 = 2.46 kW
Air Compressor Demand Factor = Demand Interval Factor x Diversity Factor.
= (7.5 minute run time / 15 minutes) x 1.0 = 0.5
Air Compressor Demand Load = 20 hp x .746 x .5 = 7.46 kW
Fire Pump Demand Factor = Demand Interval Factor x Diversity Factor.
= (15 minute run time/ 15 minutes) x 0.0 = 0.0
Fire Pump Demand Load = 15 hp x .746 x 0.0 = 0.0 kW

Summary of Demand Loads :

Equipment kW D.F. Demand KW

Lighting 5 1 5
Receptacle 22.5 .1 2.25
Outlets
Lathe 7.5 .33 2.46
Air Compressor 15 0.5 7.46
Fire Pump 11.25 0.0 0.0
TOTAL   61.25 Kw   17.17 Kw

Diversity factor / simultaneity factor (Ks)

Diversity factor in a distribution network is the ratio of the sum of the peak
demands of the individual distribution boards to the peak demand of the network.
Diversity Factor = Sum of Individual Max. Demand. /  Max. Demand on Industry
Diversity Factor = Installed load. /  Running load.

Diversity factor is usually more than one. (Since the sum of individual max.
demands >Max. Demand)
 The load is time dependent as well as being dependent upon equipment
characteristics. The diversity factor recognizes that the whole load does not equal the
sum of its parts due to this time Interdependence (i.e. diverseness).

When the maximum demand of a supply is being assessed it is not sufficient to

simply add together the ratings of all electrical equipment that could be connected to
that supply. If this is done, a figure somewhat higher than the true maximum demand
will be produced. This is because it is unlikely that all the electrical equipment on a
supply will be used simultaneously.

The concept of being able to De-rate a potential maximum load to an actual

maximum demand is known as the application of a diversity factor. 70% diversity
means that the device in question operates at its nominal or maximum load level 70%
of the time that it is connected and turned on.

If total installed full load ampere is twice your running load ampere then the
diversity factor is two.
If total installed full load ampere is four times your load a ampere then the
diversity factor is four.
If everything (all electrical equipment) was running at full load at the same time the
diversity factor is equal to One.

Greater the diversity factor, lesser is the cost of cost of power.

This will be determined by the type of service, i.e., residential, commercial,

industrial and combinations of such.

Example-I: 

A distribution feeder serves 5 houses, each of which has a peak demand of 5 KW.
The feeder peak turns out to be 20 kw. The diversity is then 20/25 or 0.8. This results
from the timing differences between the individual heating/cooling, appliance usages
in the individual customers.
As supply availability decreases, the diversity factor will tend to increase toward
1.00. This can be demonstrated when restoring service after outages (called “cold
starts”) as the system initial surge can be much greater than the historical peak loads.

Example-II: A sub-station has three outgoing feeders:

feeder 1 has maximum demand 10 MW at 10:00 am,

feeder 2 has maximum demand 12 MW at 7:00 pm and
feeder 3 has maximum demand 15 MW at 9:00 pm,

While the maximum demand of all three feeders is 33 MW at 8:00 pm.

 Here, the sum of the maximum demand of the individual sub-systems (feeders) is
10 + 12 + 15 = 37 MW, while the system maximum demand is 33 MW. The diversity
factor is 37/33 = 1.12.

The diversity factor is usually greater than 1; its value also can be 1 which

 
indicates the maximum demand of the individual sub-system occurs simultaneously.

Diversity is the relationship between the rated full loads of the equipment
downstream of a connection point, and the rated load of the connection point.

To illustrate:

The building at these co-ordinates is fitted with a 100A main supply fuse.The
distribution board has
2no. 6A breakers,
1no. 20A breaker and
5no. 32A breakers,
a total, potentially, of 192A.

Not all these rated loads are turned on at once. If they were, then the 100A supply
fuse would rupture, as it cannot pass 192A. So the diversity factor of the distribution
board can be said to be 192A/100A, or 1.92, or 52%.
 
Many designers prefer to use unity as the diversity factor in calculations for
planning conservatism because of plant load growth uncertainties. Local experience
can justify using a diversity factor larger than unity, and smaller service entrance
conductors and transformer requirements chosen accordingly.

The diversity factor for all other installations will be different, and would be based
upon a local evaluation of the loads to be applied at different moments in time.
Assuming it to be 1.0 may, on some occasions, result in a supply feeder and
equipment rating that is rather larger than the local installation warrants, and an over-
investment in cable and equipment to handle the rated load current. It is better to
evaluate the pattern of usage of the loads and calculate an acceptable diversity factor
for each particular case.

Diversity Factor in distribution Network

Elements of System Diversity Factors

Residential Commercial General Large

Power Industrial

Between individual users 2.00 1.46 1.45

Between transformers 1.30 1.30 1.35 1.05

Between feeders 1.15 1.15 1.15 1.05

Between substations 1.10 1.10 1.10 1.10

From users to transformers 2.00 1.46 1.44

From users to feeder 2.60 1.90 1.95 1.15

From users to substation 3.00 2.18 2.24 1.32

From users to generating station 3.29 2.40 2.46 1.45

Diversity Factor for distribution switchboards

Number of circuits Diversity Factor

(ks)

Assemblies entirely tested 2 and 3 0.9

4 and 5 0.8

6 to 9 0.7

10 and more 0.6

Assemblies partially tested in every case choose 1

Diversity Factor for according to circuit function (IEC 60439)

                        Circuits Function Diversity Factor

(ks)

Lighting 0.9

Heating and air conditioning 0.8

Socket-outlets 0.7

Lifts and catering hoist

For the most powerful motor 1

For the second most powerful motor 0.75

For all motors 0.8

Diversity Factor for an apartment block

Apartment Diversity Factor

(ks)

2 To 4 1

5To 19 0.78

10To 14 0.63

15To 19 0.53

20To 24 0.49

25To 29 0.46

30 To 34 0.44

Example: 5 storey apartment building with 25 consumers, each having 6 kVA of

installed load.

The total installed load for the building is: 36 + 24 + 30 + 36 + 24 = 150 kVA
The apparent-power supply required for the building is: 150 x 0.46 = 69 kVA

It is a matter of common experience that the simultaneous operation of all installed

loads of a given installation never occurs in practice, i.e. there is always some degree
of diversity and this fact is taken into account for estimating purposes by the use of a
simultaneity factor (ks).

The Diversity factor ks is applied to each group of loads (e.g. being supplied from a
distribution or sub-distribution board). The determination of these factors is the
responsibility of the designer, since it requires a detailed knowledge of the installation
and the conditions in which the individual circuits are to be exploited. For this reason,
it is not possible to give precise values for general application.
 Designing Size of Electrical Switchgear by use of Demand Factor and Diversity
Factor:

Diversity factors are used by utilities for distribution transformer sizing and load
predictions. Demand factors are more conservative and are used by NEC for service
and feeder sizing.
 Demand factors and diversity factors are used in design.
For example, the sum of the connected loads supplied by a feeder is multiplied by
the demand factor to determine the load for which the feeder must be sized. This load
is termed the maximum demand of the feeder. The sum of the maximum demand
loads for a number of sub feeders divided by the diversity factor for the sub feeders
will give the maximum demand load to be supplied by the feeder from which the sub
feeders are derived.

Example-1: Suppose We have four individual feeder-circuits with connected loads

of 250 kVA, 200 kVA, 150 kVA and 400 kVA and demand factors of 90%, 80%, 75%
and 85% respectively.
Use a diversity factor of 1.5.
Calculating demand for feeder-circuits
250 kVA x 90% = 225 kVA
200 kVA x 80% = 160 kVA
150 kVA x 75% = 112.5 kVA
400 kVA x 85% = 340 kVA
837.5 kVA
The sum of the individual demands is equal to 837.5 kVA.
If the main feeder-circuit were sized at unity diversity: kVA = 837.5 kVA ÷ 1.00 =
837.5 kVA.
The main feeder-circuit would have to be supplied by an 850 kVA transformer.
However, using the diversity factor of 1.5, the kVA = 837.5 kVA ÷ 1.5 = 558 kVA
for the main feeder.
For diversity factor of 1.5, a 600 kVA transformer could be used.

Load factor

Load Factor = Average load. /Maximum load during a given period.

It can be calculated for a single day, for a month or for a year.

Its value is always less than one. Because maximum demand is always more than
avg. demand. It is used for determining the overall cost per unit generated. Higher the
load factor, lesser will be the cost per unit.

Load Factor = Load that a piece of equipment actually draws / Load it could draw
(full load).

Example:
Motor of 20 hp drives a constant 15 hp load whenever it is on.
 The motor load factor is then 15/20 = 75%.
Load factor is a term that does not appear on your utility bill, but does affect
electricity costs. Load factor indicates how efficiently the customer is using peak
demand.
 Load Factor = ( energy (kWh per month) ) / (  peak demand (kW) x hours/month )

A high load factor means power usage is relatively constant. Low load factor
shows that occasionally a high demand is set. To service that peak, capacity is sitting
idle for long periods, thereby imposing higher costs on the system. Electrical rates are
designed so that customers with high load factor are charged less overall per kWh.

For Example

Customer A – High Load Factor

82% load factor = (3000 kWh per month x 100%) / 5 kW x 730 hours/month.

Customer B – Low Load Factor

41% load factor = (3000 kWh per month x 100%) / 10kW x 730 hours/month.

To encourage the efficient use of installed capacity, electricity rates are structured
so the price per kWh above a certain load factor is lower. The actual structure of the
price blocks varies by rate.

Utilization factor (Ku)

In normal operating conditions the power consumption of a load is sometimes less

than that indicated as its nominal power rating, a fairly common occurrence that
justifies the application of an utilization factor (ku) in the estimation of realistic values.

Utilization Factor = The time that a equipment is in use./ The total time that it
could be in use.

Example: 
The motor may only be used for eight hours a day, 50 weeks a year.
The hours of operation would then be 2000 hours, and the motor  Utilization factor
for a base of 8760 hours per year would be 2000/8760 = 22.83%.
With a base of 2000 hours per year, the motor Utilization factor would be 100%.
The bottom line is that the use factor is applied to get the correct number of hours that
the motor is in use.
This factor must be applied to each individual load, with particular attention to
electric motors, which are very rarely operated at full load. In an industrial installation
this factor may be estimated on an average at 0.75 for motors.
For incandescent-lighting loads, the factor always equals 1.
For socket-outlet circuits, the factors depend entirely on the type of appliances
being supplied from the sockets concerned.
What is the difference between connected load and demand load?

Total Connected Load (TCL) is the mechanical and electrical load (in kW) that will be
connected (or to consumed) for that particular area.The Maximum Demand (MD) is the
total kW that actually contributes the total power used in one time after applying the
diversity factor based on the Total Connected Load calculated.Example 1Let say, your
own bedroom is having 1no. 2hp air-conditioning split unit, 4nos. of single phase socket
outlet and 1no. 2X36W T8 Florescent Tube.I’m using the Excel program since I can
easily manipulate all the values in case fine-tuning values need to be made in
future.Then, your Total Connected Load and the Maximum Demand will be as per
above;

By looking into the figure above, the Total Connected Load and the Maximum Demand
is 2.57kW and 1.36kW respectively.
 1. The unit for TCL and MD is in Watt. Therefore, all the loads need to convert into
Watt.a) 2hp a/cond split unit = 2 X 746W = 1492Wb) 2X36W Flou. Fitting = (2 X 36W)
+ Ballast Wattage = 80Wc) 13A Socket Outlet = 250W
2. Determine the Diversity Factor (DF) for the respective load. The DF is the
percentage of load that will contribute for the total of the Maximum Demand. For the
above example, I’m expecting the split unit will contribute 6o% of the total MD, lighting
will be 80% and socket outlet is 40%.
3. Multiply the Diversity Factor with the Connected Load to get the Maximum
Demand.
4. Summing-up the individual MD to obtain the Total MD. By calculating the TCL,
you’ll know the total load connected for a particular area and also you can determine the
sizing of cables. But, the most important thing is by having the TCL, you can determine
your MD. This MD will be declared to the utility provider for the purpose of meter deposit
and utility bill.

Demand Factor & Load Factor according to Type of Industries

Type of Industry Demand Load Utilization Factor

Factor Factor (DF x LF)

Arc Furnace 0.55 0.80 0.44

Induction Furnace 0.90 0.80 0.72

Steel Rolling mills 0.80 0.25 0.20

Mechanical/ Electrical

a) Single Shift 0.45 0.25 0.11

b) Double Shift 0.45 0.50 0.22

Cycle Industry 0.40 0.40 0.16

Wire products 0.35 0.40 0.14

Auto Parts 0.40 0.50 0.20

Forgings 0.50 0.35 0.17

Cold Storage

a) Working Season 0.60 0.65 0.39

b) Non-Working Season 0.25 0.15 0.04

Rice Sheller’s

a) Working Season 0.70 0.80 0.56

b)  Non-Working 0.05 0.30 0.01

Season

Ice Candy Units

a) Working Season 0.50 0.65 0.32

b) Non-Working Season 0.50 0.10 0.05

Ice Factories

a) Working Season 0.80 0.65 0.52

b) Non-Working Season 0.80 0.10 0.08

Cotton Ginning

a) Working Season 0.70 0.25 0.17

b) Non-Working Season 0.10 0.10 0.01

Spinning Mills 0.60 0.80 0.48

Textile Industry 0.50 0.80 0.40

Dyeing and Printing 0.40 0.50 0.20

Ghee Mills 0.50 0.50 0.25

Oil Mills 0.70 0.50 0.35

Solvent Extraction Mills 0.45 0.50 0.22

Plastic 0.60 0.25 0.11

Soap 0.50 0.25 0.12

Rubber (Foot Wear) 0.45 0.35 0.16

Distilleries 0.35 0.50 0.17

Chemical Industry 0.40 0.50 0.20

Gas Plant Industry 0.70 0.50 0.35

Pain and Colour Factory 0.50 0.40 0.20

Sugar 0.30 0.45 0.13

Paper 0.50 0.80 0.40

Flour Mills(Single Shift) 0.80 0.25 0.20

Atta Chakies 0.50 0.25 0.12

Milk Plants 0.40 0.80 0.32

Printing Presses 0.35 0.30 0.10

Repair Workshops 0.40 0.25 0.10

Bottling Plants 0.40 0.35 0.14

Radio Stations 0.55 .0.45 0.25

Telephone exchange 0.50 0.90 0.45

Public Water Works 0.75 0.40 0.30

Medical Colleges 0.60 0.25 0.15

Hospitals 0.25 0.90 0.22

Nursing Homes 0.50 0.50 0.25

Colleges and Schools 0.50 0.20 0.10

Hotels and Restaurants 0.75 0.40 0.30

Marriage Palaces 1.00 0.25 0.25

Demand Factor & Load Factor according to Type of Buildings:

Individual Facilities Demand Load

 Factor Factor

Communications – buildings 60-65 70-75

Telephone exchange building 55-70 20-25

Air passenger terminal building 65-80 28-32

Aircraft fire and rescue station 25-35 13-17

Aircraft line operations building 65-80 24-28

Academic instruction building 40-60 22-26

Applied instruction building 35-65 24-28

Chemistry and Toxicology 70-80 22-28

Laboratory

Materials Laboratory 30-35 27-32

Physics Laboratory 70-80 22-28

Electrical and electronics systems 20-30 3-7

laboratory

Cold storage warehouse 70-75 20-25

General warehouse 75-80 23-28

Controlled humidity warehouse 60-65 33-38

Hazardous/flammable storehouse 75-80 20-25

Disposal, salvage, scrap building 35-40 25-20

Hospital 38-42 45-50

Laboratory 32-37 20-25

Dental Clinic 35-40 18-23

Medical Clinic 45-50 20-23

Administrative Office 50-65 20-35

Single-family residential housing 60-70 10-15

Detached garages 40-50 2-4

Apartments 35-40 38-42

Fire station 25-35 13-17

Police station 48-53 20-25

Bakery 30-35 45-60

Laundry/dry cleaning plant 30-35 20-25

K-6 schools 75-80 10-15

7-12 schools 65-70 12-17

Churches 65-70 5-25

Post Office 75-80 20-25

Retail store 65-70 25-32

Bank 75-80 20-25

Supermarket 55-60 25-30

Restaurant 45-75 15-25

Auto repair shop 40-60 15-20

Hobby shop, art/crafts 30-40 25-30

Bowling alley 70-75 10-15

Gymnasium 70-75 20-45

Skating rink 70-75 10-15

Indoor swimming pool 55-60 25-50

Theater 45-55 8-13

Library 75-80 30-35

Golf clubhouse 75-80 15-20

Museum 75-80 30-35

Rajendra Dahal

Dy HOD,
Department of Electrical Engineering

Purwanchal Campus