Slovin’s Formula

Use Slovin’s formula to find out what sample of a population of Step 3. Class interval
1,000 people you need to take for a survey on their soda
preferences. Determine the approximate class interval size: The size of class
interval is obtained by dividing the range of data by the number
Step 1. Figure out what you want your confidence level to be. of classes and is denoted by h class interval size
For example, you might want a confidence level of 95 percent
(which will give you a margin error of 0.05) h = range

Step 2. Plug your data into the formula. In this example, K

we’ll use a 95 percent confidence level with a population size of
1,000. Step 4. Starting point
Decide the starting point: The lower class limit or class boundary
should cover the smallest value in the raw data. It is a multiple
n= N of class intervals.

Step 5. Class limit

(1 + Ne²)
Determine the remaining class limits (boundary): When the
= 1,000 lowest class boundary has been decided, by adding the class
interval size to the lower class boundary you can compute the
(1 + 1000 * 0.05²) upper class boundary. The remaining lower and upper class
limits may be determined by adding the class interval size
=285.714286 repeatedly till the largest value of the data is observed in the
class.
Step 3. Round off your answer to a whole number (because
you can’t sample a fraction of a person or thing!) Step 6. Respective classes
285.714286 = 286 Distribute the data into respective classes: All the observations
are divided into respective classes by using the tally bar (tally
Frequency Distribution mark) method, which is suitable for tabulating the observations
into respective classes. The number of tally bars is counted to
A frequency distribution table is a chart that summarizes values get the frequency against each class. The frequency of all the
and their frequency. It's a useful way to organize data if you classes is noted to get the grouped data or frequency
have a list of numbers that represent the frequency of a distribution of the data. The total of the frequency columns must
certain outcome in a sample.  be equal to the number of observations.

Step 1. Range Activity

Find the range of the data The marks obtained out of 25 by 30 students of a class in
the examination are given below.
The range is the difference between the largest and the smallest
values. 20, 6, 23, 19, 9, 14, 15, 3, 1, 12, 10, 20, 13, 3, 17, 10,
11, 6, 21, 9, 6, 10, 9, 4, 5, 1, 5, 11, 7, 24
Step 2. Number of classes
Decide the approximate number of classes in which the data are CORRELATION
to be grouped. There are no hard and first rules for number of
The degree of association of the two variables
classes. In most cases we have 5 to 20 classes. H.A. Sturges
provides a formula for determining the approximation number of A measure of strength of association among and between
classes. the variable

Formula: Pearson’s product moment correlation coefficient or also known

as Pearson’s r was developed by Karl Pearson (1948)
K=1+3.33logN Pearson’s correlation coefficient is a statistical measure of the
where K= Number of classes strength of a linear relationship between paired data.

and logN = Logarithm of the total number of observations. Pearson's r is always between -1 and +1, where -1 means a
perfect negative, +1 a perfect positive relationship and 0 means
Example: If the total number of observations is 50, the number the perfect absence of a relationship.
of classes would be
Correlation is an effect size and so we can verbally describe the
K=1+3.33logN strength of the correlation using the guide that Evans (1996)
suggests for the absolute value of r:
K=1+3.33log50
 .00-.19 “very weak”
K=1+3.33(1.69897)
 .20-.39 “weak”
K=1+5.6575
 .40-.59 “moderate”
K=6.6575 classes, approximately. (7)
 .60-.79 “strong”

 .80-1.0 “very strong”

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 X=2 X=5

FORMULA

STEP 4: Cross Product

Find the cross products

Cross Product- multiplying the two deviation scores together.

r = Pearson’s correlation coefficient

x bar = mean or average of the variable

∑ = Summation of the variable X Y X- mean of X Y- mean of Y (X)(Y)

X = score of the first variable 1 4 1-2= -1 4-5= -1 1
Y = score of the second variable 2 5 2-2= 0 5-5= 0 0
XY = the product of the two paired scores
3 6 3-2= 1 6-5= 1 1
∑= 2
STEP 1: Correlation- Stating Ho and H1
First, we’ll state our null(H0) and alternative (H1) hypotheses:
STEP 5: Square Deviation Scores
Population correlation is zero; there is no relationship between x
and y in the population p = ‘rho’ After finding the deviation scores, we need to square each of these
X Y X- mean of X Y- mean of Y (X)(Y) X2 Y2
1 4 1-2= -1 4-5= -1 1 1 1
2 5 2-2= 0 5-5= 0 0 0 0
Population correlation is not zero; there is a relationship 3 6 3-2= 1 6-5= 1 1 1 1
between x and y in the population – could be positive or ∑= 2 ∑= 2 ∑= 2
negative, test.
values.

STEP 6: Summation
Add up all the squared or also known as the sum of the squared
STEP 2: Calculating Correlation Coefficient deviation scores.

Begin with calculating the mean of X and the mean of Y.

X Y X- mean of X Y- mean of Y X2 Y2
Ex. Mean of X (1+2+3)/3
1 4 1-2= -1 4-5= -1 1 1
Mean of X = 2 2 5 2-2= 0 5-5= 0 0 0
Mean of Y (4+5+6)/3 3 6 3-2= 1 6-5= 1 1 1

Mean of Y = 5

x y STEP 7: Applying the Formula

1 4

2 5

3 6
Use the formula above in determining the relationship of the
variables.

X Y X- mean of  Y- mean of Y (X)(Y) X2 Y 2

X
STEP 3: Deviation Scores
1 4 1-2= -1 4-5= -1 1 1 1
Deviation Score indicate how far each value deviates (or depart 2 5 2-2= 0 5-5= 0 0 0 0
from) the mean.
3 6 3-2= 1 6-5= 1 1 1 1
Calculate the DEVIATION SCORES for each variable. ∑= 2 ∑= ∑= 2
2
Deviation scores subtract the mean from each value.
r= 2

√ (2)(2)
X Y X- mean of Y - mean of r= 2 __
X Y
√4
1 4 1 - 2 = -1 4 - 5 = -1
r= 2___
2 5 2-2=0 5-5=0
2
3 6 3-2=1 6-5=1
r=1
Mean of Mean of

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Interpretation: There is strong relationship Ss between- sums of squares—between-group some of squares
between variable X and Y. Ss within- within-group or error sum of squares,

Ss. Total- total sum of squares

Note: Total sum of squares can be partitioned into between sum

ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE of squares and within sum of squares, representing the variation
due to treatment (or the independent variable) and variation
ANOVA is a statistical technique that assesses potential
due to individual differences in the score respectively:
differences in a scale-level dependent variable by a nominal-level
variable having 2 or more categories. 
Step 5. Computing SS total
Example
SS stands for Sum of Squares. It is the sum of the squares of
An ANOVA can examine potential differences in IQ scores by the deviations from the means.
Country (US vs. Canada vs. Italy vs. Spain).
Sum of Squares
Ronald Fisher in 1918 extends the t and the z test which have
the problem of only allowing the nominal level variable to have two
categories.

FISHER ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE

A One way ANOVA is used to compare two means from two
independent (unrelated) groups using the F-distribution.
Step 6. Computing SS within
The null hypothesis for the test is that the two are equal. Therefore,
Sum of Squares Within
a significant result means that the two means are unequal.

Example:

Situation 1: You have a group of individuals randomly split into

smaller groups and completing different tasks. For example, you
might be studying the effects of tea on weight loss and form three Step 7. Computing SS Between
groups: green tea, black tea, and no tea.
Ss total – Ss within

Situation 2: Similar to situation 1, but in this case the individuals are Step 8. Computing Ms Between
split into groups based on an attribute they possess. For example,
you might be studying leg strength of people according to weight. Mean square between is used to calculate the F ratio
You could split participants into weight categories (obese, (sometimes called the F-value):
overweight and normal) and measure their leg strength on a weight
machine. Ss between
STEP by STEP COMPUTATION dfn
Step 1. Write the hypothesis of the study. Step 9. Computing Ms within
H1 = accepted or alternative hypothesis Mean square between is used to calculate the F ratio
Ho = rejected or null hypothesis (sometimes called the F-value):

Step 2. Finding the Critical Value Ss within

The dfn is the number of degrees of freedom that the dfd

estimate of variance used in the numerator is based on.
Step 10. F test
dfn=K-1 Mean square between is used to calculate the F ratio
“k" is the number of groups
(sometimes called the F-value):
The dfd is the number of degrees of freedom that the
estimate used in the denominator is based on. The dfd is Ms between
often called the degrees of freedom error or dfe. Ms within
dfd = N-k Anova Summary Table contains the results of all of the
calculations. It should look like:
where "a" is the number of groups and "N" is the total
number of subjects in the experiment. The shape of the F Source SS df MS F
distribution depends on dfn and dfd. The lower the
____________________________________________________________
degrees of freedom, the larger the value of F needed to
be significant. Between 20.133 2 10.067 6.426

Step 3. Critical Value Within 18.800 12 1.567

Total 38.933 14
REFER TO THE ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE TABLE

Step 4. Find the mean per group ____________________________________________

Sum of Squares Components

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