Pressure sensors:

The design engineer’s guide

Pressure sensors:
The design engineer’s guide

INTRODUCTION 3 CHAPTER 6 – CORE TECHNOLOGIES 51

6.1 Capacitive vs piezoresistive vs piezoelectric 52

CHAPTER 1 - HOW PRESSURE 6.2 Piezoresistive strain gauge pressure sensors 55

SENSORS WORK 4
6.3 Capacitive pressure sensors 58
1.1 Pressure sensing elements 9
6.4 Piezoelectric pressure sensors 61

6.5 MEMS pressure sensors 64

CHAPTER 2 - APPLICATIONS 13
6.6 Optical pressure sensors 68
2.1 Pressure sensors: automotive applications 15

2.2 Pressure sensors: medical applications 19

CHAPTER 7 – TYPES OF MEDIA MEASURED 71
2.3 Pressure sensors: industrial applications 22
7.1 Air pressure sensors 72
2.4 Pressure sensors: building and home
automation applications (inc. HVAC) 24
7.2 Barometric (atmospheric)
pressure sensors 76
2.5 Pressure sensors: consumer
applications (inc. wearable) 27
7.3 Gas pressure sensors 79

7.4 Water pressure sensors 81

7.5 Liquid pressure sensors 83

CHAPTER 3 – A COMPLETE LIST
OF PRESSURE SENSOR TYPES AND 7.6 Pneumatic and hydraulic pressure sensors 85
TECHNOLOGIES 30
7.7 Pressure sensors for corrosive liquids
and gases 87

CHAPTER 4 – PRESSURE SENSOR

OUTPUT SIGNALS 34
CHAPTER 8 – PRESSURE SENSING IN
HARSH ENVIRONMENTS 89

CHAPTER 5 – TYPES OF PRESSURE

MEASUREMENTS 37
CHAPTER 9 – UNDERSTANDING
5.1 Absolute pressure sensors 40 PRESSURE SENSOR SPECIFICATIONS 93

5.2 Gauge pressure sensors 44

5.3 Differential pressure sensors 48

2
Pressure sensors:
The design engineer’s guide

THE EXPANDING APPLICATIONS OF • An exploration of the different types of pressure

PRESSURE SENSORS (WHY WE MADE THIS measurement - absolute, gauge and differential
GUIDE) and a comparison between the three: absolute
vs gauge vs differential.
The worldwide pressure sensor market was worth
$7.1 billion USD in 2015 and is estimated to be • A comparison of capacitive vs piezoresitive vs
worth $11.4 billion by 2024. That’s 60% growth piezoelectric
over 6 years or a compound annual growth rate of • The different technologies - MEMS,
5.4%. capacitive, piezoresistive strain gauge,
piezoelectric, optical - including the working
And while analysts are busy predicting the future,
principle, function and construction, design
engineers are busy creating it.
considerations, applications, and the advantages
In recent years, pressure sensors have become and disadvantages of each technology.
digital, miniaturised, lower-cost and lower-
• Measuring pressure in different media - air, the
powered. These changes have increased sensor
atmosphere, gas, water, liquid, pneumatic and
efficiency and performance, generating a new
hydraulic systems, and corrosive liquids and
wave of innovation.
gases.
The applications are vast across many industries
• Measuring pressure in harsh environments,
- aerospace, automotive, medical, consumer, including high temperature, high pressure,
wearables, industrial, HVAC, home automation, underwater, salt water and dynamic
and more. environments.
In a fast-moving area of technology, it can be • Demystifying the specification sheet
difficult to keep up. And if you’re researching a
new product, you might want to know the latest
lay of the land and what developments are over HOW TO USE THE GUIDE
the horizon. Whether you’ve designed with pressure sensors
The Design Engineer’s Guide to Pressure Sensors before or not, we’ve created this guide to
is intended to help you navigate this fast-changing provide a handy reference and overview of the
terrain, as you set out to create the applications technology.
of tomorrow. It isn’t necessarily intended to be read from start
to finish as a complete story; it’s more of a field
guide. You can pick and choose the parts most
WHAT’S IN THE GUIDE?
relevant to you, and consume them in whichever
In this 9-chapter guide, we’ll cover:
order you like.
• An introduction to how pressure sensors work
All of this is designed to give a greater
and pressure sensing elements
understanding of the available options, insight into
• Detailed insight into various applications, the various possible applications, and help you
including specific spotlights on automotive, determine which sensor is right for your intended
medical, building and home automation application.
(including HVAC), consumer and wearables, and
If you need any further assistance, our technical
industrial.
specialists are on hand to help. Feel free to get in
• An overview of the different types of pressure touch at avnet-abacus.eu/ask-an-expert.
sensors
We wish you well in your exploration.
• A quick clarification on terminology: transducers
vs transmitter vs sensors

3
How pressure 1.0
sensors work

Pressure sensors vary widely in their construction, Important criteria such as measurement range,
due to the range of applications for the environmental suitability, physical size, and
components. Just one example is their use in power requirements will have a significant guiding
consumer equipment such as smartphones, influence on engineers looking for an application
often to aid navigation or other more specialised specific solution.
measurement apps.
CAPACITIVE PRESSURE SENSORS
Typically, these are barometric pressure sensors,
designed to detect changes in atmospheric A capacitive pressure sensor contains a capacitor
pressure. with one rigid plate and one flexible membrane
as electrodes. The area of these electrodes being
Throughout industrial and commercial scenarios,
fixed, the capacitance is proportional to the
there are multiple demands for accurate pressure
distance between the electrodes. The pressure to
measurement, such as:
be measured is applied to the flexible-membrane
• Gas pressure inside a tank, such as an industrial- side, and the resulting deflection causes a change
compressor reservoir in capacitance that can be measured using an
• Measuring level or volume of liquid contained by electrical circuit.
sensing the pressure at the bottom of a vessel The diagram below illustrates the operating
• Measuring pressure differences between two principle behind capacitive pressure sensing.
points in a system, as a means of monitoring or
quantifying the flow of liquids or gases Insulating
material Rear cavity:
• Barometric pressure: change in atmospheric Static
plate terminations
pressure with weather conditions or etc.
with altitude. Useful in weather stations,
environmental monitoring, or to assist
Diaphragm
navigation dead reckoning alongside GPS or cell static position
triangulation.

WHAT IS PRESSURE? PRESSURE

Pressure = Force/Area

In SI (MKS) units, a force of one Newton, applied to Deflected

diaphragm
an area of one square meter, exerts a pressure of
one Newton per square meter, or one Pascal.
Dielectric
Any kind of pressure sensor contains a mechanism
or structure that reacts proportionately to a force
The capacitive pressure transducer relies
applied. The area over which the force is applied
on capacitance change produced by deflection
is constant, for a given sensor structure.
of the membrane, which alters the capacitor
WORKING PRINCIPLE geometry.

An electronic pressure sensor relies on a physical

reaction to applied pressure, and then measuring
the resulting proportional change electronically.
Commonly used phenomena include changes in
capacitance, or changes in ohmic resistance of a
strain gauge or piezoelectric element, which are
proportional to the magnitude of the deflection
when pressure is applied.

4
How pressure 1.0
sensors work

STRAIN GAUGE PRESSURE SENSORS CONSTANT CURRENT RESOURCE

(-1.5mA) +VEXC
In a strain gauge type pressure sensor, foil
or silicon strain gauges are arranged as a
RTZ
Wheatstone bridge. The resulting signal is then
SIGNAL+
amplified and conditioned to provide a suitable AMPLIFIED
SIGNAL- OUTPUT
transducer-voltage or transmitter-current output RTS
representative of the applied pressure (see right).

ZERO
TRIM
PIEZORESISTIVE PRESSURE SENSORS RESISTORS

+VEXC /GND
Piezoresistive sensing elements can also be
arranged in a similar bridge formation. The
Bridge-sensor circuit diagram
diagram to the right illustrates how the sensing
elements of a bridge-type pressure sensor
are attached to a flexible diaphragm, so that
resistance changes according to the magnitude Piezoresistive sensors Doped piezoresistor
of the diaphragm deflection. The overall linearity
of the sensor is dependent on the stability of the
diaphragm, over the stated measurement range, Thin diaphragm

as well as the linearity of the strain gauges or

piezoresistive elements. External pressure
Diaphragm Tensile stress

Note that, in practice, piezoresistive elements may Thin diaphragm

be arranged in several ways to sense pressure, SIDE VIEW

such as in the diagram.

Piezo resistive pressure sensor operating

PIEZOELECTRIC PRESSURE SENSORS principle

Piezoelectric sensors use an element made of a

material which generates electrical energy when Pressure
sensing
they are under strain, such as quartz or tourmaline diaphragm

(see right). Crucially, they only produce energy

when the pressure changes, and are therefore
suitable only for dynamic pressure measurements
(not static pressure). They are also susceptible to
shock and vibration. Output

Base Crystal

The piezo electric effect can be

exploited in multiple ways to sense pressure

5
How pressure 1.0
sensors work

MEMS SENSORS signal), or to detect what level of building the user

is situated on, such as in a multi-storey car park,
It’s easy to imagine a piezoresistive or capacitive
office block, apartment block, or shopping mall.
pressure sensor as a large device like a through-
hole electronic component or a module ready
PRESSURE SENSOR: TRANSDUCER OR
to screw into the side of a tank – but that’s not
TRANSMITTER?
always the case.
It is worth noting that “pressure sensor” is a
A piezo or capacitive pressure-sensing mechanism
generic term to describe a pressure-sensing
can also be fabricated on silicon as a MEMS (Micro
device that may be a transducer or a transmitter,
Electro Mechanical System) device and packaged
depending on the design of associated electrical
as a compact surface-mount unit typically
circuitry.
measuring only about 2-3mm per side.
The sensing element responsible for detecting
MEMS devices, which include not only pressure
and quantifying the effects of applied pressure
sensors but also motion or position sensors,
produces an output that cannot be used directly
and silicon microphones, are extremely small,
in an electronic circuit – like a microcontroller-
stable, and cost-effective, bringing advanced
based system. The physical response needs to
functionality to space- and cost-constrained
be translated into an electrical signal, and then
equipment like mobiles and IoT endpoints.
signal conditioning is required to create a suitable,
MEMS devices are fabricated in silicon using usable signal.
doping and etching processes. These processes
A transducer converts the physical change caused
are performed at chip scale, resulting in a tiny
by applied pressure into a voltage signal across a
device that can be co-packaged with signal-
high-impedance load.
conditioning electronics. The electronic circuitry
may comprise simple amplification to produce an A transmitter, on the other hand, generates a
analogue output, and may also include analogue- current signal across a low-impedance load.
to-digital conversion to generate a digital output. Hence the output may be a 4-20mA standard
industrial output. The diagram below shows an
An analogue output may be advantageous if the
example of the circuitry needed to produce a
sensor signal is to be handled entirely in the
4-20mA output signal from a bridge-type sensor.
analogue domain, or if the designer wants to use
an ADC of particularly high resolution or accuracy,
or if the system-host microcontroller contains a
+
suitable integrated ADC on-chip. A digital sensor VREF
can be designed-in with no need for external Pressure
sensor
5v
ADR02 4-20mA
resistive
conversion components, thereby saving overall bridge
R2
126.25kΩ
OP-AMP
ADA4091-2
+
component count. - + Q1
R1 -
Perhaps the easiest type of sensor to visualise 341.56kΩ
R3 R4
is a barometric pressure sensor. These can IN-MP 1kΩ 10kΩ
-
AD8226
be used for measuring ordinary atmospheric EVAL-CN0289-EB1Z
pressure, and are used in a range of applications
including context sensing or indoor navigation in A bridge-type sensor with transmitter output
smartphones. Typically, this is a tiny MEMS sensor. circuitry for an industrial 4-20mA application
Detecting changes in atmospheric pressure
A pressure sensor can also be designed to perform
enables the device to theoretically be able to
as a pressure switch, which generates a simple
calculate its height above sea level – for example
on/off signal that will change state when a preset
on a road (to assist satellite navigation and aid
threshold is reached.
dead reckoning in the event of loss of satellite

6
How pressure 1.0
sensors work

NEED SOME ADVICE?

Our pressure sensor experts are on hand to help
FUNCTION you make the right choice for your application.
Get in touch at avnet-abacus.eu/ask-an-expert
Broadly, pressure sensors operate in one of
three modes, absolute, gauge, or differential
measurement.
PRESSURE p1
PRESSURE p1
• Absolute pressure sensors
PRESSURE p1
Absolute pressure is detected relative to 0 Pa,
i.e. the static pressure of a vacuum. The sensor
is designed with one port for the fluid to enter VACUUM
and exert pressure on the sensing element. The VACUUM

pressure applied produces a positive change in VACUUM

output, of magnitude proportional to the pressure
applied.
Absolute pressure measurement principle

PRESSURE p1
• Gauge pressure sensors PRESSURE p1
PRESSURE p1
Measures pressure relative to a reference
pressure, which is usually the local atmospheric
pressure. The sensor has two ports, allowing entry
of the fluid at the reference pressure, and at the
pressure to be measured.

Atmospheric pressure
Atmospheric pressure
• Differential pressure sensors
Atmospheric pressure
Gauge pressure measurement principle
Similar to gauge pressure – although in this PRESSURE p1
case, the reference pressure is the pressure PRESSURE p1
experienced at a different point in the system, as PRESSURE p1
determined by the system designer. The change
in differential output is positive or negative,
depending on which is greater. The magnitude
of the change is proportional to the pressure
difference between the two domains.

PRESSURE p2
PRESSURE p2
PRESSURE p2

Differential pressure measurement

principle

7
How pressure 1.0
sensors work

CONSTRUCTION Similarly, a differential sensor will feature two

ports, through which each of the measured media
To an extent, the operating principle – absolute,
is designed to come into contact with the sensing
gauge or differential – determines the sensor’s
element. The diagram below compares the
construction. An absolute pressure sensor may
construction of gauge and differential sensors.
be designed to respond to pressure applied at
the top side or the back side, when mounted on
a circuit board or a panel, for example. Creating
a port for the measured media to enter through
the top side may leave the sensor vulnerable to
hazards such as physical damage or contamination
with dirt or moisture. A bottom-side entry sensor
may be chosen to overcome this. The diagrams
below compare the layout of both types.

Gauge pressure and two-port differential

pressure sensor packages

Ptop DESIGN CHOICES

Understanding the types of sensors in common
Pref use, their operating principles, and modes of
use (absolute, gauge, or differential) can help
engineers make initial selection decisions when
identifying the most suitable sensor to choose for
a given application.

Pref The materials used and type of construction can

have an important influence over aspects such
as the measurement range, limiting factors like
Pbottom
the maximum survivable pressure to which a
sensor can be exposed, its stabilising time after
soldering, and long-term stability in the intended
application.

An understanding of the electrical output

properties, and the circuitry needed to interact
properly with the host electronic system –
Top-side or bottom-side entry absolute typically a microcontroller- or microprocessor-
pressure sensors based control system — can help assess how the
choice of pressure sensor will influence the likely
A gauge sensor is typically designed to allow electronic integration challenges.
atmospheric pressure to apply to one port, while
permitting the measured pressure to be applied to
the other.

8
What are the 1.1
different pressure
sensing elements?

Sensing pressure usually begins with converting the separation of the electrodes, causing a
the force exerted by the pressure media – gas or capacitance change proportional to the applied
liquid - into a physical displacement. This can be pressure.
used to move a pointer relative to a calibrated Alternatively, a network of resistive elements is
scale, or to cause an electrically measurable attached to the surface of the diaphragm. These
response such as resistance or capacitance may be foil strain gauges bonded to the surface,
change proportional to the pressure. or metal resistors deposited using a thin-film
The pressure sensing diaphragm, capsule, sputtering or thick-film process depending on the
Bourdon tube, and expanding bellows are diaphragm material. Deflection of the diaphragm,
proven mechanisms for converting pressure to under pressure, causes these elements to stretch
displacement. and changes their resistance.

The resistors are placed in locations subject to

PRESSURE SENSING DIAPHRAGMS both compressive and tensile force (see diagram
below) to maximise the resistance change and
How they work
so enhance resolution. A Wheatstone bridge
The pressure sensing diaphragm is a circular connection eliminates drifts and offsets from the
plate, fixed around the edge, and exposed to the measurements.
pressure media on one side (see diagram below).
On the opposite side may be a sealed chamber, in
Diaphragm
the case of an absolute pressure sensor, or it may
be vented in the case of a gauge or differential A
B D
sensor. A B
C
DC
Applied pressure (P) Output
PRESSURE C D

PRESSURE A + ∆A
B + ∆B
y(0) Stress C + ∆C
distribution
D + ∆D
Tension
Compression

Reference or
differential Wheatstone bridge connection to
pressure
measure resistance change.

Diaphragm deflection under

applied pressure. The diaphragm may be metal or ceramic. A metal
diaphragm is often made from stainless steel or
When pressure is applied, through the media, the titanium, which allows compatibility with a variety
diaphragm deflects to an extent proportional to of pressure media. These types of diaphragms can
the magnitude of the pressure. This deflection withstand a wide range of applied pressures, and
can be used to create a change in capacitance or high proof-pressure and burst-pressure ratings.
resistance. Ceramic diaphragms offer broad compatibility with
In a capacitive sensor, the diaphragm represents various types of pressure media, and good corrosion
one electrode of a capacitor that has a fixed immunity at a relatively low cost. On the other hand,
plate as the second electrode. Pressure- the measurement range, proof-pressure and burst-
related deflection of the diaphragm reduces pressure ratings are usually lower.

9
What are the 1.1
different pressure
sensing elements?

Another type of so-called slack-diaphragm sensor Advantages and disadvantages

can be used for measuring very small pressures. Pressure sensing diaphragms have a simple
The diaphragm material is typically a synthetic construction and are easy to miniaturise. Precision
non-elastic material, such as polythene, or a resistors require only small deflection, minimising
natural material like silk. The non-elastic nature of diaphragm fatigue. Media-isolated sensors
the material requires external springs to oppose maintain high accuracy. And diaphragm-based
the diaphragm, to enable calibration and ensure sensors can measure lower pressures than a
precise operation. Bourdon tube.
Diaphragm-type sensors are used throughout The choice of materials for the construction of
various industries. Care must be taken in the diaphragm enables broad media compatibility.
applications such as food preparation or Metal diaphragms can measure high pressures.
pharmaceuticals manufacturing, to allow proper And piezoelectric sensors allow a wide range of
cleaning of equipment and prevent contamination measurement.
by germs or bacteria.
One potential downside is that conventional, i.e
Oil-filled sensors may be used, which feature an non-MEMS, diaphragms have limited low-pressure
oil-filled cavity between the sensor diaphragm and measurement capability.
an outer diaphragm that is installed flush with the
wall of the vessel containing the pressure media to
permit thorough cleaning.

This diaphragm must be extremely compliant,

to fully transfer the applied pressure to the
internal sensing diaphragm. The temperature NEED SOME ADVICE?
characteristics of the oil may affect the sensing Our pressure sensor experts are on hand to help
accuracy, and the potential for leakage risks you make the right choice for your application.
contaminating the pressure media. Alternatively, Get in touch at avnet-abacus.eu/ask-an-expert
the sensor may be designed with a fully flush
sensing diaphragm, which is designed to come
into direct contact with the pressure media.

Piezoresistive and MEMS pressure sensors

typically feature a silicon diaphragm and resistors
fabricated as part of the same structure. The
diaphragm for a standard piezoresistive sensor
is machined from silicon. For a MEMS sensor,
the diaphragm/resistor structure is produced
by selective doping and etching as part of the
standard MEMS fabrication process.

10
What are the 1.1
different pressure
sensing elements?

PRESSURE SENSING CAPSULES Some capsules feature profiling (such as the

corrugations shown below) to optimise linearity
How they work
and mechanical strength.
The pressure-sensing capsule adapts the
diaphragm sensing principle to allow measurement
of low pressures that would otherwise require an
impractically large and thin diaphragm.

The capsule comprises two diaphragms, welded

at the edge, to allow the pressure media to act
on both simultaneously. The resulting structure
displays twice the displacement, relative to
the pressure applied, compared to a single-
diaphragm.

Pressure sensing can be done using a single

Profiled capsule.
capsule, as shown in the first diagram below, or
using a stack of capsules as shown in the second
diagram. Advantages and disadvantages

Stability, simplicity and its small size are the main

advantages of the pressure sensing capsule - as
well as its ability to measure lower pressures,
compared with a diaphragm sensor of a similar
size.

However, the capsule does not self-drain so it is

Capsule not suitable for measuring pressure
in liquid media.

BOURDON TUBES
Single capsule
How they work

A Bourdon tube can be either c-shaped or helical,

Pivot
with an oval cross section. When the pressure
media enters the tube, the pressure acts to
Capsule
change the oval towards a circular cross section.
The effect of this distortion causes the tube to
move – opening the c-shape, or extending the
helix. The closed end of the tube is attached to
a movement, so that displacement causes an
indicator needle to deflect. The deflection can be
P1
measured on a scale, calibrated to represent the
Stacked capsule
pressure exerted by the media.

11
What are the 1.1
different pressure
sensing elements?

The diagrams below illustrate the operating BELLOWS SENSING ELEMENTS

principle of the c-shaped and helical Bourdon
How they work
tube, respectively. Alternatively, the movement
mechanism can be attached to a potentiometer The bellows sensing element is a container that

to provide an electrical representation of the expands in response to the force applied by the

pressure. pressure medium within. The bellows is typically

made from a metal such as phosphor bronze,
Depending on application requirements, such as
brass, beryllium copper, or stainless steel. It can
corrosion resistance, cost, size, measurement
be machined from solid stock, rolled from tube, or
range, proof pressure, and burst pressure, the
fabricated with a series of welded annular rings.
tube may be made from a metal such as copper,
brass, aluminium, or a nickel alloy such as monel. An internally mounted - or external - spring
enhances the bellows’ response to positive- and
negative-going pressure changes. As a result, the
deflection characteristics are a combination of
Scale

Bourdon
the mechanical properties of the bellows, and
tube
Tip those of the spring. An attached mechanical
Spring

Pinion
Adjustable
link
movement converts the expansion and
Segment
lever contraction of the bellows due
0
Stop Pivot
to changing media pressure
Socket
into a proportional deflection 15 20 25
10
5
of the pointer to indicate
C-shaped Bourdon tube the pressure on a calibrated 0
scale (see diagram right).
In this sense the bellows is F F
P
Helix
quite similar to the Bourdon Spring

tube. Alternatively, the Pivot

Pressure
movement may be attached
Pressure
Tip moves here
to a potentiometer to provide Flexible bellows being measured

an electrical analogue of the

applied pressure.
The bellows operating principle
Advantages and disadvantages
Helical Bourdon tube Advantages of the bellows sensor include
simplicity, low cost, and the ability to connect
Advantages and disadvantages directly to a pointer. The movement and pointer
can be designed to give a large change in
The operating principle of the Bourdon tube is
indication relative to the change in unit pressure,
well understood, and tube-production techniques
resulting in high resolution.
are mature.
The bellows must operate within the elastic limit
However, the minimum measurable pressure is
defined by the material and construction. And the
about 600mbar. In addition, miniaturisation can
mechanism can fatigue over time. As with capsules,
be difficult, and liquid pressure media cannot
drainage can be a challenge that may complicate
drain fully from the tube. Drainage may not be
use with liquid media. However, the bellows can be
a problem if the media is inert. However, other
filled with an inert liquid, such as oil, and the open
types of media may decompose or solidify,
end sealed with a diaphragm to create an element
impairing function or accuracy, and possibly
suitable for monitoring liquid pressure.
contaminating fresh media.

12
The varying 2.0
applications of
pressure sensors

Pressure sensors are used for many automotive, LIFE-SAVING MEDICAL APPLICATIONS
medical, industrial, consumer and building
Raising the air pressure in a sealed chamber
devices, which depend on accurate and stable
containing a patient is known as hyperbaric
pressure measurements in order to operate
therapy. It can be effective for treating a number
reliably. As more industries rely on pressure
of medical conditions, from skin grafts, burn
sensors to monitor and control their applications,
injuries, and carbon monoxide poisoning to
demand for these technologies has greatly
decompression sickness experienced by divers.
increased, putting estimations of the worldwide
pressure sensor market at $11.4 billion by 2024. Measuring blood pressure correctly is crucial to
patient care, as errors in readings can lead to a
Here’s how recent innovations in sensor
misdiagnosis. Thanks to recent innovations, tiny
technology are enabling smarter, safer, and more
pressure sensors can even be implanted into the
environmentally friendly electronics for businesses
body, known as In Vivo Blood Pressure Sensing for
and consumers alike.
more accurate monitoring.

Learn more about the medical advances being

AUTOMOTIVE APPLICATIONS made with pressure sensors on page 19.

In automobiles, hydraulic brakes are a crucial

component in passenger safety. The ability
to control a vehicle using brakes is down to a INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS
complex blend of components, including pressure Submersible pressure sensors can be used to
sensors. These can be used to monitor pressure measure liquid pressures (up to 30 PSI) with either
within the chambers of the braking system, a voltage or current (4-20mA) output in liquid
alerting drivers and engine management systems tanks. By positioning these sensors at the bottom
alike if pressures are too low to be effective. of a tank, you can get an accurate reading of the
If pressure inside chambers is not measured, contents in order to alert workers or the process
systems can fail without the driver knowing and control system when levels in the tank fall below
lead to a sudden loss of braking efficacy and safe limits.
accidents.
Learn more about how pressure sensors empower
Until recently, airbags were solely designed smart factories on page 22.
to inflate inside of vehicles for the front two
passenger seats in the event of a collision. Now,
car manufacturers have created airbag innovations
inside and outside of vehicles that release faster,
resulting in safer outcomes for passengers in any
seat and pedestrians too. They have also found
ways of making the driving experience safer for
the planet; bringing down engine emissions, by re-
circulating exhaust gases.

Learn more about the life-altering and eco-

friendly applications of pressure sensors for
automotives on page 15.

13
 2.0

AUTOMATED BUILDING APPLICATIONS Learn more about consumer devices that are
becoming smarter with the use of pressure
As building and home automation technologies
sensors on page 27.
become increasingly popular, pressure sensors
continue to play a central role in controlling the Pressure sensors are a fast-moving area of
environments we live in. Refrigeration systems technology, and advances are transforming
are one such example. Common coolants in products across a number of industries, with safer
HVACs like ammonia can cause significant danger outcomes for both people and planet.
to people in the event of a leak. Using relative
pressure sensors to monitor the pressure of the
ammonia as it passes through the system ensures
it stays within safe limits.

Controlling large building environments is a

challenge for designers and operations staff alike.
NEED SOME ADVICE?
Learn more about how pressure sensors are Our pressure sensor experts are on hand to help
improving building control interfaces and you make the right choice for your application.
monitoring systems on page 24. Get in touch at avnet-abacus.eu/ask-an-expert

LIFE-ENHANCING CONSUMER
APPLICATIONS
The things we use, carry and wear on a daily basis
are growing in intelligence. Adding a pressure
sensor to a consumer device can provide new
information for an improved user experience.

Take vacuum cleaners, or example. By measuring

suction changes, they can detect what kind of
flooring is being cleaned and adjust settings
accordingly, or notify their owners when a filter
needs replacing.

14
Pressure sensors: 2.0
10 innovative automotive
applications

Driving would be an entirely different experience Under normal operating conditions, when the
without all the pressure sensors used throughout brake pedal is depressed it allows atmospheric
the modern vehicle, helping to manage everything pressure to flow into one of the chambers. This
from braking to electric windows, exhaust increases the pressure on a diaphragm, which, in
emissions to power steering. turn, increases the effort applied to the master

In fact, most of the critical systems in a vehicle cylinder. When the brake pedal is released the

rely on pressure sensors to measure and monitor vacuum is restored using a vacuum source, which

key parameters, which has become central factor may be via a dedicated pump or drawn from the

in making our roads safer, lowering pollution and manifold.

improving our driving experience. A fault condition arises if the vacuum in one or

But how exactlyVacuum

do pressure sensors enable better both chambers cannot be maintained or restored.
Fulcrum
connection
vehicles, and what do manufacturers need to An absolute pressure sensor
plate is used to monitor
know in order to do that? the pressure in the chambers and alert the driver
or engine management system if the pressure
inside the chambers is not low enough to be
Input shaft
1. DETECTING EARLY FAULTS IN HYDRAULIC effective.
BRAKES
To master Without a way of measuring the pressure inside
cylinder
That easy braking sensation you’re used to and the chambers, the system could fail without the
push rod
the responsiveness of the pedal beneath your driver knowing and result in a sudden loss of
foot is down to a complex blend of components, braking efficacy, just when it’s needed most.
including pressureSpring
sensors. In-car systems detect Atmospheric
Manufacturers are using Manifold Absolute
the pressure you’re applying to the pedal then vacuum port
Pressure (MAP) sensors in this kind of application,
amplify it to make your efforts more effective.
which can be supplied in surface-mount packages
Diaphragm
These systems use an absolute pressure sensor to
Casing and are able to measure pressures in the range of
monitor the vacuum maintained in two separate 10 to 150 kPa (kilopascal) with an accuracy of 1%
chambers inside the brake servo (see diagram across the entire range.
below).

Vacuum Fulcrum
connection plate

Input shaft

To master
cylinder
push rod

Spring Atmospheric
vacuum port

Diaphragm
Casing

15
Pressure sensors: 2.1
10 innovative automotive
applications

2. OPTIMISING THE FUEL MIX TO MATCH 3. CLEANING EXHAUST FILTERS

THE AIR PRESSURE AUTOMATICALLY
Making internal combustion engines as efficient Diesel fuel is one of the most common forms
as possible has much to do with getting the fuel of fuel for vehicles, especially large haulage,
mixture just right for the prevailing conditions. construction and agricultural vehicles, and
This includes the actual and desired speed, of pressure sensors are vital in making diesel engines
course, but also includes making adjustments for as clean as possible.
the current engine speed, and the engine and Particulate filters inside the engine are used to
manifold temperature. capture the soot and other particles present in
It isn’t just the air temperature that needs to the exhaust gas before it can escape into the
be measured though; the air pressure is also atmosphere. The filters then need cleaning, which
an important factor when adjusting the fuel is done by burning off the particulates.
mixture and ignition timing. Here, absolute This can either be achieved using an active system
pressure sensors are used to provide the engine which heats the filter to a temperature where
management system (EMS) with the information it the soot combusts, or a passive system using a
needs. catalyst.
The sensors are used to measure the pressure In the active system (see diagram below), pressure
inside the manifold and, because air is drawn sensors are used to measure the exhaust gas
in from the surrounding area, the outside air pressure. The cleaning process is triggered when
pressure too. Barometric air pressure can have pressure across the diesel particulate filter (DPF)
a significant influence on fuel mixture, so by reaches a threshold. This can be measured
measuring it and compensating for changes, the by using two absolute pressure sensors or a
EMS can tune the engine for optimum efficiency, differential pressure sensor.
whether the car is at sea level or 20,000 feet
above it.

MAP sensors are used here, too, but in this case

they need to be able to measure pressures as high
as 400 kPA.

Particulate sensor Exhaust differential pressure sensor

FRONT

Pressure sensor

Temperature sensor

16
Pressure sensors: 2.1
10 innovative automotive
applications

4. ENSURING THE CATALYTIC CONVERTER 6. CHECKING THE PRESSURE OF CRITICAL

IS SEALED FLUIDS
In a passive system, particulates in exhaust gases Perhaps the most common use for an electronic
are destroyed using a catalytic converter. In this pressure sensor is to measure the pressure of the
case a pressure sensor is used to make sure the vehicle’s critical fluids such as engine oil, gearbox
system can work efficiently even at low engine and transmission oil, and the hydraulic oil in the
temperatures. braking system, cooling system and fuel systems.

The catalytic converter needs to get up to An electronic pressure sensor will have part of its
temperature quickly in order to work efficiently. structure exposed to the fluid being measured,
Typically, it needs to reach in excess of 300°C so they need to be robust and resilient. Typically,
but when the engine is cold so too is the catalytic it will use the piezoresistive effect, which detects
converter. Feeding air into the exhaust manifold the change in resistance of a material resulting
triggers an exothermic process, which helps raise from deflection caused by the pressure exerted
the temperature of the catalytic converter. by the fluid.

Once at temperature, the pump for the secondary Pressure sensors targeting this application space will
air valve is switched off and the system is sealed typically be able to withstand extreme environments,
with a valve. Using an absolute pressure sensor and be sealed to IP 6k 9k (dust tight, high-pressure
positioned between the pump and the valve steam/jet cleaning), and be able to measure
provides the necessary assurance that the valve pressures from 0 bar to as much as 600 bar across
is closed properly and the rest of the system is an operating temperature range of -40 to +125 °C.
protected from harmful exhaust gases.

7. STOPPING DOORS FROM CATCHING

5. MONITORING EXHAUST RECIRCULATION YOUR FINGERS

Automotive manufacturers are under pressure to Electric door closing on cars is a great innovation
bring down overall engine emissions, and one tool but if you (or someone smaller) gets between the
in the box is to recirculate part of the exhaust gas. door and the frame at the wrong time, trouble can
result – but pressure sensors are there to help.
Effective in both gasoline and diesel engines,
the technique lowers the temperature in the Using relative pressure sensors connected to a

combustion chamber, which has the effect of sealed hose and mounted around the edge of

reducing the amount of Nitrogen Oxide generated the doorframe, any obstruction can be detected

and emitted. quickly and reliably.

Any compression of the hose causes the pressure
Controlling the engine gas recirculation (EGR)
inside to rise, which is instantly picked up by the
process involves using an absolute pressure sensor
relative pressure sensor and conveyed to the
to monitor the pressure at the valve. Without that
vehicle’s safety system. If the door is electrically
control the system could become unstable and
activated, it will stop closing; the same technique
result in too much or too little gas recirculation.
works for windows too.
Sensor manufacturers are constantly striving
Sensors designed for this emerging application
to improve their processes to deliver pressure
are typically compliant with the PSI5 (Peripheral
sensors that are better able to withstand the harsh
Sensor Interface 5) protocol, which was originally
environments present in this class of application.
developed as a reliable interface between airbag
sensors and ECUs, and uses a twisted-pair that
carries both power and data. Pressure sensors
designed for this safety-critical application operate
over a range of around 50 to 110 kPa.

17
Pressure sensors: 2.1
10 innovative automotive
applications

8. DETECTING LEAKING VAPOURS 10. RELEASING PEDESTRIAN AIRBAGS

Part of the responsibility of car manufacturers In the unfortunate event that a car hits a pedestrian,
is to keep the environment free from potentially a recent innovation uses pressure sensors to deploy
harmful vapours produced by combustion engines. a safety mechanism (an active bonnet system) which

New petrol vehicles now include a system that is designed to reduce the impact to the pedestrian

prevents these vapours from escaping the sealed if they land on the bonnet.

fuel system, normally by routing the vapours to By putting relative pressure sensors in the front
an evaporative system, which contains activated bumper of a car, any deformation to the bumper
carbon. Air is mixed with the vapours so they can be detected immediately. If this happens, the
can be safely burned up by the engine. Known as car’s safety system can activate a compressed
evaporative emission control (EVAP) systems, they air reserve in the engine bay, which pushes the
are strictly tested. bonnet up and towards the front of the car.

An absolute pressure sensor monitors the integrity The elevated bonnet (as shown below) creates a
of the sealed system at all times, alerting the car barrier between the pedestrian and the harder
(and driver) if a leak occurs. Without the pressure components of the engine, thus reducing the
sensor monitoring the system, vapours could potential severity of the impact.
escape in the event of a breach, not only releasing
harmful vapours into the atmosphere but also
putting the manufacturer at risk of prosecution
for not complying with regional regulations.

The barometric sensor will likely be located inside

the fuel tank, and may provide either an analog
or digital output, measuring a pressure range of
around 40 to 115 kPa with an accuracy of 1.5 kPa
or better.

9. ACTIVATING AIRBAGS FASTER

Car manufacturers are continually innovating to Some cars also deploy an airbag from the engine
improve passenger safety. Modern cars don’t just bay that covers the windscreen to further protect
have the airbags in the dashboard; they have them the pedestrian.
all around the interior, including airbags in the Pressure sensors play a crucial role in all of these
door to protect occupants in the event of a side innovations, making for a cleaner, smoother, and
impact. safer ride.
The sudden pressure change that occurs in the The automotive market is now one of the largest
door cavity during a side impact can be detected markets for pressure sensors and is likely to
using a relative pressure sensor, often much remain so due to the huge variety of ways they’re
faster than using other techniques. Using the used.
right kind of sensor in this application tells the
From a host of safety features to reducing
car’s safety system to deploy the airbag within a
pollution and optimising engine efficiency,
few hundredths of a second and normally much
pressure sensors are central to the modern
quicker than a front airbag system operates. This
motoring experience. Without them, we could
is necessary because the proximity of the door
easily still be starting our cars with a crank,
to the passenger reduces the available reaction
changing gears with three sticks and hoping we
time significantly compared to a dashboard airbag
don’t need to stop too quickly!
system. And in this context, milliseconds count.

18
Pressure sensors: 2.2
8 life-saving medical
applications

Many medical devices now depend on accurate The pressures sensors in this application are likely
and stable pressure measurements in order to to be differential pressure sensors with a scale of
operate reliably. up to 4 kPa.

What’s more, patient care is expanding beyond

the hospital and the GP‘s surgery and arriving 3. DELIVERING HYPERBARIC THERAPY
in patients’ homes, in the form of home health
Raising the air pressure in a sealed chamber
monitoring.
containing a patient is known as hyperbaric
As a result, developing with pressure sensors has therapy and can be effective for a number of
become an integral part of designing medical conditions. It’s used to treat decompression
applications. sickness experienced by divers, and can also help
Below, we explore 8 different uses of pressure patients with skin grafts or burn injuries. It can
sensors in medical technology. also be effective in treating carbon monoxide
poisoning and even some necrotizing infections.

1. GETTING THE MIX RIGHT IN MEDICAL Pressure sensors are used to monitor the pressure

VENTILATORS inside the chamber and control the amount

of pressure applied during treatment. This will
A ventilator works by mixing air with pure oxygen
typically take the form of an absolute pressure
to help the respiratory function of a patient.
sensor capable of measuring pressures up to
Differential or gauge pressure sensors are normally
around 100 kPa.
sited between valves and regulators to ensure the
air and oxygen are mixed in the right quantities. Even this most industrial of treatments is making

In this kind of application, small surface-mount inroads into patient’s homes, as ‘soft’ chambers

sensors are ideal; they will typically be specified become increasingly available - although the

for a pressure range of 2in or 5in H2O and are pressures these soft chambers can achieve

available with either analog or digital (I2C) outputs. are lower than the professional-grade ‘hard’
chambers. Typically, a soft chamber will require
Despite being small and low power, these low
gauge pressure sensors capable of measuring
pressure sensors can often include an integrated
around 0.3 to 0.5 bar, while a hard chamber would
DSP (digital signal processor) for compensating
employ gauge pressure sensors able to measure as
for non-linearity, offsets or the effects of
much as 6 bar.
temperature.

Four-way
solenoid valve
2. MONITORING OXYGEN THERAPY Muffler
Molecular sieve
EFFECTIVENESS bed 1

Cross over Pressure

Surge tank
Oxygen therapy comes in a number of forms, as air valve reducing
orifices
concentrated oxygen can be an effective initial Pressure Molecular sieve
sensor bed 2
treatment for asthma, bronchitis and oedemas, as
well as heart failure. Heat Electronic
exchanger control unit
Oxygen
Oxygen therapy systems use differential pressure tank
Pressure Pressure
sensors at several points in the system to monitor Compressor Motor regulator sensor

the pressure of the oxygen as it is mixed with

Flow meter
atmospheric air. These sites are usually at the AIR IN adjustment valve

outlet of the oxygen tank, inline with the pressure

OXYGEN OUT
regulator, and next to the flow control valve (see
diagram right).
Pressures sensors in an oxygen concentrator
(Source: All Sensors)

19
Pressure sensors: 2.2
8 life-saving medical
applications

4. PROVIDING POSITIVE PRESSURE MASKS 5. AUTOMATING DRUG INFUSION

TO TREAT SLEEP APNOEA Drugs delivered in liquid form can be an effective
Sleep apnoea is a condition that causes the form of treatment, as can other types of
sufferer to stop breathing while asleep. Left fluids. e.g. for rehydration. These fluids can be
untreated it can lead to a number of serious administered either intravenously, subcutaneously
conditions, from chronic fatigue to potential heart or directly into a vein, and are typically delivered
failure. using infusion pumps. In order to ensure the

The treatment involves using a device called a correct volume of fluid is administered at the

continuous positive air pressure machine, or CPAP, correct rate, the pumps use a number of sensors

which delivers air at a positive pressure to a mask including gauge and differential pressure sensors,

worn over the nose and mouth of the patient. to closely monitor and control the flow of liquid.

An airflow pressure sensor is used to monitor Differential pressure sensors are used in drug
the air pressure, detecting when the patient is delivery systems (see diagram below) to measure
breathing in and immediately turning on a fan to and control the flow of liquids into the patient.
create positive pressure to open the airways. As This ensures the right volume of drugs is delivered
the patient breathes out the fan is deactivated, at the right time throughout the day and night,
allowing the patient to exhale without forcing them without the need for constant medical attention.
to fight against the positive pressure. They are normally differential pressure sensors,

Sleep apnea machines will likely employ a calibrated to measure flow rates in the range of

differential pressure sensor able to measure 0.5 to 10.0 micro litres/min

pressures up to 4 kPa.

Drug reservoir

Fluid flow

Flow control device Flow/

(micropump) pressure
sensor

Digital Signal
controller processing unit
Microneedle
array

How pressure sensors

Blood pressure are used to control drug
sensor
delivery
PATIENT (Source: All Sensors)

20
Pressure sensors: 2.2
8 life-saving medical
applications

6-8. MEASURING IN VIVO BLOOD Pressure sensors have become an essential

PRESSURE, EX VIVO BLOOD PRESSURE AND element of medical care, providing accurate and
INTRAOCULAR PRESSURE stable measurement of critical pressure levels in
gas and liquids within the body and in treatments
In vivo blood pressure sensing involves implanting
being applied to patients.
a sensor into the body. It can now be achieved
using tiny absolute pressure sensors designed for Future developments will enable more
this purpose. sophisticated, and ever smaller medical
equipment to be developed, as well as lowering
Ex vivo blood pressure sensing, from outside the
the price point for home-use devices.
body, can be implemented using gauge pressure
sensors to measure the blood pressure when the One significant result will be an elevated quality of
heart beats (systolic) and between the heart’s life for an ageing population.
beats (diastolic).

Sensors for both in vivo and ex vivo blood pressure

sensing need to be able to measure pressures
up to 300 mm Hg (maximum), however in vivo
applications tend to use absolute pressure
sensors, while ex vivo favour gauge pressure
sensors. NEED SOME ADVICE?
MEMS-based gauge pressure sensors are now Our pressure sensor experts are on hand to help
being used to measure the intraocular pressure
you make the right choice for your application.
Get in touch at avnet-abacus.eu/ask-an-expert
of a patient’s eyes, which is particularly important
after an operation to replace the cataract.

Manufacturers are now producing an ever-

widening range of pressure sensors for medical
applications, including disposable pressure sensors
based on MEMS technology that can be used
inside the body or in-line with fluids entering the
body. These are produced in clean rooms and in
accordance with industry-accepted guidelines
including those generated by the Association for
the Advancement of Medical Instrumentation
(AAMI).

21
Pressure sensors: 3 2.3
industrial applications
enabling the smart factory

Real-time sensor data is enabling factories to 2. MEASURING SAFE LEVELS IN LIQUID

better understand their own processes and keep TANKS
them running. And putting that data into the
Submersible pressure sensors that are certified
IIoT also helps optimise how raw materials are
for use in intrinsically safe areas can be used to
ordered, handled and consumed. Knowing what to
measure liquid pressures of up to 30 PSI with
reorder and when can keep continuous processes
either a voltage or current (4-20mA) output.
at high capacity.
Positioning a submersible pressure sensor at
Smart manufacturing is changing the way we make, the bottom of a tank would provide an accurate
package and distribute just about everything, reading of the contents of the tank, thereby
but Industry 4.0 is revolutionising the way our alerting workers or the process control system
factories operate. While the Industrial IoT is when the level in the tank falls below an allowable
dependent on connectivity, fundamentally lower limit.
it’s harnessing raw data and turning that into
The pressure at the bottom of a tank – normally
operational intelligence, which means sensors are
called the hydrostatic or head pressure – is
key to the entire process. While there are many
measured in units of distance (feet, inches,
types of sensor at play here, the pressure sensor
meters) of water columns. For example, 27.670
is probably the most diverse and widely deployed
inches of water column (WC) is around the same
type of sensor in the IIoT.
as 1 PSI at 100°F.

The pressure measured is only dependent on the

1. MONITORING PROCESS FLOWS height of the tank (as opposed to its shape) or the
Differential pressure sensors are used extensively volume of the liquid. For this reason it is important
in process flows where a fluid needs to pass that the sensor is placed at the bottom of the tank
through some form of barrier, such as a filter. (instead of half way down).
Under normal conditions the pressure difference Process controllers can calculate the level of liquid
between the upstream (often called the line or in a tank by measuring the hydrostatic pressure,
influent pressure) and the downstream (effluent) which is more accurately measured when the
pressure should be nil or minimal. As the filter density of the liquid is also known.
becomes blocked with contaminants, the
downstream pressure will decrease, which causes
the difference measured to increase.

The sensor’s output can be calibrated to show

the maximum permissible pressure difference at
full scale. For example, a 4-20mA output could
be calibrated to show 20mA when the pressure
difference reaches the maximum permissible, but
read 4mA when the pressure difference is nil.

Differential pressure sensors measure the H

I L
G O
difference between the influent and effluent H W

pressures of a filter, which should be nil under

normal operating conditions but will rise as the
filter becomes clogged.
A B C

22
How pressure sensors are 2.3
enabling smart factories
in industry 4.0

3.MANAGING CONTROL LOOPS

As well as being used to monitor processes,
pressure sensors are often instrumental in the
control loop. This is particularly relevant in the use
of hydraulics, where pressurised fluids are used to
apply effort in presses or lifts for example.

The sensors are often small, particularly those

based on MEMS technology. They can measure
less than 2mm on each side yet be capable of
measuring absolute pressures in the region of 20
Bar or more. This makes them suitable in a range NEED SOME ADVICE?
of applications, including medical and automotive. Our pressure sensor experts are on hand to help
you make the right choice for your application.
Get in touch at avnet-abacus.eu/ask-an-expert
EVEN SMARTER SENSORS
Smart factories are now employing smarter
sensors, such as pressure sensors with built-
in Bluetooth connectivity, allowing them to be
monitored wirelessly. These sub-systems feature a
gauge pressure sensor, Analog to Digital Converter
and Bluetooth radio in a single sealed unit that
can be mounted in places where adding wires may
be difficult. As they are battery-powered they can
operate autonomously for as much as two years
without any maintenance, providing accurate
pressure sensor readings for gases, liquids and
even mildly corrosive fluids.

Pressure sensors are fundamental in the smart

factory and in enabling Industry 4.0.

23
Pressure sensors: 2.4
8 automated building
applications

As urban population density increases, larger HVACR involves complex control algorithms that
buildings are becoming increasingly commonplace, operate using feedback obtained throughout
and controlling their internal environment the system from a range of sensors - checking
accurately is a challenge for designers and temperatures around the building and pipework,
operations staff alike. In addition, rising as well as overall air circulation.
environmental concerns and tightening regulations
have made minimising resources used to heat and
cool buildings a serious consideration.

The business of building automation integrates

heating, ventilation, air conditioning and
refrigeration (HVACR), with control interfaces and
monitoring systems – all with the help of pressure
sensors.

A general representation of an HVAC system

24
Pressure sensors: 2.4
8 automated building
applications

1. MONITORING AIR FILTERS 3. MAINTAINING RELATIVE DUCT PRESSURE

The air filter is a critical part of any HVAC system, LEVELS
and it needs to operate efficiently at all times. By Differential pressure sensors are also used
using a differential pressure sensor to measure to measure the relative pressure differences
the pressure on both sides of the filter (see between duct air and room air. Air pressure
diagram below), the building automation system differences can cause various issues in a building,
can monitor the airflow at all times. As the airflow normally attributed to either a positive or negative
reduces over time it may indicate the filter needs air pressure difference. For example, a negative
replacing or cleaning. If it isn’t replaced, the air pressure in one part of a building will cause
system may need to use more energy to restore air currents, as the relatively higher pressures
the airflow to required levels, which also places find their way into the low pressure areas. An
additional wear on other components in the imbalance can lead to doors or windows being
system. difficult to open or close, or a loss of heated/
cooled air which leads to higher energy costs. By
Flow duct measuring the relative air pressure differences
around a building’s HVAC system these issues can
be avoided. Measuring the pressure inside a duct,
relative to a room or open space, can be achieved
Air
flow using a differential pressure sensor with one side
P₁ P₂ open to the ambient air in the room. Typically, the
pressures being measured are relatively low, so
Shunt the sensor would be specified to operate over a
P range of around ±50 Pascals.
sensor

4. IMPROVING HEAT EXCHANGE EFFICIENCY

A differential pressure sensor measuring the
airflow through a filter Building management, control and automation
systems are able to control the temperature and
humidity of a room thanks to the feedback their
2. MINIMISING FAN POWER USE sensors provide. Of particular importance are
The flow of air in an HVAC system needs to pressure sensors that measure the relative air
be kept within specific parameters in order to pressure in a room, which is generally normalised
maintain a safe and comfortable living or working to 1 atmosphere (ATM). Using a pressure sensor to
environment. Fans force the air through ducts monitor the air pressure in a room over time can
in the system to keep it circulating. A network of determine whether there are sealant leaks around
differential pressure sensors fitted across the air doors and windows, which would lead to heat
ducts monitors how the air is flowing throughout (energy) losses.
and allows the system to regulate each fan’s speed In addition, the heating and cooling systems use
and keep energy costs to a minimum. pumps to compress fluids for heat exchange,
and these have pressure sensors positioned on
the high side and low side of the compressor to
ensure the pressure difference is maintained for
optimum performance. The type of sensor used
here might include a differential pressure sensor
with a scale of 0 to 25 bar.

25
Pressure sensors: 2.4
8 automated building
applications

5. MONITORING VARIABLE AIR VOLUME 7. MAINTAINING GAS PRESSURE IN

HEATING SYSTEMS PNEUMATICS
Ventilation is an important aspect of HVAC Relative pressure sensors are used to measure the
systems, which involves closely monitoring and pressure of sub-systems based on hydraulic or
controlling the volume of air flowing into a room. pneumatic operating principles in HVAC systems.
If the heating system uses a Variable Air Volume These can take the form of gases or liquids used
(VAV) configuration (as opposed to a Constant in the heating or cooling process, and ensure
Air Volume, or CAV system) the temperature is the sub-systems are ready for immediate use if
maintained by varying the volume of air flowing required.
into the room, rather than the temperature of the Pneumatic pressure sensors can operate over
air. In this case, differential pressure sensors are a wide range of pressures, up to 600 bar if
used to measure the volume of air, and would be necessary, and are capable of operating while fully
specified with a range of around 0 to 360 Pascals. submerged in depths of 100 meters or more.
The feedback provided by the sensor allows the
building control system to open or close dampers,
allowing more or less air to flow into a room. 8. MONITORING DANGEROUS CHEMICALS
Ammonia is used as a coolant in HVAC and
refrigeration systems, but could cause significant
6. AUTOMATED SAFETY SYSTEMS
damage and danger to people in the event of a
Building management controllers can use pressure leak. However, relative pressure sensors can be
sensors to directly control aspects of the HVAC used to monitor the pressure of the ammonia as it
system, often in the form of a differential pressure passes through the system, ensuring it stays within
sensor that operates as a switch. This allows acceptable limits.
the system to automatically turn devices off
This is a task where differential pressure sensors
or on when it measures a pressure difference
able to measure differences from 6.0 psi on the
that is under or over set limits, potentially
low pressure side to 175 psi on the high pressure
preventing wider damage to the system or sudden
side are used.
environmental changes within the building.
Building monitoring, control and automation
These sensors will typically be specified to operate
systems harness the power and benefits of
over a range of 0.1 to 4.00 InH2O, and they
HVACR equipment, which in turn relies heavily on
feature a spring-loaded diaphragm that actuates
pressure sensors to function efficiently.
two switches, one to detect over-pressure and
one to detect under-pressure. The limits on each As building and home automation technologies
state will span a small excursion of the full-scale and concepts become increasingly applicable
range and be relative to the sensor’s total span. to all homes, not just large business structures,
Contacts can be rated up to 240VAC, with in pressure sensors will continue to play a central
excess of 1 million switching operations. role in controlling the environments we live in.

26
Pressure sensors: 2.5
11 life-enhancing consumer
applications

The things we use, carry and wear on a daily basis Technology is being used to restore at least one
are growing in intelligence. More and more, our of the three datum points; elevation. In absolute
appliances are able to detect changes in their terms a barometric pressure sensor can be used
environment and modify their behaviour based to determine elevation and therefore augment
on those changes. Pressure sensors are one of the GPS signal. The argument is that by using the
the technologies enabling smarter consumer confidence level of both a barometric pressure
electronics. sensor and GPS signal, a more accurate altitude

Adding a pressure sensor to a consumer device measurement can be obtained. This can help

gives you an entirely new dimension to explore, the device to better determine its position in a

and the information this provides can create mapped building based on its altitude, which in

an improved user experience, making your next turn can deliver a more accurate location. In the

product stand out from the crowd. chart below, the research data shows that an
increased accuracy confidence level of 85% can
be obtained using this sensor fusion technique
1. KEEPING FOOD FRESHER FOR LONGER versus GPS alone. Other sensors can provide an
WITH A PARTIAL VACUUM indication of direction and speed, allowing the
A recent innovation in refrigeration takes a step device to estimate, with reasonable certainty,
beyond cooling, and actually seals the inside of its position. This technology is now being used
the fridge using a partial vacuum. By lowering the to provide consumers with indoor navigation for
oxygen levels inside the fridge, food remains fresh shopping malls, airports and other large public
for longer. Pressure sensors are essential in this spaces.
application, as they provide the feedback needed
by the pump used to reduce the pressure in the a
GPS 68% confidence
compartment. Corrected 68% confidence
90 GPS altitude
Barometric altitude
Corrected altitude
2. MAKING VACUUM CLEANERS MORE
EFFECTIVE AND EASIER TO MAINTAIN
80
Vacuum cleaners are becoming smarter,
frequently by using pressure sensors. For example,
by measuring minute changes in suction pressure 70
they are able to detect the kind of flooring being
cleaned and adjust settings such as power and
brush height to suit. Pressure sensors also enable 60
owners to be notified when a dust receptacle is
full and when the filter needs to be replaced.
t
1050 1100 1150 1200
3. AUGMENTING GPS IN BUILT-UP AREAS
An example of how combining barometric
Many small devices now integrate GPS receivers pressure sensing with GPS can deliver more
that tell the device its position in three accurate altitude measurement than GPS alone
dimensions; latitude, longitude and elevation.
Mapping software uses these coordinates to plot
the device’s position on a rendered map. In urban
areas, GPS signals can be obscured or degraded
by large structures, covered areas and tunnels.

27
Pressure sensors: 2.5
11 life-enhancing consumer
applications

4. FORECASTING HYPER-LOCALISED 7. MAKING BETTER COFFEE

WEATHER From simple coffee ‘pod’ machines to more
The use of home weather stations is increasing, complex bean-to-cup systems, there are two
as are online services that provide weather key principles in achieving the perfect brew:
information, both of which are contributing to temperature and pressure. In fact, pressure is so
a trend in highly-localised weather forecasting. key to the process, the word ‘espresso’ literally
Inside each weather station sits a barometer; a means ‘pressed out’.
pressure sensor detecting the smallest variations Absolute pressure sensors designed for harsh
in atmospheric pressure. environments are used in these machines during
Atmospheric pressure changes can be interpreted the brewing stage, and in the cleaning process
by the weather station or its cloud-based that follows it in higher-end coffee makers.
algorithm, to determine the presence and
movement of storm fronts, and thus predict the 8. MAKING COOKER EXTRACTION MORE
likelihood of rain. EFFECTIVE
Extraction fans are now a common feature in most

5. PURIFYING THE AIR AND WATER kitchens, and pressure sensors help keep them
working. To work most efficiently the right amount
As the population density in metropolitan areas
of negative pressure needs to be produced at the
continues to rise, the level of air quality is
hood, achieved by driving the fan at the correct
becoming a greater concern. Many people now
speed. A pressure sensor is used to measure the
choose to use an air purifier, which uses high
negative pressure produced, and in turn control
efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filters to trap
the fan.
airborne contaminants.

Over time, the filters become laden with 9. MEASURING ALTITUDE IN EXTREME
contaminants and need to be cleaned or replaced. SPORTS
A gauge or differential pressure sensor capable
For sports enthusiasts, barometric pressure
of measuring ultra-low pressure differences can
sensors can be used to measure the height above
detect when this becomes the case and alert the
ground or below sea level, in both air and water.
user.
These sensors are used by the likes of skydivers
Pressure sensors can be used in a similar way to and scuba divers. Piezoresistive MEMS sensors are
monitor filters in water purifying systems, and a popular choice in the latter application due to
indicate when they need to be replaced. their size and accuracy.

10. TRACKING STAIRS TAKEN ON TOP OF

6. WASHING CLOTHES MORE EFFICIENTLY
YOUR 10,000 STEPS
Washing machines are a major home energy
Some fitness bands and wearable devices use
consumer, so making their use more efficient is a
pressure sensors to calculate the change in air
key focus for consumers and manufacturers alike.
pressure and correlate that to height differences.
As more homes in Europe move onto metered
Combined with readings from an accelerometer,
water connections, reducing overall water use per
the devices can determine when you’ve chosen
load is also of significant interest.
the stairs over the lift and award you the extra
By using pressure sensors to precisely regulate points that come with healthier option.
the amount of water required, significant
The gamification of daily activity continues to grow
environmental savings can be made.
and can now be more accurately measured - and
rewarded!

28
Pressure sensors: 2.5
11 life-enhancing consumer
applications

11. DETECTING FALLS IN ASSISTED LIVING

DEVICES
Air pressure measuring principles are now used in
patient monitoring and assistive living solutions,
where a sudden rapid change in altitude can
indicate a fall.

Pressure sensors in this application space will

typically be capable of measuring changes in air NEED SOME ADVICE?
pressure in hundredths of a milli-bar with an Our pressure sensor experts are on hand to help
accuracy of 2mbar or better. That means they can you make the right choice for your application.
register an altitude change of around 10cm, easily Get in touch at avnet-abacus.eu/ask-an-expert
accurate enough to determine if a patient is on
the floor.

An alert will be sent to the relevant service

provider (or family member) to enable them to
contact the wearer immediately and/or send
assistance as appropriate.

As the examples above illustrate, modern life is

increasingly reliant on pressure sensing devices
to deliver a wide range of features and functions
in automated devices. As lifestyles continue to
evolve, new applications are also using pressure
sensors to deliver key functionality.

29
Types of pressure sensors: 3.0
a comprehensive overview

There’s a vast array of pressure sensors available Absolute

on the market today - and wrapping your head In an absolute pressure sensor (see diagram
around all the differences can take a bit of time. below), the reference point is zero, or a vacuum.
That said, the sensors can largely be categorised One side of the sensor is exposed to the medium
according to the type of pressure measurement to be measured, and the other side is sealed to
effect a vacuum.
they make, the sensing principle employed, the
output signal and the media they’re measuring.

Beyond that, there are a few other distinguishing

PTOP
factors, like whether or not they’re MEMS sensors,
PREF
or whether they’re medically-approved.

Below we’ll take you through a brief explanation of

the different types of pressure sensors to help you
understand your options.
Absolute
PTOP pressure measurement
Gauge PREF
TYPE OF PRESSURE MEASUREMENT A gauge sensor (see diagram below) measures
Pressure sensors can be categorised in one of pressure relative to atmospheric pressure. One
three main measurement modes: side is connected to the system, which may be
a pump such as a suctionPTOPpump, while the other
• Absolute
side is vented to the atmosphere.
PBOTTOM
PREF It’s important to
• Gauge
ensure the vent hole won’t become obstructed.
• Differential

For a more in-depth explanation of each

measurement mode, jump to chapter 5.
PTOP

PBOTTOM

NEED SOME ADVICE?

Our pressure sensor experts are on PTOP
TOP

hand to help you make the right choice Gauge

PBOTTOM
BOTTOM
pressure measurement
for your application. Get in touch at Differential
avnet-abacus.eu/ask-an-expert A differential pressure sensor (see diagram below)
measures the difference between pressure
experienced at two exposed ports. Typical uses
PTOP
include measuring liquid or gas flow in pipes or
ducts, or detecting a blockage or seized valve.
PBOTTOM

PTOP

PBOTTOM

Differential pressure measurement

30
Types of pressure sensors: 3.0
a comprehensive overview

SENSING PRINCIPLES Otherwise, strain gauges can be deposited on a

ceramic diaphragm using a thick-film deposition
The sensing principle employed by a sensor, can
process. Over-pressure and burst-pressure
influence accuracy, reliability, measurement range,
tolerance are typically much lower than for metal-
and compatibility with the target environment.
diaphragm devices.
Below we’ll look at 5 different ways the mechanical
displacement taking place inside a sensor is turned Piezoresistive sensors take advantage of the
into an electrical output: change in resistivity of semiconductor materials,
when subjected to strain due to diaphragm
• Resistive
deflection. The magnitude of the change
• Capacitive
can be 100 times greater than the resistance
• Piezoelectric
change produced in a metal strain gauge. Hence
• Optical
piezoresistive sensors can measure smaller
• MEMS
pressure changes than metal or ceramic sensors.

Resistive

Resistive pressure sensors utilise the change in

electrical resistance of a strain gauge bonded
to the diaphragm that’s exposed to the pressure
medium.

The strain gauges often comprise of a metal

resistive element on a flexible backing bonded to
the diaphragm, or deposited directly using thin-
film processes. The metal diaphragm gives high
over-pressure and burst-pressure capability.

SENSOR TECHNOLOGY
SYSTEM REQUIREMENT
Metal thin-film Ceramic thick-film Piezoresistive

Absolute pressure measurement No No Yes

Very low pressure range No No Yes

Very high pressure range Yes No No

Shock and vibration resistance Good Medium Medium

Long-term stability Good Medium Good

This table compares the relative strengths of

metal, ceramic, and piezoresistive sensors

31
Types of pressure sensors: 3.0
a comprehensive overview

Capacitive OUTPUT SIGNAL: TRANSDUCER OR

Capacitive sensors, which display a capacitance TRANSMITTER?
change as one plate deflects under applied The terms sensors, transducers and transmitters
pressure, can be highly sensitive, can measure often appear to be used interchangeably. To clarify
pressures below 10mbar, and withstand large things, a ‘sensor’ can be seen as an umbrella term
overloads. Constraints on materials, and joining for devices that perform as a transducer or a
and sealing requirements, however, can restrict transmitter.
applications.
In simple terms transducers produce an output
voltage that varies with the pressure experienced,
Piezoelectric while transmitters produce an output current. The
most common distinctions here are the following:
Piezoelectric pressure sensors utilise the property
of piezoelectric materials like quartz, to generate • Millivolt-output transducers
a charge on the surface when pressure is applied. • Volt-output transducers
The charge magnitude is proportional to the force • Transmitters
applied, and the polarity expresses its direction.
In practice, the excitation voltage for a resistive
The charge accumulates and dissipates quickly as
bridge can be as low as 3V or 5V, or 10V-30V, or
pressure changes, allowing measurement of fast-
higher. Sensitivity is typically only a few millivolts
changing dynamic pressures.
per volt which means the raw output signal has
low magnitude.
Optical
Millivolt-output transducers
Optical sensors, which utilise interferometry to
measure pressure-induced changes in optical If the connection distance is short, and noise is
fibre, are undisturbed by electromagnetic not a problem, a millivolt-output sensor can be
interference, allowing use in noisy environments easy to design-in but requires a regulated power
or near sources such as radiography equipment. supply to prevent fluctuations in the excitation
They can be created using tiny components voltage affecting the output.
or MEMS technology, can be medically safe for
implantation or topical use, and can measure the Voltage-output transducers
pressure at multiple points along the fibre. A voltage-output transducer amplifies the bridge
signal, making it a good choice where longer cable
lengths are required. Lower noise susceptibility,
MEMS technology
and a lower-cost unregulated power supply are
MEMS (Micro Electro-Mechanical System) sensors additional advantages.
contain a piezo or capacitive pressure-sensing
mechanism fabricated on silicon at micron-level Transmitters
resolution. Co-packaged signal-conditioning A pressure transmitter converts the voltage
electronics convert the small-magnitude MEMS output to a current signal, typically 4-20mA. Noise
electrical output to an analogue or digital signal. susceptibility is extremely low and cable lengths
They are tiny surface-mount devices typically only can be several hundred metres, although power
about 2-3mm per side. consumption is greater.
For a more on the core sensor technologies, head For a more in-depth look at sensors, transducers
to chapter 6. and transmitters, read chapter 4.

32
Types of pressure sensors: 3.0
a comprehensive overview

MEDIA COMPATIBILITY OTHER FACTORS TO CONSIDER

When searching for the right pressure sensor, Industrial sensing
you’ll want to consider the media they’re designed Among general industrial pressure sensors, the
to measure, i.e. the different types of gases and measurement range can be 0-25 bar or 0-50
liquids: bar for light hydraulics applications or similar,
• Air while higher-range sensors can be designed
• Gas for measuring up to 1000 bar or 5000 bar, or
• Atmospheric / barometric more. Sensors designed for general industrial
• Pneumatic applications can be used in a wide variety of
• Water hydraulic or pneumatic systems.
• Liquid
• Hydraulic
• Corrosive Media Medically safe sensors

Medical sensors in contact with the body must

be safe for the patient. This impacts not only the
Although many of the above can be adapted for
choice of sensor materials, but also hygiene. Some
use with corrosive substances, you can also find
manufacturers’ medical ranges include disposable
sensors specifically designed to measure corrosive
sensors that are discarded after use.
media.

Sensors used in chemical processes may need

to withstand exposure to corrosive media such Surface-mount packages or ready-to-use
as acids or alkalis. Many can be specified with modules
a stainless steel case and/or diaphragm for Pressure sensors are available in a variety of forms,
increased corrosion resistance. These can also such as individual sensing elements in surface-
withstand corrosion due to atmospheric humidity mount packages, or ready-to-use sensor modules
or water splashes, or withstand permanent complete with process connection and electrical
immersion in untreated water, or in water interface.
containing chemicals such as in treatment plants
Screw-mount process connections in general
or swimming pools.
industrial sensors may conform to a standard
Sea water, salt spray or coastal environments can size, such as G ¼” or G ½”, or UNF or NPT sizes.
present corrosion hazards beyond the resistance Specifications such as DIN 3852 or EN 837 define
of ordinary low-grade stainless steels. Case and various types of seals. High-pressure sensors may
diaphragm materials such as super-nickel alloys or utilise a larger thread size, such as M16 x 1.5, and
titanium are often recommended. metal-to-metal sealing.
Sensors may also be specified with parts such as Small board-mount sensors can be specified with
o-rings made from viton, instead of rubber, for a moulded manifold, a standard-size barbed port
increased resistance to ageing and corrosion. for push-on tube connection, or port-less.
Alternatively, the diaphragm may be welded to the
Overall, the variety of individual sensor types now
sensor body to enhance corrosion resistance.
available in the marketplace provides flexibility for
For more on the different types of media that design engineers to identify a suitable sensor for
pressure sensors are designed to measure, jump almost any given application.
to chapter 7.

33
Pressure sensor vs 4.0
transducer vs transmitter

You may hear electronic pressure detectors PROPERTIES OF THE OUTPUT INTERFACE
referred to as sensors, transducers, or
The properties of the output interface define the
transmitters. And understanding the difference
type of sensor.
in what these three terms mean is important to
ensure the chosen device is right for the end To differentiate between the different types, it

application; particularly with regards to cost, can be helpful to consider transducers as devices

power consumption, susceptibility to noise, and that have a voltage output, which may have a

constraints around wiring and installation. magnitude of a few millivolts or several volts.
Transmitters, on the other hand, have a current
So how do you differentiate between these terms?
output, usually designed for connecting to the
The term ‘pressure sensor’ can be regarded as a standard 4-20mA current loop widely used in
generic description for any device that measures industrial sensing and control. The distinctions
pressure and provides an appropriate output in we’ll discuss here are:
response.
• Millivolt-output pressure transducers

• Voltage-output pressure transducers

• Transmitters

The diagrams below show how a voltage-output

transducer or current-output transmitter
can be connected to a programmable logic
controller (PLC) or meter to monitor pressure in
a typical industrial equipment or process control
application.

3-Wire
3-Wire
3-Wire 4-Wire
4-Wire
4-Wire 2-Wire
2-Wire
2-Wire
voltage
voltage
voltage voltage
voltage
voltage 4-20mA
4-20mA
4-20mA
RED
RED
RED
RED
RED
RED RED
RED
RED
+++ WHITE
WHITE
WHITE +++ +++ GREEN
GREEN
GREEN +++
+++ SENSOR
SENSOR
SENSOR
PLC
PLC
PLC
ororor
SENSOR
SENSOR
SENSOR SENSOR
SENSOR
SENSOR
METER
METER
METER
PLC
PLC ororor
PLC
4-20mA
4-20mA
4-20mA
10-28VDC
10-28VDC
10-28VDC METER
METER
METER
BLACK
BLACK
BLACK
10-28VDC
10-28VDC
10-28VDC WHITE
WHITE
WHITE 10-28VDC
10-28VDC
10-28VDC
(5V
(5V
(5V
for
for
for PLC
PLC
PLC
ororor
ratiometric)
ratiometric)
ratiometric) BLACK
BLACK
BLACK METER
METER
METER BLACK
BLACK
BLACK

Connecting a pressure transducer or

transmitter to industrial instrumentation.

34
Pressure sensor vs 4.0
transducer vs transmitter

MILLIVOLT-OUTPUT PRESSURE In addition, owing to the low amplitude of the

TRANSDUCERS output, millivolt-output transducers are not
usually suitable for use in electrically noisy
As is in the name, these transducers output in
environments.
millivolts (mV). The output signal is proportional
to the power supply, for example, a 5VDC supply And because the output voltage is attenuated by
with a 10mV/V output signal produces a 0-50mV the resistance in connecting wires, these wires
output on the sensor. Older foil-type strain-gauge must be kept short, implying that the sensor
sensors can produce an output of about 2-3mV/ must be close to the monitoring instrumentation.
V, whereas today’s MEMS sensors can provide About three to six meters is usually the maximum
about 20mV/V with good linearity. Any variation practicable distance.
in pressure is determined by measuring small
changes in this voltage, which is a result of tiny
VOLTAGE-OUTPUT PRESSURE
changes in resistance (about 0.1%) in the strain
TRANSDUCERS
gauges themselves.
A voltage-output transducer contains additional
The diagram below shows a half-bridge strain-
signal amplification to increase the output voltage
gauge pressure sensor, illustrating the excitation
of the bridge to a larger value such as 5V or 10V.
voltage and output voltage. A larger excitation
voltage, say 10V as opposed to 3V, produces a Having a larger output, these are less susceptible
larger output voltage. to noise, allowing for use in harsher electrical
environments. Longer connecting wires can be
used, allowing the sensor to be further from the

RG + R panel.
R1
(compression) Supply voltages are typically from 8-28VDC. This
+ allows the use of a lower-cost unregulated power
VEX V0
- - + supply, except where the output is 0.5-4.5V,
R2 RG - R which requires a 5VDC regulated supply. Lower
(tension) current consumption means they are also suitable
for battery operated equipment.

A half-bridge strain gauge with millivolt Older voltage output transducers do not have a
output. ‘live zero’, meaning they do not output a signal
when at zero pressure. The risk with these is
that the system can’t recognise the difference
The simple interface circuitry of a millivolt output
between a failed sensor with no output and zero
transducer helps ensure low cost and small
pressure.
package size, and gives designers the flexibility
to design interface circuitry to suit their own
application. However, there are several limitations
to consider.

Because the full-scale output is directly

proportional to the excitation, the excitation
voltage must usually be generated using a
regulated power supply.

35
Pressure sensor vs 4.0
transducer vs transmitter

PRESSURE TRANSMITTERS Millivolt transducer:

In contrast to a voltage-output transducer, a • Lowest cost

pressure transmitter has a low-impedance current • Suitable where connection distances can be
output, most commonly designed to transmit short and noise is not a problem
analogue 4-20mA signals. The output may be
• Needs stable bridge-excitation voltage
designed for use with either a 2-wire or 4-wire
current loop, as both types are widely used
throughout industry. Voltage transducer:
4-20mA pressure transmitters provide good • Less susceptible to noise
electrical noise immunity (EMI/RFI), making them
• Shorter connection distances than pressure
ideal when the signal must be transmitted long
transmitter
distances. Transmitters can be powered by an
unregulated supply, but current output is generally • Lower power consumption than pressure
unsuitable for battery powered equipment when transmitter
operating at full pressure. • Can work with unregulated bridge-excitation
voltage

• Low power consumption

TRANSDUCERS V TRANSMITTERS:
CHOOSING THE RIGHT ONE Transmitter:
Pressure transducers and transmitters are • Easy to use in ubiquitous 4-20mA industrial
categories of pressure sensors widely used sensing
in industrial equipment and process control
• Long communication distance
applications and differ in their output
• Low susceptibility to noise
characteristics. To help select the right sensor for
a given task, their strengths and weaknesses can • Typically higher power consumption than
be summarised as follows: transducer types

NEED SOME ADVICE?

Our pressure sensor experts are on
hand to help you make the right choice
for your application. Get in touch at
avnet-abacus.eu/ask-an-expert

36
Types of pressure 5.0
measurement

PRESSURE p1
ABSOLUTE VS GAUGE VS DIFFERENTIAL
PRESSURE SENSORS
What’s the difference between absolute, gauge
and differential pressure sensors?

Different applications require different ways VACUUM

of measuring things. In electronic systems, as
an example, sometimes we want to know the
voltage across a specific component. Other times
we’re only interested in the difference in voltage
between two points in the circuit.

It’s a similar situation when we’re measuring

the pressure of liquids and gases. And for each PRESSURE p1
situation there’s a pressure sensing method that
best matches the application.

An absolute pressure sensor provides a pressure

measurement relative to a reference of zero
pressure. This reference pressure is as close as
possible to a vacuum (as shown in the diagram
above). This can be compared to measuring
temperature in Kelvin, a measurement unit that
uses the coldest possible temperature, 0°K, as its
Atmospheric pressure
reference point. A pressure measurement of 1 bar
will be the same, regardless of where in the world,
or at what altitude, it’s measured.
PRESSURE p1
Gauge pressure sensors provide a pressure
measurement relative to the local atmospheric
pressure. This is comparable to measuring a DC
voltage with a voltmeter, where the voltage at
the red probe is either positive or negative with
respect to the point to which the black probe is
connected.

From top to bottom, an absolute, gauge

and differential pressure sensor
PRESSURE p2

37
 Types of pressure 5.0
measurement

If the gauge pressure sensor measures a pressure determine elevation, such as in an altimeter, an
of 1 bar in a vessel, this is 1 bar more than the absolute pressure sensor is needed. These sensors
atmospheric pressure. A 1 bar reading at high are also used in weather stations to measure
altitude (where air pressure is lower) would mean atmospheric pressure changes.
the pressure in the vessel has a lower absolute Sometimes only a small pressure or partial vacuum
pressure than a 1 bar reading at sea-level. is all that’s required. This is often the case in
Finally, differential pressure sensors measure the medical applications, where partial vacuums
difference in pressure between two points in a are used to remove fluid from wounds. In such
system. Typically, this is because this difference situations, the amount of vacuum or pressure
can be used to measure the flow of a liquid or a needs to be generated with reference to the local
gas in pipes or ducts. Alternatively, it may simply atmospheric pressure. This is where the gauge
be used to detect a blockage or seized valve. If pressure sensor would find a home.
the pressure before a valve is higher than after it Gauge pressure sensors are also used in industrial
(in the direction of flow), there must be something applications to determine the fill level of open
impeding the progress of the media between the tanks. The level of liquid can be calculated
two measurement points. using the hydrostatic method, which leverages
knowledge of the liquid’s specific gravity.
Pressure
If the exact pressure measurement is of less
importance, and you only need to determine the
pressure difference between two points in the
Positive gauge

Positive gauge

system, a differential pressure sensor is required.

Many systems, such as HVAC, employ filters to
clean the air passing through their ducts. You
Atmospheric
pressure could use a differential pressure sensor here
Negative gauge

Negative gauge

(eg. 1013,25 mbar) to determine whether or not the filter needs

replacement. The sensor would measure the air
pressure both before and after the filter. Once
the pressure difference rises above a predefined
Free space
threshold, it is time to replace the filter (see
(0 bar)
Absolute Gauge Differential diagram below).
pressure pressure pressure Flow duct

Graph showing how the measurement

methods of the three pressure sensor types Air
flow
compare with one another
P₁ P₂

How do I know which pressure sensor to use? Shunt

In order to select the appropriate pressure sensor P

sensor
for an application, you’ll need to consider the
purpose of the measurement you’re making.

If the measurement should not be influenced by By providing a pressure difference

local atmospheric pressure changes, you most measurement, a differential pressure sensor can
probably need an absolute pressure sensor. detect when an air filter needs replacement
When the application is using air pressure to

38
Types of pressure 5.0
measurement

Do absolute, gauge and differential pressure Industrial pressure sensors are designed to be
sensors measure pressure differently? integrated into industrial automation systems.

The sensing element of a pressure sensor, the part Such systems utilise a programmable logic

that turns the pressure into an electrical value, is controller (PLC). These are designed to support

independent of the type of pressure sensor and the various analogue and digital interfaces

its sensing method. supported today.

Environmental conditions where the sensor will be On the analogue side, outputs range from a

used and the media being measured will influence voltage signal to 4 – 20 mA current loops. The

which sensing element should be used. This will system will need to be programmed to understand

have been considered by the pressure sensor how the pressure measured relates to the voltage

manufacturer during the sensor’s development. or current the PLC sees.

When you research board-level pressure sensors On the digital side, there are a wide range of bus

for example, you’ll most likely find there’s a single networks available. These include CANopen, IO-

datasheet covering all three sensors. The absolute, Link, Fieldbus and PROFIBUS. With such sensors,

gauge and differential sensors share the same type the PLC receives the pressure measurement

of element and are simply provided in packages encapsulated in a packet of data.

that differ in the number of ports provided for

attaching hoses and pipes. The following sections go deeper on the
individual measurement types, and design

Are absolute, gauge and differential pressure considerations for each:

sensors connected to my circuit differently? • Absolute pressure sensors 40

As with the sensor technology discussed above, • Gauge pressure sensors 44

the sensing method won’t determine how the • Differential pressure sensors 48
pressure measurement is presented to the circuit
or system.

Pressure sensors can be broadly split into

devices that are board-level, and those that are
industrialised.

Board-level sensors are typically designed to

connect to other electronic circuitry, commonly
in association with a microcontroller that’s capable NEED SOME ADVICE?
of evaluating its output. Such sensors range from Our pressure sensor experts are on hand to help
the simple, requiring signal conditioning and you make the right choice for your application.
amplification, through to the intelligent, which Get in touch at avnet-abacus.eu/ask-an-expert
combine signal conditioning and deliver the
measurement via a digital output. Most digital
output pressure sensors support I2C and SPI.

39
What are absolute 5.1
pressure sensors?

With a wide variety of pressure sensors available, it can be challenging to know which one is best suited to
a specific task. When it comes to measuring air pressure, specifically for applications such as barometric
measurements for weather or in altimeters, an absolute pressure sensor is the device of choice. However,
your possible application usage isn’t limited just to air or gas.

The absolute measurement is made possible by measuring the target pressure relative to the known
pressure of an absolute vacuum (see diagram below). This can be compared with measuring temperature
in Kelvin, where the lowest possible temperature is 0 °K.

By using a vacuum as the reference against which everything is measured, all measurements will deliver
a value larger than the absolute minimum as defined by the reference. This is essential to accurate
measurement, since Boyle’s Law states that the pressure of a gas is inversely proportional to its volume
at a constant temperature. Thus, anything other than a perfect vacuum will result in an absolute pressure
sensor whose measurement varies with temperature.

Cross sectional view of an intergrated circuit sensor element

Bonding pads for Piezoresistive

electrical connection elements
An absolute pressure sensor
PRESSURE
measures pressure relative to
a sealed vacuum reference in a
hermitically sealed chamber
Si (N-type) SEALED
VACUUM
REFERENCE
Special polysilicon
doped interconnect for
forming hermetic seal

Constant wafer

A perfect vacuum is, however, highly challenging to the sensor typically uses four resistors in the
achieve, especially if the sensor is to remain within Wheatstone bridge configuration.
an acceptable price range. Thus, absolute sensors With today’s high levels of integration, it is not
typically have to make do with an approximate uncommon for your piezoresistive sensor to also
vacuum, typically in the range of 35 microbar include compensation circuitry, such as resistors,
(0.0005 PSI). all on a single substrate (see below).

How do absolute pressure sensors work? A

-Out
With a sealed vessel as the reference point, a R₁
D
sensing technology is then applied to the surface +In
4
of the vessel whose electrical characteristic varies
R₂
with changes in strain. There are many different B
approaches to this. 3
+Out

R₅
One common method is the piezoresistive strain R₃ C
2 1
gauge. These embed a resistor, (whose value -In

changes with respect to mechanical strain) into R₄

a material such as silicon, polysilicon, metal foil,
or as sputtered metal onto a thin film. In order
Wheatstone bridge structure of an absolute
to maximise the output signal and reduce errors,
pressure sensor

40
What are absolute 5.1
pressure sensors?

Other sensing technologies also make use of a How do I integrate an absolute pressure sensor
component’s value variation when deformed. For into my circuit?
example, capacitors vary in capacitance when With so many different pressure sensing
placed under strain. Sometimes a change in an technologies available, there is no single way to
inductor’s inductance can be caused by a locally integrate a sensor into your circuit. In most cases,
placed diaphragm that moves in reaction to you will be looking to connect your absolute
pressure changes. pressure sensor to a microcontroller.
The piezoelectric effect is also a common Some sensors are so simple they require a
pressure measuring technology. This makes significant amount of circuitry to condition the
use of the fact that some materials, such as signal for use with a microcontroller. A sensor
quartz, generate a voltage dependent on applied that simply provides access to a Wheatstone
pressure. bridge circuit will require significant amplification
As a result of the massive advances in silicon to deliver an output large enough for a typical
manufacturing technology in recent years, some microcontroller’s analogue-to-digital converter
mechanical elements are being machined into (ADC) to measure.
silicon chips known as microelectromechanical A quad op-amp configuration as shown in the
systems or MEMS devices. diagram below provides an example for such an
They mostly utilise the same physical properties amplification circuit. Such circuitry needs to be
of the electronic components already mentioned, carefully designed and may also require proper
but leverage some moving parts machined into screening and low-noise design techniques to
the semiconductor material. Such devices rarely guarantee a reliable output signal.
provide the sensing element’s output signal;
instead they precondition the signal electronically
before outputting it via a package pin.

SPAN ADJUST
R1
RS RP R
VO R
AV = =2 1+
R VIN R1

- R
C -
+ D V0
+
- +
VIN
(+10V) +
A +V
R2 +
VB - 2.5V
3R VR1
-
One method to generate
- SCX30AN +
SENSOR R an analogue output from a
RA Wheatstone bridge sensor,
VR with adjustments for both
+ R3
OFFSET
VR B ADJUST offset and span
-
RB

2.5V
VR2

41
What are absolute 5.1
pressure sensors?

Due to process variation and component Can I use an absolute pressure sensor in my
tolerances, your circuit may also need individual design?
calibration for each circuit board you produce. Many absolute pressure sensors are provided in a
Temperature compensation may also need to be small housing suitable for fixing through-hole or
considered. surface-mount to a printed circuit board (PCB).
Sensors with digital outputs are much easier to These are known as board level sensors. This
connect to a microcontroller. These will include makes them ideal for a consumer application
all the signal conditioning, amplification and where sensing can be undertaken on the PCB, e.g.
temperature compensation. The measurements in an altimeter or sports watch.
are then converted into a digital value and stored However, such sensors are not suited to the high
in an internal register. temperature of liquids or gases. Neither are they
The interfaces offered to the microcontroller are suitably protected against dust, moisture or the
typically I2C or SPI. Some sensors may support chemicals often used for cleaning in industrial
both, allowing you to select between the one that environments.
suits your application best. This is the case with Industrial sensors are typically robustly packaged.
the example shown below. They are likely to be made of a non-corroding
A sensor with a digital interface may not meet material, such as stainless steel, and are threaded,
your needs if you need to measure rapid allowing them to be fitted to pipes and storage
variations in pressure. An SPI or I2C interface only tanks.
supports a certain number of data transfers per Industrial engineers typically want to select their
second. With more than one device on the bus, hardware and link it all together. They are not so
the available bandwidth drops with the increase of interested in building custom circuitry to handle
devices hanging on the bus. the sensor output. As a result, industrial sensors
For measurement of pressure that varies quickly, are grouped into three main types: sensors,
it is likely that you will need to invest time in the transducers, and transmitters. We touch on
development of your own analogue front-end, these briefly on the following page, but for more
coupled with an ADC with a suitable conversion information on these sensor types read chapter 4.
time.

VDD

PS
The integrated
Meas.MUX circuitry inside
CSB
+IN DIGITAL
SENSOR SDI/SDA the sensor
INTERFACE
SDO
-IN PGA ADC dig. can perform
Filter SCLK
amplification,
conditioning
SENSOR MEMORY and digitisation
INTERFACE IC (PROM)
SGND 128 bits of the sensor
measurement
GND

42
What are absolute 5.1
pressure sensors?

The term ‘sensor’ typically indicates a device What applications are absolute pressure sensors
that generates a ratiometric output. This means used in?
that your sensor’s output will be dependent on With the rise in smart watches and navigation
the sensor’s supply voltage. Thus, a sensor with a systems, absolute pressure sensors find homes
10mV/V output will generate a 0 – 50 mV output wherever elevation above sea level (altimeter
for a 5.0 VDC supply. Such devices can be quite measurement) is required. Weather stations also
raw in their packaging, with pads or legs suitable use them for barometric pressure measurements.
for soldering to a circuit board or cabling.
Petrol and diesel vehicles make use of them too,
A ‘transducer’ is a complete sensor, including measuring the pressure in the engine manifold.
signal conditioning, designed for you to fit directly Such sensors are known as manifold absolute
into an industrial environment. Your output signal pressure sensors, or MAP sensors for short. The
will typically be a voltage that relates to pressure, engine’s electronic control unit (ECU) uses this
generally lying in the 0 – 10V range. However, information to determine optimal combustion of
some transducers generate an alternating signal in the air-fuel mix and ignition timing.
the 1 – 6 kHz range.
In industrial applications, it is often necessary to
Some older transducers do not have a “live zero” develop a partial vacuum. This is the case in food
when the sensor is at its lowest measuring point. packing, where the residual pressure determines
This makes it impossible for you to determine the shelf life of the produce. The absolute
the difference between a minimum pressure pressure sensor can ensure that the pressure in
measurement and a broken sensor or connecting each package is the same.
cable. This is something to be considered for
At the other extreme, industrial absolute pressure
systems with a high-level safety requirement.
sensors are available that support measurements
A pressure ‘transmitter’ typically indicates a of more than 300 bar (4400 PSI).
sensor that uses a 4 – 20 mA output signal rather
than a voltage output. These devices often only
require a two-wire interface (supply and ground),
and offer good electrical noise immunity (EMI/
RFI). Supply voltage for such sensors lies in the
range of 8 – 24 VDC.

Such sensors are designed for use with other NEED SOME ADVICE?
industrial equipment, such as a programmable Our pressure sensor experts are on hand to help
logic controller (PLC). These then communicate via you make the right choice for your application.
digital buses with one another and other industrial Get in touch at avnet-abacus.eu/ask-an-expert
systems. Buses include Fieldbus, standardised
as IEC 61158, IO-Link, PROFIBUS and CANopen.
With more intelligence being built into industrial
sensors, it is becoming increasingly common to
find that they are ready to be directly attached to
such industrial networks.

43
What are gauge
VACUUM
5.2
pressure sensors?

In some applications the exact pressure or PRESSURE p1

vacuum being generated is not of key importance.
Instead, you just want to understand how much
the pressure or vacuum differs in comparison to
atmospheric pressure.

Atmospheric pressure varies across the globe

depending on our altitude and even changes in
the weather.

Consider, as an example, the vacuum pumps used

during or after surgery. These are used to remove Atmospheric pressure
bodily fluids, gases and even tissue. Typically,
only a small, finely controlled vacuum is required A gauge pressure sensor measures pressure
in order to avoid injury. This needs to be set in PRESSURE
relative to the local p1 pressure
atmospheric
relation to the local atmospheric pressure. In a
hospital at sea level, the atmospheric pressure will
be higher than at a hospital high in the mountains. When positioning the sensor in your application,
it is important that the vent is open to the
A gauge pressure sensor measures the pressure
atmosphere. This may require a hole in your
at its port with respect to the local atmospheric
printed circuit board and even the housing of your
pressure. This can be compared to using a
product.
multimeter’s DC measurement range, where the
display shows the voltage at the positive probe
with respect to the negative probe. How does a gauge pressure sensor work?
Gauge pressure sensors are typically packaged There are a variety of strategies for measuring
with a port, to which a pipe can be attached, as the pressure in a gauge sensor. Most of them
well as a vent that is open to the atmosphere. The use a membrane that is fittedp2
PRESSURE with an electrical
pipe can then be connected to the system where component, such as a resistor, whose value varies
the measurement is to be made. when flexed.

Nowadays, microelectromechanical systems,

commonly known as MEMS, are utilised. Small and
light structures are etched into silicon that can
flex or vibrate. Since the base medium is silicon,
further electronic circuitry can be integrated
alongside the MEMS element.

The short electrical paths help to ensure low

noise and high measurement accuracy, whilst the
MEMS element can result in a sensor that is better
isolated from temperature changes.

44
 What are gauge 5.2
pressure sensors?

In all likelihood, your chosen commercial gauge

sensor will probably be a piezoresistive type. Such
sensors are constructed as a Wheatstone bridge
(see diagram below) and require some analogue
circuitry to amplify the signal for use with a
microcontroller or other systems.

This can also include compensation for A range of gauge pressure

temperature and a calibration adjustment. A sensors with barbed manifolds
constant current circuit is used to power the
bridge.
Many analogue sensors integrate the amplifier,
VDD Constant current circuit unit temperature compensation and support for
Pressure Amplifier circuit unit
calibrating the device (see image below). This
sensor
leaves an output signal in the range of 0 – 5 VDC
+
+
-
- which is suitable to connect to the analogue-to-
digital converter of a microcontroller.
_
+
One thing to watch is the quality of the power
_ supply, as many sensors are ratiometric. This
+
means that the output signal varies with the input
supply to the sensor.

A piezoresistive Wheatstone bridge circuit with VS

2 (SOP)
amplifier, powered by a constant current circuit 3 (Unibody)

How do I integrate a gauge pressure sensor into Thin film Gain stage #2
temperature and ground
Sensing Vout
my circuit? element
compensation
and gain
reference
shift circuitry
stage #1 1 (Unibody)
4 (SOP)
With such a broad array of gauge pressure sensors
available, it can be difficult to know where to start. 2 (Unibody)
3 (SOP)
GND
If you’re intending to interface your sensor with
Pins 1 and 5 through to 8 are NO CONNECTS for small outline package
a microcontroller, you may find that a board- Pins 4, 5 and 6 are NO CONNECTS for unibody package
mounted sensor is the best option. Gauge
pressure sensors tend to provide an analogue Some analogue sensors provide a
output, although some suppliers provide devices considerable amount of analogue circuitry
with digital interfaces. around the sensing element
Board mounted sensors come in a variety of
packages, often with a short section of barbed
manifold (see examples above right) allowing the
sensor to be connected by tube to the system to
be measured.

45
What are gauge 5.2
pressure sensors?

When developing firmware to read the pressure Can I use an industrial gauge pressure sensor in
provided, note should also be taken of the warm- my design?
up time of the sensor. After initial power on, it Board level sensors are ideal for integrating
may take several milliseconds before the output onto a PCB, but they’re typically limited in the
can be relied upon. temperature range they support. You will also find
If the sensor is part of a control loop, the that they’re not suited for monitoring most liquids
response time for the sensor should also be and chemicals.
reviewed. Gauge pressure sensors’ response Industrial gauge sensors are an ideal alternative.
times are often specified by the time taken for They’re typically housed in a robust metal
the output to change from 10% to 90% for a step case, making them suitable for use in damp and
change in pressure. corrosive environments. They also feature a screw
Sensors with a digital output tend to support thread, allowing them to be fixed to tanks and
the I2C or SPI protocol. However, there are pipes with ease.
exceptions. Some sensors use the single wire However, one of the challenges you may face
bi-directional ZACwireTM communication protocol is interfacing them to your system, especially a
(See diagram below). This is typically not native to microcontroller.
microcontrollers, so supporting this interface in
Industrial complexes are often required to fulfil
firmware will require some significant programming
high levels of safety to protect their workers
effort, as well as demanding a lot of processing
from the high pressures, corrosive liquids and
time.
dangerous equipment in their environment.
If you’re developing a low-power application, you Industrial gauge sensors are therefore designed
will probably want to stick with protocols natively with interfaces that are intended to guarantee
supported by the microcontroller’s peripherals. that the measurements they deliver are always
reliable.

Some manufacturers offer the single-wire ZACwireTM protocol on their

gauge sensors, although this is uncommon in microcontrollers

46
 What are gauge 5.2
pressure sensors?

Many ‘transmitter’ type sensors encode their output as an analogue signal in

the form of a current between 4 and 20 mA. This can be in the form of a two-
wire interface that doubles as the power supply to the sensor. This would need
to be replicated in your circuitry as shown in the diagram below.

2mA

4-20 mA Output
1 +
1 R1
0 1 8 D1
3 2 R3 4 750 1N4002 2.4 V
30 + 1/2 W
Sensor 5
C1
6 Transmitter Q1
0.01 mF 96 — 4.8 V
4 1
R5 3 -
100 PLOOP
1 2 1 7 1 9
4 3 240
SPAN
D2
6.4 V@ .5mA -
R6 R4 Return
100 k 1M
R2 Offset
1K

An example circuit showing how a gauge

sensor transmitter may be implemented

Some industrial sensors have now gone digital, What applications are gauge pressure sensors
utilising protocols such as Fieldbus, standardised used in?
as IEC 61158, IO-Link, PROFIBUS and CANopen.
If the pressure measurement you intend to take
Some of the electrical interfaces and associated
needs to be relative to the local atmospheric
signalling are compatible with microcontrollers,
pressure, you will need to use a gauge pressure
such as CANopen. All that is required is the
sensor. For example, the level of a liquid in
matching software stack. Others, such as IO-
an open tank will change with variation in
Link and PROFIBUS, may require specialised
atmospheric pressure. A gauge pressure sensor
microcontrollers or external circuitry to
allows this to be measured and compensates for
implement the interface.
those atmospheric pressure changes.

Medical applications also make regular use of

gauge pressure sensors, for fluid extraction from
wounds, in hyperbaric chambers, and ex-vivo
NEED SOME ADVICE? blood pressure measurements. In such situations,
Our pressure sensor experts are on the pressure, or vacuum, to be developed is often
hand to help you make the right choice small, and requires fine control in order to avoid
for your application. Get in touch at harm to the patient.
avnet-abacus.eu/ask-an-expert

47
What are gauge 5.3
differential sensors?
PRESSURE p1

Sometimes it’s not necessary to know the How does a differential pressure sensor sense
absolute pressure of aVACUUM
liquid or a gas. Instead, pressure?
only the difference between two points in the Typically, the two pressures to be measured are
system being monitored need be known. In such applied to opposite sides of a single diaphragm.
situations, you can turn to differential pressure The deflection of the diaphragm, either positive
sensors. or negative with respect to the resting state,
The differential pressure sensor will give you a determines the difference in pressure.
comparative measurement between two points Some industrial differential sensors actually
(see diagam below).PRESSURE
One example
p1 may be before use two separate absolute sensors, utilising
and after a valve in a pipe. If the valve is fully open, internal electronics to calculate and provide the
the pressure on both sides should be the same. difference in pressure to the control system.
If there’s a difference in the pressure, it could be
This may be the case in situations where two
the valve isn’t fully open or there’s a blockage.
different types of sensors are required due to
Differential pressure sensors are typically the medium being measured, such as a liquid and
packaged with two ports to which pipes can be a gas, or the environment of the measurement
attached. The pipes are then connected to the (see below).
system where the measurement is to be made.
Industrial differential sensors may be integrated
Atmospheric pressure Minature pressure senor
into a standardised fitting, allowing it to be built
into existing pipework.
100psi

PRESSURE p1
300psi USB series USB hub Computer

If required, a differential pressure measure-

ment can be made using two absolute pressure
sensors and software on the control system

PRESSURE p2

A differential pressure sensor measures the

difference in pressure at its two ports

The measurements made are fully independent of

atmospheric pressure, unlike gauge sensors.

48
 What are differential 5.3
sensors?

Many of the board-level sensors available utilise How do I integrate a differential pressure sensor
piezoresistive sensing elements. The simplest into my circuit?
of these use a Wheatstone bridge configuration If you’re developing a microcontroller-based
which requires a signal conditioning circuit to differential pressure measurement system there
amplify its output (see below). are a wide range of board-mounting sensors
available to choose from. As we’ve already seen,
RC2 RC1
VS
some provide a conditioned and amplified
A4 - VR2 analogue output that can be applied to an ADC
+
RC5 A5 RC3 input.
- VR1
+ SINGLE-ENDED
ISE RC4 ADC Others digitise the signal inside the sensor,
+
A1 VA CS
- RB2 GND SDATA allowing them to be connected to a digital serial
RA2
RF1
RS
VIN SCLK interface such as I2C or ZACwireTM.
+
RG C1 RF2 -
A3 A1, A2, A3 powered I2C is a relatively well-known interfacing
from VS, GND
RA1 RB1 CS
C2
-
A4, A5 powered technology and is even available on some of the
from VS2, GND
+
SENSOR A2 (see operating values) smallest 8-bit microcontrollers. Requiring just two
wires, one is used for a clock while the second is a
An example circuit for amplifying the signal bi-directional data line.
from a Wheatstone bridge piezoresistive Since I2C supports multiple nodes, it’s also
pressure sensor. important to consider the overall bandwidth of the
bus. As more devices are added to the bus, the
risk that the pressure sensor cannot be accessed
Circuits like the above diagram apply a constant
as often as desired increases. Another important
current to the bridge. The output signal is
consideration is the dimensioning of the pull-up
then amplified and applied to the input of the
resistors on the bus. The official specification
measurement system. If your application is based
for I2C provides a proper explanation of how to
upon a microcontroller, the signal could be
calculate the necessary values.
connected to an ADC input pin. Otherwise, there
are many standalone ADCs with digital outputs
that could be sourced as an alternative.

The analogue front end (AFE) may also need to

allow provision for offset voltage, temperature
compensation, and span.

If you’re looking for a simpler solution, many

manufacturers provide fully integrated differential
sensors. For example, some may include
temperature compensation circuitry together with
two stages of amplification, enabling it to be simply
connected to the ADC input of a microcontroller.

49
 What are gauge 5.3
differential sensors?

Can I use an industrial differential pressure Like in other business sectors, industrial sensors
sensor in my design? are also moving to digital interfaces. This has

There’s an obvious attraction to using an industrial the advantage that several sensors can all be

pressure sensor over board-level devices. They’re connected to the same wiring loop, saving on

robustly built, housed mostly in a steel casing, cabling complexity. Some of these interfaces,

and feature a threaded fitting, making them such as CANopen, can be connected to a

easy to fit to pipes and tanks. Industrial pressure microcontroller relatively easily. As long as a

sensors are primarily designed for integration CAN interface is available, all that’s needed is a

into manufacturing environments, linked to a compliant CAN transceiver on the hardware side.

programmable logic controller (PLC). In order to implement your software, youlll find a
range of software stacks from various embedded
Because industrial sensors are used in systems
software vendors.
that require high levels of functional safety and
robustness, the interfaces they offer can seem
a little unusual. Most analogue output sensors What applications are differential pressure
provide a voltage output with a wide range (0 – sensors used in?
20 V) or provide their output as a current in the Differential pressure sensors often find a home
range of 4 – 20 mA. The goal behind such sensor in industrial environments where a difference
interfaces is to minimise sensitivity to background in pressure can be used to determine the flow
noise over the long cable lengths employed. of gases or liquids. This can include effluent
Some examples of transmitter type gauge sensor treatment plants, offshore and subsea gas and oil
circuitry are shown below. processing, and remote heating systems utilising
heated water or steam.
2-WIRE > 1000 feet
TRANSMITTER +8V to +40V They also find their way into the sprinkler systems
+24V typical
+VS VLOOP installed for fire protection.
XTR -
IOUT 4-20mA
RL VOUT
If it’s necessary to measure the volume of liquid in
250Ω typ 1V-5V typ
+ a closed vessel, a differential pressure transmitter
can also be used. As long as the density of the
3-WIRE
TRANSMITTER +7V to +44V
> 1000 feet
fluid does not change with temperature variation,
+24V typical
the height of the column of liquid can be
+ IOUT 4-20mA
+
+VS
XTR RL VOUT determined from the pressure, liquid density and
250Ω typ 1V-5V typ
- gravity.

In the medical field, differential pressure sensors

are used for treatment of deep vein thrombosis,
Example circuits showing how a gauge sensor infusion pumps, and respirator and breathing
transmitter may be implemented detection equipment.

NEED SOME ADVICE?

Our pressure sensor experts are on hand to help
you make the right choice for your application.
Get in touch at avnet-abacus.eu/ask-an-expert

50
Core pressure 6.0
sensor technologies

Electronic pressure sensors measure a physical reaction to applied

pressure by converting the resulting proportional change into an
electronic signal. Commonly used phenomena include changes in
capacitance, or changes in ohmic resistance of a strain gauge or
piezoelectric element, which are proportional to the magnitude of
the deflection when pressure is applied.

The sensing principle used can influence accuracy, reliability,

measurement range, and compatibility with the target environment.
In this section of the guide we'll look at some of the key technologies
available to engineers, how they work and the advantages and
disadvantages of each type.

51
Capacitive vs 6.1
piezoresistive vs
piezoelectric pressure
sensors

The first pressure gauges were purely mechanical. All three types of sensors can be miniaturised
They used mechanisms such as a diaphragm or using silicon fabrication techniques and combined
a “Bourdon tube” that changed shape under with electronics as microelectromechanical
pressure to move a pointer on a dial. systems (MEMS). This allows very small sensing

Various techniques have since been developed to elements to be constructed and combined

convert mechanical displacements into electrical with the electronics for signal conditioning and

signals. Here we’ll consider the relative advantages readout.

of piezoresistive, capacitive and piezoelectric Piezoresistive and capacitive pressure sensors can
pressure sensors. be used for absolute, gauge, relative or differential
measurements.

PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION Piezoelectric sensors are sensitive to changes

in pressure so the output is usually treated as a
In a piezoresistive strain gauge sensor, the change
relative pressure measurement, referenced to the
in electrical resistance of one or more resistors
initial state of the piezoelectric material.
mounted on a diaphragm is measured. The change
in resistance is directly proportional to the
strain caused by pressure on the diaphragm. The ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF THE
resistors are connected in a Wheatstone bridge THREE SENSOR TYPES
circuit, which is a very sensitive way of converting Piezoresistive strain gauge sensors
the small changes to an output voltage.
These are the earliest and most widely used type
Capacitive pressure sensors measure changes in of pressure sensor.
electrical capacitance caused by the movement
The simple construction means low cost and
of a diaphragm. A capacitor consists of two
durability. The sensors are robust with good
parallel conducting plates separated by a small
resistance to shock, vibration, and dynamic
gap. One of the plates acts as the diaphragm
pressure changes.
that is displaced by the pressure, changing the
capacitance of the circuit. The resulting change of The readout circuits are very simple and enable
resonant frequency of a circuit can be measured. high-resolution measurement.
Or, in a digital system, the time taken to charge The output is linear with pressure and the
and discharge the capacitor can be converted to a response time is typically below one millisecond.
series of pulses.
They can be used for a wide range of pressure
Piezoelectric sensors use materials, such as quartz measurements from 3 psi up to about 20,000 psi
crystals or specially formulated ceramics, which (21 kPa to 150 MPa). The output is also stable over
generate a charge across the faces when pressure time.
is applied. A charge amplifier converts this to
The resistive elements can be bonded to the
an output voltage proportional to the pressure.
diaphragm. This is a standard technique that
A given force results in a corresponding charge
has been in use for a long time but there can be
across the sensing element. However, this charge
problems with the adhesives at high temperatures
will leak away over time meaning that the sensor
and overpressure.
cannot be used to measure static pressure.

52
Capacitive vs 6.1
piezoresistive vs
piezoelectric pressure
sensors

Alternatively, thin film resistors can be created Passive devices may not require a power source
directly on the membrane. These can operate at at all; the excitation signal can be provided by
higher temperatures and are more suitable for use the external reader. This makes them suitable
in harsh environments. for wearable or implanted medical devices.

The main disadvantage is that the sensor has to These applications can be enhanced by new

be powered. This makes them unsuitable for low technologies that enable the construction of

power or battery operated systems. Scaling down sensors that are flexible or moulded to shape.

the size reduces the resistance and increases the Capacitive sensors exhibit low hysteresis and good
power consumption. repeatability of measurements. They also have low

There are also limitations on scaling because strain temperature sensitivity.

averaging reduces the sensitivity of the sensor. The response time is in the order of milliseconds,
However, very small sensors can be fabricated as and even faster in the case of MEMS devices.
MEMS devices. Because they’re inherently AC devices, capacitive
The sensor output is temperature dependent. This sensors are suitable for wireless applications. They
can be a big disadvantage for applications such as can be used in an oscillator circuit to generate a
tyre pressure measurement where there are large signal, with a frequency proportional to pressure,
temperature changes over the operating cycle. that can be received wirelessly.

Silicon strain gauges are much more sensitive and Alternatively, the reader can use inductive
can measure pressures down to 2 kPa. coupling to measure the change in resonant

The accuracy of MEMS devices can be reduced by frequency – this is particularly suitable for passive

junction leakage current. This can be mitigated by devices that require no power supply.

using silicon on insulator (SOI) technology, but this One of the main disadvantages of capacitive
adds to the cost. sensors is the non-linearity exhibited because
the output is inversely proportional to the gap
between the parallel electrodes. This can be
Capacitive sensors
improved by using the sensor in touch mode,
The capacitive element is mechanically simple and where the diaphragm is in contact with the
robust. insulating layer on the lower electrode. However,
Capacitive sensors are able to operate over a wide this can reduce sensitivity and increase hysteresis.
temperature range and are very tolerant of short- They are also sensitive to vibration.
term overpressure conditions. The interface needs to minimise stray capacitance
They can be used to measure a wide range of by having the electronics as close as possible
pressure from vacuum (2.5 mbar or 250 Pa) to to the sensor. This is another benefit of MEMS
high pressures up to around 10,000 psi (70 MPa). technology.
They’re ideal for both lower-pressure applications
and reasonably harsh environments.

Because no DC current flows through the

capacitor, they are inherently low power.

53
Capacitive vs 6.1
piezoresistive vs
piezoelectric pressure
sensors

Piezoelectric sensors The piezoelectric elements can be very small with

The main advantages of piezoelectric sensors are an extremely fast response to changes in pressure.

robustness and low power requirements. Some devices can measure rise times in the order
of 1 millionth of a second. As a result, piezoelectric
The sensing elements are made of rigid materials,
sensors are used for measuring pressure changes
which can be natural crystals such as quartz or
in explosions.
specially formulated ceramics. These require only
a very small deformation to generate an output, so The sensors are simple to construct and can be

there are effectively no moving parts. made from inexpensive materials.

This means the sensors are extremely robust The main limitation of piezoelectric sensors is

and suitable for use in a range of very harsh that they can only be used for dynamic pressure

environments. They can also tolerate very high measurement.

temperatures; some materials can be used at up The sensors are sensitive to vibration or
1,000ºC. acceleration, which may be common in the

This makes piezoelectric sensors suitable for applications where they are used. This can be

applications such as measuring pressures in jet minimised by using an extra “compensation”

engines. sensor attached to a dummy mass. The output

from this is used to correct for acceleration
The sensor elements are self-powered so
experienced by the sensor.
they’re intrinsically low-power devices. It also
means they’re insensitive to electromagnetic Overall, these three sensor types are robust and

interference. low cost. They function over a wide range of

pressures and temperatures so there are suitable
However, designing the electronic interface is
sensors available for almost every application.
more complex than the other sensor types. A
charge amplifier is required to convert the very For more on each sensor technology refer to

high impedance charge output to a voltage signal. chapters 6.2, 6.3 and 6.4 respectively.

This needs to be located close to the sensing

element.

Some sensors include integrated electronics,

which simplifies the use of the sensor but reduces
the operating temperature range.

With ceramic materials, a usable output can be

obtained with very small displacements. This
means they can be used for measuring a very wide
range of pressures, between 0.1 psi and 10,000 psi
(0.7 kPa to 70 MPa), with very high accuracy.

54
Piezoresistive strain 6.2
gauge pressure sensors

Piezoresistive strain gauges are among the most Where strain is defined as the relative change in
common types of pressure sensors. They use the length:
change in electrical resistance of a material when
stretched to measure the pressure.
L
These sensors are suitable for a variety of
=-
L
applications because of their simplicity and
robustness. They can be used for absolute, gauge,
relative and differential pressure measurement, in
both high- and low-pressure applications.
PRESSURE SENSING ELEMENTS
In this article we’ll discuss the various types of
Strain gauge elements can be made of metal or a
piezoresistive pressure sensors available, how they
semiconducting material.
work, and their relative merits.
The resistance change in metal strain gauges is
mainly due to the change in geometry (length
WORKING PRINCIPLE and cross-section area) of the material. In
The basic principle of the piezoresistive pressure some metals, for example platinum alloys, the
sensor is to use a strain gauge made from a piezoresistive effect can increase the sensitivity
conductive material that changes its electrical by a factor of two or more.
resistance when it is stretched. The strain gauge In semiconducting materials, the piezoresistive
can be attached to a diaphragm that recognises a effect dominates, typically being orders of
change in resistance when the sensor element is magnitude larger than the contribution from
deformed. The change in resistance is converted geometry.
to an output signal

There are three separate effects that contribute to

FUNCTION
the change in resistance of a conductor. These are:
The change in resistance in the sensor is usually
• The resistance of a conductor is proportional to
measured using a Wheatstone bridge circuit (as
its length so stretching increases the resistance
shown below). This allows small changes in the
• As the conductor is stretched, its cross- resistance of the sensor to be converted to an
sectional area is reduced, which also increases output voltage.
the resistance

• The inherent resistivity of some materials

VOUT +
increases when it is stretched STRAIN GAUGE - VEXCITATION

The last of these, the piezoresistive effect, varies DIAPHRAGM

greatly between materials. The sensitivity is
specified by the gauge factor, which is defined
as the relative resistance change divided by the
strain:

R
(-
R )
APPLIED PRESSURE

GF=-
Piezoresistive strain gauge measurements are
made using a Wheatstone bridge circuit

55
 Piezoresistive strain 6.2
gauge pressure sensors

An excitation voltage needs to be provided to effect, can be adjusted by doping; in other

the bridge. When there is no strain and all the words by adding carefully controlled amounts of
resistors in the bridge are balanced then the impurities (dopants) to the semiconductor.
output will be zero volts. A change in pressure More lightly doped silicon results in a higher
will cause a change in resistances in the bridge resistivity and a higher gauge factor. However, this
resulting in a corresponding output voltage or also increases the thermal sensitivity of both the
current. resistance and gauge factor.
This is calculated using the formula:

FABRICATION PROCESS
R3 R2 .
Vo =- -
- Vex Semiconductor sensors can be constructed in a

R3 + R4 R1 + R2
similar way to metal wire sensors, by depositing
the silicon strain gauge elements on to a
diaphragm.
Performance can be improved by using two or
They can also be constructed directly on a silicon
four sensing elements in the bridge, with the
surface by using the same manufacturing methods
elements in each pair being subject to equal and
used for making electronic semiconductor
opposite strain. This increases the output signal
devices. This allows very small sensors to be
and can minimise the effects of temperature on
manufactured cheaply with precisely controlled
the sensor elements.
properties such as sensitivity, linearity and
temperature response.
Construction metal sensing elements
Electronic components can also be fabricated
One or more strain gauge sensors made from a on the same silicon chip to provide signal
length of wire can be attached to the surface of a conditioning and simplify the electrical interface.
diaphragm. Sensors based on these microelectromechanical
Pressure on the diaphragm will stretch the wires mechanical systems (MEMS) are described in more
and change the resistance. The sensor elements detail in chapter 6.5.
can be bonded on to the surface with adhesive
or the conductor can be directly deposited on
DESIGN
the diaphragm by sputtering. The latter method
removes potential problems with adhesives failing To ensure the highest accuracy, you’ll need to

at high temperatures and also makes it easier to consider several factors that could affect the

construct small devices. output. Any variation or noise in the excitation

voltage will cause a corresponding change in the
A metal wire sensor can also be made by wrapping
sensor output. You will need to ensure that this is
a wire between posts that are displaced by
less than the required measurement accuracy.
changing pressure. This construction can also work
at higher temperatures because no adhesive is You may need to provide an adjustable calibration

needed to attach the wire to the posts. resistor in the bridge circuit to set the output
voltage to zero when there is no pressure.

Construction semiconductor sensing You’ll need to keep the resistance of the wires to

elements the sensor small to avoid introducing an offset to

the measurement and reducing sensitivity. Also,
Semiconducting materials, most commonly silicon,
the temperature coefficient of the copper wires
can also be used to make strain gauge pressure
may be greater than that of the sensor, which can
sensors. The characteristics of the sensing
introduce undesirable thermal sensitivity.
element, particularly the size of the piezoresistive

56
 Piezoresistive strain 6.2
gauge pressure sensors

Longer wires are also more likely to pick up noise. SPECIFICATIONS

This can be minimised by using twisted pairs and
Typical metal strain gauge sensors have a gauge
shielding.
factor of around 2 to 4. With a typical maximum
Using a higher excitation voltage increases the strain of a few parts per thousand, this means a
sensor output and improves the signal to noise change in output of around 1mV for each volt of
ratio. However, the higher current can cause excitation.
heating of the sensing element, which will change
Silicon-based sensors are usually doped to provide
the resistivity and sensitivity of the sensor.
a gauge factor of around 100 to 200, which gives a
This self-heating can also affect the adhesive good compromise between sensitivity and thermal
bonding the strain gauge to the diaphragm, which characteristics. The output from a silicon sensor
can introduce errors and cause accuracy to can be around 10 mV/V.
degrade over time. The self-heating effects can be
reduced by using a higher-resistance strain gauge.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
The optimum supply voltage is a balance between
minimising self-heating and obtaining a good Piezoresistive strain gauge pressure sensors have

signal. You can determine this experimentally. For the advantage of being robust. Their performance

example, with no pressure and the sensor output and calibration is also stable over time.

zero, you can increase the excitation voltage until One disadvantage of these sensors is that they
the output is seen to change (because of self- consume more power than some other types
heating). The excitation voltage should then be of pressure sensor. This may mean they are not
reduced until the output error disappears. suitable for battery powered or portable systems.

If possible, you should use an amplifier circuit Metal film sensing elements have the advantage of
close to the sensor to minimise connection simple construction and durability. They also have
lengths, boost the output signal and improve a higher maximum operating temperature (up to
the signal-to-noise ratio. This can also do some about 200°C) than silicon strain gauges, which are
filtering of the sensor output to remove external limited to below 100°C.
noise. Silicon strain gauges provide a much larger output
You can minimise the effects of any changes in the signal, making them well-suited to low-pressure
excitation voltage, such as a voltage drop caused applications, down to around 2 kPa.
by long wires, by monitoring the excitation voltage MEMS pressure sensors can be made much smaller
at the sensor and either subtracting that from the than metal wire sensors and can be integrated
sensor output or using it as a reference voltage for with electronics for signal processing, which
the analogue to digital converter (ADC). can control for non-linearity and temperature
dependence.

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57
Capacitive 6.3
pressure sensors

Capacitive pressure sensors measure pressure An easy way of measuring the change in
by detecting changes in electrical capacitance capacitance is to make it part of a tuned circuit,
caused by the movement of a diaphragm. typically consisting of the capacitive sensor plus
an inductor. This can either change the frequency
of an oscillator or the AC coupling of a resonant
WORKING PRINCIPLE
circuit.
A capacitor consists of two parallel conducting
plates separated by a small gap. The capacitance
is defined by: CONSTRUCTION

A The diaphragm can be constructed from a variety

C= r 0-
e e of materials, such as plastic, glass, silicon or

d
ceramic, to suit different applications.

The capacitance of the sensor is typically around

where: 50 to 100 pF, with the change being a few
picofarads.
• er is the dielectric constant of the material
The stiffness and strength of the material can
between the plates (this is 1 for a vacuum)
be chosen to provide a range of sensitivities and
• e0 is the electric constant operating pressures. To get a large signal, the
(equal to 8.854x1012 F/m), sensor may need to be fairly large, which can
• A is the area of the plates limit the frequency range of operation. However,
smaller diaphragms are more sensitive and have a
• d is the distance between the plates
faster response time.

Changing any of the variables will cause a A large thin diaphragm may be sensitive to noise
corresponding change in the capacitance. The from vibration (after all, the same basic principle
easiest one to control is the spacing. This can is used to make condenser microphones)
be done by making one or both of the plates particularly at low pressures.
a diaphragm that is deflected by changes in Thicker diaphragms are used in high-pressure
pressure. sensors and to ensure mechanical strength.
Typically, one electrode is a pressure sensitive Sensors with full-scale pressure up to 5,000 psi
diaphragm and the other is fixed. An example of a can readily be constructed by controlling the
capacitive pressure sensor is shown below: diaphragm thickness.

By choosing materials for the capacitor plates that

have a low coefficient of thermal expansion, it’s
possible to make sensors with very low sensitivity
to temperature change. The structure also needs
DIAPHRAGM
Insulated Capacitor
standoffs plates to have low hysteresis to ensure accuracy and
repeatability of measurements.
Pressure
bellows Pressure
port Because the diaphragm itself is the sensing
element, there are no issues with extra
components being bonded to the diaphragm, so
capacitive sensors are able to operate at higher
temperatures than some other types of sensor.

58
Capacitive 6.3
pressure sensors

Capacitive pressure sensors can also be A more linear sensor can be constructed by using
constructed directly on a silicon chip with the ‘touch mode’ where the diaphragm makes contact
same fabrication techniques that are used in with the opposite plate (with a thin insulating layer
manufacturing semiconductor electronic devices in between) throughout the normal operating
(see diagram below). This allows very small sensing range (as shown below). The geometry of this
elements to be constructed and combined structure results in a more linear output signal.
with the electronics for signal conditioning and
Diaphram
reporting. Pressure sensors using microelectronic
mechanical systems (MEMS) are described in more
detail in chapter 6.5.

Polysilicon Sealed Bottom

Si0₂ layer diaphram cavity plate Metalisation
Dielectric layer Electrode Substrate

This type of sensor is also more robust and able

to cope with a larger over-pressure. This makes it
more suited to industrial environments. However,
this structure is more prone to hysteresis because
of friction between the two surfaces.

Silicon Substrate IC area

DESIGN

A cross section of a capacitive MEMS sensor The electronics for measuring and conditioning

construction the signal need to be placed close to the

sensing element to minimise the effect of stray
capacitance.
FUNCTION
Because they can be incorporated as components
The change in capacitance can be measured by in high-frequency tuned circuits, capacitive
connecting the sensor in a frequency-dependent sensors are well suited for wireless measurement.
circuit such as an oscillator or an LC tank circuit.
In the case of passive sensors an external antenna
In both cases, the resonant frequency of the
can be used to provide a signal to stimulate the
circuit will change as the capacitance changes
tuned circuit and so measure the change in
with pressure.
resonance frequency (see diagram below). This
An oscillator requires some extra electronic makes them suitable for medical devices that
components and a power supply. A resonant LC need to be implanted.
circuit can be used as a passive sensor, without its
own source of power. Detector Coil
resistance resistance
The dielectric constant of the material between Inductive
coupling
the plates may change with pressure or
temperature and this can also be a source of
Pressure
errors. The relative permittivity of air, and most Antenna Coil sensitive
capacitance
other gasses, increases with pressure so this will
slightly increase the capacitance change with
pressure. Absolute pressure sensors, which have a EXTERNAL DETECTOR PRESSURE SENSOR

vacuum between the plates, behave ideally in this

respect. An external antenna in some passive sensors
to stimulate the tuned circuit

59
Capacitive 6.3
pressure sensors

Alternatively, for an active sensor, the frequency The sensors are mechanically simple, so they can
generated by the oscillator can be picked up by an be made rugged with stable output, making them
antenna. suitable for use in harsh environments. Capacitive
sensors are usually tolerant of temporary over-
pressure conditions.
APPLICATIONS
They have low hysteresis with good repeatability
Capacitive pressure sensors are often used to
and are not very sensitive to temperature changes.
measure gas or liquid pressures in jet engines, car
tyres, the human body and many other places. On the other hand, capacitive sensors have non-

But they can also be used as tactile sensors in linear output, although this can be reduced in

wearable devices or to measure the pressure touch-mode devices. However, this may come at

applied to a switch or keyboard. the cost of greater hysteresis.

They are particularly versatile, in part due to Finally, careful circuit design is required for the

their mechanical simplicity, so can be used in interface electronics because of the high output

demanding environments. Capacitive sensors can impedance of the sensor and to minimise the

be used for absolute, gauge, relative or differential effects of parasitic capacitance.

pressure measurements.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

Capacitive pressure sensors have a number of
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advantages over other types of pressure sensors.
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They can have very low power consumption
you make the right choice for your application.
because there is no DC current through the
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sensor element. Current only flows when a signal
is passed through the circuit to measure the
capacitance. Passive sensors, where an external
reader provides a signal to the circuit, do not
require a power supply – these attributes make
them ideal for low power applications such as
remote or IoT sensors.

60
Piezoelectric 6.4
pressure sensors

Piezoelectricity is the charge created across presence of constant pressure. They are, however,
certain materials when a mechanical stress is sensitive to dynamic changes in pressure across a
applied. wide range of frequencies and pressures.

Piezoelectric pressure sensors exploit this effect This dynamic sensitivity means they are good at
by measuring the voltage across a piezoelectric measuring small changes in pressure, even in a
element generated by the applied pressure. They very high-pressure environment.
are very robust and are used in a wide range of
industrial applications.
FUNCTION
Unlike piezoresistive and capacitive transducers,
WORKING PRINCIPLE piezoelectric sensor elements require no external
When a force is applied to a piezoelectric voltage or current source. They generate an
material, an electric charge is generated across output signal directly from the applied strain.
the faces of the crystal. This can be measured as a The output from the piezoelectric element is a
voltage proportional to the pressure (see diagram charge proportional to pressure. Detecting this
below). requires a charge amplifier to convert the signal to
PRESSURE
a voltage.

Some piezoelectric pressure sensors include an

internal charge amplifier to simplify the electrical
interface by providing a voltage output. This
requires power to be supplied to the sensor.
Diaphragm
An internal amplifier makes the sensor simpler
to use. For example, it makes it possible to use
long signal cables to connect to the sensor. The
CHRYSTAL

VOUT amplifier can also include signal-conditioning

circuitry to filter the output, adjust for
temperature and compensate for the changing
sensitivity of the sensing element.

When force is applied to a piezoelectric The presence of the electronic components does,
diagram, a voltage proportional to the pressure however, limit the operating temperature to not
is generated much more than 120ºC.

For higher temperature environments, a charge-

mode sensor can be used. This provides the
There is also an inverse piezoelectric effect where
generated charge directly as the output signal. It
applying a voltage to the material will cause it to
therefore requires an external charge amplifier to
change shape.
convert this to a voltage.
A given static force results in a corresponding
Care is required in the design and implementation
charge across the sensor. However, this will leak
of the external electronics. The high impedance
away over time due to imperfect insulation,
output of the sensor means the circuit is sensitive
the internal sensor resistance, the attached
to noise caused by poor connections, cable
electronics, etc.
movement, electromagnetic and RF interference.
As a result, piezoelectric sensors are not normally
The low frequency response of the sensor is
suitable for measuring static pressure. The output
determined by the discharge time of the amplifier.
signal will gradually drop to zero, even in the

61
Piezoelectric 6.4
pressure sensors

CONSTRUCTION DESIGN
The piezoelectric effect requires materials with a Piezoelectric pressure sensors are often
specific asymmetry in the crystal structure. This constructed in a threaded tube (as shown in the
includes some natural crystals, such as quartz or diagram below) to make it easy to mount them in
tourmaline. equipment where pressure is to be monitored.

In addition, specially formulated ceramics Care is needed when installing these because

can be created with a suitable polarisation to over-tightening can affect the output sensitivity.

make them piezoelectric. These ceramics have

higher sensitivities than natural crystals. A useful
output can be generated with as little as 0.1% NUT

deformation.
HOUSING
Because the piezoelectric materials are rigid, only
a very small deflection of the material is required
to get a usable output signal. This makes the LEAD
WIRE
sensors very robust and tolerant of over-pressure
CRYSTAL
conditions. It also means they respond rapidly to
changes in pressure. DISC

DIAPHRAGM
The pressure sensor can be affected by any
external force on the piezoelectric element, for A cross-section of a piezoelectric pressure
example, by forces caused by acceleration or sensor construction
noise.
In some of the typical applications of piezoelectric
Microsensors can be constructed using thin films. sensors, they may be exposed to thermal shock (a
Zinc oxide was one of the first materials used. This sudden change in temperature) caused by either
has largely been replaced by ceramics made from radiant heat or the flow of hot gases or liquids
materials such as lead zirconate titanate (PZT) past the sensor.
because of their larger piezoelectric effect.
This can cause changes to the output due to
Microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) [LINK] heating of the crystal, the diaphragm or the casing
can be created by combining piezoelectric thin of the sensor. Note that this is not the same as the
films with micromachined silicon membranes. static temperature sensitivity of the sensor.
Piezoelectric materials are also used in some The effects of thermal shock can be minimised
other types of MEMS sensors. For example, the by the design of the enclosure and mounting the
inverse piezoelectric effect is used to generate sensor to provide isolation.
surface acoustic waves through a diaphragm.
The distortion of the surface under pressure can
then be detected by the changes it causes in the SENSITIVITY
waves that are received by another piezoelectric The output is linear over a wide range, typically 0.7
element. KPa to 70 MPa (0.1 to 10000 psi) with an accuracy
of about 1%.

Ceramic sensors are subject to a loss of sensitivity

over time. But this is usually quite small; typically
less than 1% per year.

62
 Piezoelectric 6.4
pressure sensors

There may also be a small loss in sensitivity when Their sensitivity and low power consumption also
first exposed to high pressure and temperature. makes them useful for some medical applications.
The effects of this can be avoided by cycling the For example, a thin-film plastic sensor can be
sensor through the maximum expected pressure attached to the skin and used for real-time
and temperature before deploying them. monitoring of the arterial pulse.

The frequency response of a piezoelectric

sensor drops off at low frequencies because the ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
generated charge cannot be retained.
One of the main advantages of piezoelectric
At high frequencies there is a peak corresponding pressure sensors is their ruggedness. This
to the resonant frequency of the piezoelectric makes them suitable for use in a variety of harsh
element. The sensor is normally used within the environments.
flat region of the response curve between these
Apart from the associated electronics,
two extremes (see below).
piezoelectric sensors can be used at high
temperatures. Some materials will work at up
to 1,000ºC. The sensitivity may change with
temperature but this can be minimised by
appropriate choice of materials.
V The output signal is generated by the
F
HIGH PASS USABLE REGION piezoelectric element itself, so they are inherently
RESONANCE
low-power devices.

The sensing element itself is insensitive to

FREQUENCY
electromagnetic interference and radiation. The
charge amplifier and other electronics need to
The frequency response of a piezeoelectric
be carefully designed and positioned as close as
sensor
possible to the sensor to reduce noise and other
signal errors.
APPLICATIONS Piezoelectric sensors can be easily made using
The robustness, high frequency and rapid inexpensive materials (for example quartz or
response time of piezoelectric pressure sensors tourmaline), so they can provide a low cost
means they can be used in a wide range of solution for industrial pressure measurement.
industrial and aerospace applications where they’ll
be exposed to high temperatures and pressures.

They are often used for measuring dynamic

pressure, for example in turbulence, blast,
and engine combustion. These all require fast
response, ruggedness and a wide range of
operation.

63
MEMS pressure 6.5
sensors

Microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) devices The resistors are connected in a Wheatstone

combine small mechanical and electronic bridge network, which allows very accurate
components on a silicon chip. measurement of changes in resistance. The

The fabrication techniques used for creating piezoresistive elements can be arranged so

transistors, interconnect and other components that they experience opposite strain (half are

on an integrated circuit (IC) can also be used stretched and the other half are compressed) to

to construct mechanical components such maximise the output signal for a given pressure

as springs, deformable membranes, vibrating (see diagrams below).

structures, valves, gears and levers.

Piezoresistors
(a) (b) Vd+
This technology can be used to make a variety of
sensors including several types of pressure sensor. R₁ R₄
R₄
It enables the combination of accurate sensors,
powerful processing and wireless communication R₁ R₃
V
(for example, Wi-Fi or Bluetooth) on a single IC.
R₂ R₂ R₃
Large numbers of devices can be made at the
same time so they benefit from the same scaling -
Vd
advantages and cost efficiencies as traditional ICs.

Two ways in which piezoresistive elements

might be arranged
FUNCTION
Several types of pressure sensor can be built using An excitation voltage Vex is applied and the output
Sensors
MEMS techniques. Here we will discuss two of the voltage is proportional to the change in resistance:
most common: piezoresistive and capacitive. In
both of these, a flexible layer is created which
acts as a diaphragm that deflects under pressure
R
but different methods are used to measure the
Vo =-Vex
R
displacement.

MEMS piezoresistive strain gauge sensors

Piezoresistive strain gauge sensors were the first

For more information on piezoresistive strain
successful MEMS pressure sensors and are widely
gauge sensors read chapter 6.2.
used in applications such as automotive, medical
and household appliances.

Conductive sensing elements are fabricated

directly on to the diaphragm. Changes in the
resistance of these conductors provide a measure
of the applied pressure. The change in resistance
is proportional to the strain, which is the relative
change in length of the conductor.

64
 MEMS pressure 6.5
sensors

MEMS capacitive pressure sensors Other MEMS pressure sensors

To create a capacitive sensor, conducting layers There are other ways of making MEMS pressure
are deposited on the diaphragm and the bottom sensors that can be used.
of a cavity to create a capacitor. The capacitance For example, a mechanical structure can be
is typically a few picofarads. created with a resonant frequency that is a
Deformation of the diaphragm changes the function of applied pressure (like tuning a piano
spacing between the conductors and hence string). A signal is applied to cause the structure
changes the capacitance (see below). The change to vibrate and the change in resonant frequency is
can be measured by including the sensor in a measured. Such devices can be very accurate but
tuned circuit, which changes its frequency with are difficult to manufacture and are sensitive to
changing pressure. other environmental factors, such as temperature,
that also change the resonant frequency.
Bonding pads
A surface acoustic wave (SAW) sensor works
P by sending vibrations through a thin film of
Si piezoelectric material. The waves are picked up
by another transducer and converted back to an
GLASS PLATE
electrical signal. The changes in the amplitude
or phase of the acoustic signal caused by
Vaccum Al electrode deformation of the surface can be measured to
give an indication of pressure.
A cross section of a MEMS capacitive
pressure sensor
CONSTRUCTION
The sensor can be used with electronic
MEMS sensors can be used to measure physical
components on the chip to create an oscillator,
parameters such as acceleration, temperature
which generates the output signal. Because of
and pressure. Electronic components can be
the difficulty of fabricating large inductances on
constructed on the same chip to measure the
silicon, this will usually be based on an RC circuit.
output of the sensors, perform signal processing
This approach is well suited for wireless readout and provide wireless communication.
because it generates a high frequency signal that
Alternatively, the sensor and the electronics can
can be detected with a suitable external antenna.
be on separate devices connected together in a
Alternatively, the capacitance can be measured single multi-chip package.
more directly by measuring the time taken to
charge the capacitor from a current source. This
can be compared with a reference capacitor
to account for manufacturing tolerance and to
reduce thermal effects.

In both cases, the proximity of the electronics and

the sensor element minimises errors caused by
stray capacitance and noise.

For more information on capacitive pressure

sensors read chapter 6.3.

65
MEMS pressure 6.5
sensors

FABRICATION Packaging

The techniques for constructing MEMS are based The packaging of the sensor needs to be designed
on those used for semiconductor manufacturing. to cope with the environment where the device
will be used. A particular challenge for pressure
Manufacturing starts with a wafer of high-purity
sensors is providing sufficient environmental
silicon. A combination of lithographic patterning
exposure to allow the external pressure to be
with photoresist, etching and deposition of
measured while also giving adequate protection
materials is used to build up multi-layer structures
from magnetic fields, temperature, shock, liquids
to create the components and the connections
and gases.
between them.
An important aspect of the packaging process
Mechanical components can be made by removing
for pressure sensors is obtaining a good seal,
surrounding material to create a structure that
particularly for absolute pressure sensors, which
is free to move. This technique is used to make
need to maintain a vacuum cavity below the
devices such as accelerometers, inkjet nozzles
sensor to achieve long-term stability.
and even complete “lab on a chip” systems.
The pressure sensor is often bonded onto a Pyrex
Finally, the wafer is cut into individual die, which
glass substrate because its thermal properties are
can be less than a millimetre to several millimetres
a very close match to silicon.
in size so there can be thousands per wafer. These
are then packaged and connecting wires attached.
The final cost can be from 10s of pence to a few APPLICATIONS
pounds.
Pressure sensors have long been used in medicine,
A single wafer can be used to create a variety of in non-invasive applications such as controlling
different chips at the same time, spreading the the air pressure in respiratory equipment and
manufacturing costs across several products measuring blood pressure. More recently, the
or customers. This also enables relatively low miniaturisation provided by MEMS devices has
cost semi-customised sensors where specific enabled use in more invasive applications such
parameters of a standard device can be as catheter tip sensors, as well as for implantable
customised for a particular application. devices monitoring properties such as blood
The semiconductor material normally used is pressure and heart rate.
silicon. This may be combined with other materials For medical applications there is a challenge in
for particular applications. For example, for making the standard package (which is made from
high-speed, low-power electronics, the silicon rigid material with sharp edges) compatible with
structures may be constructed on an insulating the biological environment. This can be achieved
material such as sapphire or silicon dioxide to by enclosing the device in biocompatible plastic
create silicon on insulator (SOI) devices. or wire.
Silicon is not suitable for very high temperature The small size, low power consumption and
pressure sensors because its mechanical and long-term stability of MEMS devices also makes
electrical properties degrade above about 500ºC. them well suited to markets such as aerospace
For high temperature applications, the sensor where long life and reliability are important. They
may be constructed from silicon carbide (SiC). are used in a variety of applications including
This has greater stiffness and fracture strength cabin pressure monitoring, engine control, and
and also resists wear, oxidation and corrosion instruments such as altimeters and barometers.
better than silicon. This makes it a better material
for producing stable pressure sensors for harsh
environments.

66
MEMS pressure 6.5
sensors

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

Because of their small size and close integration
with the electronics, MEMS sensors can be very
low power. In some cases, they can be powered
by a small battery that lasts for several years.
Some can even operate without a battery, either
using energy harvested from the environment or
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lower power consumption, greater sensitivity and
temperature independence.

The main advantages of piezoresistive sensors are

high linearity and stability.

MEMS sensors have the advantage of very small

size. This means they can respond rapidly to small
changes in pressure. It also enables them to be
used in new application areas such as implantable
medical devices.

67
Optical 6.6
pressure sensors

Optical pressure sensors detect a change in These mechanical systems are relatively large.
pressure through an effect on light. Much smaller versions can be constructed with a

In the simplest case this can be a mechanical reflective membrane and two optical fibres, one

system that blocks the light as the pressure as a source of light and the other to receive the

increases. In more advanced sensors, the reflected light. Pressure bends the membrane and

measurement of phase difference allows very changes the amount of light reflected back to the

accurate measurement of small pressure changes. detector (see below).

WORKING PRINCIPLE Source fibre

In an intensity-based optical pressure sensor,

LED Reflective
an increase in pressure will cause the source of diaphragm
Photodiode
light to be progressively blocked. The sensor then
measures the change in light received. Detector fibre

For example, in the simple mechanism shown

Other fibre-optic sensors use interferometry to
below, the pressure moves a diaphragm and
measure changes in the path length and phase of
the attached opaque vane blocks more of the
light caused by changing pressure. The rest of this
light from the LED. The fall in light intensity is
article will focus on these.
detected by the photodiode and gives a direct
measurement of pressure.
FUNCTION
Fibre-optic pressure sensors can be classified as
either extrinsic, where the sensing takes place
outside the fibre, or intrinsic, where the fibre itself
changes in response to pressure.

Very sensitive optical measurements can be

made by exploiting interferometry: measuring
the change of phase between light that has taken
two different paths. This can detect changes
in distance corresponding to a fraction of the
wavelength of light.
A simple optical pressure sensor There are two common types of pressure sensor
that use interferometry. These are the Fabry-
Pérot interferometer (FPI) and fibre Bragg grating
A simple optical pressure sensor like this needs a
(FBG).
reference photodiode (as shown above), which is
never blocked by the vane. This allows the sensor The FPI is an extrinsic sensor that uses
to correct for changes in the light output due interference between multiple light rays reflected
to other factors, like aging of the light source, back and forth between two surfaces in a
variations in supply voltage, etc. cavity. As the spacing between them changes,
interference will change the amount of light
received at a particular wavelength.

68
Optical 6.6
pressure sensors

This is one of the best optical sensor technologies. A Bragg grating can be created within a fibre using
It is simple, accurate and easily scaled for different a series of periodic changes in the refractive index
sizes and pressure ranges. of the fibre. This causes particular wavelengths of

An FBG is an intrinsic sensor that has a regular light to be reflected or transmitted, based on the

series of reflective structures in the fibre that are ratio between the wavelength and the spacing.

affected by stretching or squashing the fibre. This As a result, the spectrum of the reflected light

causes the wavelengths of the reflected light to changes as the fibre, and the spacing, is stretched.

change. Optical fibre A

n0
n1
n2
CONSTRUCTION n3

A Fabry-Pérot cavity with two parallel reflecting Fibre core

surfaces can be constructed on the tip of an Bragg grating created within an optical fibre
optical fibre (as shown below).

Metal
layer The fibre can be attached to a diaphragm that
Fibre core Diaphragm
stretches the fibre when pressure is applied.
Compressing the fibre also changes the effects of
the grating, creating two peaks in the spectrum.
E2
E0 The output from either type of sensor can be
E1
measured in two ways. If a monochromatic or
narrow-band source is used, there will be a
change in the amplitude of the output signal as the

Path
length of the cavity (or the spacing of the grating)
difference M1 M2 modifies how much of that wavelength is reflected.

A wide-band light source, such as a white light,

A semi-reflecting surface is attached to the fibre
can also be used. In this case, the frequencies at
(M1) and a reflective membrane is created at the
which constructive or destructive interference
opposite end of the cavity (M2). This membrane
occurs will change with pressure. This can be
forms a diaphragm that is moved by pressure.
measured with a spectrum analyser.
The change in spacing between the mirrors causes
These structures, in particular Fabry-Pérot
a difference in the path travelled by each ray of
cavities, are also suitable for silicon fabrication
light (E1 and E2) and hence a relative phase shift
techniques allowing even smaller optical sensors
between them. The resulting interference will
to be made as microelectromechanical systems
reinforce or reduce particular wavelengths of light.
(MEMS) devices.
The multiple reflections and the large number of
Waveguides (equivalent to optical fibres) and
interfering rays result in a very high-resolution
mechanical components such as cantilevers
measurement.
and membranes can be constructed at the
micrometre scale.

These sensors can respond very rapidly to

pressure changes because of their small
size. Light-emitting diodes, solid state lasers,
photodiode detectors and electronics can all be
integrated on the same device.

69
Optical 6.6
pressure sensors

APPLICATIONS Multiple fibre Bragg gratings can be created within

a fibre, allowing pressure to be measured along
Because of their freedom from electromagnetic
its length. This has been used, for example, to
interference, fibre-optic sensors are very useful in
measure the pressure changes throughout the
harsh environments.
colon during digestion.
One example is the oil and gas industry.
The fibre can also provide measurement over a 2D
Conditions in a well can easily reach 20 kpsi and
area. This is useful for monitoring the pressure on
185ºC. Optical sensors continue to perform well
the body for bed-bound patients to reduce the
under these extremes.
risk of ulcers.
Their small size, flexibility, the absence of
any potentially hazardous voltages, and the
fact that the sensors are made of non-toxic ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
materials makes them very well suited to medical Intensity based sensors are not very sensitive to
applications. temperature change because the measurement
There are many places in the body where and reference detectors are affected equally.
measuring pressure can be important for Because the amount of movement needed is
diagnosis, long-term monitoring or during very small, hysteresis and repeatability errors are
treatment. very low.

As well as more obvious measurements such The small size and flexibility of fibre-optic sensors
as pressure in blood vessels and the lungs, it is means they can be deployed in locations that
often useful to measure pressure in the digestive would be hard to access with other techniques.
tract, bladder, brain, bones and joints. Fibre- The fact that the sensing element itself is passive
optic sensors allow this to be done in a minimally and does not need a power supply enables the
invasive way. sensors to be used in a wide range of applications
The immunity to electromagnetic interference is where getting power to the sensor could be a
valuable when pressure needs to be monitored problem. This also eliminates signal transmission
during MRI scans or RF ablation procedures. problems due to parasitic capacitance,
electromagnetic interference, etc.
The requirements for a pressure sensor vary
depending on the reason for the measurement, On the other hand, their small size can mean they
where the measurements are made, the range are not as robust as other sensor types. Their high
of values to be measured, and whether it’s for sensitivity can also make them more sensitive to
a single measurement or long-term monitoring. acoustic or mechanical vibration.
There are also various standards defined for
medical equipment. Fibre-optic sensors can
be designed to meet a wide range of these
requirements.
NEED SOME ADVICE?
A Fabry-Pérot sensor can be used to accurately
monitor pressure at a specific location in the body Our pressure sensor experts are on hand to help
you make the right choice for your application.
and is typically introduced via a catheter.
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70
Pressure sensors for 7.0
different media types

There are a number of different media types that pressure sensors

can measure. Dependent on the application, a pressure sensor may
come into contact with a variety of chemicals, liquids or gases, or
have to function in extremely harsh environments.

Manufacturers will consider operating conditions when designing and

fabricating and many offer sensor packages designed for specific
media. However, they will also provide warnings on the limitations
and restrictions on their sensors, and recommendations on how to
overcome these limitations.

This chapter explores the different types of media that pressure

sensors can measure, the applications of each type, and the
different sensor options for your design.

71
Air pressure sensors 7.1

Pressurised air is used for multiple purposes APPLICATIONS

in engineering. And air pressure sensors offer
In each of the examples above there’s an ideal
measurement and control of these important
air pressure for operation, which air pressure
pressure levels.
sensors will monitor. Knowing the air pressure also
Measuring atmospheric air pressure, or barometric enables you to measure other variables, like air
pressure, is a different topic that’s covered in a flow rate, indirectly. Crucially, there’s a maximum
separate article. This article focuses solely on safe air pressure level for any piece of equipment
applications in which air pressure is deliberately containing compressed air, above which it
raised above normal atmospheric levels. becomes dangerous.
A very simple example of air under pressure is Consider the energy stored by compressed air
the air compressed in a football, without which in an industrial tyre, for instance. If the tyre is
the ball wouldn’t bounce. In a tyre, compressed filled beyond bursting point, you can imagine the
air gives a combination of rigidity and cushioning. explosive results when all that energy is suddenly
In inflatable boats, it creates a rigid but light and released. That’s why air pressure sensors are so
buoyant structure. vital as part of a control and switching system.
The ideal functioning of any of the above depends The capacity of compressed air for transmitting
on reaching and keeping the right level of air high levels of energy is very obvious in tools like
pressure – hence the need for air pressure pneumatic drills, and it can even be used to drive
sensors. vehicles. Safety is obviously a key concern when
While a manual pump will – with a lot of effort handling that kind of power.
– inflate smaller items, you’ll naturally turn to For trains and heavy goods vehicles, air brakes
the power of a compressed air system for larger are often specified for their known efficiency and
inflatables. reliability. To maintain their failsafe performance,
Compressed air, processed from atmospheric pressure levels must be monitored.
air using an electrical or engine-powered Concentrated, controlled, accurate levels of
compressor, has been used in industry since the power are needed for devices such as the air tools
mid-1800s and does much more than pump up now used by many dentists. Air pressure is one
footballs. of the measurable criteria which affect overall
Tanks of compressed air can be used by divers for precision and performance.
breathing underwater, by firefighters to survive in Systems supplying breathing assistance for
smoke-filled buildings, and by medics to ensure patients require similarly reliable air flows. In
ventilation of patients’ lungs. cleanrooms, maintaining a small but very specific
However, it’s the ability of compressed air to store positive pressure is critical to keeping out dirty air.
and transfer energy that accounts for most of its From sandblasting rusty sheet metal and grimy
industrial applications. Think of powerful air- stone buildings to gently removing dust from small
driven tools, air brakes, air-assisted paint spraying, spaces, compressed air is moving all around us.
and heating, ventilation and air conditioning In every case, air pressure sensors are helping to
(HVAC) systems. These are just a few examples of ensure the optimum air pressure, flow rate and
compressed air’s power and versatility. effect.

72
Air pressure sensors 7.1

To give an idea of the more detailed functions TECHNOLOGY

of air pressure sensors, let’s take a closer look at
In the simplest air pressure gauges, there’s a direct
their use in an air conditioning system.
mechanical connection between the pressurised
Recommended air flow rates exist for public air and a pointer on the gauge. Common
buildings and industrial plants. If the pressure, mechanisms for this include bourdon tubes and
and therefore the flow, drops below the ideal, pistons. The higher the pressure, the further the
air pressure sensors will register the change and pointer moves.
adjustments can be made or causes investigated.
For greater accuracy and control, however, you
Differential air pressure sensors are used should look at air pressure sensors which convert
specifically to monitor pressure before and after pressure’s effect into a proportional electrical
filters. In doing so, they can indicate when a dirty signal. This type of pressure sensor tends to be
filter needs replaced. referred to as a pressure transducer.
Sensors also help avoid energy wastage through Many different technologies and operating
unnecessarily high pressure in a system. A small principles have been used to achieve precise
reduction, while staying within the optimum pressure measurements, each with their own
pressure range, can lead to significant savings on advantages and disadvantages. Summaries of the
electricity. three most common approaches used in the air
pressure sensor field are given below.

MEASUREMENT OPTIONS 1. Resistive air pressure transducer or

Depending on your system’s needs, you’ll normally strain gauge
choose between the following types of sensor A diaphragm, in contact with the air whose
(which measure pressure in different ways): pressure is being measured, deforms as
• Absolute air pressure sensor – measuring pressure increases (see diagram below). Strain
pressure in relation to that of a perfect vacuum gauges attached to the non-contacting surface
(this is your least likely choice, except perhaps of the diaphragm are similarly deformed. The
for experimental work). piezoresistive effect, in which the strain gauge
material’s resistance alters when deformed, is
• Gauge air pressure sensor – measuring
converted into an electrical signal.
pressure in relation to atmospheric pressure
(in tyre pressure measurement, for example, a
reading of zero means the internal air pressure P reference
is equal to that of the atmosphere). Strain gauge Diaphragm

• Differential air pressure sensor – measuring

the difference in pressure between two points
(such as before and after a filter in an air P applied > P reference
No diaphragm deflection,
conditioning system). no strain on gauge

P reference
Diaphragm
deflected
under pressure

P applied > P reference

A representative diagram of a resistive air

pressure sensor.

73
Air pressure sensors 7.1

2. Capacitive air pressure transducer OPTIONS AND SPECIFICATIONS

In this approach, two capacitive plates are No two applications are exactly alike. You’ll have to
separated from each other by a small gap. One assess how well the air pressure sensors on your
is fixed, while the other, which is in contact shortlist meet your needs and make the best – if
with the air, acts as a flexible diaphragm not perfect – choice. Here are some criteria to
(see diagram below). Increasing air pressure consider:
deforms the diaphragm, which narrows the • Pressure range. At the very least, this should
gap and decreases capacitance. The change cover the maximum pressure permissible in your
in capacitance is converted into an electrical equipment. Excess pressure is a common cause
signal. of air pressure sensor failure.

• Precision. Most air pressure sensors are

Reference LC sensing Stainless reasonably accurate at room temperature but
pressure electrode steel
enclosure diaphragm less so at higher temperatures. If accuracy is a
priority, choose a sensor with a high-precision
specification and use digital electronics.
Sensors offering calibrated and temperature-
compensated signals are available.

• Location flexibility. Vibration, shocks and high

temperatures may affect sensors placed close
to the equipment they monitor. If installation
Reference Positve
pressure Applied
pressure pressure at a distance isn’t possible, look for a robust
enclosure point
design. If sensors may be exposed to hot or wet
weather, ensure their housing offers suitable
A capacitive air pressure sensor
protection.

• Compatibility. Will the sensor’s fittings allow

3. Inductive air pressure transducer it to thread easily onto your existing set-up? Is
Here the deformation of a diaphragm its analogue output compatible with your signal
is converted into linear movement of a conditioning instrumentation?
ferromagnetic core using the principle of • Response time. Some pressure transmitters
inductance. The core’s movement causes allow easy adjustment of response time, which
variation in the induced current which is can be useful in eliminating false triggering.
generated by an AC-powered coil on another
• Price. Don’t pay more than you need to, but
secondary pick-up coil. This change is, in turn,
bear in mind that with low-cost sensors you’ll
converted into an electrical signal.
have to compromise on things like durability and
accuracy.

• Lifetime cost. Factors like ease of installation,

low maintenance needs, robustness and
longevity should be assessed alongside the
purchase price.

74
Air pressure sensors 7.1

LIMITATIONS
The chances are, your broad choice will be
between resistive and capacitive air pressure
transducers.

Of these, resistive – or strain gauge – is the

category most used. It offers advantages in terms
of overpressure protection, effective resolution,
and resilience in the face of vibrations, shocks and
dynamically varying pressures.
NEED SOME ADVICE?
However, when selecting a resistive air pressure
transducer you should be aware of the different
Our pressure sensor experts are on hand to help
you make the right choice for your application.
material choices. These vary in stability with
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respect to temperature, humidity and sensor
output.

Capacitive air pressure transducers also cope

well with overpressure and are better than strain
gauges for use at low pressures. They score well
on hysteresis, linearity, stability, repeatability and
measurement of static pressure.

On the other hand, they are larger and more

expensive to make. They can also be adversely
affected by particulates and humidity in the gap
between their capacitive plates.

75
Barometric pressure 7.2
sensors

The technology and applications of barometric to calculate its current position when GPS signals
pressure measurement have come a long way are temporarily difficult or impossible to receive.
since the old barometer you remember on your Systems like those outlined above are now small
grandparents’ wall. enough to fit into your smartphone or tablet. You
Today’s compact electronic barometric pressure might already have a barometer in your phone
sensors can be found fulfilling functions in your without even knowing it.
smartphone and your car engine, for example, Wearable devices for monitoring leisure, sport and
along with their traditional weather-forecasting fitness activities are certain to benefit increasingly
role. from the expanding capabilities of barometric
Since atmospheric pressure decreases with pressure sensors. For instance, instead of relying
increasing height, a barometer can also serve on accelerometers to count steps, the new
as an altimeter if appropriately calibrated. sensors will do this by monitoring air turbulence
Many of the most exciting recent and ongoing as the body moves. Even gesture recognition is
developments in applying barometric pressure possible.
measurement relate to this capability. Another application is in engine management.
Changes in atmospheric pressure, when driving

APPLICATIONS between different altitudes, in particular, have a

bearing on performance. Accurate monitoring of
To this day, barometric pressure sensors are
pressure enables computation of the ideal air-fuel
contributing to the field of weather forecasting,
mixture and control of spark advance for optimum
but now they allow weather stations to be
efficiency.
miniaturised. In fact, you can even forecast the
weather with the help of tiny sensors in your Unmanned aerial vehicles, or drones, are fast

mobile phone or tablet. becoming a realistic answer to certain industrial

challenges. Precise height monitoring through
Other environmental applications include
barometric pressure sensors will have a part to
evapotranspiration calculations, whereby
play in their continued development.
scientists monitor the transfer of water into the
atmosphere via evaporation from surfaces and In warehouses, for instance, the ability to rise

transpiration from plants. Pressure sensors also to an exact specified shelf height will be a great

provide supporting data to correct the output advantage in stocktaking and retrieving stored

of instruments such as oxygen sensors which are items. For delivery of goods in built-up areas,

affected by fluctuating pressure. the height as well as the geographical location of

addresses will need to be specified.
For both indoor and outdoor navigation, the
altimeter function of barometric pressure sensors Looking more widely, there are multiple

enables accurate vertical positioning. This is opportunities within the Internet of Things for

important when, for example, you’re moving objects and equipment to be monitored remotely

between floors in a building or levels in a car in relation to issues affected by pressure.

park. In some cases, the accuracy is sufficient to Meanwhile, virtual reality, gaming equipment and

distinguish between points separated by less than toy developers are sure to be looking for ways of

the height of one step. exploiting advances in positional sensing.

Barometric measurements can help with dead

reckoning, in which a device calls on other sensors

76
Barometric pressure 7.2
sensors

1
MEASUREMENT OPTIONS
When measuring pressurised air in other
contexts (e.g. the pressure of air within a sealed
system), the choices include gauge pressure (air
pressure compared to atmospheric pressure) EURO Xmm

and differential air pressure (pressure difference

between points). Barometric pressure sensors
instead measure absolute air pressure. This is the
air’s pressure in relation to a perfect vacuum.
Modern MEMS sensors are so small they can
be integrated into almost anything
TECHNOLOGY
For much of our history, barometers depended
In common with the original aneroid barometers,
on the behaviour of mercury or some other liquid
they detect atmospheric pressure via its effect
in response to changing air pressure. The aneroid
on a flexible structure – in this case a membrane
barometer, whose name refers to the absence of
or diaphragm. The degree of deformation in the
liquid, was invented in 1844. It uses deformation of
membrane is proportional to the pressure and
metal instead.
is translated into an electrical signal – hence the
In the aneroid barometer, a partially evacuated sensors are sometimes referred to as pressure
metal cell is subjected to pressure from the transducers.
atmosphere. As the pressure increases or
These small pressure transducers are built around
decreases, the cell contracts or expands. This
one of two main measurement approaches:
movement is translated and amplified, via an
resistive or capacitive.
opposing spring, a system of levers and a pointer,
to register a reading on the barometer’s dial. A resistive barometric pressure sensor is also
known as a piezoresistive sensor or a strain gauge.

Metal spring Pointer Chain Levers

One face of its diaphragm is in contact with the
atmosphere. The other face has strain gauges
attached to it.

Increasing pressure deforms both the diaphragm

and the strain gauges. Deformation of the strain
Partially
evacuated box
gauge material alters its resistance, due to the
piezoresistive effect, and the sensor reflects this
change in its electrical signal.

A classic aneroid barometer A capacitive barometric pressure sensor’s

technology is based on two capacitive plates with
a small gap between them. The plate in contact
Modern barometric pressure sensors are, in a with the atmosphere is flexible and forms a
sense, aneroid barometers, as their method of diaphragm which deforms under pressure. The
operation does not involve liquid. In construction other is stiff.
and appearance, though, they are very different
Deformation of the diaphragm alters the distance
from their predecessors – often using the
between the plates and changes the system’s
latest microelectromechanical system (MEMS)
capacitance. The sensor’s electrical signal reflects
technology.
this proportional variation.

77
Barometric pressure 7.2
sensors

OPTIONS AND SPECIFICATIONS LIMITATIONS

Here are some of the variables you might want to As the above criteria suggest, measurement
consider when trying to match your application accuracy and other performance criteria vary
with the right sensor: greatly amongst products. This is true both within

• Precision. There are resistive pressure sensors and between the two main categories (resistive

which offer thermal compensation and and capacitive). Some argue, however, that

calibration to produce a linear, stable, accurate capacitive pressure sensing technology has major

output. Those who favour the capacitive inherent advantages over resistive – especially in

approach stress that their sensors are naturally relation to temperature stability.

less susceptible to temperature-induced

variation and are simpler to calibrate.

• Sensitivity. In addition to being reliably

accurate, you also need to consider whether NEED SOME ADVICE?
your sensor needs to be able to distinguish
Our pressure sensor experts are on hand to help
between very small pressure differences. In
you make the right choice for your application.
positioning or navigation devices, for instance,
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will it be able to tell between one step and the
next on a staircase?

• Pressure and temperature limits. As well as

being able to function at each extreme, make
sure the sensor can deliver the accuracy you
need throughout the specified range.

• Energy consumption. If the pressure sensor is

part of a compact device with space for only
a small battery, low power needs will be a big
advantage. Resistive pressure measurement
tends to add significantly to energy demand
compared to capacitive. A sleep mode, where
appropriate, is one aid to conserving power.

• Operating environment. If the sensor is to

be deployed in harsh conditions, is it robust
enough? Does it need a waterproof and impact-
resistant housing?

• Size. Many of the trending applications, such as

wearable devices, require miniaturisation. The
tiny footprint of some pressure sensors on the
market is very welcome in those cases.

78
Gas pressure sensors 7.3

APPLICATIONS Beyond the different types of measurement, some

Gas pressure sensors can be used to gauge gas pressure sensors are also designed to measure
altitude in aircraft, rockets or balloons. They’re rapid pressure changes in dynamic environments,
frequently used in automotive design, from such as combustion pressure in an engine cylinder
optimising engine function and controlling or a gas turbine.
emissions to monitoring pressures in tyres and
TECHNOLOGY
airbags, and even controlling inflatable air bolsters
in dynamic seats. Gas pressure sensors are transducers: they
generate an electrical signal in proportion to the
In industrial settings, they can be used to measure
pressure they measure. This allows pressure to be
the speed with which gas is flowing (sometimes
monitored by microprocessors, programmable
known as ‘impact pressure’), to confirm that
controllers, computers and other electronic
suction is present, to manage source pressures or
devices connected to the sensor.
to test for leaks.
Some gas pressure sensors are analogue, providing
MEASUREMENT OPTIONS pressure feedback in the form of an electrical
Gas pressure sensors are designed (or can be current. There are also digital sensors, which
configured) to measure gas pressure in different ways. provide a digital value for gas pressure, and
sensors that provide other types of feedback,
• Gauge pressure is measured in relation to the
such as optic, visual or auditory signals. The
surrounding atmospheric pressure. Atmospheric
most commonly used technology in analogue gas
pressure is around 100kPa (14.7 PSI) at sea
pressure sensors is the piezoresistive strain gauge,
level. The sensor built into air pumps for tyres
which uses the principle of piezoresistance.
measures pressure in this way, showing the
air pressure inside the tyre in relation to the The sensor is based around a diaphragm made
local atmospheric pressure. A reading of zero from monocrystalline silicon, polysilicon thin film,
indicates the pressures are equal inside and out. bonded metal foil, thick film or sputtered thin film.
• A sealed gas pressure sensor is similar to a The diaphragm acts as a semiconductor distortion
gauge gas pressure sensor but has been pre- gauge: when gas presses on it, it is bent out of
calibrated to measure gas pressure in relation to shape, which distorts the crystalline structure of
sea-level atmospheric pressure. So its readings the material. This, in turn, changes the electrical
won’t change if the unit is taken to a different resistance of the diaphragm, allowing the sensor
altitude or location. to reflect changes in pressure in the form of a
change in current (see diagram below).
• Vacuum pressure is the measure of the
negative difference between the gas pressure at
a given location and atmospheric pressure. Protective Semiconductor
distortion gauge
film
• Absolute gas pressure is measured from zero,
or a perfect vacuum (0 PSI). Again, unlike gauge Mounting card

pressure, this isn’t affected by the conditions

around the unit, which can vary with changes in
altitude and other factors.
Gauge foil pattern
• Differential pressure is the difference between
two gas pressures – for example, those in Pressure is applied
two gas hoses connected to the sensor.
As with gauge pressure, the sensor may be
able to measure changes of gas pressure in The cross-section of a semiconductor
either direction (that is, positive or negative distortion gauge, as used in many gas pressure
differences). sensors.

79
Gas pressure sensors 7.3

Other, less commonly used, technologies for gas options than standard sensors, and some allow
pressure sensors include capacitance (similar settings such as high and low limits to be altered
to piezoresistance, but the capacitance of the while the unit is in operation.
material changes), electromagnetic, piezoelectric Some wireless sensors can connect to mobile
(for changes in pressure only), optical and devices such as smartphones, which can monitor,
potentiometric. collect and store data from the sensor, carrying
Some electronic sensors use other properties, out functions which previously required a
such as density, ionisation or thermal conductivity, computer.
to infer the pressure of a gas rather than
measuring it directly.
OPTIONS AND SPECIFICATIONS
A resonant sensor uses changes in resonant
A wide range of gas pressure sensors is available.
frequency (the frequency at which a gas vibrates
They vary in terms of application suitability, cost,
most readily) to measure changes in gas density
technology used, physical dimensions, fittings,
caused by pressure. The sensing element can be
process connectors and manufacturing materials
made from vibrating wire, a vibrating cylinder,
used.
quartz or silicon.
Gas pressure sensors normally have a working
Ionisation sensors measure gas pressure by
range defined in kilopascal (kPa), atmospheres
monitoring the flow of charged gas particles
(atm) or millimetres of mercury (Hg). They’ll also
(ions), as it varies as a result of density changes.
have an accuracy rating. For example, a sensor
Examples of ionisation sensors include hot-
might have a working range of 0–210kPa, with
cathode and cold-cathode gauges.
accuracy of ±4kPa.
Thermal sensors use changes in the thermal
They may come with a stated response time,
conductivity of a gas (how readily it conducts
which reflects how long it takes them to provide a
heat) to measure pressure. An example is the
pressure reading – for example, 10ms.
Pirani gauge, which features a heated metal
filament suspended in a tube and measures the And they typically have a temperature range of
heat lost from the filament to the surrounding gas. operation, since the sensitivity of a pressure gauge
can be affected by temperature.
In digital gas pressure sensors, a silicon chip
converts the current through the semiconductor
distortion gauge into a numerical reading, and LIMITATIONS
the data is then passed out of the unit via a
Basic gas pressure sensors can only be used to
process connector. This can then be monitored
measure the pressure of gases that are non-
and/or stored by a computer or other electronic
corrosive or non-flammable. For more information
monitoring device.
on measuring the pressure of corrosive gases,
In recent years, wireless pressure sensors have see our article on pressure sensors for corrosive
been introduced. These advanced sensors can be media.
controlled remotely, which allows them to be used
for applications where wired connections wouldn’t
be possible. They are usually battery-powered,
making them completely self-contained and self-
NEED SOME ADVICE?
sufficient until the battery needs replacing. They
typically offer more customisation and control Our pressure sensor experts are on hand to help
you make the right choice for your application.
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80
 Water pressure sensors 7.4

APPLICATIONS enter the sensor, to provide the reading for

atmospheric pressure. The vent line can often
Water pressure sensors are often used to measure
be run through the power cable supplying the
the level of water in a tank, or the rate of change in
sensor.
that level (as shown below). The sensor is fitted to
the top of an open-ended tube submerged within • Differential pressure reflects the difference
the container. As the water level rises, the air above between two bodies of water – for example, in
the water in the tube is compressed, increasing two separate tanks or containers, or two water
the pressure on the sensor. An analogue-to-digital pipes. This can be used to measure pressure
convertor (ADC) is used to convert the signal from drops across filters, or measure flow rates by
the sensor into a digital value. measuring the difference in pressure across a
restriction.
Air fill valve

air pressure
TECHNOLOGY
increases
dry side
of tank

Water pressure sensors are transducers,

air pressure
decreases
generating an electrical signal in proportion to the
pressure they measure.
water is pumped
wetside into the tank
of tank

Water inlet / outlet

water is pushed
out of tank

1 2 3
They can also be used to gauge the pressure
in pipes where water is flowing – for example,
in water distribution systems, to automatically
determine whether pumps need to be activated
to increase the flow rate.

And they can be used to gauge the depth of a A typical switching water pressure sensor,
submerged object – for example, in deep-sea popular with makers
diving.
Water pressure sensors usually contain a physical
diaphragm, often made of silicon, which bends
MEASUREMENT OPTIONS as pressure is applied. The diaphragm is a strain
gauge, which varies its electrical resistance when
Water pressure sensors can measure pressure in
force is applied. This resistance is used to modify
several different ways:
the output voltage of the sensor.
• Absolute water pressure is measured against
Some water pressure sensors provide zero-based
zero. This is similar to the way gas pressure
outputs, where zero pressure results in no output
sensors measure gas pressure as compared with
signal at all. For example, their output might be
a vacuum.
in the range 0–5V. Others offer voltage at zero
• Gauge pressure measures water pressure pressure, with a range such as 1–5V.
against the atmospheric pressure around
the sensor. If the water pressure sensor is
completely submerged in water, a vent line is
used to allow air from above the surface to

81
Water pressure sensors 7.4

One drawback of zero-based output is the Pumping systems may sometimes be subject to
difficulty of identifying problems with the sensor ‘water-hammer’, where the opening or closing
itself. For example, in a water-pumping system, of valves sends a shock-wave through the water,
a pump might be configured to activate when causing a pressure transient or pressure spike that
the water pressure rises above a certain point, may exceed the measurement range of the sensor.
perhaps indicating that a certain depth of water To protect against this, some sensors can be fitted
has accumulated. If the water pressure sensor has with restrictor plugs to slow down water flow and
a 0V signal, that might indicate zero pressure – mitigate the effects of the spike.
or the sensor may have failed completely, which
Some water pressure sensors can indicate that
would mean that the pump did not activate as
they have developed a fault by sending their signal
water levels rose, perhaps leading to a flood. In
output out of range (either below the lowest
contrast, a zero reading from a ‘voltage at zero
point or above the highest point). In pumping
pressure’ sensor would clearly indicate a fault.
applications, this can help to prevent flooding, or
protect the pump from running dry or incurring
OPTIONS AND SPECIFICATIONS extra damage.
Specifications to consider when choosing a water
pressure sensor include:
LIMITATIONS
• Type of measurement (absolute vs. gauge)
Since water pressure sensors may come into
• Pressure measurement range contact with different kinds of water, you may
• Accuracy (usually expressed as a percentage) want to consider their suitability for different pH
levels (acidic or alkaline), salt water, chemicals or
• Media compatibility
other contaminants.
• Moisture resistance
Not all pressure sensors may be suitable for use
• Operating temperature range with potable (drinking) water. The regulations
• Venting (see below) concerning what materials can come into contact
with drinking water vary from country to country.
• Vibration resistance

For wireless water pressure sensors, additional

relevant options are:

• Transmitter wiring (cable or flying lead)

NEED SOME ADVICE?
Our pressure sensor experts are on hand to help
• Transmitter accuracy
you make the right choice for your application.
• Radio frequency Get in touch at avnet-abacus.eu/ask-an-expert
• Electromagnetic interference

Sensors that measure gauge pressure must be

vented, so you may need to consider sealing
methods for outdoor applications, high-pressure
water jets (in a car wash or industrial process, for
example), or where the sensor will be exposed to
a lot of water vapour,. An alternative is to use a
sealed gauge, or a sensor that measures absolute
pressure.

82
Liquid pressure 7.5
sensors

APPLICATIONS Pressure sensors for viscous liquids usually feature

a physical diaphragm, often made of stainless steel
Many normal pressure sensors are suitable for use
or ceramic, which bends as pressure is applied.
with a wide range of liquids and gases, including
The diaphragm is a strain gauge, which increases
water and air. However, more viscous liquids
in electrical resistance as more force is applied to
call for specially designed sensors. Examples of
it – in this case, from the pressure of the viscous
viscous media include melted plastics, paper
liquid on the sensor. This resistance is used to
pulp, bitumen, rubber, asphalt, crude oil,
modify the output voltage of the sensor.
sewage, sludge, paint, sealants and adhesives,
as well as certain foods (such as ice cream) and Standard liquid pressure sensors often feature a
pharmaceutical products. relatively narrow vent that allows liquid to enter
the unit and press on the diaphragm. However,
this is impractical when working with more viscous
MEASUREMENT OPTIONS fluids that have lower flow rates and tend to
Pressure sensors for viscous liquids usually solidify or coagulate, particularly when a process is
measure pressure in one of two ways: absolute or halted and the temperature falls and/or the media
gauge. dries out. The sensor may get clogged up and take

Absolute pressure is measured relative to a some time to begin working properly again when

particular value, such as zero or atmospheric the process is restarted.

pressure at sea level. With this method, the To address this, pressure sensors for viscous fluids
reading is always the same, regardless of where usually have flatter, more open designs, perhaps
the unit is located. with a flush diaphragm, that allow the fluid to

Gauge pressure is measured relative to the move freely across the face of the sensor. They

surrounding atmosphere, meaning that readings may also be designed so that all surfaces that

can vary based on location and altitude. Sensors come into contact with the fluid are accessible, to

measuring gauge pressure within a liquid need a allow for easy cleaning and the removal of built-up

vent tube in order to measure the surrounding residue.

pressure, which is often combined with the Many pressure sensors for viscous media have
electrical cable connection. casings made from stainless steel, giving them
strong resistance to harsh chemicals such as
those found in sewage and sludge.
TECHNOLOGY
Viscous liquid pressure sensors are transducers,
generating an electrical signal in proportion to
the pressure they measure. This allows pressure
to be monitored by electronic devices such as
microprocessors, programmable controllers, or
computers.
Pressure sensors for use with viscous liquids
are often designed with a flush diaphragm and
accessible surfaces for easier cleaning

83
Liquid pressure 7.5
sensors

OPTIONS AND SPECIFICATIONS Sensors for viscous fluids that are suitable for
use in hazardous environments may be certified
Sensors for viscous fluids will typically be specified
under a standard such as ATEX 95 (for Europe)
using features such as:
or IECEx 02 (worldwide). Under EU law, ATEX 95
• Pressure range (for example, 0–0.4 bar)
is required for all electrical and non-electrical
• A reference type (absolute or gauge; see
equipment that’s used in hazardous environments,
previous page)
while IECEx 02 is intended only for electrical
• Response time equipment in hazardous environments. Hazardous
• Output signal environments include those involving dust or
• Accuracy (expressed as a percentage) flammable materials, including bio-gas that may be
• Installation type present along with viscous fluids such as sewage.
• Housing and diaphragm material Sensors may be available with submersible cable
• Process connection connections, protecting them from spillage or
• Cable length and type allowing them to be continuously submerged in

Another important specification is the type of seal liquid when in use.

used on parts of the sensor exposed to the fluid, LIMITATIONS

particularly if the media is volatile or corrosive. Not all sensors are suitable for use with foods.
Sensors will have an operational temperature Sensors that are suitable for sanitary food and
range, which is vital to consider for media that are biotech applications will usually be available with
subject to intense heat, such as molten plastic a food-grade oil behind the diaphragm, so the
or bitumen. Some sensors can be supplied with media will not be contaminated if the diaphragm
cooling elements that protect the electronics is accidentally damaged and oil leaks out of the
from the temperature of the media, extending sensor.
their usable temperature range. For example,
some sensors may feature an integral oil-
filled capillary that transfers pressure from the
diaphragm to the piezoresistor, putting extra NEED SOME ADVICE?
distance between the media and the electronics Our pressure sensor experts are on hand to help
within the sensor. you make the right choice for your application.
Some sensors for viscous fluids have nose Get in touch at avnet-abacus.eu/ask-an-expert
cones that protect the sensor in use, but can
be removed for cleaning. They may also include
sealed cable exits to protect the sensor from
cleaning processes used for surrounding areas, or
from flooding in use.

84
Pneumatic and 7.6
hydraulic pressure
sensors

APPLICATIONS MEASUREMENT OPTIONS

Examples of systems built around pneumatic Like other types of pressure sensor, sensors
technology include vehicle tyres, air brakes used in pneumatics and hydraulics can measure
(on buses, trucks and trains), air compressors, differential pressure (the difference between two
compressed-air engines, vacuum pumps and pressures) or absolute pressure (measured against
more. zero or another absolute value).

Examples of hydraulic applications include vehicle In pressure regulators, differential pressure

braking systems, power steering systems, shock sensors compare the pressure on either side of a
absorbers, utility vehicles such as excavators and valve, to determine whether the inlet flow is equal
aerial platforms, lifts and industrial machinery to the outlet flow.
such as hydraulic presses.

The overarching application of pressure sensors TECHNOLOGY

in pneumatics and hydraulics is to ensure the
Pneumatic and hydraulic pressure sensors are
pressure within the system is at the correct level,
transducers, generating an electrical signal in
or within an optimum range.
proportion to the pressure they measure. This
This is particularly important for hydraulics, allows pressure to be monitored by a range of
where the liquid in the system may be volatile or electronic devices.
flammable (for example, mineral oil) and reach
The technology used most often in pneumatic
very high pressures and temperatures, making
and hydraulic pressure sensors uses a physical
leaks and accidents potentially dangerous.
diaphragm, often made of silicon, which bends
Pressure sensors feature as part of pressure as pressure is applied to it. The diaphragm is a
regulators, or automatic valves designed to control strain gauge, which varies its electrical resistance
the pressure in the system (as shown below). when force is applied – in this case, from pressure
Pressure regulators match the demand for gas exerted by air, gas or hydraulic liquid on the
or liquid to the demands of the system, while sensor. This resistance is used to modify the
maintaining a constant output pressure. As the output voltage of the sensor.
system demands more power, so the load flow
increases, and the regulator flow must increase, or
the controlled pressure will fall.

Load sense line

Lorem ipsum
A

1500 PSI 1200 PSI

300 PSI

A load-sensing hydraulic system featuring three pressure sensors

85
Pneumatic and 7.6
hydraulic pressure
sensors

Some pressure sensors for power-steering OPTIONS AND SPECIFICATIONS

applications use a linear variable differential
Pneumatic and hydraulic pressure sensors
transformer (shown below). This includes a core
will usually have a range of pressures they can
that moves within a hollow tube to monitor the
measure – for example, 0 to 200 bar. They may
movement of a directional control valve with high
also specify a safe limit of pressure, above which
precision, allowing hydraulic fluid to flow into
the unit may malfunction, and a temperature
different areas of the system.
range within which they will provide accurate
readings (for example, -40ºC to 85ºC).

Most pneumatic and hydraulic pressure sensors

will also specify an error band – for example,
±0.05% – indicating the level of accuracy of the
sensor.

Other options may include input and output

connection type and output signal, as well as
physical specifications such as material (including
for parts in contact with liquid), dimensions and
A cross-section of a linear variable
thread sizes.
differential transformer pressure sensor

LIMITATIONS
Many pressure sensors are now standalone,
incorporating all the electronics and temperature Hydraulics, in particular, are used in harsh and
compensation technology they need into the unit challenging environments involving extreme heat,
itself. water, dust and even radiation. Hydraulics on
heavy vehicles may be subject to physical shocks
However, as the pressure used in hydraulics
and vibration, and may also be subject to sudden
systems increases to drive efficiency, and systems
pressure spikes. Pressure sensors therefore need
overall become smaller and more compact, this
to be able to withstand these conditions and still
isn’t always possible. An alternative is embedded
function correctly.
sensors, where the electronic components are
located away from the sensor itself. This allows the
sensor to work in environments characterised by
high temperature, vibration and radiation.

To withstand harsh environments, pressure-

sensing chips have been designed such that the
medium (gas or liquid) only comes into contact
with silicon, helping to protect electronic
components.

Some pressure sensors for pneumatics and

hydraulics function by measuring the expansion
of a flexible tube, rather than the pressure in
the gas or liquid directly. This can help to detect
blockages within the tube and monitor pump
performance.

86
Pressure sensors for 7.7
corrosive media

Some pressure sensors are specifically designed media use the principle of piezoresistance. The
to work with corrosive, aggressive or highly sensor is based around a diaphragm made from
contaminated liquids and gases, collectively known a ceramic material that’s elastic but resistant to
as ‘corrosive media’. corrosion and abrasion.

These corrosive substances will destroy or damage The diaphragm acts as a semiconductor distortion
other substances that they come into contact gauge: when the corrosive liquid or gas presses
with, including metals and organic compounds. on it, it is bent out of shape, which distorts the
This makes them difficult and dangerous to crystalline structure of the material. This, in
work with and raises unique challenges for the turn, changes the electrical resistance of the
design of pressure sensors with corrosive media diaphragm, allowing the sensor to reflect changes
compatibility. in pressure in the form of a change in current.

APPLICATIONS OPTIONS AND SPECIFICATIONS

Pressure sensors for corrosive media are used in Pressure sensors for use with corrosive media
applications such as industrial measurement and often feature housings made from stainless steel
control, industrial boilers, monitoring the levels or plastics such as PVDF, PVC or PPS. The sensor
of chemical storage tanks, waste management, elements themselves are typically ceramic,
medical devices, instrumentation and analytical although some sensors use a stainless steel
devices. diaphragm backed by silicon oil that transfers

They also find applications in energy technologies pressure to the sensing element.

such as those using natural gas, biogas, landfill gas Pressure to

voltage conversion
and CHP (combined heat and power).
Liquid Amplifier DC electric
+ power supply
output
MEASUREMENT OPTIONS Corrosive circuit
output

gas
Pressure sensors for corrosive media usually
Stainless
measure pressure in one of two ways: absolute or diaphragm
Bonding type
gauge. semiconductor
transducer

Absolute pressure is measured relative to a

particular value, such as zero or atmospheric A typical pressure sensor designed for
pressure at sea level. With this method, the corrosive media
reading is always the same, regardless of where
the unit is located.
The pressure sensors will usually specify a suitable
Gauge pressure is measured relative to the pressure range (for example, 200 mbar–35 bar).
surrounding atmosphere, meaning that readings Certain sensors may be able to measure both
can vary based on location and altitude. absolute and gauge pressure (see above), with a
pressure range specified for each. Some sensors
can be configured to measure negative pressure
TECHNOLOGY
as well as positive.
Pressure sensors for corrosive media are
transducers, generating an electrical signal in
proportion to the pressure they measure. This
allows pressure to be monitored by various
devices with a suitable interface.

Most pressure sensors for use with corrosive

87
Pressure sensors for 7.7
corrosive media

Some sensors for corrosive media are LIMITATIONS

temperature-compensated, so their readings are
Many sensors are suitable for use with either
not affected by changes in media temperature.
corrosive liquids or corrosive gases. Their
Sensors will also specify the voltage output that datasheet or other supporting material will specify
they use to indicate pressure changes, and their which media they’re compatible with.
output at zero pressure (for example, 100mV).
Other sensors are suitable for use with specific
In some cases, the O-ring used to seal the ceramic types of liquid or gas. However, manufacturers will
diaphragm to the body of the sensor can be made sometimes be able to modify their sensors to suit
from different materials, such as fluorocarbon specific requirements.
plastomer (which resists mineral acids, petroleum
Engineers may need to consider what will happen
oil, salt solutions and chlorinated hydrocarbons),
in the event of the sensor failing. Corrosive or
nitrile rubber (which resists paraffin-based
hazardous media could enter the sensor, leading
materials, fatty acids, glycerines or alcohols)
to contamination. Conversely, internal parts or
or EPDM - ethylene propylene diene monomer
materials (such as oil used as a filling fluid) may
(which resists many acids and alkalis).
leak into the process media.
Some sensors may be certified under a standard
such as ATEX 95 (for Europe) or IECEx 02
(worldwide). Under EU law, ATEX 95 is required for
all electrical and non-electrical equipment that’s
used in hazardous environments, while IECEx
02 is intended only for electrical equipment in NEED SOME ADVICE?
hazardous environments. Hazardous environments Our pressure sensor experts are on hand to help
include those involving flammable materials or you make the right choice for your application.
dust. Get in touch at avnet-abacus.eu/ask-an-expert

88
Pressure sensors for 8.0
harsh environments

You’ve heard the phrase ‘if you can’t stand the PHYSICAL SEPARATION FROM HAZARDOUS
heat, get out the kitchen’. Well for pressures MEDIA
sensors, if they can’t stand the boiling heat,
A fluid-isolation barrier (see diagram below) can
the freezing cold, corrosive substances, being
be implemented to prevent corrosive media
submerged in salt water, constant exposure to the
coming into direct contact with the sensor
outside world, or even being sent into space, then
diaphragm.
they might not be fit for the job.
Pipe tees w/plugs
These hardy little sensors need to withstand some
pretty challenging conditions. Corrosive fluid

In some cases, the ambient temperature may +

fluctuate widely and quickly, or the pressure To pressure source

media itself may be at a high temperature.

In other applications, corrosive pressure media Barrier fluid Pressure

transducer
can present a threat to sensor components such U tube

as the diaphragm, or to the integrity of the sensor

as a whole. Commonly encountered media include Isolating a pressure sensor from corrosive
industrial acids, alkalis, salt water in a marine media.
environment, or even fresh water if the sensor is
to be used outdoors or underwater.
The fluid-isolation system (as shown above) is
Sometimes it’s not the environment that can closed to allow accurate measurement taking
damage the sensor, but the potential for the advantage of the incompressibility of the liquid.
opposite to happen, such as in food-preparation A suitable liquid must be chosen that will not
equipment, where materials in the sensor may mix with the pressure media, or present risk of
present a contamination threat to the pressure contamination to the process being monitored.
media. Heavy industrial oil is often used.
Wherever the environment or pressure media are Temperature isolation can be implemented in
particularly challenging, the chemical compatibility a similar way, by inserting a standoff such as
and temperature capability of the sensor are an uninsulated tube between the main vessel
important selection criteria. containing the media and the sensor –industrial
Given that special sensors – designed to operate pipework or a flask might be used, for example.
at extreme temperatures, or withstand exposure
to salt spray or harsh chemicals – will likely carry a Insulation to prevent
radiation of heat to Fluid heat dissipates
cost premium, engineers might consider isolating transducer

the sensor from the pressure media, if possible. Pressure

transducer

Bare tubing

Hot fluid to L
be measured

Temperature isolation to protect the pressure

sensor.

89
Pressure sensors for 8.0
harsh environments

Heat is dissipated from the media in the tube At very low temperatures, oil in the cavity behind
(see diagram on previous page), thus exposing the diaphragm in an oil-filled sensor can harden,
the sensor diaphragm to a safe temperature. The leading to inaccurate readings. In addition, water
length of tubing needed is calculated according to mixed with gas passing through pipelines can
the temperature of the media, thermal properties freeze in cold climates and expand, resulting in
of the tubing, and the maximum temperature of excessive pressure on the sensor. The excess
the pressure sensor. pressure can be enough to distort the sensor’s
readings even after the water has thawed. Such
damage may be temporary, or can be permanent.
ISOLATION DIAPHRAGMS FOR HARSH
ENVIRONMENTS In extremely low temperature conditions, other
components of the sensor, such as rubber o-rings,
Similar principles to the above are applied to
can become embrittled, which compromises
create upgraded pressure sensors, capable of
sealing and impairs accuracy. In some situations
withstanding exposure to extreme conditions. An
it may be practicable to heat the sensor
isolation diaphragm can be designed to extend
continuously to prevent freezing. If heating is not
chemical compatibility by using a material such
an option, then a sensor designed for extremely
as titanium, tantalum, stainless steel, or another
low-temperature operation must be specified.
alloy, and filled with a dielectric oil to transfer
pressure to the more sensitive diaphragm of the On the other hand, exposure to a high

standard sensor. The isolation diaphragm can be temperature environment can cause the materials

an effective barrier to corrosive media or media used in standard pressure sensors – such as the

at a higher temperature than the sensor is able to bonding between strain gauges and substrate - to

withstand. degrade, leading to inaccuracy or complete sensor

failure.

High-temperature sensors feature upgraded

WITHSTANDING EXTREME TEMPERATURES
materials or construction, using processes such
Pressure sensing at extreme temperatures is as sputter thin-film deposition that creates a
required in numerous industrial sectors, such as in molecular bond between the strain gauges and
the petrochemical industry where vast networks the substrate, capable of withstanding higher
of pipelines must be monitored accurately. temperatures.
Pipeline pressures must be monitored at locations
Sensors can be built to operate in various
throughout an entire refining and distribution
ambient-temperature ranges, with the peak
network that can span extreme climates from
temperature rating of ruggedly designed sensors
near-arctic conditions to desert heat.
extending to more than 200°C.
Meanwhile, automotive, aerospace, and other
industrial applications including mining, smelting
and down-hole drilling provide further examples of
operating conditions that demand rugged sensors
capable of withstanding extreme ambient or media
temperatures.

90
Pressure sensors for 8.0
harsh environments

OPERATING IN CORROSIVE ENVIRONMENTS (nickel-molybdenum-chromium) are superior -

although more expensive – for applications that
Pressure media in industrial processes, such as
are exposed to seawater or sea fog. Titanium also
acids or alkalis, can have particularly aggressive
offers good resistance to seawater corrosion.
corrosive properties. Liquids, such as fruit juices
in contact with food-processing equipment, can The chemical compatibility of other important
also present a significant corrosion risk. parts of the sensor, such as o-rings, should also
be considered when selecting sensors for use
The pressure-diaphragm metallurgy is critical, to
in corrosive environments. Sensors specially
ensure suitable corrosion resistance. Titanium
designed for such applications may feature parts
has excellent resistance to corrosion by acids,
made from a material such as Viton, which has
alkalis, or salts, and can be used to fabricate the
broader compatibility than plain rubber.
diaphragm and other parts of the sensor that may
come into contact with the media.

Other applications may require resistance to COPING WITH DYNAMIC ENVIRONMENTS

the corrosive effects of seawater, or sea fog. In some applications such as industrial air-
Some examples include platform stabilisation blasting equipment, fluid-flow measurement
equipment, desalination equipment, pipeline or combustion performance analysis, sensors
control valves, or oil-tanker piping systems. are needed to measure fluctuations in pressure
Seawater has several corrosion mechanisms, superimposed on a static background pressure.
including chemical corrosion due to salts, oxygen, More extreme applications include monitoring
and carbon dioxide contained in the water. combustion in gas turbines or jet engines, for
purposes such as engine control, fault detection,
In addition, bacteria in seawater cause microbial
or acoustic analysis.
induced corrosion, by feeding on iron and
manganese content in steels and ultimately Piezoresistive elements have fast response times,
promoting further microbial action resulting in suitable for dynamic pressure measurement, and
chemical waste that attacks the surface of steel can allow a wide bandwidth ranging from a few Hz
membranes. The severity of this type of corrosion to over 10kHz. Some sensitivity may need to be
can vary with geographical location, depending on traded for faster sensor response, and vibration
factors such as the microbe species present and compensation using accelerometers may be
typical water temperature. required to increase signal-to-noise ratio.

Low-grade austenitic stainless steels, such as

common 304 or 316 grades, have poor corrosion
resistance in seawater. Although higher-grade
duplex steels can offer greater corrosion
resistance than the standard grades, nickel-based
superalloys such as 625 (nickel-chromium) or C276

91
Pressure sensors for 8.0
harsh environments

CREATING ROBUST HIGH-PRESSURE In spite of the enormous challenges faced by

SENSORS pressure sensors in extreme environments, it’s
possible to specially engineer them to operate
Extremely high pressure environments exist within
under a wide range of harsh conditions.
hydraulic actuators such as aircraft flight controls
or test rigs for equipment like landing gear. Compatibility between the sensor materials and
the pressure media is vital, whether the media
Industrial processes such as injection moulding,
or environment presents a hazard to the sensor
hydroforming, or powder metallurgy such as hot
materials, or whether the sensor could present a
or cold isostatic processing are also dependent
hazard to the media, such as in medical or food-
on generating extremely high pressures that must
processing applications. Additional considerations
be monitored for safety and process-control
in the latter application might include the use of
purposes.
special food-grade materials, such as non-toxic
Other applications include mineral-extraction cavity oils.
equipment, high-pressure cleaning equipment,
Stainless steel construction is widely featured
and industrial test equipment such as burst-
among sensors for use in harsh environments.
pressure or fatigue-test benches.
Whereas 316 or 304 alloys are economical and
Heavy-duty high-pressure sensors can measure robust, only higher-grade steels like nickel-based
static and dynamic pressure of up to 100,000 superalloys – or titanium – can withstand the most
psi (7000 bar) and more. Special features for extreme corrosive media, including seawater,
high-pressure operation include stainless steel which has multiple biological as well as chemical
construction, a robust threaded pressure port, corrosion mechanism.
and metal-to-metal screw sealing (see image
If you’re not sure where to start, our sensor
below).
experts can guide you through your options
and help find the right balance between sensor
performance and protection from hazardous
environments.

A high-pressure sensor featuring robust

construction and metal-to-metal screw sealing.

92
 Understanding 9.0
pressure sensor
specifications

THE PRESSURE SENSOR SPEC AND ITS FACTORS AFFECTING ACCURACY

IMPACT ON ACCURATE READINGS The major sensor characteristics that influence
There are many aspects of a pressure sensor that accuracy are temperature coefficients,
determine whether it is the right choice for a temperature hysteresis, pressure hysteresis, and
given application. Gauge, absolute or differential, non-linearity.
transducer or transmitter, measurement range, Applicable temperature coefficients include
fitting style/size, and absolute maximum ratings temperature-related changes to zero offset,
such as burst pressure are among the most sensitivity, and measurement span.
important.
A datasheet may describe accuracy-related
Several sensors may meet the application characteristics individually, or as an overall
requirements, in these respects. Making the accuracy statement calculated as the root of the
right choice can then be guided by considering sum of squares (RSS) of individual factors.
factors that affect accuracy. Fundamentally, this
Note also that accuracy can be expressed as
determines whether the pressure measurements
a percentage of the full-scale range, or as a
supplied are dependable to inform decisions made
percentage of the reading. Percent of full scale (%
by the application.
F.S) is commonly used, meaning that if the sensor
has a full-scale range of 200 psi and is specified as
1% F.S, any reading at any pressure within 0-200
psi is expected to be within ±2 psi of the true
NEED SOME ADVICE? pressure.
Our pressure sensor experts are on
Alternatively, if the accuracy is stated as a
hand to help you make the right choice
percentage of reading, 1% accuracy at 200 psi
for your application. Get in touch at
would translate to an error of ±2 psi as before.
avnet-abacus.eu/ask-an-expert
However, at 100 psi the error would be ±1 psi.
Clearly the error cannot tend towards zero at 0
psi: at lower reading, the datasheet may quote an
absolute figure, say ±0.4 psi, for pressure readings
below a stated threshold.

93
Understanding 9.0
pressure sensor
specifications

UNDERSTANDING THE DATASHEET TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT OF ZERO

Temperature errors are expressed over a range, OFFSET
called the Compensated Temperature Range The sensor’s zero offset is the output when
(CTR), which is usually narrower than the operating pressure on both sides of the diaphragm is equal.
temperature range. This is expressed as the Zero Pressure Output in
the datasheet snapshot below. A constant offset
can be trimmed out at manufacture, but the
offset also changes with temperature.
The snapshot below, taken from the
The temperature coefficient of zero offset, or
datasheet for the TE Connectivity 1210 series
Temperature Error – Zero in the datasheet below
piezoelectric sensor, illustrates how various
(alternatively referred to as TCZ) is calculated
sources of error are expressed among the
by measuring the difference between the offset
sensor’s key parameters. Understanding the
output at the standard temperature and at the
various types of errors and how they are
lower and upper limits of the Compensated
calculated can help when making comparisons
Temperature Range (CTR), and expressing the
between different sensors and choosing the
larger of the two differences as a ratio of full-scale.
most suitable component for a given application.

SUPPLY CURRENT: 1.SMA

Ambient Temperature: 25-C (unless otherwise specified)

PARAMETERS MIN TYP MAX UNITS NOTES

Span 75 100 150 mV 1
Span (2 psi version) 30 60 mV 1
Zero pressure output -2 2 mV
Pressure non linearity -0.1 ±0.05 0.1 %Span 2
Pressure hysteresis -0.05 ±0.01 0.05 %Span
Input & output resistance 2500 4400 6000 Ω
Temperature error — span -0.5 ±0.3 0.5 %Span 3
Temperature error - zero -0.5 ±0.1 0.5 %Span 3
Thermal Hysteresis — zero ±0.1 %Span 3
Supply current 1.5 2.0 mA
Response time (10% to 90%) 1.0 ms 4
Output noise (10Hz to 1kHz) 1.0 µV p-p
Long term stability (offset & span) ±0.1 %Span 5
Pressure overload 3X Rated 6
Compensated temperature 0 50 °C
Operating temperature -40 +125 °C
Storage temperature -50 +150 °C
Weight 3 grams
250°C Max 5
Solder temperature
Sec.
Non-corrosive dry gases compatible with Silicon, Pyrex, RTV, Gold, Ceramic,
Media
Nickel, and Aluminum

NOTES
1 Ratiometric to supply current. 4 For a zero-to-full scale pressure step change.
2 Best fit straight line. 5 Long term stability over a one year period with
constant current and temperature.
3 Maximum temperature error between 0°C and 50°C
with respect to 25°C. For 2psi devices, Temperature 6 2X maximum for 100psi device. 20psi maximum for 2
Error -- Zero is ±1%. and 5psi devices.

94
Understanding 9.0
pressure sensor
specifications

TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT SENSITIVITY TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT OF

Sensitivity as quoted in the datasheet quantifies MEASUREMENT SPAN
the change in output per unit change in applied The magnitude of the sensor full-scale output
pressure. It’s typically affected by the excitation is affected by temperature. This is called
voltage and expressed in terms of output millivolts Temperature Error – Span in the TE datasheet
per applied volt of excitation voltage (mV/V). sample, and may also be referred to as the

The sensitivity may change with operating temperature coefficient of span (TCS). It is

conditions, particularly temperature. The calculated in a similar way to the TCZ. The full-

sensitivity shift across the Compensated scale output at the upper and lower CTR limits

Temperature Range (CTR) is expressed as is compared with the full-scale at the standard

a percentage of full scale per °C change in temperature. The larger of the two differences is

temperature. expressed as a ratio in percent per degree (%/°C).

The illustration below shows how the

temperature coefficient of sensitivity is
expressed for Amphenol's NPA series surface-
mount sensors.

Parameter Units Min Typ Max Notes

Pressure range psi 0.36 to 1 1 0"H₂0 = 2.5KPa

Excitation mA 1.5 10 VDC Maximum

Input impedance Ω 5000±20%

Output impedance Ω 5000±20%

Zero offset mV ±75

Full scale output mV 40 to 120 10°H₂0

75 to 135 1 psi

Linearity %FSO ±0.25 BFSL

Pressure hysteresis %FSO ±0.20

Temperature coefficient of zero µV / V / °C ±30

Temperature coefficient of resistance % / °C 0.29

Temperature coefficient of sensitivity %FSO / °C -0.2

Thermal hysteresis of zero %FSO ±0.15

Position sensitivity %FSO 0.2

Temperature coefficient of sensitivity as expressed in Amphenol NPA series datasheet

95
 Understanding 9.0
pressure sensor
specifications

PRESSURE HYSTERESIS AND TEMPERATURE

Temperature T = constant
HYSTERESIS

Bridge output voltage

A sensor may give different readings for the same
measured pressure, depending on whether the
pressure has increased or decreased to reach the
measured value. Key factors that cause pressure Datapoints (measured)
Best straight line fit
hysteresis include the characteristics of the Non-linearity values
diaphragm or strain-gauge material.

Pressure sensors can also exhibit temperature 0

Pmin Pmax
Applied pressure p
hysteresis, which results in a different pressure
reading being produced at a given pressure A graphical representation of non-linearity
and temperature depending on whether the using the Best Fit Straight Line method.
temperature has increased or decreased to
the value at which the measurement is taken.
Alternative methods may be used, such as the
Temperature hysteresis is influenced by
terminal line technique, which expresses non-
measurement conditions such as dwell time
linearity as the maximum deviation from a straight
and temperature range, and is expressed as a
line joining the zero and full-scale points (see
percentage of full scale over the CTR.
below). The terminal line method eliminates
zero-point and full-span errors, which simplifies
NON-LINEARITY
recalibration if a sensor is replaced in the field.
Non-linearity expresses the difference between
Vº
the actual output of the sensor and the predicted
response according to its typical performance.
Non-linear responses can be affected by factors
ACTUAL
such as temperature, humidity, and vibration END POINT STRAIGHT LINE
or other disturbances. Non-linearity can be SPAN
expressed mathematically, as a percentage:
ZERO
OFFSET P
0 PFS
Nonlinearity (%) = Din(max) x 100 (6-I)
INf.s. Terminal line method for calculating non-
where:
linearity.
• Din(max) is the maximum input deviation

• INf.s. is the maximum, full-scale input

The datasheet should state which method has
been used. A note in the TE datasheet on page 93
Non-linearity can also be shown graphically (see tells the reader that the BFSL method was used
above right) which illustrates how the output to calculate the 1210’s typical non-linearity to be
voltage can deviate across the full-scale range. ±0.05 %span.
In this context, linearity can be quantified using
High-linearity pressure sensors can be produced
the Best Fit Straight Line (BFSL) method, using
by optimising the construction of the sensor,
mathematical regression to plot the BFSL that
such as the diaphragm mounting, building the
gives equal weighting to points above and below
sensor using high-quality materials, and applying
the line.
electronic compensation.

96
Understanding 9.0
pressure sensor
specifications

Several other parameters can affect the sensor LONG-TERM STABILITY OR NATURAL DRIFT
accuracy, and should be considered when
Sensor accuracy tends to drift over time, due
choosing the right sensor for a given application.
to ageing, environmental factors, and other
These include resolution, dynamic characteristics,
application-related influences and factors. Such
and long-term stability, as we’ll now explore.
drift is not predictable, and may have a positive
or negative change coefficient. Referring to the
RESOLUTION previous datasheet sample, TE expresses the long-
term stability as a percentage of the full-scale
Resolution is the smallest incremental change in
range, over a period of one year and assuming
pressure that can be displayed at the output. It
the current and temperature are constant. Hence
may be expressed as a proportion of the reading
stability as quoted in the datasheet can only
or the full-scale range, or as an absolute figure.
be used as a guide and not as a guarantee of
Depending on the application, the pressure
performance in the target application.
resolution may be easily related to real-world
performance: a pressure sensor with 3mbar
resolution, used in a depth gauge, will allow OTHER OPERATIONAL FACTORS TO CONSIDER
depth-measurement resolution of 3cm in water.
In this chapter, we’ve described key factors
Note that a sensor’s accuracy cannot be greater
that affect the accuracy of a pressure sensor.
than its resolution.
Depending on the application, some aspects
such as dynamic performance or resolution may
RESPONSE TIME AND DYNAMIC be less important than others like linearity or
PERFORMANCE temperature-related drift.

Response time is an expression of the sensor’s Once the optimum sensor has been selected
ability to change and stabilise at the new value, on paper, it’s important to remember that other
within the specified tolerance, in response to a factors such as the equipment design, and day-
change in the applied pressure. The response to-day use can also influence pressure-sensing
time may be different depending on whether the accuracy on setup and in the longer term.
change is positive- or negative-going. Improper installation, for example, is often the
The datasheet may quote response time as a underlying cause if a system fails to deliver the
time constant, which is the time for the sensor expected accuracy when deployed. This could
signal to change from zero to 63.2% of full-scale be prevented by design, or by ensuring the
range when an instantaneous full-scale change in equipment is shipped with clear installation
pressure is applied. instructions.

Faster-acting sensors may be described in terms Application-related variables such as

of their frequency response, or flat frequency, temperature, specific gravity of monitored
which is the maximum pressure-change frequency fluids, dielectric characteristics, turbulence,
that can be converted into an output signal changes in atmospheric pressure, or unexpected
without distortion. obstructions, blockages or vapour locks may also
impair accuracy. Taking any likely effects into
Dynamic linearity is an important parameter in
account when designing the equipment, and
applications that must monitor rapidly changing
where possible selecting sensors that are immune
pressure. It can be influenced not only by the
or benefit from suitable compensation, can help
response time, but also by other characteristics
to mitigate or avoid unacceptable inaccuracy.
such as amplitude and phase distortion.
And, of course, ensuring initial calibration, with
regular recalibration and suitable intervals, is
essential to safeguard long-term accuracy.

97