UNIT 2 TRANSPORTATION PLANNING PROCESS

The preceding unit focused on the fact that purpose of transport planning is to create
a transport system that works well and ensure the efficient movement of people,
goods and services.

Unit 2 will now look at the planning in process in more detail. The different terms of
planning will be identified where after the transport planning process will be
discussed in great detail. The unit will concluded with a discussion on public
participation.

The following topics will be addressed in this unit:

Topic 2.1: Short term vs long term planning

Topic 2.2: Transportation planning process
Topic 2.3: Public participation
Topic 2.4: Summary

Outcomes

Outcomes that will be covered in this unit

At the end of this unit the student is expected to:
 Distinguish between short term and long term planning
 Explain the steps in the urban transportation planning process
 Explain how evaluation assists decision making
 Analyse the role and importance of public participation in transport
planning

Introduction:

It is evident from the previous unit that transport planning is essential in order to
provide an effective and efficient transport system to move people from point of
origin to point of destination.

The urban transport planning process therefore aims to plan for urban transport
demand by:

 Observing the current travel behaviour of the population

 Identifying certain theories concerning the relationship between urban land
use and the movement of people
 Testing these theories as a basis for making estimates for future travel
demand, and finally
 Recommending additional transport capacity (if needed)
(Dimitriou, 1992)

Watch the video What is public transport planning? What does public transport
planning mean? for an additional explanation of public transport planning:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YvuRirz_yvU
Topic 2.1 Short term vs Long term planning

Before the urban transport planning process can be analysed further, it is important
to understand transport planning is usually classified into two categories based on
planning period. The difference between these categories can be found in the nature
of the plan, the types of objectives and the characteristics of the plan (Vuchic, 2005).

 Short term planning

Applies to projects that can be implemented in 3-5 years (sometimes 8 years), and
usually do not comprise major investments and infrastructure construction. Short
term planning may include planning service schedules, purchase new vehicles,
modification of existing networks and changes to organisational aspects such as fare
types and collection method. This range of planning is dependent on current
conditions.

 Long term planning

Longer term planning is applicable to planning of major infrastructure objects (e.g.

railway lines, road networks or development of new vehicle types). This will require
major investments, development and construction and the planning time frame is
between 10 – 25 years. Long range planning is geared at meeting an urban areas’
transport needs in the future. The effect of such projects are modeled and evaluated
carefully. Financing such initiatives are also evaluated in terms of economic, social
and environmental benefits. Long term plans should also be reviewed at specified
intervals and revisions are made if necessary.

Now that the difference between short term and long term planning is understood,
the transportation planning process can be analysed.

Topic 2.2 Transportation planning process

To ensure transport system efficiency, careful planning need to be conducted. It is

also important that transport planning incorporate the entire transport system with all
modes of transport as well as the interaction with land uses. The increasing
complexity of cities makes it essential for transport planning to be related to all other
city planning activities such as economic and social aspects of an urban area
(Vuchic, 2005). All geographic areas that function together should be included.

The urban transportation planning process comprise a series of interconnected

steps, which are illustrated in figure 2.1. Firstly there is a problem definition stage
where the problem intended to be solved is recognized. Thereafter goals are
formulated and objectives, criteria and standards to be adopted for the project are
established. Then information with regard to inventory is gathered. This will include
information on the population, land use, socio-economic characteristics of the
population, existing transport supply and travel demand.

Alternative transportation plans are then compiled in an attempt to satisfy the

condition in the future.
Figure 2.1 Summary of the urban transportation planning process (Victor &
Ponnuswamy, 2012:36)

Inventories:
Problem  Land use
definition  Employment
 Transportation supply
 Transport network
 Travel demand

Goals:
Travel forecast:
 Objectives
 Trip generation
 Criteria  Trip distribution
 Standards  Modal choice
 Trip assignment

Alternative plans

Plan testing evaluation Selection of preferred plan

Each alternative is then tested and evaluated in terms of possible adverse impacts
and cost effectiveness. The most cost effective plan with the minimum adverse
impacts will then be selected for implementation (Victor & Ponnuswamy, 2012).

For a transport planner to fully understand the transport problem in an urban area, it
is necessary to analyse the existing configuration of the area in terms of the
transportation network, the current traffic patterns as well as the demographic and
socio-economic characteristics of the population. This will all affect the travel
patterns in an urban area.

As a first step, the area to be studied has to be defined. This refers to the relevant
urban area or municipal district where present and potential future developments will
take place. The boundary of the area under study is an imaginary line running on the
geographical boundary of the area and is referred to as the outer or external cordon.
Within this cordon, the travel behaviour of the population is researched Victor &
Ponnuswamy, 2012).

As mentioned earlier, urban transportation planning comprise a number of planning

processes depending on the objects and scope of planning.
The steps in the basic transportation planning process can be summarised as
follows (Vuchic, 2005):

i. Definition of goals and objectives for the transportation system in the

future
ii. Collection of inventories: data about the current city and its transport
system
iii. Forecast of changes for a selected target year (a year in the future)
iv. Set criteria for plan evaluation. This derived from the goals and objectives
v. Develop several alternative plans for the projected future situation,
meeting the initial goals
vi. Technical explanation and testing of the alternative plans. Also considering
the impact of the plan on the forecasted demand for transport and urban
development
vii. Comparative evaluation of the alternative plans. This can entail goal-based
criteria and public hearings. Outcome is the selection of a preferred plan
viii. Finalisation of the of the selected plan and preparing for implementation
ix. Monitoring and corrective action.

This process described here can be presented in a flow chart as seen in figure 2.2.

Figure 2.2 Basic steps in urban transportation planning (Vuchic, 2005:479)

1. Definition of goals 2. Inventories – present

and objectives conditions

3. Forecasts

5. Develop alternative plans

4. Criteria 6. Plan testing and changes

7. Evaluation and selection

8. Finalisation and
Implementation

9. Monitor and corrective

action
The various detailed steps in the transportation planning process can be
summarised as follow (Bruton, ):

1. Explicitly formulating goals and objectives

2. Collecting land-use, population, economic and travel pattern data for the
present-day situations.
3. Establishing quantifiable relationships between present-day movement and
land-use, population and economic factors.
4. Predicting land-use, population and economic factors to the target date for the
study and the development of a land-use plan(s).
5. Predicting the origins, destinations and distribution of the future movements
demands, using the relationships established for the present-day situation and
the predicted land-use population and economic factors (trip generations and
trip distribution).
6. Predicting the person movements likely to be carried by the different modes of
travel at the target date (modal split).
7. Developing the highway and public transport networks to fit the predicted
land-use plan and accommodate the estimated pattern of movements
8. Assigning predicted trips to alternative coordinated transport
networks/systems (traffic assignment).
9. Evaluating the efficiency and economic viability of the alternative transport
networks in terms of economic and social costs and benefits.
10. Selecting and implementing the most appropriate transport networks.
11. Monitoring and reviewing the chosen transportation policies or plants.

It is important to remember that the approach and flow of the planning process will
vary depending on the conditions, scope and goals of the transport planning project.

The various phases or steps in the urban transportation planning process will now be
described in more detail.

2.2.1 Definition / setting of goals and objectives

The basis for any plan is an explicit definition of goals and objectives. These goals
and objectives are needed to direct the plan and become the criteria against which
the success of a plan or project is measured. In transportation planning, goals are
seen as the general statements addressing the desirable conditions with regard to
mobility, travel opportunities and transport service performance characteristics.
Examples of general goals in terms of the role of transport in an urban area can
include:

 Adequate mobility to all categories of the population

 Transport in the area should permit various activities
 Transportation in the area should stimulate its functioning and growth
 The area should be accessible (preferably without congestion)
 Transportation should serve suburban areas without imposing undesirable
impacts, e.g. air pollution, noise and safety hazards
(Vuchic, 2005)
In order to meet broader goals in terms of mobility, more specific objectives for the
transport system should be formulated and can be along these line:
 Networks should be continuous and coordinated with other networks and
terminal facilities
 Efficiency of the street network should be increased by means of specialized
facilities
 Pedestrian travel should be encouraged, especially in the Central Business
District (CBD) as well as in residential areas by providing safe and suitable
walkways
(Vuchic, 2005)

Public transit plays different roles in different countries. In developing countries

public transport is regarded as the basic mode of travel as opposed to developed
countries where public transport provide a social service. In terms of the role of
public transit in cities, the goals may be presented in different ways (depending on
the type of city:

 Public transport should offer a reasonable quantity and quality of service

 To transport individuals who do not own cars
 Decreasing congestion and excessive parking demand

2.2.2 Data collection and evaluation of the present transport system

In order to plan a transportation system it is important to gather information and data

about the current system. Various types of data can be gathered, depending on the
type of transport project, but are usually grouped into categories (Vuchic, 2005):

 Population, economic and social data which includes gender, age, household
size, motor vehicle ownership, employment data, and household income
 Land use data include information on individual activities such as school
enrollments and size of retail areas for stores
 Transportation system infrastructure will include information on transport
networks, stations, terminals, parking facilities pedestrian areas as well as
truck and bicycle facilities

Travel patterns of the population is also surveyed to determine where do trips

originate and where do the trips end (destination). Information in the mode used,
purpose of the trip and length of the trip is also gathered.

Once all the needed transportation data is collected all the information is entered in a
computer data base in order to be transformed into a travel forecasting model. From
this model, various relationships for transit systems analysis and planning can be
projected. Useful information can be determined from this and it can include:

 Number of daily trips generated by different land uses

 Time distribution of trips by purpose

The remaining steps in the transport planning process is much more complex. A very
important element of transport planning is forecasting future traffic volumes or
predicting future travel demand. Before embarking on a project to upgrade an
existing transit line or building a new network, knowledge about the future passenger
volumes on such infrastructure is needed.
2.2.3 Four-stage demand estimation model (trip generation, trip distribution, modal
split and trip assignment)

The customary way in which travel demand can be estimated is by means of a

process involving four steps, which estimate the number of trips generated in an
area, the distribution of those trips, the transport mode used for those trips and the
exact route the trips follows (Vuchic, 2005).

According to Vuchic (2005), the four-step model (and most other travel demand
estimation models) start of by defining the study area, e.g. a specific metropolitan
area like Sandton. Thereafter planning models are developed that can possibly
simulate and forecast activities and travel specifically in the study (planning) area.
The study area is then further divided into zones – commercial, industrial or
residential. Then, data is collected for each identified zone. This data include
information on transportation facilities such as street and highway networks, stations,
transport terminals and other facilities for all modes in that area. Data about the
population and its characteristics, number of trips, purpose of trips and time of trips
are collected for each mode.

Collection of this data is an extensive effort and involve a significant amount of time
and cost.

The different phases of transportation planning is mainly based on models that

represent the relationships between different factors and trip production.

Traffic volume (demand) forecasting may have different sequences, but the most
widely used sequence is illustrated by the flow chart in figure 2.3.The four important
steps (Vuchic, 2005) are indicated in the hexagonal boxes and should be included in
any study or process. The four important steps are:

 Trip Generation

This is the estimation of the number of trips that originate from or are destined to
each zone of the study area, in a given period of time, e.g. a specific day of the
week.

 Trip Distribution

Is the process of connecting the origins and destinations of trips identified in the
previous step (trip generation).

 Modal Split

This is a planning phase and it involves the estimation of the distribution of the trips
to the various modes of transport.

 Trip Assignment
In this last step, the specific routing of the trips are predicted. This is based on their
origin, destination and travel condition on the network of each mode of transport.

Figure 2.3 Sequence of steps in travel demand (volume) forecasting

(Vuchic, 2005:489)

Socioeconomic
Land use
characteristics
Characteristics

Trip
Generation

Transit System Highway System

Person Trip
Distribution

Vehicle
Modal Split Occupancy

Interzonal transit Interzonal motor

person trips vehicle trips

Transit Highway
Traffic Traffic
Assignment Assignment

2.2.4 Evaluation

Transport planning mainly consists of the development and evaluation of several

alternative plans. Transport planners develop a selection of alternative transport
plans to satisfy goals and objectives set out at the beginning of the process. The
reason for this is so that planners have a range of possible solutions to compare with
one another and eventually select the most advantageous one.

Transport plan evaluation and comparative analysis are done by making use of a set
of criteria. This criteria is derived from the initial transport goals and objectives.

2.2.5 Implementing and monitoring

After evaluation process has been concluded, an ideal alternative is selected and
implemented. Transport planning is a continuous process and it is therefore essential
that the project be monitored throughout to see if it indeed address the set
objectives. The aim with monitoring is that corrective action can be taken in order to
adjust the plan.

This concludes the discussion on the transport planning process. The section that
follows will address the concept of public participation.

Topic 2.3 Public participation

Needs and desires of people affect land-use patterns. This have an impact on the
traffic flow and transport system, which again affect the environment, and thus the
quality of life of the people. It is therefore necessary for the community to be actively
involved in planning.

Community involvement means that the maximum number of affected people are in
a position, or able, to influence decisions regarding their environment and ensure
that planning is acceptable.

Functions of public participation

 To increase the individual’s control over his/her life and environment.
 To facilitate collective decision making.
 To improve the individual’s relationships with the community through
integration.
 To make decision making more effective and appropriate.

In developing communities, community participation is defined as strategic decision

making on any development issue by the community.
The community should be empowered by advisors, such as planners, to make this
decision.

2.3.1 Description of the concept of public participation

Public participation is the formal or informal involvement of the people, affected

either directly or indirectly, at community level, in issues that are normally the
responsibility of a public authority. This involves the stimulation, expression and
collection of public opinion in an attempt to identify real needs and problems.

Stimulation to participate may be initiated by:

  Public authorities
 Community itself through interest groups
 Political parties
 Non-associated individuals
Expression of opinion by the public can take place in various ways depending on
the structures, channels or style adopted. The legal and administrative structures
that are used may be formal/official or informal/unofficial. Many channels are
available for the transfer of opinion from the general public to authority. These
include the media direct correspondence, workshops, meetings through forums and
gatherings. Most of these channels may be used in the stimulation process.
Constructive and responsible representation may promote co-operation and
accommodation. The structures, channels and style adopted will vary depending on
the likely response of the authorities in the final stage – the accommodation of basic
needs and opinion.

Generally speaking, public participation may be accommodated in three ways –

ignored, watered down or accepted. Persistent refusal to incorporate the wishes and
preferences of the majority of the population or powerful pressure groups is likely to
lead to indifference and distrust and even violent reaction to the authority.

On the other hand, automatic acceptance of public opinion can also have serious
problems. While a high level of public support is a definite requirement for long-term
success, the nature of public service demands certain responsibility and authority,
with or without full acceptance, from the various role players. Where real grievances
or valuable inputs can be taken into account, the outcome is likely to be a
compromise between the original proposal of the relevant authority and the public
demands.

Public participation should take place at all the various stages in the government
process. These stages can be conveniently grouped into the proposal stage and the
implementation stage. Although public involvement in the proposal or planning stage
is the area requiring the most attention, brief reference will first be made to the
influence of the public in implementation.

The main difference between formulation and implementation involves decision

making. In the post-decision stage, the degree of public involvement depends largely
on the legal remedies available by which interest may be protected – for example,
the right of compensation for losses suffered as a result of the actions of the
planners.

Constitutional rights embodied in international law and national constitutions provide

the basis of an individual’s right to protect his own interest against the actions of
others.

Other remedies against perusal or environmental abuse that are available fall under
Administrative Law. Special provision in legislation may also make the remedy of a
deal available to the public by which decisions or actions taken by an authority may
be challenged.
The expression of public opinion via formal political channels is not regarded as
adequate public participation. Civil service departments are also not regarded as the
only representative of public opinion.
Although public involvement in the political decision-making process plays a major
role in addressing basic needs and issues, attention will also be paid to public
involvement in the administrative function of good governance.

2.3.2 The process of public participation

Public involvement has become a major issue in transportation planning. Guidelines

and principles for public participation should be established and practical techniques
provided for planning authorities.

There are, however, disadvantages related to public participation that will be

mentioned below, and problems with regard to:

 Credibility;
 Political representation;
 Community relationships;
 Vested interests;
 Levels of planning;
 Communication;
 Resources and costs;
 Lack of information; and
 Identification of concerned public.

However, many of the problems can be prevented by following the correct public
participation framework. Consultation and participation should consist of:
 Holding public meetings;
 Establishing community needs and priorities;
 Identifying problems;
 Developing and discussing solutions; and
 Ensuring the report-back process.

2.3.3 The role of the public

The need for a study or project is identified by either a planning authority or the
community in which the perceived problems exists. If a problem is identified by a
planning authority, it is important that the affected community is consulted at an early
stage to ensure that they do in fact perceive that there is a problem which needs to
be addressed. If a problem is brought to the attention of the authority by the
community, it should be investigated to determine whether there is in fact a problem
and whether it warrants further action.

It should also be established whether there is broad support within the affected
community for the project or whether those who have raised the problem are simply
a minority group looking to solve their own problems rather than the problem of the
community. In either case, the community has been involved in establishing the need
for a project at the earliest possible opportunity.

Over and above the need for a specific study or project, communities should be
consulted and kept informed on a regular basis by their responsibility planning
authorities.
Communities should be asked to supply the authorities with their own lists of
prioritised projects and the authorities, likewise, should discuss their own project
priority lists with the community. In this way, an understanding is gained by both
sides of the planning equation as to what really needs to be done and a combined
priority list can be compiled, through consensus, which is acceptable to all.

In other words, the project priority list will contain authority selected projects, which
have received community approval, and community selected projects, which have
received authority approval.

Once the community has agreed upon the need for the study or project and funds
have been made available to undertake it, consultants can be appointed to do the
work. However, the planning authorities should decide whether or not transportation
and/or public involvement consultants are to be appointed.

The stakeholders involved in the public participation exercise should also understand
that they will be assisting the planners in reaching a mutually acceptable solution,
rather than preparing a plan on behalf of the planners. Ultimately, however, final
decisions are made by the planning authority. Public participation should be seen as
an integral part of the preparation of the plan. This will reduce the likelihood of delays
in the finalisation of the plan being caused by the public participation process.

The public involvement process must be sincere in its aims; however, there are
certain non-negotiable technical aspects of which they must be informed at the
outset of the study. In the final analysis, public involvement should benefit both the
planner and the public.

The success of the public involvement programme will depend on the extent of
active involvement by the public and the trust that is established between the
participation and the planning authority.

Apathy towards the study or project should not deter the planner, however, because
in general, the public wants to see actions rather than a project, which can be
perceived as a delay tactic or a waste of taxpayers’ money.
It must be borne in mind that a project can only be implemented if the majority of the
stakeholders/affected community support the preferred solutions to the agreed
transportation problem. Involving the affected public in a comprehensive programme
of participation at a feasibility study level does not imply that they support the
solution(s) to the problem or that they will accept the project at implementation level.
If the findings of the feasibility study show that the majority of the public rejects the
transportation need or solutions(s), then the project should not proceed to detailed
design or be implemented.

Affected groups/individuals may include the following:

  Residents whose property will be expropriated or devalued by the proposed
implementation;
 The business community whose trade could potentially be affected, which
could include informal traders such as hawkers;
 Road users if a particular road or section of a road is to be closed; and
 Transport operators, such as bus operators or the minibus-taxi industry.

The need for flexibility in the public participation process is as a result of the need to
take into account changing circumstances and unforeseen problems. When
undertaking public participation, it should be remembered that nothing is fixed, and
that everything is re-negotiable at every stage in the process, which includes the
public participation process itself.

Advantages of public participation:

 Ensure that planning of transportation projects includes the interest and

preferences of the affected public.
 Promote the support of a proposal and thereby reduce opposition to the
authority and its plans, as well as the administrative decision making process.
 Assist with the identification and assessment of the impacts the project will
have on the physical, environmental and socioeconomic structure of our
society and the world we live in.
 Reduce costs by avoiding delays caused by unanticipated opposition, on
issues such as compensation, and by encouraging the input of free
information and advice.
 Reduce the likelihood of abuse of privileged positions and information related
to public projects.
 Eliminate the possibility of any misrepresentation of the public by officials.
 Limit the presentation of final decisions to the public regarding issues not
introduced at an early stage in the project decision-taking process.

Disadvantages of promoting public participation:

 It complicates the issue.

 Costs, including financial manpower and time, may often be increased.
 Responsibility for the final decision may easily be taken away from the
responsible authority.
 Representation of sectional interests may hinder national/provincial
government decision or policy.
 There is difficulty in formulating an effective procedure for public involvement.
 Pressure groups and sectional interest may dominate the public input and
give an unrepresentative opinion.
 It promotes the chances of premature speculation in property and other
commercial fields.
 It increases the risk of abuse of sensitive information for personal or own
commercial gains.

Topic 2.4 Summary

This unit started off by briefly looking at the main aim of transportation planning.
Secondly, a distinction between short term and long term planning as it pertains to
transport, was made. Thereafter the transportation planning process was discussed
in great detail, by firstly identifying the steps involved in the process and thereafter,
concentrating on the four step demand estimation model which highlighted the
terms, trip generation, trip distribution, modal split and trip generation. The unit
concluded with a comprehensive discussion on the concept of public participation.

The unit that follows will deal with the development of urban areas and also focus on
the transport problems that are experienced within those urban areas.
REFERENCES:

 Urban Transportation – Planning, Operations and Management by D Victor and

S Ponnuswamy (2012)

 Urban Transit – Operations, Planning and Economics by Vukan R Vuchic (2005)