Electrochemistry: Summaries Drill Problems
Electrochemistry: Summaries Drill Problems
Electrochemical Cells
If we place a strip of zinc metal in a beaker containing a solution of CuSO 4 Zn is oxidized
to Zn2+ ions, while Cu2+ ions are reduced to metallic copper
The electrons are transferred directly from the reducing agent, Zn, to the oxidizing agent,
Cu2+ in solution. We have already seen, when we balanced redox equations, that we can
separate a redox reaction like the one above into two half- reactions. One of the half-
reactions being oxidation and the other being a reduction half- reaction.
-
Zn(s) ==> Zn2+(aq) + 2 e oxidation half- reaction
-
Cu2+(aq) + 2 e ==> Cu(s) reduction half- reaction
It turns out that we can physically separate the two half-reactions and thereby force the
electron transfer to occur by way of an external conductor. We can do this by using an
electrochemical cell. An electrochemical cell is an apparatus consisting of electrodes that
dip into an electrolyte and in which a chemical reaction either produces electricity or is
caused by an electric current. A voltaic, or galvanic, cell is an electrochemical cell in which
a spontaneous chemical reaction generates an electric current. An electrolytic cell is an
electrochemical cell in which a nonspontaneous chemical reaction results from the flow of
an electric current through the cell. Below we show a drawing of a voltaic cell in which the
redox reaction above takes place.
Notice that the voltaic cell is made up of two compartments. Each of these compartments is
called a half-cell, and the two half-cells are connected by a salt bridge containing an
electrolyte such as KCl. The zinc and copper strips are called electrodes. By definition, the
anode in an electrochemical cell, voltaic or electrolytic, is the electrode at which oxidation
occurs and the cathode is the electrode at which reduction occurs. The anode in a voltaic
cell has a negative sign whereas the cathode has a positive sign. The electrons to be
transferred, flow or move from the anode to the cathode through a wire or other metallic
conductor (electrons do not move through the solution). There is a transfer through the
solution in the salt bridge of anions from the cathode half-cell to the anode half-cell, with
cations moving in the opposite direction. Without the salt bridge connecting the two
solutions, the buildup of positive charge in the anode compartment, from the formation of
Zn2+ ions, and the negative charge in the cathode compartment, caused by the Cu2+ ions
being reduced to Cu, would quickly prevent the cell from operating. The oxidation half-
reaction is shown occurring in the anode compartment and the reduction half-reaction in the
cathode compartment. If we sum the two half-reactions we obtain the overall or cell
reaction. We must make sure that the electrons cancel when we add the two half-reactions,
we can do this by multiplying each half-reaction by the appropriate small integer. The
voltmeter shown in the diagram would measure the cell potential or cell emf, Ecell. And
finally notice immediately under the cell a shorthand way of designating the cell. The Zn|
Zn2+(aq) represents the anode half-cell, the || represents the salt bridge and Cu 2+(aq)|Cu
represents the cathode half-cell.
Once we know which electrode is the anode or cathode, all of the other information shown
in the diagram above falls into place by rules. To answer the question, which electrode is
the cathode, you must look at the next topic, electrode potentials.
Electrode Potentials
We will continue our discussion of electrochemical cells, using the same example used
previously, the zinc-copper cell, also known as the Daniell cell shown below. An electric
current flows from the anode to the cathode because there is a difference in electrical
potential energy between the electrodes. This flow of electric current can be likened to the
flow of water down a waterfall, which occurs because there is a difference in gravitational
potential energy. Experimentally the difference in electrical potential between the anode
and cathode can be measured with a voltmeter as shown in our diagram of the Daniell
cell.The reading on the voltmeter will be in volts. However, two other terms, electromotive
force or emf and cell potential are also used to denote cell voltage. The voltage of a cell
depends on the nature of the electrodes and the concentration of ions and the temperature.
When the concentrations of the Cu2+ and Zn2+ ions are both 1.0 M, we find that the cell
voltage of the Daniell cell is 1.10 V at 25oC. The voltmeter can only measure the difference
in potential between two electrodes, it cannot measure the potential of either electrode
alone. In order to get around this impasse we have arbitrarily chosen the hydrogen electrode
as a reference and defined its potential to be zero. Having done this, we can use the
hydrogen electrode to determine the relative potentials of other electrodes. Tables are
available listing standard electrode potentials.
We are now in a position to answer our question in the previous as to how we determine
which electrode is the cathode and which is the anode. Lets stick with our present example
of a cell made from copper metal in contact with Cu 2+ and zinc metal in contact with Zn 2+
ions. If we look in a table of standard electrode potentials we will find these two entries for
the copper and zinc electrodes.
-
Cu2+(aq) + 2 e = Cu(s) EoCu = 0.34 V
-
Zn2+(aq) + 2 e = Zn(s) EoZn = -0.76 V
First notice that all of the half-reactions in the table are written as reductions, this allows
easy comparison of the electrode potentials. The electrode potential is a quantitative
measure of the driving force or tendency of the half-reaction to occur as written.
Comparing the copper and zinc electrode potentials, we see that copper has the more
positive potential and consequently has a greater tendency to undergo reduction than zinc.
This tells us that the copper electrode is going to be the cathode and zinc is going to be the
anode. We can now calculate the cell potential from the following relationship:
Eocell = Eocathode - Eoanode = 0.34 V -(-0.76 V) = 1.10 V
-
Oxidized species + ne ==> reduced species
The oxidized species acts as an oxidizing agent. Therefore, the strongest oxidizing agents in
a table of standard electrode potentials are the oxidized species in the half-reactions with
the most positive Eo values. The inverse of this statement would hold for the strongest
reducing agents.
We have seen that the change in Gibbs free energy, ΔG is a measure of the spontaneity of a
process that occurs at constant temperature and pressure. Since the emf of a redox reaction
indicates whether the reaction is spontaneous, we would expect some relationship to exist
between emf and free energy change. This relationship is given by the following equation.
ΔG = -nFEcell
In this equation n is the number of moles of electrons transferred in the reaction and F is
Faraday's constant, named after Michael Faraday. Faraday's constant is the quantity of
electrical charge on one mole of electrons. This quantity of charge is called a faraday, F:
- -
1 F = 96,500 C/mol e or 96,500 J/V-mol e
Both n and F are positive quantities. Thus, a positive value of E, the cell potential, leads to
a negative value of ΔG. So keep in mind that a positive value of E and a negative value of
ΔG both indicate that a reaction is spontaneous.
When both the reactants and the products are in their standard states, the equation above
can be modified to give:
ΔGo = -nFEocell
The measurement of cell potentials gives us another way to obtain equilibrium constants.
We can take the equation above and an equation relating free energy and the equilibrium
constant, that we discussed in thermodynamics and combine them as shown below.
ΔGo = -nFEocell
ΔGo = -RT ln K
nFEocell = RT ln K
RT 2.303 RT
Eocell = --- ln K = -------- log K
nF nF
The dependence of the cell emf on concentration can be obtained from the dependence of
the free-energy change on concentration. Recall that the free-energy change, ΔG, is related
to the standard free-energy change, ΔGo, by the equation:
ΔG = ΔGo + RT ln Q
The quantity Q is the reaction quotient, which has the form of the equilibrium constant
expression except the concentrations are those that exist before the system reaches
equilibrium. Substituting ΔG = -nFEcell into this equation gives:
-nFEcell = -nFEocell + RT ln Q
RT
Ecell = E o
cell - ---- ln Q
nF
2.303RT
Ecell = Eocell - -------- log Q
nF
At 298 K the quantity 2.303RT / F equals 0.0592 V-mol, so at 298 K we can write the
following simplified form of the Nernst equation.
0.0592
Ecell = Eocell - -------- log Q
n
Example 1
Calculate the emf of the following cell at 25°C; Sn(s)|Sn2+(0.025 M)||Ag+(2.0 M)|Ag(s)
Example 1
The emf of the following cell at 25°C is 1.04 V, determine the value of [Sn 2+]; Sn(s)|Sn2+(?
M)||Ag+(1.00 M)|Ag(s)
0.10
log [Sn2+] = -------- = -3.38
-0.0296
Processes such as this, which are driven by an outside source of electrical energy, are called
electrolysis reactions and take place in electrolytic cells. An electrolytic cell consists of two
electrodes in a molten salt or solution of electrolyte. The cell is driven by a battery or some
other source of direct current. The battery acts as an electron pump, pushing electrons into
one electrode and pulling them from the other. The electrode from which the electrons are
withdrawn is labeled as positive. The one receiving the electrons is labeled as negative.
-
Na+(l) + e ==> Na(l) reduction half- reaction
- -
Cl (l) ==> 1/2 Cl2(g) + e oxidation half- reaction
If we pass electricity through molten NaCl in a cell such as the one below, we observe
yellow-green chlorine gas form at the anode and silvery, liquid metallic sodium at the
cathode. The decomposition of NaCl(l) into its elements is a very nonspontaneous reaction,
with a large positive value of free energy. The function of the battery or external source of
electricity is to act as an electron pump, forcing electrons onto the cathode where the
reduction of sodium ions occurs. The battery withdraws electrons from the anode where the
oxidation of chlorine ions occurs. above takes place. So if we impose a voltage of
something in excess of 4 V we can force electrons to flow in the opposite direction from the
spontaneous reaction.
Two processes that can always occur in aqueous solution are the reduction and oxidation of
water itself.
- -
Reduction: 2 H2O + 2 e ==> H2(g) + 2 OH
When the half-reactions shown above are the only ones feasible, the electrolysis of an
aqueous solution produces H2(g) and O2(g) as its products. There are cases, however, where
only one or maybe neither of those half-reactions occurs. For example consider the
electrolysis of NaCl(aq). To obtain sodium metal by the reduction of Na+(aq), we have to
overcome a reduction potential of -2.713 V. This is more difficult to accomplish than the
reduction, so the the reduction of Na+(aq) is not going to happen (mother nature, like most
of us is going to take the easy way).
-
To obtain chlorine gas by the oxidation of Cl (aq) we must overcome a potential of -1.358
V which is not that different from the -1.229 V for the oxidation of water. Both oxidations
can occur. From a consideration of oxidation potentials alone, we would predict that the
oxidation of water would predominate, since it has the lower oxidation potential. In fact in
concentrated solutions of NaCl, the oxidation of chloride predominates, because the
overvoltage for the formation of O2(g) is much higher than that of Cl2(g). The overvoltage
is the excess voltage above that calculated to bring about a reaction.
Stoichiometry of Electrolysis
The quantitative basis of electrolysis was established by Michael Faraday in 1831. His
results were summarized in two laws, now known as Faraday's laws of electrolysis.
One other quantity we need to be familiar with is the electric charge on one mole of
electrons. This is known as a Faraday and has the value 96,485 C/mol.
Example
How many grams of copper are deposited at a platinum electrode in the electrolysis of
CuSO4(aq) by 1.75 A of electric current in 2.30 h?
-
The reduction half-reaction will be Cu2+(aq) + 2 e ==> Cu(s)
- - -
? mol e = 1.45 x 104 C x 1 mol e / 96,485 C = 0.150 mol e
-
According to the reduction half-reaction, 2 mol e are required for every mol Cu
- -
? mol Cu = 0.150 mol e x 1 mol Cu / 2 mol e = 0.0750 mol Cu
The mass of Cu will be the molar mass times the number of moles
Potenciométricos
Galvanostáticos
Potenciostáticos
Potenciometría
Introducción
Referencia
pH
Medidas
Tampones
Calibración
Mantenimiento
Redox
Metal
POTENCIOMETRIA
ELECTRODOS DE REFERENCIA
Son aquellos que miden el mismo potencial cualquiera que sea la naturaleza de la
disolución en que se introduzcan y por tanto dan una referencia a la medida del
electrodo indicador. Están constituidos por un conductor metálico en contacto con
una sal poco soluble de su metal, y una disolución de composición constante y alta
concentración llamado electrolito de referencia.
Los diafragmas sucios son la causa más frecuente de errores en las medidas
potenciométricas. Cuando los iones del electrolito de referencia reaccionan con la
disolución a analizar, pueden formarse precipitados y bloquear el diafragma
Para medidas a bajas temperaturas hay que tener en cuenta que la solubilidad de
las sales disminuye con la temperatura. En estos casos hay que usar sales de
menor concentración.
En caso de sistemas no acuosos, los dos electrolitos deben ser no acuosos para
que no haya sales solubles en medios acuosos que cristalicen en medio no
acuoso en la zona límite entre los dos diafragmas. Un electrolito que se usa
mucho en estos casos es LiCl sat. en Etanol.
ELECTRODOS DE pH
E = Eº + S. log ( a i + S kij a j z ) (z = ni / n j )
aNa+ = 1 mol / l
aNa+ = 1 mol / l
Estaríamos leyendo aH+ = 1.01*10-11 mol / l frente al real de aH+ = 10 -11 mol / l.
Para cometer errores de un 10% para valores de pH = 11, tendríamos que tener
una aNa+ = 10 mol / l.
MEDIDAS POTENCIOMETRICAS
Ag/AgCl,pHinter/Membrana/pHexter//KCl,Ag/AgCl
S = 2.303 R .T / n. F = 0.1984575 T
T = o K = º C + 273.16
F = 96484.56 C. mol-1
Como en la ecuación, todos los términos son constantes, a excepción del pH ext la
podemos escribir, como:
E = k - S pH
pHas = k / S
pH = pHas - ( E / S)
DISOLUCIONES TAMPON
Las disoluciones tampón son disoluciones acuosas de mezclas de ácidos fuertes y bases
débiles ó de bases fuertes con ácidos débiles, dando valores fijos de pH. Las disoluciones
tampón pueden ser utilizadas en el rango de pH entre 1 y 12.
Calibración
Antes de efectuar medidas, se utilizan patrones amortiguadores, tampones, para
validar la escala pH del instrumento:
Steórica = 2.303.R.T / F
Hay que hacer notar que los valores de pH de las disoluciones tampón dependen de la
temperatura, según vemos en la siguiente tabla:
t ºC Tampones
pH 4.00 pH 7.00 pH 9.00
10 3.99 7.06 9.13
20 3.99 7.02 9.04
25 4.00 7.00 9.00
30 4.00 6.99 8.96
40 4.02 6.98 8.90
50 4.04 6.97 8.84
60 4.07 6.97 8.78
pHas = pH1 + ( E1 / S)
pH = pHas - (E / S)
Ejemplo
Temperatura: 20 ºC
Tampón pH = 7.02 -2 mV
Potencial de asimetría: - 2 mV
pH asimetría: 6,985
Temperatura: 40 ºC
E de la muestra: 98 mV
pH = pH as - ( E / S)
Almacenamiento
ELECTRODOS REDOX
Por ésta razón es conveniente de vez en cuando chequear los potenciales que
miden los electrodos redox, para lo cual se necesitan disoluciones con un valor de
potencial redox definido.
a.- Con una disolución redox standard preparada para su uso frente a un electrodo de
referencia de Ag / AgCl, KCl ( 3M ):
t ºC 10 20 25 30 40 50 60
E ( mV ) 5 mV + 265 + 250 + 243 + 236 + 221 + 207 + 183
pH 7.06 7.02 7.00 6.99 6.98 6.97 6.97
t (ºC ) EºQH ( mV )
5 + 714.3
10 + 710.7
15 + 707.0
20 + 703.4
25 + 699.7
30 + 696.0
pH EWE (mV) 20 ºC
3.99 + 470.8
7.02 + 295.0
pH E = E WE _ E ER
ESCE ( 20ºC ) E Ag /AgCl ( 20ºC )
3.99 223,1 259,3
7.02 47,3 83,5
Los valores medidos pueden variar en ocasiones unos pocos milivoltios debido a
cambios en el potencial de difusión del electrodo de referencia y a la calidad de la
quinhidrona utilizada.
b.- Otra solución consiste en conectar el electrodo al polo negativo de una fuente
de corriente eléctrica ( batería). El polo positivo a un contraelectrodo inerte, y se
realiza una electrolisis durante 3 minutos en ácido sulfúrico diluido, aplicando una
corriente de 10 mA.
c.- Si la superficie del metal está sucia se puede limpiar con polvos abrasivos y
después con H2O. Incluso, si el electrodo es de barra y se puede separar del
cuerpo del electrodo, se podrá calentar en la llama hasta el rojo vivo.
Los electrodos de barra sólida tienen una vida muy grande. Estos pueden
limpiarse a la llama. Son seleccionados para medir en disoluciones
corrosivas ó altamente contaminadas.
Electrodo de Ag / AgCl
No sólo constituye un electrodo de referencia, sino que, además, es un electrodo
indicador de la concentración de ión cloruro.
Metales
Un metal en contacto con una disolución de sus iones puede utilizarse para medir
la concentración de dicha disolución
M n+ + n e - < - - - - - - -> Mº Eº
Algunos metales cuya superficie está recubierta parcialmente por una capa de óxido del
mismo metal, pueden servir como electrodos indicadores para los iones hidrógeno. Entre
ellos, el más utilizado es el electrodo de antimonio. La semirreación sería:
E = 0.152 - S.pH
ELECTRODO DE QUINHIDRONA
Pt / Q, H2Q, H+ ( x M )
t ºC 5 10 15 20 25 30
EºQH ( mV ) +714.3 +710.7 +707.0 +703.4 +699.7 +696.0
El potencial de una pareja de electrodos redox es la diferencia entre los potenciales de los
electrodos que lo componen :
E medido = E WE _ E RE
Voltamperometría
Métodos
Electrodos
Técnicas
DC
NP
DP
Redisolución
Preparación
METODOS ELECTROLITICOS
Se engloban dentro de los métodos electroquímicos, donde se tiene que aplicar una energía
extra ( potencial ó intensidad ) para que tenga lugar el proceso redox.
METODOS VOLTAMPEROMETRICOS
Macroelectrodos
Tamaño
Microelectrodos
ELECTRODO DE REFERENCIA:
Ag/AgCl, KCl ( 3M )
ELECTRODO AUXILIAR:
Pt ó Carbono Vitrificado
TECNICAS VOLTAMPEROMETRICAS
DC NP AC CICLICA
DC (Tast) DP SW DNP
TECNICAS VOLTAMPEROMETRICAS
DC
Esta técnica consiste en aplicar un barrido lineal de potencial a velocidades bajas < 10
mV/s a un electrodo de gotas de mercurio, obteniéndose un polarograma característico del
sistema analizado.
NP
DP
Es una técnica que aplica sobre una rampa lineal del potencial incrementos fijos
de potencial. La intensidad registrada es la diferencia entre la intensidad al final
del pulso y la intensidad antes de aplicar el pulso.
Barrido de potenciales en DP
STRIPPING (REDISOLUCION)
Como electrodo de trabajo se emplea el Mercurio HMDE o electrodos sólidos
RDE, por lo tanto stripping voltamperométrico.
Electrolisis
Reposo
Redisolución
Voltamperometría de Redisolución
Instrumentación
Metrohm
Eco-Chemie
Gomensoro
INSTRUMENTACION CIENTIFICA