Protection of feeder and transmission lines

Ketan Kishore (17-1-3-112)

Department of Electrical Engineering
NIT Silchar
Silchar, India
email:ketankishor001@gmail.com

Abstract—Transmission lines and distribution feeders does the faults are categorized into various types. These faults needs
job of supplying power from the generation stations to the sub to be dealt with and the feeder lines should be protected.
stations and further to the distribution center from where they
are supplied for consumption through distribution networks. The protection of power system configuration includes
They need to be protected at all times for the smooth and primary and back up protections. The primary protection is
continuous supply. There are various types of transmission and the first line of defense to the occurring faults and fix the
distribution lines and the types of protection used vary fault quickly to avoid any damage. The primary protection
accordingly. The protection action should be swift and the fault may fail at times and thus there is a secondary line of
occurring should be dealt in negligible time. The generally defense, the backup protection which initiates if the primary
viable relay protections have been discussed with respect to the protection fails. Protection is also been bifurcated into zones
likely faults that would occur in a particular feeder type. of protection according to how much of the network they
Discussion of the advantages and disadvantages of schemes protect and the speed at which the circuit breaker acts on
presently used in protecting distribution lines. Depending on detection of the fault.
the type of feeder i.e. ring main feeder, parallel feeder, etc.
different protection relay schemes are used viz. differential
type protection, distance protection, current graded protection
for overcurrent faults, etc.
Transmission lines with voltage range of 220kv and above are
equipped with carrier pilot or high speed distance relays. 33kv
lines are protected by directional time lag over current relays
or high speed distance relays. 11kv radial feeders are usually
provided with time lag overcurrent relays supplemented by
instantaneous fuses.

Fig 1: Zones of transmission line protection

Introduction

Electrical power transmission lines extend over large

lengths in the open atmosphere and thus are exposed to
greater risk of fault occurring in the lines. Feeder is a term Fundamentals
used inter changeably to describe the transmission network
and the distribution network. However, the transmission line The basic requirement of a transmission line protection
protection system would be discussed at large as the scheme is to open the circuit breaker nearest to the fault
distribution lines are generally protected by just inserting occurring in the region where short circuit occurs. If the
fuses at required places. Transmission lines are an integral breaker nearest to the fault does not open then the backup
part of the electrical power distribution system and they breaker opens. The relay should operate in a very less time
constitute the path of power transfer from generating stations to protect and preserve the system stability. Any fault, if not
to the distribution substations. Transmission lines operate at detected and isolated quickly will cascade into a system
high voltage levels from 69kV to 765kV, and are an wide disturbance causing widespread outages for a tightly
interconnected system in the perfect scenario. Distribution
interconnected system operating close to its limits.
lines have voltage levels of the order of 33kv or lower and
Protection relay circuit breakers are basically demonstrated
they form the connection between the distribution substations
to loads. Thus, it is important to induct apt, accurate and as unit type and non-unit type of protection based on the
swift protection techniques to protect the feeder from the fault in the region of the network to which the particular
fault and assure continuous and interruption free supply of protection responds. In case of ground fault, a different set
power to the consuming load. of protection principle are used because the line fault current
is different from ground fault current. The basic
In order to implement suitable protection technique to the transmission line layouts are the ring main feeder and the
feeder lines, it is necessary to have an idea about the faults radial feeder. In closed zone protection, all components in
that occur in the transmission lines and distribution lines and the defined zone are monitored, and in open zones, the
what protection techniques would be best suited for a
monitoring extent depends on the fault current.
particular type of feeder and the corresponding fault likely to
occur in them. Depending upon the type and occurrence, the

XXX-X-XXXX-XXXX-X/XX/$XX.00 ©20XX IEEE

 The reliability of the fault protection is also considered
while implementing a protection technique. The protection
scheme should be dependable and secured and the circuit
should break only in the event of a fault and the breaker
should be fast enough to avoid breakdown of the system.

The selection of a particular scheme of protection

depends upon all these factors in a unifying manner. The
scheme used should be economically viable for continuous
supply, The pilot wire availability decides if the protection is
a pilot wire scheme of protection in short lines. The neutral
Fig 2: Overload protection
being grounded or insulated also plays a part in deciding the
overload and earth fault protection using auto reclosing
relays.

Time graded overcurrent protection are generally II. COMBINED PHASE FAULT AND EARTH FAULT
employed for backup protection of large transmission
systems or in places where a time delay in circuit breaker Two over current relays for phase-phase fault and one
application in case of a fault won’t be catastrophic to the earth fault relay for ground fault is used in this case. Earth
power supply system. This technique is commonly used in fault current is less than phase fault current and depends on
distribution feeder along with fuse applications. These can the type of neutral grounding.
also detect ground faults. Over current relays are affected by Zero sequence relay looks at the phase conductors to
type of fault and source impedance. ensure that all current coming from the source returns on
Distance protection is high speed protection and is not those same conductors. If some of the current is returning to
affected by the type of fault. Current trend is to use static the source through a different path (usually ground), the zero
distance protection for all types of line faults(phase to phase sequence ground-fault relay will detect this difference and if
and phase to ground) as main and backup protection for that value is greater than the already set value then
short, medium and long transmission lines. Reactance type A relay which protects the electrical system from
protection is preferred for short lines, impedance type for negative sequence component is called a negative sequence
medium lines and mho type relays for long transmission relay or unbalance phase relay. The negative sequence relay
lines. Pilot wire protection is a unit type protection scheme has a filter circuit which operates only for the negative
which would operate only for faults occurring in the sequence components. The relay always has a low current
protected zone. Considering the cost of pilot wires, these are setting because the small magnitude overcurrent can cause
used only in short transmission lines. Carrier and microwave dangerous situations.
pilot protection is used for long lines and inter connected
lines to simultaneously open circuit breakers on both ends.
Most faults on EHV lines are temporary and are caused by
lightning. This leads to flash over across insulators and exists
for short duration. Thus, instantaneous re-closure is done in
EHV lines in 12 cycles. More than 1 re-closure is not
recommended for stability issues. On lines up to 33kv, most
faults are caused due to external objects such as tree
branches. This is due to less height of poles in comparison to
adjacent trees. The external fault may not be cleared at the
first re-closure and may require another re-closure. Usually,
3 re-closures at 15-20 seconds are made to clear the faults.

Overload and Earth Fault Protection using Over Current

Relay Fig 2: Combined phase fault and ground fault protection
o/c(over current relay);E/F(earth fault relay);CT(current transformer).
I. OVER LOAD PROTECTION
It is the simplest way of protecting a line and is provided
at the starting of the line. When the current passing through
the relay is greater than the predefined standards then the
relay will operate the circuit breaker opening. Protective
relays monitor the current and/or voltage of the power system
to detect problems with the power system. Currents and
voltages are supplied to the relay using the current
transformer and the potential transformer.

Time Graded Over Current Protection

The time setting of relays is graded such that in the event of a the other feeder in parallel still supplies power to the load.
fault, the smallest possible part of the system is isolated The protection of parallel feeder requires to use directional
from the circuit and the rest of the systems continues relays and to grade the time setting of relay for selective
conducting power to the desired loads. Time difference is tripping.
incorporated in this protection scheme.
This scheme of protection is used to set up continuity of
supply in the network. In the event of fault in one feeder,
continuity of supply is maintained for other feeders. Non
A. Radial Feeder Protection directional IDMT relays are employed at sending end of each
In radial feeders, power supply flow only in one feeder. Reverse power instantaneous directional relays are
direction from source side to load side. Number of feeders used at the receiving end of each of each feeder which
can be connected in series for radial feeders. In these operates only for the power flows in the allowed direction by
feeders, protection can be done with the help of definite time the relay specifications.
relays or inverse time relays. Time grading is adjusted such
that the farther the relay from the generating system lesser is
the time of operation of the relay for protection.
In definite time relay protection, the time of operation is
not dependent on the fault current magnitude. Various
disadvantages of this type of protection is that the time lag
provided does not help in the circuit breaker being
efficient,this type of protection is only possible for radial
feeder systems and the already set values are to be changed
in the ocuurence of change in load. It is not suitable for long
transmission lines where there is a quick need of fault
correction.The supply could not continue to be reaching the
Fig 3: Time graded fault protection of parallel feeder
loads in the event of a fault.The major disadvantage of this
scheme is that if the number of sections increases,the time
operation of the realy at the source increases. As the fault
current is more if the faults happen near the source, the relay C. Protection of ring main feeder system
should operate based on the fault current magnitude and time In a ring main feeder system,all power stations
should not be fixed as that may lead to damaging of the and sub stations are interconnected by alternate routes
system if fault occurs near the source. which in turn forms a closed ring. In case of damage
to any section of the ring ,that section may be
disconected for repairs and power will be supplied
from both end of the ring which in turn maintains
continuity of supply in the system.
Two lines leaving the generator station are non-
directional relays. Reverse power or directional relays are
placed on both sides of each substation in the ring main
system. When a fault occurs then the generating system side
never breaks out of the circuit but the relay on the nearest
substation operates and the rest of the system continues to
supply power.

Fig 2: Definite type time graded fault protection

In inverse time relay protection IDMT relays are used to

get the required characteristics.In this protection,time of
operation is invesely proportional to fault current. The
drawback as we discussed just in definite time over current
protection of transmission line, can easily be overcome by
using inverse time relays. In inverse relay the time of
operation is inversely proportional to fault current.
Fig 4: Protection of ring main feeder system

B. Parallel Feeder Protection

Current Graded Protection is another one of the non-unit
A load should be supplied from source by two or more type protection schemes. It can be used as a replacement or
feeders in parallel to maintain the stability of the power in complementary to time graded protection system. This
system and load sharing by the two feeder. In the case where type of protection can be mainly focussed at protection of
a fault occurs in a feeder then only that feeder is cut off and systems where impedance between two substations in
sufficient enough. This type of protection has the principle of phase faults, and phase-to-ground faults.. The distance
operation based on the short circuit current decreasing along protection is more efficient than overcurrent protection on
the line with the distance between the generation side and the various accounts with the predominant one being fast
fault position increasing. Current-graded systems normally response to fault occurrence to activate the circuit breaker
employ high-speed high-set overcurrent relays. Current and saving the system from breakdown or fatal losses. The
graded protection is however not recommended as it is the distance protection scheme does not need to be changed or
magnitude of fault current cannot be accurately determined at readjusted for minor changes in the system network. The
times and this protection scheme is not very ideal for the fault current magnitude allows high line loading. These
transient conditions.
protection schemes could be used as primary as well as
backup protection for faults.

Distance or Impedance Protection of feeder

In the relays we have discussed previously, the operation

of the relays is depended on either voltage or current of the
circuit to be protected. However, distance protection relays
the operation is dependent on the ratio of voltage and current
which is generally referred to as impedance of the
transmission line. The impedance is considered to be an
electrical measurement of distance along a transmission line.
Thus, distance relays are also called impedance relays. The
relay operates as a protector in the cases where is the ratio of
voltage and current i.e. impedance is lesser than a
predefined set value. The impedance relay works
corresponding to the ratio of voltage and current of the
circuit to be protected. There are two elements in the relay, Fig 5: Distance OR Impedance Protection
one of which produces a torque proportional to current and
the other produces a current proportional to the voltage TABLE I.
across the line. This torque produced proportional to voltage Philosophy of the three stepped distance
is balanced against the torque proportional to current. This protection
relay protection is also called voltage restrained overcurrent Purpose Reach
Operating Remarks
time
relay protection as the voltage torque is considered to be the Avoids loss of
negative restraining torque. 80 to 90% Instantaneous selectivity with
First Primary
of line (zero time protection of next zone
Step protection
When a fault occurs at any point, then the voltage section delay) in case of max. over-
decreases and the current increases drastically thus, reducing reach
Primary protection to
the voltage current ratio drastically which leads to the whole of the
impedance value going below the set limiting value. This Primary Remaining
Instantaneous considered line and
protection 20% of line
leads to activation of the relay and breaking of the circuit. If 2nd
of and 50% of
time and backup protection to
the fault is nearer to the potential transformer, measured step selective time adjacent line.(Shortest
remaining adjacent
interval adjoining line to
voltage is lesser, and if the fault is farther, measured voltage 20% line line
prevent loss of
is more. Hence, assuming constant fault impedance each selectivity)
value of the ratio of voltage and current measured from relay Line under
Full back-up
location comparable to the distance between the relaying Time in 2nd protection to adjacent
rd considerati
3 Backup step + line even in the case of
point and fault point along the line. Hence such protection is step protection
on and
Selective time maximum under-reach.
called the distance protection or impedance protection. Both adjacent
interval (Longest adjacent line
line
phase fault and ground fault can be protected by distance backup protection)
relays and are generally robust and swift in high speed
clearing of fault. This type of protection is independent of Table 1: Three stepped distance protection of transmission lines
change in generation capacity and the system configurations.
Thus, these distance relay protection schemes don’t require
long clearing times for the fault near the power sources that
might be the case with overcurrent relays if used for the
same purpose. Differential Protection of Transmission Lines

Reach is the distance of the transmission line up to which

the distance relay protects the line from faults. In over-reach Differential protection scheme requires the difference of
condition, the relay measured impedance is less than the incoming and outgoing current in the line.
actual fault impedance i.e. effective reach of relay increases.
In under-reach condition, the relay measured impedance is
more than actual fault impedance i.e. effective reach of the Pilot Relaying Schemes
relay decreases. Distance protection relay finds extreme
utility in protection of high voltage AC transmission lines These pilot relays fall under the category of unit protection
and distribution lines against three phase faults, phase-to- type. Some electrical quantities at the two ends of the
transmission line are compared and hence they require some receiver, coupling equipment, and line trap. As per the
sort of interconnecting between two ends of the particular normalized statistical data, 80% of the faults are transient in
transmission line. Such interconnecting channels are nature and are caused by breakdown of air surrounding
famously known as pilots. Generally three different types of insulators. The faults disappear themselves if supply is
channels are in use, namely the wire pilot, the carrier current briefly interrupted and the arc path is allowed to deionize.
pilot and the microwave pilot. Wire cables can be buried Circuit breaker re closure is done after a duration little over
private cables or private telephone lines used up to 30 km de-ionization time. Thus, in case of transient faults re closure
length lines. Carrier current pilot uses low voltage high helps to keep the down time to the system to minimum and
frequency signal (50 kHz-700 kHz) to transmit information increasing availability of supply. In HV/EHV systems, fast re
through the same high voltage line between the two ends of closure helps in improving the stability of the system. This is
the transmission lines. It is used for lines greater than 30 km because soon as the line is disconnected from the system, the
and are also called power line carriers. When the number of rotor angles of various generators start drifting apart and if
services requiring pilot channels exceeds the technical or they drift beyond the critical angle then the system would
economical capabilities of carrier current pilot9s then the lose stability. However, if the supply is restored by auto re
microwave pilot is used. Microwave pilot is a radio channel closure of the circuit breaker before the critical angle limit is
of very high frequency (450-10000 kHz). Highly directive reached, then the system can remain stable. Only one re
antennas are used to decrease the power requirement to less closure is allowed in most cases of EHV transmission as high
than one watt. Repeater stations are used after 40 to 60 km if fault MVA might destroy the circuit breaker. In low or
obstructions are there and after about 150 km in the planes. medium voltage regions, three to four re closures could be
done to clear the fault occurring by tree branches falling on
Wire pilot protection schemes where two wires are used to the line, etc. Three stepped distance protection does not meet
carry information signals from one end to another end of the the requirement of instantaneous and simultaneous tripping
protected transmission line. For short lines up to 30 km wire of circuit breakers on both ends of the line.
pilot schemes are less expensive than carrier current schemes
because terminal equipment are simpler and cheaper. The
distance is usually limited due to the attenuation of the signal
caused by disturbed capacitance and series resistance rather The carrier current receiver receives the carrier current
from the transmitter at the distant end of the line. The
than cost. Only two wires are used to carry information
signals from one end to the other end to minimise costs. receiver converts the received carrier current into a DC
voltage that can be used in a relay or other circuit that
Translay scheme is a wire pilot scheme used for loop performs any desired function. The voltage is zero when the
resistance up to 800 ohm. It is called “Translay” because it carrier current, is not being received. Line trap is inserted
embodies the transformer features. The voltage balance or between the bus-bar and connection of coupling capacitor to
opposition is between the voltages induced in the secondary the line. It is a parallel LC network tuned to resonance at the
coil of the relay and not between the secondary lines of the high frequency. The traps restrict the carrier current to the
current transformers. The current transformer is required to unprotected section so as to avoid interference with or the
only supply the primary relay coils which are closed. Current other adjacent carrier current channels. It also avoids the loss
transformers can be made of normal design without any ait of the carrier current signal to the adjoining power circuit.
gaps. This permits scheme to be used for feeder of any The coupling capacitor connects the high-frequency
voltage. Solkor scheme is used for loop resistance up to 400 equipment to one of the line conductors and simultaneously
ohm. Even this is a balanced voltage protection scheme. separate the power equipment from the high power line
Saturated summations transformers are used which saturates voltage. The normal current will be able to flow only through
at one and a half times the secondary current transformer the line conductor, while the high current carrier current will
rating for earth fault. These relays are of rotatory moving circulate over the line conductor fitted with the high-
iron type. At fault currents below saturation, the output from frequency traps, through the trap capacitor and the ground
the summation transformer is sinusoidal and the system is
purely differential taking into account both the magnitude
and the phase angle of primary currents at the two ends of the Carrier Aided Distance Protection of Transmission Lines
line. At higher currents when the saturation takes place, the
output waveform is distorted and peaky, and the comparison The main disadvantage of unit protection is that they cannot
is on the basis of phase angle. The capacitor across the provide backup protection to adjacent line section. Distance
operating coil is used to tune in the pilots to fundamental protection can provide backup protection but it does not
frequency. Half-wave comparison scheme uses circulating provide high speed protection to whole section of the
current scheme. Relay has only operating coil and no protected line and the circuit breaker will not trip
restraining coil. The rectifiers are connected so as to allow simultaneously for the faults at 20% of both ends of the line.
the current through the operating coil only during an internal So by combining the distance protection with carrier
fault. protection scheme we can provide instantaneous tripping for
faults throughout the length of the transmission line and also
get backup protection simultaneously.
Carrier Aided Protection of Transmission Lines
The carrier aided protection scheme can be used in practice
as transfer trip, permissive inter trip, carrier acceleration,
carrier blocking or carrier pre acceleration. The directional
In the carrier current protection schemes, the phase angle of comparison carrier-pilot relay schemes presently employed
the current at the two phases of the line are compared instead are built around standard three-zone step-type distance
of the actual current and the phase difference decides if the relays. This speeds up fault clearance for internal zone 2
occurring fault is internal or external. This scheme is faults. The carrier channel is employed either for
generally implied in the protection of long transmission lines. transmission of a stabilizing signal preventing tripping of a
The main elements of the carrier channel are a transmitter, remote circuit breaker in the event of a local external zone 2
fault, or for providing a tripping signal in the event of an
internal zone 2 fault. [8]

. [9]
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