1 Potentials for spheres

1.1 Point charge outside a grounded conducting sphere

We place image charges inside the grounded (Φ = 0) sphere. By symmetry these must be cylindrically
symmetric. But we guess that we can do it with a single charge, which then must lie along the vector
pointing to the outside charge q. Let the coordinates be as in Jackson. Then the potential from q and its
image q � is � �
1 q q�
Φ (x) = +
4πε0 |xn − yn� | |xn − y � n� |
On the spherical boundary, where x = a, we must have zero potential for all n,
� �
1 q q�
0 = +
4πε0 |an − yn� | |an − y � n� |
q q�
0 = � +�
a2 + y 2 − 2ayn · n� a2 + y �2 − 2ay � n · n�
Here it is clear that q and q � must have opposite signs. Now, squaring and cross-multiplying,
� � � �
q 2 a2 + y �2 − 2ay � n · n� = q �2 a2 + y 2 − 2ayn · n�
� � � �
q 2 a2 + y �2 − 2q 2 ay � n · n� = q �2 a2 + y 2 − 2q �2 ayn · n�
For this to hold for all n, the n · n� terms must match as well, so we must satisfy two relations,
2q 2 ay � n · n� = 2q �2 ayn · n�
� � � �
q 2 a2 + y �2 = q �2 a2 + y 2
From the first, we see that
y�
q �2 = q2
y
Substititing into the second equation gives
� � y� � 2 �
q 2 a2 + y �2 = q2 a + y2
y
� 2 �
a + y2
a2 + y �2 = y �
y
� 2 �
a + y2
�2
y −y �
+ a2 = 0
y
and solving the quadratic we find
 �� 
�2
1  a2 + y 2 a2 + y 2
y �
= ± − 4a2 
2 y y
� � �
1 2
= a + y ± (a + y ) − 4a y
2 2 2 2 2 2
2y
� � �
1 2
= a + y ± (a − y )
2 2 2 2
2y
1 � 2 � ��
= a + y 2 ± a2 − y 2
2y
� 2
a
= y
y

1
The second solution is not allowed because this would place q � outside of the sphere. Therefore, we have

a2
y� =
y
a
q� = −q
y
The potential is therefore,
 
q  1 a
Φ (x) = − �� �
4πε0 |xn − yn | y �xn −
� a2 � �
y n �

We easily check that when x = an,

 
q  1 a
Φ (an) = − � �
4πε0 |an − yn� | y ��an − a2 n� ��
y
 
q  1 a 
= � − �
4πε0 a2 + y 2 − 2ayn · n� 4 3
y a2 + ay2 − 2ay n · n�
� �
q 1 1
= � −� =0
4πε0 a2 + y 2 − 2ayn · n� y 2 + a2 − 2ayn · n�

1.2 Charge density on the surface of the sphere

Consider properties of this solution. We know that
∂Φ σ
=−
∂n ε0
so we can compute the surface charge density on the sphere,
∂Φ
σ = −ε0
∂n �
∂Φ ��
= −ε0
∂x �x=a
 �
�
q ∂  1 a �
�
= −ε0 � − � �
4πε0 ∂x x + y − 2xyn · n
2 2 � 2 4
y x2 − 2ay x n · n� + ay2 �
x=a
 � � �
� � 2 �
q 1  2x − 2yn · n� a 2x − y n · n
2a �
�
�
= − −  − � �3/2 ��
4π 2 (x2 + y 2 − 2xyn · n� )
3/2
2a2 x a4
y x − y n · n + y2
2 � �
x=a
 
3
q  a − yn · n� a2 − ay n · n� 
=  − � �3/2 
4π (a2 + y 2 − 2ayn · n� )3/2 3 4
y a2 − 2ay n · n� + ay2
� �
q a − yn · n� a − ay n · n�
= −
4π (a2 + y 2 − 2ayn · n� )3/2 (y 2 − 2ayn · n� + a2 )
3/2

2
Try again
� � ��
∂Φ �� ∂ 1 q q� �
�
σ = −ε0 � = −ε0 +
∂x x=a ∂x 4πε0 |xn − yn | |xn − y n | �x=a
� � �
 �
�
q ∂  1 a �
�
= − � − � �
4π ∂x x2 + y 2 − 2xyn · n� 4 2
y x2 + ay2 − 2ay x n · n� �
� � � x=a
2a2 �
1 q 2x − 2yn · n� a 2x − y n · n � �
�
= − � � �
2 4π (x2 + y 2 − 2xyn · n� )3/2 4 2
3/2 �
y x2 + ay2 − 2ay x n · n� �
x=a
 � � 
a2
q  a − yn · n� ay a − y n · n
3 �

= − 
4π (a2 + y 2 − 2ayn · n� ) 3/2
ya3 (y 2 + a2 − 2ayn · n� )
3/2

� �
ay 2
q a − yn · n� 2 − yn · n �
= − a
4π (a2 + y 2 − 2ayn · n� )3/2 (y 2 + a2 − 2ayn · n� )
3/2
� �
aq y2 � 2 �−3/2
= 1− 2 a + y 2 − 2ayn · n�
4π a

Therefore, the charge density on the sphere is

� �
aq y2 � 2 �−3/2
σ = 1− 2 a + y 2 − 2ayn · n�
4π a
� � � �−3/2
aq y 2
a2 1 a2 2a
σ = − 1− 2 1+ 2 − n·n �
4π a2 y y3 y y
� �� �−3/2
q a 2
a 2
2a
σ = − 1− 2 1+ 2 − n·n �
4πay y y y

To find the total charge induced on the sphere, we integrate this over the whole sphere. If we write n · n� =
cos γ there is no reason not to choose the direction of n� to be along the z-axis so that γ = θ. Then the
integral becomes
ˆ 2π ˆ π
Q = dϕ σa2 sin θdθ
0 0
� � ˆ 2π ˆ π� �−3/2
qa 2
a2 a2 2a
= − 1− 2 dϕ 1 + 2 − n · n� sin θdθ
4πay y 0 0 y y
� �ˆ 1 � �−3/2
qa a2 a2 2a
= − 1− 2 1+ 2 − ξ dξ
2y y −1 y y

3
where we have set ξ = cos θ. Then we need
� �−3/2 � �−1/2 ��1
1
a2 2a y a2 2a
ˆ
�
1+ 2 − ξ dξ = 1+ 2 − ξ �
−1 y y a y y �
−1
� �−1/2 � �−1/2
y a 2
2a y a2 2a
= 1+ 2 − − 1+ 2 +
a y y a y y
� �
y 1 1
= −
a 1 − ay 1 + ay
2
= 2
1 − ay2

Therefore,
� �
qa a2 2
Q = − 1−
2y y2 2
1 − ay2
qa
= −
y
= q �

This result may be seen immediately using Gauss’s law.

1.3 Conducting sphere in a uniform electric field

We can solve the problem of a conducting sphere in a uniform electric field by writing the uniform field as a
limit of a pair of opposite charges. If we have charges −Q, Q located at kd and −kd, respectively then their
potential is given by
� �
1 Q Q
Φ (x) = −
4πε0 |x + dk| |x − dk|
� �
1 Q Q
= √ −√
4πε0 x2 + d2 + 2dz x2 + d2 − 2dz
Q
Consider the limit of this potential as both d → ∞ and Q → ∞, with λ ≡ d2 held constant. Then the
limiting potential is
� �
1 Q Q
Φ (x) = lim √ −√
4πε0 d,Q x2 + d2 + 2dz x2 + d2 − 2dz
 
1 Q Q
= lim  � − � 
4πε0 d,Q d 1 + x2 + 2z 2
d 1 + x − 2z
d2 d d2 d
� � � � ��
1 Q x z Q2
x2 z
= lim 1 − 2 − + ... − 1− + + ...
4πε0 d,Q d 2d d d 2d2 d
� �
1 Q 2z
= lim − − ...
4πε0 d,Q d d
λz
= −
2πε0
The resulting electric field is
λ
E = −∇Φ = k
2πε0

4
so we choose λ = 2πε0 E0 to get the uniform field E = E0 k.
Now consider what happens when we insert the conducting sphere. We need to maintain the potential
constant on the spherical surface. Since we are interested in the external field, we may include two image
charges in the interior of the sphere, with the positions and magnitudes of the charges given by the results
a2
of the previous subsections. Therefore, we place a charge Q� = − Qa d at −k d and a second image charge
a2
Q� = Qad at k d . Now, for each value of d and Q, the sphere remains at constant potential.
The potential due to all four charges is now
� �
1 Q aQ aQ Q
Φ (x) = − � �+ � �−
4πε0 |x + dk| d �x + ad2 k� d �x − ad2 k� |x − dk|
 
1  Q aQ aQ Q 
= √ − � + � −√
4πε0 x2 + d2 + 2dz d x +
2 a4
+ 2a2
z d x +
2 a4
− 2a2
z x2 + d2 − 2dz
d2 d d2 d

and we take the same limit, with λ = dQ2 = 2πε0 E0 . The first and fourth terms give the uniform field as
before, so
� �
1 Q aQ aQ Q
Φ (x) = lim − � �+ � �−
4πε0 d,Q |x + dk| d �x + ad2 k� d �x − ad2 k� |x − dk|
� �
1 aQ aQ
= −E0 z + lim − � �+ � �
4πε0 d,Q 2 2
d �x + ad k� d �x − ad k�
 
aQ d d
= −E0 z + lim − � + � 
4πε0 d2 d,Q r 1+ a4
+ 2a2
z r 1+ a4 2
− 2a z
d2 r 2 dr 2 d2 r 2 dr 2
� � � � ��
1 d a a 4
d a2
a2 4
= −E0 z + aE0 lim − 1 − 2 2 − 2z + 1 − 2 2 + 2z
2 d,Q r 2d r dr r 2d r dr
� 2 �
1 d a a2
1 2a 2
= −E0 z + aE0 lim z + 2 z = −E0 z + aE0 3 z
2 d,Q r dr2 dr 2 r
� 3
�
a
= − 1 − 3 E0 r cos θ
r

This has the correct limit, E0 z, as r → ∞.

2 Green function for a sphere

The general electrostatic problem for fields exterior to a sphere may be solved using the potential above and
the Green function approach. Recall that the Green function for Dirichlet boundary conditions is required
to satisfy
∇2 G (x, x� ) = −4πδ 3 (x − x� )
and
G (x, x� )|S = 0
on the boundary S. But the potential for a single charge outside a grounded conducting sphere,
 
q  1 a
Φ (x) = − � �
4πε0 |xn − yn� | y ��xn − a2 n� ��
y

5
satisfies
� � ��
q a a2
−∇2 Φ (x) = δ 3 (xn − yn� ) − δ 3 xn − n�
ε0 y y
which reduces outside the sphere to
q 3
−∇2 Φ (x) = δ (xn − yn� )
ε0
since the second delta function is only nonzero inside the sphere.
This potential also satisfies the necessary boundary condition, so we have G (x, x� ) = q Φ,
4πε0

1 a
G (x, x� ) = − � �
|xn − x� n� | x� �xn − ax2� n� �
1 a
= − � �
|x − x | x x − xa�22 x� �
� � �
1 a
= √ − �
x + x − 2xx� n · n�
2 �2
x� x2 + a4 2a2 x
x�2 − x� n · n�

with
� �
∂G (x, x� ) �� ∂G (x, x� ) ��
� = − � �
∂n� x� =a ∂x� x =a
� ��
∂ 1 a �
�
= − √ −√
∂x� x + x − 2xx n · n
2 �2 � � x x + a − 2a xx n · n �x� =a
2 �2 4 2 � �
� �� � � ��
�
1 2x� − 2xn · n� a 2x2 x� − 2a2 xn · n� �
= − − − �
2 (x + x − 2xx n · n )
2 �2 � � 3/2
(x x + a − 2a xx n · n )
2 �2 4 2 � � 3/2 �
x� =a
� 2 �
a − xn · n � a ax − a xn · n 2 �
= 3/2
− 3/2
(x + a − 2axn · n )
2 2 � (a x2 + a4 − 2a3 xn · n� )
2
� �
a − xn · n� a2 x2 − axn · n�
= 3/2
− 3/2
(x2 + a2 − 2axn · n� ) a3 (x2 + a2 − 2axn · n� )
� �
1 1 2
= 3/2
a − xn · n �
− x + xn · n �
(x2 + a2 − 2axn · n� ) a
� 2
�
a x
= 3/2
1− 2
(x + a − 2axn · n )
2 2 � a
x2 − a2
= − 3/2
a (x2 + a2 − 2axn · n� )

The solution to the general Dirichlet problem, in which we are given a charge density ρ (x� ) in the region
outside a sphere of radius a, with the potential Φ (an� ) specified on the surface of the sphere. The the
potential everywhere outside the sphere, V , is given by
1 1 ∂G (x, x� ) 2 �
ˆ ˛
Φ (x) = ρ (x� ) G (x, x� ) d3 x� − Φ (an� ) d x
4πε0 V 4π S ∂n�
 
1 1 a 1 x2 − a2
ˆ ˛
�  
Φ (x) = ρ (x ) G (x, x )
�
− � � d 3 �
x + Φ (an�
) d2 x�
4πε0 V |x − x� | x� ��x − a22 x� �� 4π S a (x2 + a2 − 2axn · n� )
3/2
x;