Math0022

MATH 1130 1 Mathematics

Discretefor Science
Structures

Chapter III – Combinatorics

Permutations and Combinations

The Multiplication Principle

Suppose n choices must be made, with m1 ways to make choice 1, and for each of these ways, m2
ways to make choice 2, and so on, with mn ways to make choice n. Then there are
m1 ⋅ m2 ⋅ L ⋅ mn different ways to make the entire sequence of choices.

Factorial Notation
For any natural number n,

n ! = n ( n − 1)( n − 2 ) L 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅1 .

Also, 0! = 1 .

Permutations
A permutation of r (where r ≥ 1 ) elements from a set of n elements is any specific ordering or
arrangement, without repetition, of the r elements. Each rearrangement of the r elements is a
different permutation. The number of permutations of n things taken r at a time (with r ≤ n ) is
written

P ( n, r ) or Prn .

If P ( n, r ) (where r ≤ n ) is the number of permutations of n elements taken r at a time, then

n!
P ( n, r ) = .
( n − r )!

Remark: Pnn = n!

1 Zhonghua Qiao
Reference: K.H. Rosen, Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications, 5th Edition, McGraw-Hill, 2003. Daricks Chan
MATH 1130 2 Discrete Structures
Math0022 Mathematics for Science

Examples

I) Three married couples have bought six seats in a row for a performance of a musical comedy.
(a) In how many ways can they be seated?
6!= 720

(b) In how many ways can they be seated if each couple is to sit together with the husband to the
left of his wife?
3!= 6

(c) In how many ways can they be seated if each couple is to sit together?
3!×2!×2!×2!= 48

(d) In how many ways can they be seated if all the men are to sit together and all the women are
to sit together?
2!×3!×3!= 72

II) In how many ways can 8 people A, B, C, D, E, F, G and H be seated in a row if

(a) there are no restrictions on seating arrangement;
8!= 40320

(b) persons A and B must not sit next to each other;

8!−7!2!= 30240

III) In how many ways can six coupons for free lunches at different restaurants be distributed among
10 students
(a) if none is to receive more than one coupon;

P610 = 151200

(b) if there is no restriction on the number of coupons that each student can receive?
10 6 = 1000000

Remark: The number of r-permutations of a set of n objects with repetition allowed is n r .

Reference: K.H. Rosen, Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications, 52th Edition, McGraw-Hill, 2003. Zhonghua
Daricks Chan Qiao
MATH 1130 3 Discrete Structures

Combinations
A combination of r (where r ≥ 1 ) elements from a set of n elements is a subset of r elements without
regard to order.
If C (n, r ) (or Crn ) denotes the number of combinations of n elements taken r at a time, where r ≤ n ,
then
n!
C rn = .
(n − r )!r!

Remark: C nn = 1 and C rn = C nn− r .

http://www.omegamath.com/Data/d2.2.html

Example

For betting on the Mark Six draw,

(a) how many single entries can be split from an 8-number multiple entry?

C68 = 28

(b) how many single entries can be split from a 3-banker-and-7-leg-number entry?

C37 = 35

Remark: There are C rn + r −1 combinations of r elements from a set of n elements when repetition of
elements is allowed.

Example

Suppose there are 1 red ball, 1 blue ball and 1 green ball in a box. Five students are invited to come
out one by one to draw a ball from the box and put it back. How many combinations of colors are
possible? (Note: “GRBBR” and “RBRGB” are regarded as the same combination.)

C53+ 5−1 = C57 = 21

Reference: K.H. Rosen, Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications, 53

th
Edition, McGraw-Hill, 2003. Zhonghua Qiao
Daricks Chan
MATH 1130 4 Discrete Structures

Permutations with Indistinguishable Objects

Theorem The number of different permutations of n objects, where there are n1

indistinguishable objects of type 1, n2 indistinguishable objects of type 2,…, and nk

n!
indistinguishable objects of type k, is .
n1!n2 !L nk !

Examples

I) How many strings can be made by reordering the letters of the word “daricks”?

P77 = 7!= 5040

II) How many strings can be made by reordering the letters of the word “darickschan”?
11! 11!
= = 9979200
1!×2!×1!×1!×2!×1!×1!×1!×1! 2!2!

III) How many strings can be made by reordering the letters of the word “darickswaihongchan”?
18!
= 66691392768000
3!×2!×2!×2!×2!

Theorem The number of ways to distribute n distinguishable objects into k distinguishable boxes
n!
so that ni objects are placed into box i, i = 1,2,K, k , equals
n1!n2 !L nk !

Examples

I) In a class of 20 students, 5 of them will get Grade A, 10 of them Grade B, 3 of them Grade C, and
2 will be fail. How many grade distributions are possible among 20 students?
20!
= 465585120
5!10!3!2!

II) How many ways can we distribute a standard deck of 52 playing cards into 4 sets of 13 cards
each?
52!
= 53644737765488792839237440000 (very large!!!)
13!13!13!13!

4 5th Edition, McGraw-Hill, 2003.

Reference: K.H. Rosen, Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications, Zhonghua Qiao
Daricks Chan
MATH 1130 5 Discrete Structures

The Pigeonhole Principle

Suppose that a flock of pigeons flies into a set of pigeonholes to roost. The pigeonhole principle
states that if there are more pigeons than pigeonholes, then there must be at least one pigeonhole with
at least two pigeons in it.

Theorem [The Pigeonhole Principle] If k + 1 or more objects are placed into k boxes, then there
is at least on box containing two or more of the objects.

Proof Suppose contrary that there is at most 1 object in each box. The total number of objects in
the k boxes should be less than or equal to k.

Example

If every student in a class will receive a grade from A to E, and there are 6 students in the class, then
there should be at least 2 students will receive the same grade.

Theorem [The Generalized Pigeonhole Principle] If N objects are placed into k boxes, then there
is at least one box containing at least ⎡N k ⎤ objects.

Proof Suppose contrary that all boxes are containing at most ⎡N k ⎤ − 1 objects. Then, the total
⎛⎡N ⎤ ⎞ ⎛⎛ N ⎞ ⎞
number of objects is at most ⎜⎜ ⎢ ⎥ − 1⎟⎟ × k < ⎜⎜ ⎜ + 1⎟ − 1⎟⎟ × k < N .
⎝⎢ k ⎥ ⎠ ⎝⎝ k ⎠ ⎠

Example

I) How many cards must be selected from a standard deck of 52 cards to guarantee that at least three
cards of the same suit are chosen?
⎡N ⎤ N
⎢ 4 ⎥ ≥ 3 ⇒ 4 > 2 ⇒ N > 8 ; therefore the least N is 9.
⎢ ⎥

II) How many must be selected to guarantee that at least three hearts are selected?
42

5 Zhonghua Qiao
Reference: K.H. Rosen, Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications, 5th Edition, McGraw-Hill, 2003. Daricks Chan