Rational Use of Energy

Victor Kaiser

11.1 Introduction
The word “energy” is commonly used in everyday life in a large number of sec-
tors and covers very diverse concepts such as work, heat, a cost, etc. Applied
to technical and industrial fields, the definition and use of the word will be
restricted, but a wide variety of applications remain. The technician will mon-
itor the flow of energy utilized in machines and equipment in a variety of forms
from electricity to hot water. From another standpoint, the operator will be
concerned with the quantities and costs of the two or three energy carriers he
buys, electricity and fuels. The relationship between technical activity and the
economic result is not self-evident.
Today after two oil price shocks and dramatic price fluctuations, the cost
of all commercial energy carriers has come back down to low levels in pro-
cessing industry balance sheets. Should it therefore be ignored?
The short introduction to rational management and use of energy will show
that its function as a “vital force” is essential to satisfactory operation inde-
pendently of its purchase price. A good understanding of energy implementa-
tion and the technology used are crucial for continued quality production.
Energy also has a predominant impact on the natural environment and the
operator would have t o continue t o be concerned with it if only for this rea-
son.

11.2 Energy Accounting

A production plant imports energy in various forms, for example fuels and
electricity, and can at the same time export surplus energy in the form of com-
bustible residues, steam and sometimes even electricity. In a simplistic
694 Chaoter 1 7 RATIONAL USE OF ENERGY

approach, the cost of energy will be taken into account comprehensively on

the basis of bills paid for energy carriers purchased. The overall cost may be
broken down and allocated to the products exiting several units intercon-
nected on electricity or steam networks. This approach is quite correct from
an accounting standpoint in order to establish an earnings-expenditures finan-
cial balance sheet.
However, from a technical standpoint this type of procedure is totally
unsuitable, for it leaves the following questions pending:
What is the relative weight of energy users in the process and what form
of energy do they receive?
If primary energy is converted during operations in order to be dis-
tributed in the form of steam or hot oil, what additional costs should be
taken into account?
What technical and economic advantage will the use of a different form
of energy afford if alternatives exist?
Are there any seasonal variations in energy consumption and/or cost?
To better control energy costs, “energy accounting” must be set up on a
technical basis upstream from financial accounting.
“There is no knowledge without measurement” is self-evident but needs to
be remembered, since the measurement of energy fluids is often inaccurate in
the field. Considerable investment has been made to better measure con-
sumption of individual users ever since the first oil price shock. It can even be
stated that the first energy saving is accomplished by installing a meter [ 11.
However, all measuring elements require maintenance and.. . processing of the
information they produce: two cost factors that must be taken into account in
a development plan for a production unit. Industrial data processing and dis-
tributed control systems have dealt with the second factor and have trans-
ferred its cost to the “real time supervision” item. Thus a major obstacle to
applying energy accounting has disappeared.
The more fine-tuned the analysis, the more measuring sensors there are
and the larger the mass of data to be processed. Obviously, some trade-off is
necessary to adapt the scope of the analysis to the desired aim. Therefore, in
setting up an energy accounting system, it is advisable to start with an evalu-
ation of consumers and their classification according to the type of energy
used and the technology implemented.
A process flow scheme labelled with all the energy exchanges, by inputs at
battery limits or inside a process by exchanges between streams, will be the
basis for a recapitulative table (see Table 11.1). The table gives an overview of
all users by general categories. It is the starting point for examining the corre-
lation between technology and the desired aim, by taking each user into
account separately.
The total of all energy inputs should be equal to the sum of outputs:
Input: 25.54 + 9.70 + 2.88 = 38.12
output: = 45.20
 Chapter I 1 USE OF ENERGY 695
RATIONAL

Electricity
xternal nternal Steam %charged
Furnace ~

heat heat heating heat

nnv)
~

Process furnaces 25.54 (*)

Heat exchange:
External flows -
Internal flows 214.07
Steam -
Cooling
waterfair 45.20
Machines:
Compressors 2.34 0.65
Turbines
Pumps 0.54 0.15
Total machines 2.88 0.80
Reactors (12.85)
Process steam 9.70
Others
Total 25.54 (12.85) 214.07 9.70 45.20 2.88 0.80
~

* Absorbed heat

1 Table
1
l 11 Overview of energy users. Unit of measurement: GJ/h.

This is true provided the study is exhaustive! To be complete, the reactor

exothermic energy (12.85) and the net difference between feed and product
enthalpies must be added to the input items. Thus omissions or measurement
inaccuracies and errors can be detected. It is often necessary to reconcile data
in order to make the measured values more coherent. Accordingly, a mathe-
matical model of the process is established and the measured values are com-
pared with the calculated ones. Simulation software is available for petroleum
and petrochemical processes.
The largest item in the table should be noted: the heat exchanged inter-
nally, 214.07 GJ/h. This item totally escapes analysis, it is “non-commercial”
energy but is in no way without importance. Section 11.4will show how to inte-
grate it into a complete analytical balance.
An accounting plan can be set up on these bases to throw some light on the
different facets of energy use. There are four types of balances:
the technical balance based on enthalpy,
the physical balance based on energy type,
the primary energy balance based on equivalent fuel,
the monetary balance based on monetary cost.
696 Chaoter 1 1 RATIONAL USE OF ENERGY

a . Balance No. I: the Technical Balance

This balance must be established in consistent units, for example GJ/h, for all
the energy forms. In industrial practice, the observation period is 24 hours, in
accordance with production balances. The values come from the procedure
mentioned in relation to Table 11.1,The balance sheet, Table 11.2, clearly iden-
tifies the users (debit side) and the energy sources (asset side). It has sub-
tables for each form of energy: fuel, steam (by type of network), etc. Note that
each sub-table includes a term PE @er equatio), that indicates the difference
between the total of all the asset-side elements and the total of the same debit-
side elements. The PE item measures the deviation due to measurements and
can be positive or negative. In any case it must be monitored to detect any
drift or measurement errors (sensors, corrections, etc.).
The steam balance sheet shows that an energy flow always includes an
individual input/output balance. The supplied steam enthalpy will be credited
on the basis of a standard return condensate enthalpy, defined for all the units,
by the steam plant. If the condensates are returned at another temperature
(enthalpy), it should be accounted for in the table by the value “C”. Thus a gen-
uine enthalpy balance is assured and allows the overall balance zero to be ver-
ified. The subsequent balances will show how the standard value is recovered
to yield the monetary balance.
The electricity input will be added to the balance in GJ/h units to comply
with measurement unit uniformity.
The total of all the sub-totals represents the consolidated balance of the
unit under study with respect to energy supply and consumption. In contrast
with the complete enthalpy balance, the mass flow and discharges to the envi-
ronment (water/air) are not included.
If the mass flow enthalpy balance is considered important for a particular
process, a page concerning the feed/products balance will be added under the
consolidated balance. The feed/products balance will be deduced from the
material balance established for the same period and completed by the spe-
cific enthalpies relative to the temperatures that are actually measured. This
balance can prove useful for crude distillation, where the difference between
the product and feed enthalpies may undergo considerable daily or seasonal
variations in relation to the processing energy input.
Table 11.2 is an analytical accounting of the energy input and gives the fol-
lowing information:
an analysis of users by importance and energy type,
day by day consumption follow up,
follow up of unidentified losses, PET.
The grand total T is a guideline value expressing the total energy imple-
mented, whatever the particular form of the energy used. It can yield a specific
value per unit of mass of product or initial feed, by comparing the total Twith
the amount of product during the same period of time. It is an unsatisfactory
performance index since the value T does not express either the quality or the
 Chapter 11. RATIONAL USE OF ENERGY 697

Fuels

Users Fuels

Furnace A
heat absorbed 25.54 Heavy fuel oil 35.00
Stack losses 3.46 GaS 95.00
Total A 29.00 Residues 5.00

Total furnaces 130.00

For balance PE, = 5.00
Total 135.00 Total fuels 135.00
Total stack 16.00

Medium pressure steam

Resources

Exchanger A
I 32.00
Input steam
Return condensates
38.00

Total exchanger
For balance
Total

Electricity

USerS Fuels

Sub-station A Meter 1 11.00

User list etc.

Total A 10.80

Total Substation 10.80

For balance PEE = 0.20
Total 11.00 11.00
698 Chapter 11. RATIONAL USE OF ENERGY

I Recapitulation

Users GJP) Fuels (GJP

Furnaces 130.00 Fuels 135.01
(stack losses) (16.00)
MP steam 32.00 MP steam 32.51
Electricity 10.80 Electricity 11.01
Total users 172.80
For balance PET= 5.70
Grand total 178.50 Grand total 178.51

outputs GJP) Inputs

Residue gas 15.0 Gas oil 3 500.0

Processed gas oil 3 550.0 Hydrogen 20.0
Gasoline 50.0
Total out 3 165.0
Net - 95.0

Grand total 3 520.0 3 520.0

-
Table
11.2 Technical balance (continued).

monetary value of the energy used. However, this technical balance is a

valuable way of checking the validity of the measurements and enthalpy bases
used.

b. Balance No. 2: Physical Energy Sources

This balance includes the same values a s balance No. 1 on the debit side and
exactly the same presentation can be used. Table 11.3 shows the equivalent of
the consolidated balance with numerical values.
On the credit side are the measured physical quantities of each energy car-
rier, for example:
fuels (kg/h, m3/h), etc.,
steam (kg/h, t/h),
electricity (kw), etc.
For each physical energy source the following are listed: the unit of mea-
surement, the unit energy content, the quantity of units supplied and the
energy flow expressed in GJ/h (by multiplying the unit content by the quan-
 Resources and quantities
Users
Products Unit Value Quantity GJP)
Furnaces:
Absorbed 59.0 Fuel oil 41 000 1000 41.0
Stack 10.0 Gas 43 000 349 15.0
Residue gas 45 000 333 15.0
Total 69.0 Total 71.0

Heat exchangers:
HP network 22.5 HP steam 2 200 10000 22.0
MP network 20.5 MP setam 2 100 10000 21.0
LP network 18.0 LP steam 2 000 10000 20.0
Total 61.0 Total 63.0
Heating 10.0 Hot oil 100 100000 10.0
Eectricity 3.6 Meters 3 600 1000 3.6
For balance PE = 4.0
Grand total 147.6 Grand total 147.6

Table
Physical energy sources.
700 Chaoter 1 1 RATIONAL USE OF ENERGY

tity). This energy flow value should be identical t o the one in Table 11.2, which
would indicate an enthalpy value effectively supplied to the process, identified
here by a physical measurement point. Sub-tables 11.2 will generally come
from process modelling on the debit side, in order to properly analyze the indi-
vidual users.
Standard energy content values could be used on the credit side if deemed
advantageous in the particular context of a site. Thus values of energy sup-
plied from the energy production plant would be generated. The balance dif-
ferences PE could then be broken down into two items:
PET from Table 11.2
PES expressing the standardization difference
PE = PET + PEs total balance difference
The physical balance clearly shows the energy content of each energy car-
rier.

c. Balance No. 3: Primary Energy Sources

The two previous balances focus on processing plant reality. In actual practice
however, energy and fuel are originally commercial products purchased at a
market price. They are primary energy sources. The refinery buys physical
energy and pays for it in monetary units.
In contrast, the steam distributed inside the refinery is ordinarily produced
in its own energy/steam plant. The boilers that produce it use commercial
fuels and sometimes internal process residues. Consequently, the quantity of
fuel oil required to produce a ton of steam can be defined and expressed in kJ
of fuel per ton of steam. A ton of steam can then be said t o contain x kJ of pri-
mary energy. In this particular case of fuel, such a definition of energy content
links the energy distributed to the original energy form and also involves the
operating balance of the energy production plant.
Electric power is generally supplied by the national grid outside the refin-
ery and comes from a variety of physical sources such a s hydro, nuclear or
thermal power plants. In an economic region such as the European
Community, a standard primary energy content is used for economic studies,
for example 9300 kJ/kWh. A thermal power station with an overall efficiency of
30% would be credited with 3600/0.3 = 12000 kJ/kWh. It is advisable to use a
standard value in order to assure uniform comparisons. The calculation of
energy content will be dealt with in Section 11.3.
The refinery can utilize fuels from process residues, which are entirely out-
side the financial accounting of purchases. It is very important to include them
in energy accounting. This can be done in two ways:

1. The process residue is assigned t h e primary energy content of the fuel it

replaces. Attention must be paid t o the technical reality, taking the real
replacement value into account, including the effect on excess air.
Generally speaking, residues need more excess air than commercial fuel
oil, but the contrary can be true if the fuel is gaseous.
 Chapter I 1 USE OF ENERGY 701
RATIONAL

2. The primary energy content is set at a zero value. This can be justified if
the fuel is considered as already accounted for in the purchase of feed-
stocks. In this approach, energy consumption works out undervalued
and finally leads to an energy cost equal to the cost resulting from exter-
nal billing. Ultimately, even a negative primary energy content can be
assigned to illustrate the fact that not using the residue would have led
to additional costs incurred to dispose of it.

From balance No. 2 to balance No. 3, from physical values to primary

energy values, the purely technical base is left behind to enter the commercial
system.
Table 11.4 shows the corresponding balance. Here the gaseous fuel has
been valued at 1 GJ of primary energy content for 1 GJ of real low heating value
(LHV). The decision can be different in order to suggest a preference for one
choice of fuel or another.
Example 11. I : A residue gas with the following characteristics is used:

I LHV
(kJ/k@
~ Thermal
efficiency I
Residual gas
Reference fuel 41 000
45000 I 89
82

The primary energy content of the residue gas is:

EG = 45000 x 0.89/0.82 = 48841
A kilogram of residue gas replaces FL kg of reference fuel:
FL = 48841/41000 = 1.19
EG is the value included in Table 11.4.

d. Balance No. 4: Monetary Values

At the end of the day the operator wants to know the energy cost expressed in
monetary value. This cost can be determined from balance No. 3, by introduc-
ing the cost of the GJ of each primary energy source in the table expressed in
monetary units, for example the US$.
The following values were used to produce Table 11.5:

Liquid fuel $4/GJ ($161/t)

Gaseous fuel $5/GJ ($18/MWh)

Electricity $l6/GJ ($57.6/MWh)

I
Furnaces:
Absorbed
Stack
Users (GJ/h)

59.0
10.0
Product

Fuel oil
Gas
Residue gas
Unit

+
Primary energy

41 000
43 000
48 84 1
Quantity

1000
349
333
(GJ/h)

41.0
15.0
16.0

Total 69.0 Total 72.3

Heat exchangers:
HP network 22.5 HP steam 3 200 10000 32.0
MP network 20.5 MP steam 3 000 10000 30.0

1
LP network 18.0 LP steam 2 800 10000 28.0
I

Total Total 90.0

Heating "'10.0
O ~ Hot oil g; 100000 15.0
Electricity 1000 9.3
For balance PE = 4.0
Grand total T, = 147.6 Grand total T, = 186.6
L

Table
1 1.4 Primary energy
 Primary energy

Users Unit cost Quantity cost

Product Unit

Furnaces:
Absorbed 59.0 Fuel oil 4 41.0 164.0
Stack 10.0 Gas GJ 5 15.0 75.0
Residue gas 4 16.3 65.2

Total 69.0 Total 72.3 304.2

Heat exchangers: Steam

HP network 22.5 HP 4 32.0 128.0
MP network 20.5 MP GJ 4 30.0 120.0
LP network 18.0 LP 4 28.0 112.0

Total 61.0 Total 90.0 360.0

Heating 10.0 Hot oil GJ 4 15.0 60.0

Electricity 3.6 Meters kWh 0.0576 1000 57.6
For balance PE = 4.0

Grand total 146.6 Grand total - 78 1.8

1
~
Table
11.5 1 Monetary balance.
704 Chapter 11. RATIONAL
USE OF ENERGY

On the credit side this balance shows the monetary cost of each type of
energy source and the total for the processing unit, i.e. 781.8 $/h for 186.6 CJ/h
supplied. The enthalpies from balance No. 1 are included on the debit side,
showing the total actually used, i.e. 147.6 GJ/h. The difference comes essen-
tially from the steam users and furnaces. If several furnaces listed on the debit
side are operated, the total fuel cost, i.e. 304.2 $/h, can be broken down pro-
rated by the enthalpy received by each furnace. This is one of the advantages
of keeping the enthalpies in the table of monetary costs. In Table 11.5 the GJ
of steam is valued at $4 whatever its pressure. Differences can be introduced,
for example if the use of low pressure steam needs to be restricted because it
often leads to wastage, its cost can be raised.
The cost of the primary energy GJ must not be confused with the content
of primary energy, kJ/kg introduced in Table 11.4. Section 11.3 will show how
to establish the steam energy content scale.
The monetary balance is the most useful because it situates the energy
cost in the same system as all the other production costs. This advantage car-
ries risks however: technical reality may not be represented properly and it
may depend on political fluctuations. This distorts the comparison of results
over long periods of time. It also means that unit values must be updated
according to market prices. The usefulness of balances No. 1 and 2 is thus
established.
In conclusion, care must be taken to fulfill the following conditions in order
to protect balance No. 4:
Unit values must be listed explicitly and be accessible to modification.
Primary energy content values must have a technically meaningful basis
and reflect the real or estimated situation of the refinery.
Operators must understand the refinery situation well enough to be able
to use data properly.

11.3 Energy Performance

11.3.1 Exergy
Energy accounting answers the following questions:
Who uses energy and in what form?
How much energy is used (enthalpy)?
How much does the energy use cost?
There is little or no conclusion to be drawn as to direct or comparative per-
formance. There is no answer to the question: how can things be done better?
Is there a theoretical lower limit to energy consumption comparable to the adi-
abatic efficiency of a thermal engine?
 Chapter 1 1 RATIONAL USE OF ENERGY 705

In order to judge the performance of an energy form from a technical stand-

point, a standard must be established to measure its utilization value. In the
industrial world, it is recommended to take the kWh unit of work as a standard,
since this (ordered) energy form can assure all the services required: mechan-
ical force, direct chemical change, generation of heat and radiation.
It can be demonstrated [2] that the function of state B, called exergy, rep-
resents the maximum technical work that can be extracted from a quantity of
energy with specified characteristics:
B=H-T,S (11.1)
To is a reference temperature, H and S are respectively the enthalpy and the
entropy of the energy flow or source. Exergy will be used like enthalpy for open
steady-state systems:

Enthalpy Exergy

State 1 (input) Hl
State 2 (output) H2

Difference 2 - 1 H2 - HI €4 - B1 = Hz - HI - To (S2 -Sl)

Meaning Total exchangeable energy Total exchangeable work

In fact, B values all energy forms by defining their “ordered” energy content
as a standard of absolute value by explicit convention. Thus B is of monetary
nature and fulfills the function of standard of exchange like gold does in a tra-
ditional economic system.
As seen in the comparative table above, it is clear that exergy lends itself
to all operations applicable to enthalpy and its value is deduced from the same
physical properties of matter: the PVT equation of state and the specific heat.
For example, steam exergy is directly accessible from the Mollier diagram and
numerically from H, Stables.
Exergy lends itself especially to establishing balances that can be written
comparatively with the enthalpy balance:
H balance:
Hi,-Hex+HQ+ W+HEF=O (1 1.2)

B balance:
Bi,-Bex+B,+ W+BEF= WL>O (11.3)
with:
Hi, , Hex input-output enthalpy of material flows
Ha net enthalpy due to heat exchange
W net work exchanged at the system limits
HEF enthalpy discharged to the environment
WL balance result, always positive
706 Chaoter 1 I RATIONAL
USE OF ENERGY

There is an appreciable similarity between these balances: the numerical

value of the “work item is the same. There is also an appreciable difference:
the result of the enthalpy balance is zero, the exergy balance result is strictly
positive. W, is called “loss of exergy value” and represents the degradation of
the utilization value of the energy implemented. W, has no material support
the way HEFdoes for example, which is a physical loss of energy. W, is a loss
of value, the same as a degradation in the monetary value of an economic
asset.
Now there is an answer to the question about the theoretical lower limit for
energy consumption: it is reached when W, = 0. For a specified and unchanged
transformation (Bin- B,J, the theoretical maximum decrease in the energy
item (BQ + W), is exactly W,. Therefore, for the minimum utilization of any
form of energy:
(BQ+ W m i n = (BQ + Wac, - WL (11.4)
It can be demonstrated that a quantity of heat Q, available at temperature
T (K), carries the following exergy:
BQ(T)= Q(1 - T o / o (11.5)
If T = To,then Ba(To) = 0. To,the reference temperature, is consequently the
temperature at which the available heat has no technical utilization value. In
industry, this may be the temperature of warm cooling water entering cooling
towers. The heat can in fact no longer be implemented in the process and
energy has to be expended (pumping, air convection) to restore its exergy
value at a temperature lower than To. The reader will verify the meaning of
B(T) when T < To. As an aid in understanding Eq. 11.4, it should be remem-
bered that BE, = 0 when W, = 0; the reader will readily agree.

11.3.2 The Utilization Value of Energy Carriers

In a processing plant three types of energy carriers are generally used:
Products purchased directly on the market, for example a fuel or elec-
tricity.
Fluids produced in a power plant associated with the processing unit, for
example steam, hot water and sometimes make up electricity.
Process residues used as fuels, waste hot water or steam.
Each category must be dealt with separately when assigning internal refin-
ery prices.

Category A: Commercial Products

The internal utilization value of a product will be the purchase price, including
average fixed costs (for example gas or electricity supply contract). Internal
storage and distribution costs will be added to this base price. Software is
available that calculates the price of electricity according to the day and hour
 Chapter 1 1 RATIONAL USE OF ENERGY 707

when it is used for each type of supply contract. It is recommended to use the
services of a specialist in this area.
In order to assess technical performance over a long time period, fixed ref-
erence values should be set that are not affected by the short term ups and
downs of the energy market. For example, the total bill paid over a typical
period can be compared with the kWh really purchased in order to obtain an
average price for ordinary utilization.

Category B: Fluids Produced in a Power Plant

The typical fluid in this category is steam. The following calculation protocol
will preferably be used and can be set up on a spread-sheet to allow easy
updating.
Base. The associated plant produces grades of steam and uses water and
condensates as listed in Table 11.6.

Primary
TIP H S hE* uIhEQ** enerm
Name

* Reference temperature T,, = 328 K

** a,,=
1272

-
Table
11.6 Properties of steam, condensates, boiler water

First step: calculating the exergy scale o f fluid utilization values

The VHP steam produced by the boiler is the reference steam. Turbine con-
densates have a zero (0) exergy value. On this basis, for the HP steam for
example the calculation is:
708 Chapter 1 1 RATIONAL USE OF ENERGY

AE= 3 172 - 328 x 6.6673 - (230 - 328 x 0.7677) = 1007

AE/AEo = 1007/1272 = 0.792 1

This ratio is the value of the HP steam, with the VHP steam as a reference.

Second step: defining the operating characteristics o f the boiler and the con-
densate degasser [see table below):

I Boiler thermal efficiency I Rt I 0.92 I

Boiler continuous purge P 0.020

Deaerator vent (t/t of water) e 0.002 5

Third step: calculating the material and energy balance o f the boiler +
degasser, for I kg o f VHP steam produced
Total output enthalpy:
He, = 3405 + p 1513 + e 2733 = 3442 W

Total input enthalpy:

Hi,=589(1 + p ) + e 2 7 3 3 = 608 W

Net enthalpy required:

He,-Hj,=3442-608 = 2834 kJ
Fuel burned: 2 834lRt = 3081 kJ

LP steam consumed in the degasser:

(608-(1 + p + e ) 230)/(2913-230) =0.1388
The value “230” is the enthalpy of the water entering the degasser, here
taken as equal to that of the turbine condensates. However, another value is
possible depending on the case.
Value of the LP steam, relative to the value of the VHP steam, for 1 kg of VHP
steam produced:
-+ 0.1388 (AE/AEo) = 0.0676 (see nota bene below)
Total value of the VHP steam: Vo
Fuel + LP steam:
Vo = 3081 + Vo 0.0676
and consequently:
Vo = 3081/(1- 0.0676) = 3304 kJ/kg = 918 kWh/t
This last value is included in Table 11.6, and the primary energy value of all
the other fluids is deduced from it by multiplication with their relative value.
 Chapter 1 1 USE OF ENERGY 709
RATIONAL

Nota bene: The reader who may be familiar with the traditional methods of
calculating energy content will note that this procedure is much more “objec-
tive”. It clearly separates the principle of valuation, here the exergy scale of rel-
ative valuation, from the calculation of the fuel and fuel equivalent required to
produce a ton of VHP steam. This calculation is technically consistent and
unbiased because at the line marked with an arrow it uses a relative value of
the LP degasser steam before calculating the fuel content of the VHP steam. In
this way the method is not iterative. The area of technical impartiality can be
left behind by assigning relative values based on other principles, thereby
yielding a pricing policy.
This calculation protocol can be used for any heat carrier produced in the
associated plant, for example the hot water produced from LP steam heating.
The items listed below are expressed in percent of fuel price (typical val-
ues) on a VHP basis. They should be added to the fuel price as defined by
Table 11.6 and the unit price of the kWh in order to obtain the total steam
value.
Fuel value 100
Associated plant self-consumption 1.5
Demineralized water 15
Fixed costs 4
Depreciation over 10 years 3
Total 123.5
23.5% absolute must be added to all the base values in Table 11.6. Hence,
the turbine condensate, valued 0 in the table, will be credited with a non-zero
residual value as it should be. The impact of non-fuel costs may be modulated
according to whether or not condensates are recycled.

Coproduction of electricity
In actual practice, electricity is assigned its part of the fuel cost, leaving the
steam fuel value unchanged. This leads to the concept of “fuel chargeable to
electric power”, FCP. Assume that the associated plant described above pro-
duces electricity by a VHP - HP back-pressure turbine having the following
characteristics with reference to Table 11.6:
Generator + transformer efficiency : 0.95
Shaft capacity : 3405 - 3 172 = 233 kJ/kg
Exergy difference : 1272 - 1007 = 265 kJ/kg
Exergy efficiency : 2331265 =88%
Adiabatic efficiency : 2331301 = 77%
Power at terminals : 2 3 3 ~ 0 . 9 5 =221 M/kg
22113.6 = 61.5 kWh/t
Fuel valuation : 918- 727 = 191 kWh/t
FCP value : (191/61.5) 3.6 = 11200 kJ/kWh
710 Chapter 1 1 . RATIONAL USE OF ENERGY

The FCP value is technically consistent and correctly expresses the fuel
value chargeable to electricity production. There is no difficulty in applying
this procedure to other configurations such as the internal combustion tur-
bine + waste heat steam generator. Here again the exergy method makes it
unnecessary to create ad hoc models that are difficult to control from the
standpoint of their impartiality and integrity.

Category C: Process Residues

Fuels
Residues that can readily be substituted for commercial fuels, for exam-
ple refinery gas. They should be assigned a substitution value as outlined
in Section 11.2 and the producing unit should be credited with the same
amount.
Residues that are difficult to use. They can be assigned a zero value on a
monetary level. In contrast, in energy accounting they will be included in
balance No. 3 with a primary energy content duly corrected to take into
account their substitution value and the additional energy used, for
example atomization steam which is often substantial.
Residues disposed of outside the refinery. These will be listed on the
operating cost side since expenses are incurred to get rid of them.

Heat carrier fluids

These are hot water, by-product steam, hot oil or even a hot process fluid
used in a nearby unit. The technically unbiased approach is to enter them in
Table 11.6 and deal with them like a fluid produced in the power plant. The AE
value of each fluid must be determined and then the ratio AE/AE,,, which leads
to the primary energy content. Any heat carrier fluid is then valued as a steam
substitute, with the potential work of the steam being deducted. After this, the
producing unit must be credited with the same amount.
If the by-product fluid is substituted for an energy carrier that is higher in
the primary energy scale, for example very low pressure steam substituting for
LP steam (Table 11.6), the value of the latter should be assigned to it. In this
way the very low pressure steam producer is “rewarded” and the user is
“penalized”.The energy scale can be seen to introduce a sort of impartiality at
the zero level. By deviating from this, undue advantages and penalties are usu-
ally created.
The case of cooling fluids, for example chilled water, will be handled in the
same way, with care being taken to determine the primary energy input exhaus-
tively. Here it will be the power absorbed by the refrigeration compressor.

11.3.3 Exergy Analysis of an Industrial Process

The exergy balance, relation 11.3, was the departure point in the systematic
search for high energy efficiency processes. At the beginning, researchers
 Chapter I I USE OF ENERGY 711
RATIONAL

were mainly concerned with reducing the term W,, a symbol and quantitative
measurement of inefficiencies in energy implementation. An attempt was also
made to create “efficiencies”by dividing W, by factors that might represent
the total exergy supplied to the system.
This way of proceeding is not very constructive because it disregards a
number of important truths:
W, is the net result of the differencebetween the exergy supplied t o the
system and the exergy discharged by it. Even if W, is low, this type of pro-
cess is potentially ill suited because it requires equipment to use the
input exergy flow and other equipment to take advantage of the output
exergy. A typical system in this category is the process furnace with MP
steam generation by means of waste heat. The improvement in technol-
ogy consists in preheating the combustion air by stack gases, thereby
reducing the input exergy and precluding the problem of MP steam uti-
lization.
The term related to the input and output flows (Bin- Be.J represents the
exergy that takes part in the rational use of energy. Unnecessarily hot or
cold streams increase this term and create useless energy flows.
A low exergy flow can hide a very large energy flow. The typical example
is the low temperature heat (below 120’C) that has been the subject of
heat pump installers’ dreams. The mechanical energy implemented is in
fact low, but the cost of the heat exchangers is prohibitive. The equip-
ment cost is not determined by the exergy but by the enthalpy.
It is pointless to seek a divider for W, in order to calculate an efficiency
because there is no categorical or comparable answer from one system to
another. An efficiency always needs a definition in order to have any use-
fulness, even the efficiency of machines: adiabatic, polytropic, exergy, etc.
Exergy analysis is creative and constructive if the three main terms of the
balance, relation 11.3, are evaluated separately.
1. Bin- Be, = B, useful exergy
If the term is positive: the flows provide a certain quantity of exergy that
will have to be taken advantage of and require investment, otherwise the value
will be wasted in W,.
If the term is negative: the output flows carry exergy out that was supplied
to the system from outside. Is this deliberate? Is it really necessary? These are
two questions that need to be answered.
If the term is close t o zero: theoretically the situation is favorable, the
exergy implemented is commensurate with the needs of the process itself.
2. W = (BQin
BQ + y n > - (BQex +
At first glance the aim should be to minimize the “ex” term, the output
exergy. The objective of the process can obviously not be to supply exergy out-
side the system! This is the case of by-product steam for example. The “in”
term tends to increase W,, this is the key t o energy efficiency.
712 Chapter 1 1 . RATIONAL USE OF ENERGY

3. WL-BEF
This term can only be positive. It can be demonstrated, reference [2], that
this term represents the process operating cost. The term can be expressed in
monetary units by giving the exergy kWh a monetary value equivalent to the
price of the primary energy implemented.
The exergy analysis of a process including a large number of pieces of
equipment, such as petroleum or petrochemical processes, must be carried
out following a strict protocol with the characteristics listed below:
operate within a very precisely defined balance limit;
be exhaustive in taking into account each element in the flow scheme
broken down into modules;
present the enthalpy and exergy balance simultaneously;
include independent verification of the accuracy of numerical calcula-
tions.
Reference [2] can be consulted for a developed example.
Table 11.7 is a recapitulation of the exergy analysis of an ammonia synthe-
sis loop. The following comments should be made:
B, is positive, so there is excess exergy input by the flows. Since it is
chemical exergy this item can not be modified, but the synthesis is
known to be exothermic and the excess exergy will have to be recovered
to the extent possible.
W is positive, a large work input (compression) is provided in addition to
the term B, and therefore accentuates the excess.
BQ is negative, the heat is recovered as anticipated and exported in the
form of high pressure steam. Recovery is not total.
W, - BE, is of the same order of magnitude as the compression work
input. Breaking it down into main terms shows that the synthesis reactor
is the prime cause of exergy value loss, followed by the compressors and
the gas/gas exchangers. In contrast, the reactor pressure drop is a negli-
gible item that has, however, caused a lot of discussion and prompted
numerous efforts to ... decrease it! It was the only “visible” element in tra-
ditional analysis. The reactor and the gas/gas exchangers are in fact adi-
abatic from the standpoint of heat exchange with the outside environ-
ment. The enthalpy analysis does not detect them and deals only with
steam generation and water discharge. Water discharge has little impact
however.
In contrast, simply mixing make up gas with circulation in the loop gener-
ates a value loss, once again visible only by exergy analysis. The total value
loss is the operating cost of the synthesis loop and could be compared to
other sections of the ammonia unit.
Reference [5] presents the results of a similar analysis of a large petro-
chemical unit, the ethylene production unit.
 Chapter 1 1 RATIONAL USE OF ENERGY 713

Input:
Material streams
Compressors
L 11.645
13.049
Value loss

2.864
% of total

20.9
Gaslgas exchangers 2.732 19.8
Reactorlexchanger 4.133 30.1
Pressure drop 0.260 1.9
Cooling water 0.790 5.7
Chillers 0.658 4.7
Mixing feed 0.537 3.9
Total in 24.694
output:
HP steam 10.929 1.790 13.0
Total ex 10.929
Net total (IN - EX) 13.765 13.764 100.0

Interpreting W, as an operating cost is the conceptual basis for local

energy/investment optimizations. A single heat exchanger can be isolated for
example in order to evaluate the operating cost and compare it with the invest-
ment cost. This subject will be dealt with in Section 11.4.4.
In conclusion, this discussion of the exergy analysis will have shown its
rigor and investigative power in the complexity of large petroleum and petro-
chemical processes. The monetary nature of exergy and the interpretation of
value loss as an operating cost of the system under study are the two major
results of this method of evaluating process energy performance.

11.4 Methods
1 1.4.1 Introduction
The “exergy” concept is at the basis of two methods of flow scheme synthesis
destined for unit operations that are large consumers of heat energy, such as
in the petrochemical and chemical industry. These operations are distillation
and heat exchange.
Among the processes used for separating and purifying chemical products,
distillation is an old one as well as a huge energy consumer. Its death has con-
sequently often been predicted ever since the oil price fluctuations. In the
714 Chapter I I RATIONAL USE OF ENERGY

meantime it has become quite clear that all the competing processes have lim-
itations: the physical properties of the compounds, the technology of large
production capacities or even... the rational use of energy! As a result, today a
long industrial career can be expected for distillation. Heat exchange is
directly involved in distillation, but is also critical in absolutely all processes
in chemical engineering and manufacturing. Industrial furnaces are included in
this area.
The methods under discussion involve a problem that is posed in a similar
way in distillation and heat exchange:
In distillation. Separating a mixture of several pure substances requires
several distillation steps, whose sequencing gives rise to many alterna-
tives. Which one should be chosen for an acceptable solution from the
standpoint of both energy consumption and investment?
In heat exchange. For a definite number of streams needing to be heated
and others needing t o be cooled, how can heat exchange be organized
between them to minimize the outside input of heat while remaining
within acceptable investment limits?
These are combinatorial problems that are easy to solve when they consist
of few elements. A mixture of two components requires one single distillation
step and there is no alternative. However, these problems become insoluble by
direct methods of evaluating all the alternatives when there are 3, 4 or more
elements in the system.
The methods of solving them have received the following names:
in distillation: distributed distillation,
in heat exchange: the pinch method with diagram T/Q.
Optimizing an individual heat exchanger is a critical component of the sec-
ond method and will be discussed here.

11.4.2 Distillation
Distillation is a potentially reversible unit operation. The irreversibility that
generates the exergy value loss comes from two sources: the difference in heat
exchanger temperature and the difference in composition of the liquid con-
tacting a vapor that is not in thermodynamic equilibrium. An attempt can be
made t o eliminate these sources of irreversibility to achieve idealized distilla-
tion. The model has in fact been worked out with all the required formal rigor
[6,71.
A model column is defined a s follows:
Feed: a single feed inlet with a thermal condition between its bubble
point and its dew point at column pressure.
Pressure: uniform throughout the column.
Distillate: at the dew point.
 Chapter 1 1 RATIONAL USE OF ENERGY 715

Residue: at the bubble point.

Number of L/V contact stages: infinite.
Heat exchange: addition (under the feed inlet) and subtraction (above
the feed inlet) at each stage in the amounts defined by the specified sep-
aration.
Separation specification: since the substances are in order of decreasing
volatility, distribution between distillate and residue can be specified
solely for the lightest and the heaviest substance.
The ideal column model includes all the characteristics of a real column, as
it should do. However, it introduces three strict rules with important conse-
quences on process synthesis:
R.l: The substances must have volatilities such that they can be ranked
by decreasing volatility.
R.2: Continuous heat exchange must be assured on all the contact stages.
R.3: The separation can not be specified for intermediate substances
between the lightest and the heaviest one. Their distribution
between distillate and residue is a calculation result.
The consequences of these limitations are listed below:
C.1: Mixtures having azeotropic zones can not be separated into pure sub-
stances by only one ideal sequence.
C.2: Intermediate reboilers and/or condensers need to be used to
decrease the temperature approaches, an important point in energy
savings.
C.3: One single column sequence is defined among all those possible in
theory.
This one single column sequence is represented in Figure 11.1. The exam-
ple shows five substances A, B, C, D and E which are to be separated into as
many fractions of total purity. A is the lightest and E the heaviest. By applying
R.3 to column 1.1, the distillate ABCD and the residue BCDE are obtained.
Continuing in the same way for each stream, total separation is finally
achieved.
The ideal column is governed by a calculation algorithm based on simulta-
neous resolution of the equations of balance and L/V equilibrium in each sec-
tion of the column. The calculation also gives the distribution of the other
products between distillate and residue, the liquid/vapor profile and the heat
exchanged.
The flows at the feed stage are as follows for example for a total separation
of the light product at the top:
LA, = Km x D/(1- K m ) (1 1.6)
where the distillate D is defined by the equation:
(1 1.7)
716 Chapter 1 7 RATIONAL USE OF ENERGY

with:
liquid flow at feed stage (kmol/h)
KA,, K,, equilibrium constant, K value, of the lightest and the heaviest
substance respectively
D distillate (kmol/h)
dl distillate substance No. 1 (kmol/h)
XA, fraction of substance No. 1 in the feed
It can be observed that the sequence in Figure 11.1 is acyclic, no informa-
tion is fed back upstream from a downstream column. Given that all the
columns have a W, = 0, individually they have a minimum exergy demand and
are optimized from this standpoint in relation to their feed.
According to R. Bellman’s theorem, it is certain that this sequence is opti-
mized in its totality with respect to minimum exergy and there is only one
sequence.
Before any calculation, it is advisable t o utilize the diagram in Figure 11.1,
entering only the quantity and relative volatility of the relevant substances
into it. Certain columns will then have no reason for existing due to the quan-
tity and volatility of some substances. This allows the diagram to be simplified.
Reference [ 8 ] gives an application example and the patent [9] refers to
crude distillation.
In conclusion, the ideal column concept defines a single sequencing order
of distillation columns for separation by distillation of multi-component mix-
tures. Depending on the real physical properties and quantities involved, a
simplification of the complete flow scheme is often possible. The method is
extremely creative, even in qualitative applications. It is also very creative in
evaluating industrial sequences that require revamping.

11.4.3 Heat Exchangers Networks

The pinch method for arranging heat exchangers is very important both a s a
flow scheme synthesis tool and for assessing on-stream facilities with a view
to revamping them or increasing their production capacity. In order to orga-
nize heat exchanges between predefined streams, the following questions
must be answered:
(a) What is the minimum outside heat input that would, in the extreme
case, allow for zero (0) temperature approaches in some exchangers?
(b) What is the economic temperature approach?
(c) How can hot and cold streams be combined to reach objectives (a) and
(b)?
(d)When should heat pumps be applied and on which streams?
(e) What process modifications should be contemplated to improve the use
of heat and investment?
 Chapter 1 1 RATIONAL USE OF ENERGY 717

4
AB
* *
1

* .
1

ABCD
* *
1

ABCDE
F .

1 BC
BCD 3

2
2
BCDE
*
2 CD

3
CDE

Figure
11.1 Standard distillation sequence.

Anyone who has ever tried to achieve even simple heat integration knows
that these questions are formidable. The procedure will be illustrated quanti-
tatively step by step based on a real example in a hydrotreating process [ 101.
718 Chapter 11. RATIONAL USE OF ENERGY

Step 1: Identieing the Data

Each stream appearing in the flow scheme (Fig. 11.2) is taken into considera-
tion separately and outside energy carriers are disregarded. Beginning with
input stream No. 1, the characteristics are listed in Table 11.8. It is recom-
mended to begin with streams that need to be heated, called “cold”streams.
Listed in the table are the inlet and exit temperatures, the heat required Q and
the ratio Q/dT = MCP,the heat exchanged per degree. The stream breakdown
must be such that MCP is approximately constant in the range under consid-
eration. This is valid for manual calculation. A computer can analyze the
streams degree by degree, but it is nevertheless practical to identify streams
by typical MCP ranges. Following along Figure 11.2, the procedure is the same
with all the other streams. Stream No. 4, through the reboiler, exchanges a
large quantity of heat in a short temperature range, consequently its MCP is
very high. For numerical reasons, it is preferable to avoid dT = 0 when work-
ing with a computer, but nothing is theoretically against it. The heats are
totalled as indicated in line F in the table.

Heating

Cooling

Distillation

I
BJ-R

1st reactor Make up 2nd reactor

Figure
11.2 Base flow scheme.
 Chapter 1 1 RATIONAL USE OF ENERGY 719

Cold 1
Cold 2
Cold 3 160 190 4 050 135.0
1 Cold 4 150 155 6000 1200.0
Table
Stream 11.8 24 070
recapitulation.
I Hot5 130 50 5 000 62.5
Hot 6 200 130 9 100 130.0
Hot 7 150 40 8 800 80.0
Total C 22 900
Difference C - F -1 170

I
1

(“9 Stream No.

415
AQ = MCP AT Sum
6
L AT pinch
9

T C F C F C-F 0” 20” Utility

Mean

4 370 6 970 Hot

-
195 6 - 1300 - 1300 5 670 8 270 5 570
185 6 3 1300 1350 1250 5 620 8 220 5 520
175 6 3 1300 1350 1200 5 570 8 170 -
165 6 3 1300 1350 1150 5 520 8 120 -
155 6 2 and 4 1300 6 820 -4 370 2 600 -
0
145 6 and 7 2 2 100 820 -3 090 1280 3 880 -
135 6 and 7 2 2 100 820 -1 810 2 560 5 160 -
125 5 and 7 2 1425 820 -1 205 3 165 5 765 2 240
115 5 and 7 1 and 2 1425 1445 -1 225 3 145 5 745 2 895
105 - - 1425 1445 -1 245 3 125 5 725 2 875
95 - - 1425 1445 -1 265 3 105 5 705 2 855
85 - - 1425 1445 -1 285 3 085 5 685 2 835
75 - - 1425 1445 -1 305 3 065 5 665 2815
65 - - 1425 1445 -1 325 3 045 5 645 2 795
55 5 and 7 1 and 2 1425 1445 -1 345 3 025 5 625 2 775
45 7 1 800 625 -1 170 3 200 5 800 Cold

Total 22 900 24 070

Table
Compounding streams.
720 Chapter 1 i RATIONAL
USEOF ENERGY

The procedure continues with all the “hot”streams in the same way and
the total C is obtained along with the difference C - F = - 1170 kW. This last
value indicates that the cold streams require 1170 kW of heat in addition to
that provided by all the hot streams.
On the left of the table a scale of temperatures covering the complete tem-
perature range of all the streams could be added. Each stream is represented
a s a line covering its individual range and is identified by its number as shown
in Figure 11.5.

Step 2: Compounding Streams

The temperature range where there are streams, here between 40 and 200”C,
is divided into constant intervals, for example of 10°C. From 40°C on, the heat
being exchanged in each interval is cumulated, first for all the cold streams
and then for all the hot ones. Table 11.9 is used t o present the numerical data.
The cumulated values in each temperature interval, identified by the mean
temperature in column 1, appear in columns 4 and 5 for the hot and cold
streams respectively.
The calculation is precisely as follows, interval by interval:
AQ = AT 1 MCP, (11.8)
Column 6 is obtained by cumulating the difference C-F line by line:
~~ ~ ~ ~

Column No. 4 5 6
~

Temperature (“C) C F Z(C-F)

195 1300 0 1300

~

185 1300 1350 1300 + (1 300 - 1350)

175 1300 1350 1250 + (1 300 - 1350)

The values in column 6 correspond to the excess heat available in this tem-
perature interval to heat cold streams. For exchange to be possible, all the val-
ues must be positive or zero (in the extreme case). The minimum value of col-
umn 6, i.e. (-4370), is subtracted line by line to obtain this. For example: line
No. 1 (195): 1300 - (-4370) = 5670. This operation yields column 7.
The geometric interpretation of the operation is indicated in Figure 11.3.
Line C represents the sum of heat available in each temperature interval, with
the origin at 40°C and the end at 200°C, i.e. 22900 kW. Line C represents col-
umn 4. Likewise, line F represents column 5. In the diagram, line F is plotted so
that it has a point in common with line C at 150°C. Plotted in this way, the two
lines are separated from one another by the amount listed in column 7.
The diagram in Figure 11.3 illustrates several important results. In the
enthalpy range where line F is below line C, heat can be exchanged between
the hot and cold streams in each enthalpy section under consideration.
 Chapter 1 1 USE OF ENERGY 721
RATIONAL

i o t utilities
Pinch
Temperature (“C)

200

150
-
-
-

-
-
Below Above

9
100

50

-Utilities
- Q F min
<
4
Max. process exchangers
Actual process exchangers
.
- QFCOld Enthalpy
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I l l 1 I 1 I 1 1 1 1

5 10 15 20 25 30

Figure
1 1.3 Cumulated hot and cold streams.

At the hot end, part of line F is not covered by line C: the 4370 kW can be
supplied to the cold streams only by outside heating. At the other end, part of
hot line C is not subtended by line F. The corresponding enthalpy,
3 200 = 4370 - 1 170, will be discharged to outside fluids, cooling water or air.
Now the answer to question (a) has been obtained:
The minimum heat to be supplied is 4370 kW with discharge of 3200 kW
to the surrounding medium and possible process/process exchange of
19 700 kW.
There is a point at 150°C where the temperature approach is zero and
exchange is impossible, the pinch temperature. Each diagram has at
least one, but there may be several or even an infinite number when lines
C and F follow a common course.

Step 3: the Temperature Approach

The pinch temperature Tp means local heat exchange is impossible. To elimi-
nate the pinch, line F is translated to the right so that the approach at 150°C
becomes 20°C for example.
722 Chaorer 1 1 RATIONAL USE OF ENERGY

Numerically, an amount as defined below must be added to the values in

column 7:
AH = A T x (MCP), (11.9)
2600 = 20 x 130
with:
AH added enthalpy
AT approach at pinch
(MCP), specific heat at pinch
In column 8:
outside heat 6970 kW
discharged heat 5800 kW.
Moreover, the diagram is divided in two by the enthalpy at the pinch. If the
between-stream integrations are carried out strictly, above the pinch between
the streams represented by line F beyond 150°C and line C beyond 170°C, then
the choice of these streams will have no impact on the integrations decided
below 150°C. The large initial combinatorial problem has been divided up into
two independent parts, which is a great advantage.
In the pinch zone the temperature approach will be 20"C, but outside this
zone it will be higher. To determine the minimum economic approach, first of
all the exchangers in this zone must be examined and the economic optimiza-
tion method described in Section 11.4.4 must be applied.
However, the following points must also be taken into consideration:
the cost of outside heat, which is directly dependent on the temperature
approach at the pinch, see Eq. 11.9;
each individual exchanger handling specific streams can lead t o a low
approach, even outside the pinch.
Now answers have been obtained for questions (b) and (c) mentioned at
the beginning of Section 11.4.3.

Step 4: Thermal Integration between Hot and Cold Streams

In order to keep the use of outside hot and cold streams, or utilities, to a min-
imum, several important rules must be observed:
(a) Do not heat cold streams below the pinch by hot utilities.
(b)Do not cool hot streams above the pinch by cold utilities.
(c) Initiate the combination of hot and cold streams in the pinch zone and
fulfill the following conditions:
above the pinch MCP, s MCP,,
below the pinch MCP, s MCP,.
(d)Maximize the heat exchanged at the pinch by using several heat
exchangers if need be.
 Chapter 1 1 RATIONAL
USE OF ENERGY 723

(e)Combine streams only if they are totally above or below the pinch.
Never combine streams that straddle the pinch.
(f) Consider dividing the streams into parallel streamlets if the following
criteria are not fulfilled ( N number of streams):
above the pinch NC < lVF,
below the pinch NF < NC.
Step 2 was used to determine the total amount of outside heat to be sup-
plied to the hot end and the total heat discharged from the cold end. It is fairly
obvious that at least part of the heat could be supplied at a temperature some-
where between the pinch temperature and that of the cold stream at the end
of line F at 190°C.
Figure 11.4 shows that the cold stream can be heated by hot streams at
200°C (heat identified as “process”) while maintaining an approach of 20°C
minimum. Then an amount of heat QC2 remains to be supplied at 210°C
(190 + 20), but a large proportion of the total will be supplied at 180°C (Qcl).

Process
n 2
200

150

/
100

50

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I I I I ,H(MW)
15 20 25 30

Figure
11.4 Placing hot utilities.
724 Chapter 1 1 RATIONAL USE OF ENERGY

At each temperature interval it is possible to calculate the maximum

amount of heat to be supplied, beginning with column 8, by the following
recursive algorithm:
hot utility Qc = C O ~8 .- MCPF x ATmi,
cold utility QF = col. 8 - MCP, x ATmi,
Example:
at 185°C Qc = 8220 - 135 x 20 = 5520 kW.
These values are listed in column 9.
The pinch zone can not be approached at less than f20"C, so there are no
values in column 9 in the 130-170°C range.
This calculation is strictly correct only if lines C and F are continually diver-
gent on either side of the pinch, i.e. if the MCP conditions stated in point (c)
above are satisfied all over. Otherwise, the introduction of an intermediate out-
side heat exchange can create another pinch. This can be handled by the algo-
rithm, but it will readily become obvious by graphical operation.
Following this initial analysis of outside streams, the discussion can go on
to the integration of hot and cold streams.
Taking the example of Table 11.8 with all the streams above the pinch:

No. Hot MCP No. Cold MCP

6 X 130 2 82
3 135
4 X 1200

The criteria in ( f ) are fulfilled and there is no need to divide the streams.
Rule (c) leads to the choice of stream 6 (hot) and stream 4 (cold). Rule (d)
leads to using all the heat available in stream 6, i.e. 130 (200 - 170) = 3900 kW.
Figure 11.5, which is in fact the extension of Figure 11.3, shows the integra-
tion and definition of exchanger l with a heating load of 3900 kW.
There is no other hot stream so the rest of the heat must be provided by
hot utilities:
Stream 4: 6000 - 3900 = 2 100 kW , CU,
Stream 3: 4050 kW cu,9

Stream 2: 10 x 82 = 820 kW.

Given the low heating load on stream 2, the decision on the exchanger to
be installed remains pending. However, since stream 3 is a continuation of
stream 2, the range assigned to stream 3 can be modified in order to integrate
the 820 kW share. The a priori breakdown at the initial vaporization point of
160°C can be changed after the pinch is found to be at 150°C. This ends the
study above the pinch.
 Chapter 11. RATIONAL USE OF ENERGY 725

Temperature ("C)
50 100 150 200
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
- Heat
Q
Exchanger (MW)
1 3 900
C" 1 2 100
CUZ 4 050
2 5 200
3 5 000
4 3 820
Fu1 3 800
1180
tI
Pinch T T+20
FUZ

Figure
11.5 Defining heat exchanges.

+ The study below the pinch begins with the stream table:

Criterion ( f ) is fulfilled and rule (c) leads to the choice of streams 6 and 2.
Rule (d) leads to using all the heat remaining in stream 6, i.e.:
9 100 - 3900 = 5200 kW
It is advisable to complete Table 11.10 which is an extension of Figure 11.5.
In this way, a record is kept of the exchanges made and the enthalpies that are
still available on the streams. The combination of remaining streams and the
location of cold utilities will then be continued. The reader is advised to exam-
ine Figure 11.5 and Table 11.10. This whole procedure can be programmed on
a spread sheet. Figure 11.6 shows the flow scheme after thermal integration.
Once this result is obtained, three consolidation operations must be
accomplished.
1. Check the number of heat exchanger shells and the exchange surface
area. The method described leads to a large number of exchangers if the
rules stated earlier are strictly observed. This problem was anticipated
when streams 2 and 3 were dealt with.
726 Chapter 1 1 RATIONAL USE OF ENERGY
r 0
0
W
m
I
~
~

___
__
0 0
0 0
0 W
m m
0
0
m
m
3
2
N
I
__
0
m
7
3 3
D N
N x,
n n
I I
___ __
0
0
0
m
urn
 Chapter 7 7 RATIONAL USE OF ENERGY 727
p
I <
728 Chapter 7 7. RATIONAL USE OF ENERGY

High temperature crossovers give favorable thermal results, but require

a large number of exchangers in series. A trade-off is therefore necessary
between utilities consumption and the complexity of the integration flow
scheme.
2. Check the compatibility of streams. Process streams sometimes have
particular characteristics (thermal stability, corrosivity, contamination
risks in the event a tube fails) that do not allow them to be in thermal
contact in a heat exchanger. In some cases, a particular technology
(plate or spiral exchangers, exchangers made of sophisticated materials,
etc., see Chapter 6) can be implemented, but it is often necessary to give
up on thermal integration. Here the heat penalty will be ascertained.
3. Check the operability. The process requires temperature, heating load,
flow rate, etc. control. Integration must be proved favorable taking these
requirements into account. In the example, the reboiler is heated by
stream 6, the reactor effluent. However, the hot utility CU, provides 1/3
of the heating load and consequently allows sufficiently reliable and sen-
sitive control of the stripper. If this were not the case, if CU, were low or
nonexistent, the integration choice would have to be reconsidered
accordingly.
Splitting the streams
In order to cool all the hot streams up to the pinch, the number of cold
streams must be sufficient, see rule (f) in Step 4.If this is not the case, one or
more cold streams can be divided into parallel streamlets, while complying
with rule (c) concerning the MCP. Below the pinch a hot stream can be divided
with the same objective. A well-known application is preheating crude in atmo-
spheric distillation before it enters the furnace. Likewise the use of hot water
in ethylene units is based on the same principle, but below the pinch.
This is an exhaustive answer to question (c) at the beginning of Section
11.4.3.

Step 5: Heat Pumps

A heat pump is expected to meet the following objectives:
(a) improve the energy performance of a process by reducing the dis-
charge of low-level heat to the surrounding medium,
(b) rationalize thermal integration by reducing equipment in number
and/or size.
Examples are compression of steam for reuse as a heating fluid (application
(a)) and compression of a column distillate for condensation in the reboiler
(application (b)). These applications can be analyzed in the T/H diagram in
Figure 11.7.
Rule to be observed: The heat pump must withdraw heat from the hot
streams below the pinch and transmit it to the cold streams above the same
pinch. Since the performance index and investment cost are favorable when
 Chapter 17. RATlONAL USE OF ENERGY 729

-
Figure
1 1.7 Heat pump.

the temperature difference between the hot and cold source is low, the heat
pump evaporator and condenser must operate at temperatures close to the
pinch.
The following comments will help explain the importance of this rule. Heat
is recovered at the heat pump vaporizer temperature TF by using the hot
streams of segment A-B. After compression, the fluid is condensed at temper-
ature Tc t o heat the cold streams above the pinch, section DD’.Thus, without
changing the approach at the pinch, the heat pump lowers the demand for out-
side heating by the heat quantity (Q + W). This represents the heat withdrawn
below the pinch plus the compressor power.
However, the heat exchanger surface area is greatly increased by introduc-
ing the heat pump and by decreasing the temperature approaches on the seg-
ments outside the heat pump. It is evident that placing a heat pump above or
below the pinch has detrimental effects from the energy and investment stand-
point.
This answers question (d) at the beginning of Section 11.4.3.

Step 6: Improving the Process

When a complete flow scheme o r an on-stream unit are to be examined, the
procedure will follow steps 1 and 2. Figure 11.5 will be set out and the exchang-
ers incorporated as they are actually placed. Then step 3 will allow the tern-
perature approach at the pinch to be identified. The arrangement corre-
sponding to the approach defined in this way will then be deduced from the
operations in step 4.
730 ChaDtef 11. RATIONAL USE OF ENERGY

B
T

C'
I

Figure
11.8 ModiFying the pressure of a distillation column.

In an existing unit, attention will need to be paid to the additional invest-

ments that can be justified only by energy savings. However, it is often possi-
ble to reorganize the existing exchangers to obtain better performance.
A more fundamental question, but one that is more difficult to answer
involves operating conditions and other technological aspects that it might be
advisable to modify. Distillation columns are often in this category.
Figure 11.8 shows a T/H diagram where the condenser and reboiler tem-
perature levels are represented by lines C and R. The condenser is quite hot in
 Chapter 1 1 RATIONAL USE OF ENERGY 731

relation to the temperature TFof the cooling water. Additionally, the reboiler is
placed above the pinch and therefore requires a specific hot utility. By lower-
ing the pressure in the distillation column, the pinch is shifted to the reboiler
level, resulting in a better general thermal integration, less heat supplied and
less heat discharged. The general rule is t o place distillation columns either
wholly below or above the pinch temperature but not straddling it.

1 1.4.4 Economic Optimization of a Heat Exchanger

Given that the loss of exergy value in a unit operation corresponds to its oper-
ating cost, economic optimization can be accomplished by minimizing the
total investment and operating cost over a specific time period.
The loss of exergy value is written:
WL = Q Vrnc - TmF) TO/(TrnC T ~ F ) (11.10)
with T, being the logarithmic mean temperature of the hot stream (subscript
C) and of the cold stream (subscript F).
The exchange surface area is written:
A = Q / ( U x f x LMTD) (1 1.1 1)

LMTD = (ATc - ATF)/In -

);:(
ATc = Tic - T ~ F ATF
; = T2c - T1F (11.12)
The cost of the exergy kWh is Vp (primary energy) $, so the hourly operat-
ing cost is:
E = V, W, $/h (11.13)
The exchanger investment cost will be taken proportional to its surface
area:
I = CAA$
Taking a simple return on the investment of n hours, the objective function
to be minimized is written:

(11.14)

or:

L=A+ - WL (11.15)

A graphical or numerical solution by computer readily yields the minimum

of L a s a function of the LMTD or of a temperature approach at one end of the
exchanger. It is advantageous to have explicit functional solutions for special
cases.
732 Chapter 1 1 . RATIONAL USE OF ENERGY

Case I : Constant Temperature on the Cold or Hot Side

With reference t o t h e notation on the flow scheme in Figure 11.9A, the fol-
lowing is found:

(
LMTD = ATc/ln 1 + -
3 (11.16)

Tl c

Ti F

. AQ
. H
 Chapter 11. RATIONAL USE OF ENERGY 733

Tmc = Tm
TmF = T2c - 6T
AT
r= -
T2C
The objective function L relative to the variable 6T is:

L = ( Q/Uf) [ 1/LMTD + (a/Td(Tm/TZc

-1 + t)/(1 - t)] (11.17)

where: a = nV, U f To/CA (dimensionless)

t = 6T/ T2c
L is minimum at tmin:

tmin
. =
I):+
[ JW)
a-1
-(1
(11.18)

6Tmin = ‘2, tmin (11.19)

LMTD (min) = A T / l n (1 + r/tmi,,) (11.20)

Numerical example:

To = 311 K a = 746
U = 400 kW/m2,K AT = 20K
f = 1.0 7.2, = 373K
n = 24000 h tmin = 0.018038
C, = 200$/m2 STrnin = 6.7 K
V, = 50 $/MWh LMTD (min) = 14.5 K

Case 2: Constant Approach at the Cold and Hot Ends (Fig. 1 1.9B)
T, = (Tmc + TmF)/2(approximately) (11.21)

L = (Q/Uf) (1/6T+ (a/Tm”>7“) ( 1 1.22)

L is minimum at ZT,,,,,:
6Tmin= Tm/fi (11.23)

Numerical example:
Tm = -25°C = 248 K
other data as previously:
6Tmin= 9 K = LMTD
734 Chapler 1 1 RATIONAL
USE OF ENERGY

References
1 Le comptage de l’dnergie dans l’industrie. ATEE, Arcueil.
2 Kotas T.J. (1985) The exergy method. Butterworth.
3 Kaiser V. (1993) Industrial energy management. Editions Technip, Paris.
4 Szargut J., Morris D.R., Steward F.R. (1988) Exergy analysis. Hemisphere
Publishing Corp., N.Y.
5 Kaiser V. (1996) Exergy, the monetary future of industrial economics.
AIChE 5th World congress of Chemical Engineering, San Diego, July 1996,
paper 77e.
6 Fitzmorris R.E., Mah R.S.H. (1980) Approaches t o reversible multicompo-
nent distillations. AlChE meeting, Chicago, Nov. 1980, paper la.
7 Kaiser V., Gourlia J.P. (1985) Applying exergy t o distillation. Chemical
Engineering, Aug. 19, 1985.
8 Kaiser V., Picciotti M. (1988) Better ethylene separation unit. Hydrocarbon
Processing, Nov. 1988.
9 US Patent No. 4664 785, French Patent No. 8402806 (1984).
10 Linnhoff B., Polley G.T. (1988) Process improvement through pinch tech-
nology. Chem. Eng. Progress, June 1988.