Shear Strength of Soil

REPORTER: ENGR. NORLY MAY P. BARBECHO

Definition
The shear strength of a soil mass is the internal resistance
per unit area that the soil mass can offer to resist failure
and sliding along any plane inside it. One must
understand the nature of shearing resistance in order to
analyze soil stability problems, such as bearing capacity,
slope stability, and lateral pressure on earth-retaining
structures.
The shear resistance of soil is a result of
friction and interlocking of particles, and
possibly cementation or bonding at particle
contacts. Due to interlocking, particulate
material may expand or contract in volume
as it is subject to shear strains.
The shear stresses prevent collapse and help
to support the geotechnical structure. Shear
stress may cause volume change.
Significance of Shear Strength

• The safety of any geotechnical structure is dependent on the strength of the soil
• If the soil fails, the structure founded on it can collapse.
Shear Failure
• Soil comprised of discrete mineral grains along with intergranular gases and
liquids.
• The soil grains slide over the failure surface.
Mohr–Coulomb Failure Criterion
Mohr (1900) presented a theory for rupture in materials that
contended that a material fails because of a critical combination of
normal stress and shearing stress and not from either maximum
normal or shear stress alone. Thus, the functional relationship
between normal stress and shear stress on a failure plane can be
expressed in the following form:

τ=fσ
 V

ΣFx = 0
H = Ff
H H = Vμ
Ff H/A = V/A μ
τ=σμ

tan v = H/V
tan Ø = τ/σ
Ø τ = σ tan Ø
V
If there is cohesion:
τ = c + σ tan Ø
H
The failure envelope is a curved line. For most soil mechanics problems, it is
sufficient to approximate the shear stress on the failure plane as a linear
function of the normal stress (Coulomb, 1776). This linear function can be
written as
τ = c + σ tan Ø

Where
τ= shear strength or the maximum shear stress that the soil can take without
failure under the normal stress σ
σ = normal stress on the failure plane
Ø = angle of internal friction or angle of repose
c = cohesion
 Thus, equations τ = c’ + σ’ tan φ’ and τ = c + σ
tan φ are expressions of shear strength based on
total stress
and effective stress. The value of c’ for sand and
inorganic silt is 0. For normally consolidated clays,
c’ can be approximated at 0. Overconsolidated
clays have values of c’ that are greater than 0.
The angle of friction, φ’, is sometimes referred to
as the drained angle of friction. Typical values of
φ’ for some granular soils are given in the table.
Let the effective normal stress and the shear stress
on the plane ab be c’ and τ, respectively. Figure
12.1b shows the plot of the failure envelope
defined by the equation. If the magnitudes of c’
and τ on plane ab are such that they plot as
point A in Figure 12.1b, shear failure will not
occur along the plane.

If the effective normal stress and the shear stress

on plane ab plot as point B (which falls on the
failure envelope), shear failure will occur along
that plane.

A state of stress on a plane represented by point C

cannot exist, because it plots above the failure
envelope, and shear failure in a soil would have
occurred already
Graphical Representation of Columb Failure Criterion

Shear strength consists of two components:

a. cohesive
b. frictional

The higher the values of these components, the higher the shear
strength.
 Inclination of the Plane of Failure Caused by Shear
• As stated by the Mohr–Coulomb failure criterion, failure from shear will occur when the shear stress on a plane reaches a
value given by the previous equation. To determine the inclination of the failure plane with the major principal plane, refer
to Figure 12.2, where and are, respectively, the major and minor effective principal stresses. The failure plane EF makes an
angle Ø with the major principal plane.
• To determine the angle u and the relationship between and refer to Figure 12.3, which is a plot of the Mohr’s circle for the
state of stress shown in Figure 12.2 . In Figure 12.3, fgh is the failure envelope defined by the relationship τ = c’ + σ’ tan φ’.
The radial line ab defines the major principal plane (CD in Figure 12.2), and the radial line ad defines the failure plane (EF
in Figure 12.2). It can be shown that ϴ = 45 + Ø/2, where Ø is the angle of failure plane.
 90 = Ø + (180 - 2ϴ)
τ 2ϴ = 90 + Ø
ϴ = 45 + Ø/2

τ
Ø ϴ 2ϴ
σ3 ∆d σ

σ1

Ø
τ
c ϴ 2ϴ
σ3 ∆d σ
From the figure:
𝑎𝑑
Sin Ø = 𝑎𝑓
Then af = fO + Oa
𝑓𝑂
Where cot Ø = 𝑐′ therefore fO = c’ cot Ø
σ1 +σ3
and Oa = 2
σ1 +σ3
Substituting: af = c’ cot Ø + 2
σ1 − σ3
Also ad = 2

Substituting everything, we get:

σ 1 − σ3
𝑎𝑑 2
Sin Ø = =
𝑎𝑓 c’ cot Ø + σ1+σ
2
3

Or manipulating the equation, we can get

∅ ∅
σ1 = σ3 tan 2 (45 + 2 ) + 2c tan (45 + 2 )
Laboratory Test for Determination
of Shear Strength Parameters
There are several laboratory methods now available to determine the shear strength
parameters (i.e., c, Ø, c’, Ø’ ) of various soil specimens in the laboratory. They are as
follows:
• Direct shear test
• Triaxial test
• Direct simple shear test
• Plane strain triaxial test
• Torsional ring shear test
Direct Shear Test
The direct shear test is the oldest and simplest form of shear test arrangement. A
diagram of the direct shear test apparatus is shown below.
The test equipment consists of a metal shear box in which the soil specimen is
placed. The soil specimens may be square or circular in plan. The size of the
specimens generally used is about 51 mm by 51 mm or 102 mm by 102 mm (2 in.
x 2 in. or 4 in. x 4 in.) across and about 25 mm (1 in.) high.

The box is split horizontally into halves. Normal force on the specimen is applied
from the top of the shear box. The normal stress on the specimens can be as great
as 1050 kN/m2 (150 lb/in.2). Shear force is applied by moving one-half of the box
relative to the other to cause failure in the soil specimen.
 Depending on the equipment, the shear test can be either stress
controlled or strain controlled. In stress-controlled tests, the shear force
is applied in equal increments until the specimen fails. The failure
occurs along the plane of split of the shear box.
After the application of each incremental load, the shear
displacement of the top half of the box is measured by a horizontal dial
gauge. The change in the height of the specimen (and thus the volume
change of the specimen) during the test can be obtained from the
readings of a dial gauge that measures the vertical movement of the
upper loading plate.
In strain-controlled tests, a constant rate of shear displacement is applied to
one-half of the box by a motor that acts through gears. The constant rate of
shear displacement is measured by a horizontal dial gauge. The resisting
shear force of the soil corresponding to any shear displacement can be
measured by a horizontal proving ring or load cell.

The advantage of the strain-controlled tests is that in the case of dense sand,
peak shear resistance (that is, at failure) as well as lesser shear resistance
(that is, at a point after failure called ultimate strength) can be observed and
plotted. In stress-controlled tests, only the peak shear resistance can be
observed and plotted.
 Figure 12.7 shows a typical plot of shear stress and change
in the height of the specimen against shear displacement for dry
loose and dense sands. These observations were obtained from
a strain-controlled test. The following generalizations can be
developed from Figure 12.7 regarding the variation of resisting
shear stress with shear displacement:

1. In loose sand, the resisting shear stress increases with shear

displacement until a failure shear stress of τf is reached. After
that, the shear resistance remains approximately constant for
any further increase in the shear displacement.

2. In dense sand, the resisting shear stress increases with shear

displacement until it reaches a failure stress of τf. This τf is
called the peak shear strength. After failure stress is attained,
the resisting shear stress gradually decreases as shear
displacement increases until it finally reaches a constant value
called the ultimate shear strength.
 Figure 12.8 shows the nature of variation of the
void ratio for loose and dense sands with shear
displacement. At large shear displacement, the
void ratios of loose and dense sands become
practically the same, and this is termed the critical
void ratio.
It is important to note that, in dry sand,
σ = σ’
and
c‘ = 0
Direct shear tests are repeated on
similar specimens at various normal
stresses. The normal stresses and the
corresponding values of τf obtained
from a number of tests are plotted on
a graph from which the shear
strength parameters are determined.
Figure 12.9 shows such a plot
for tests on a dry sand.
Drained Direct Shear Test on Saturated Sand and Clay

In the direct shear test arrangement, the shear box that contains the
soil specimen is generally kept inside a container that can be filled with
water to saturate the specimen. A drained test is made on a saturated
soil specimen by keeping the rate of loading slow enough so that the
excess pore water pressure generated in the soil is dissipated completely
by drainage. Pore water from the specimen is drained through two
porous stones.
Because the hydraulic conductivity of sand is high, the
excess pore water pressure generated due to loading
(normal and shear) is dissipated quickly. Hence, for an
ordinary loading rate, essentially full drainage conditions
exist. The friction angle, Ø’, obtained from a drained direct
shear test of saturated sand will be the same as that for a
similar specimen of dry sand.

The hydraulic conductivity of clay is very small compared

with that of sand. When a normal load is applied to a clay
soil specimen, a sufficient length of time must lapse for full
consolidation—that is, for dissipation of excess pore water
pressure. For this reason, the shearing load must be
applied very slowly. The test may last from two to five
days.
Triaxial Shear Test (General)
• The triaxial shear test is one of the most reliable
methods available for determining shear
strength parameters. It is used widely for
research and conventional testing.
• In this test, a soil specimen about 36 mm (1.4 in.)
in diameter and 76 mm (3 in.) long generally is
used. The specimen is encased by a thin rubber
membrane and placed inside a plastic
cylindrical chamber that usually is filled with
water or glycerine. The specimen is subjected to
a confining pressure by compression of the fluid
in the chamber.
To cause shear failure in the specimen, one must apply axial stress through a vertical loading ram
(sometimes called deviator stress).

This stress can be applied in one of two ways:

1. Application of dead weights or hydraulic pressure in equal increments until the specimen fails.
(Axial deformation of the specimen resulting from the load applied through the ram is measured
by a dial gauge.)

2. Application of axial deformation at a constant rate by means of a geared or hydraulic loading

press. This is a strain-controlled test.

The axial load applied by the loading ram corresponding to a given axial deformation is measured
by a proving ring or load cell attached to the ram.
Connections to measure drainage into or out of the specimen, or to measure
pressure in the pore water (as per the test conditions), also are provided. The
following three standard types of triaxial tests generally are conducted:

1. Consolidated-drained test or drained test (CD test)

2. Consolidated-undrained test (CU test)
3. Unconsolidated-undrained test or undrained test (UU test)

The general procedures and implications for each of the tests in saturated soils are
described in the following sections.
Consolidated-Drained Triaxial Test (CD)
• In the CD test, the saturated specimen first is
subjected to an all around confining pressure, σ3,
by compression of the chamber fluid (Figure
12.20a). As confining pressure is applied, the pore
water pressure of the specimen increases by uc (if
drainage is prevented). This increase in the pore
water pressure can be expressed as a
nondimensional parameter in the form
𝑢
B=
σ3

where B = Skempton’s pore pressure parameter

(Skempton, 1954).
For saturated soft soils, B is approximately equal to
1; however, for saturated stiff soils, the magnitude of
B can be less than 1.
Because the pore water pressure developed during the test is completely
dissipated, we have
Total and effective confining stress = σ3 = σ3’
And
Total and effective axial stress at failure = σ3 + ∆σd = σ1 = σ1’

In a triaxial test, σ1’ is the major principal effective stress at failure and σ3’ is
the minor principal effective stress at failure.
 σ1 − σ3
𝐴𝑂′ 2
Sin Ø = = σ1 +σ3
𝑜𝑜′
2
-1 σ1 − σ3
Ø= Sin
σ1 + σ3
Consolidated-Undrained Triaxial Test

The consolidated-undrained test is the most common type of triaxial test. In

this test, the saturated soil specimen is first consolidated by an all-around chamber
fluid pressure, σ3, that results in drainage (Figures 12.26a and 12.26b). After the
pore water pressure generated by the application of confining pressure is
dissipated, the deviator stress, ∆σd, on the specimen is increased to cause shear
failure (Figure 12.26c). During this phase of the test, the drainage line from the
specimen is kept closed. Because drainage is not permitted, the pore water
pressure, ∆ ud, will increase. During the test, simultaneous measurements of ∆σd
and , ∆ud are made. The increase in the pore water pressure, 0ud, can be expressed
in a nondimensional form as

∆ ud
A=
∆σd

where A = Skempton’s pore pressure parameter (Skempton, 1954).

Unlike the consolidated-drained test, the total and effective
principal stresses are not the same in the consolidated-undrained
test. Because the pore water pressure at failure is measured in this
test, the principal stresses may be analyzed as follows:

Major principal stress at failure (total): σ3 + ∆ σd = σ1

Major principal stress at failure (effective): σ1 - ∆ ud = σ’1
Minor principal stress at failure (total): σ3
Minor principal stress at failure (effective) σ3 - ∆ ud = σ’3
Unconsolidated-Undrained Triaxial Test

In unconsolidated-undrained tests, drainage from the soil specimen is not

permitted during the application of chamber pressure σ3. The test specimen is
sheared to failure by the application of deviator stress, ∆σd, and drainage is
prevented. Because drainage is not allowed at any stage, the test can be
performed quickly. Because of the application of chamber confining pressures
σ3, the pore water pressure in the soil specimen will increase by uc. A further
increase in the pore water pressure (∆ ud) will occur because of the deviator
stress application. Hence, the total pore water pressure u in the specimen at any
stage of deviator stress application can be given as

u = uc + ∆ud
This test usually is conducted on clay specimens and depends on a very important strength
concept for cohesive soils if the soil is fully saturated. The added axial stress at failure ∆σd is
practically the same regardless of the chamber confining pressure. This property is shown in
Figure 12.31. The failure envelope for the total stress Mohr’s circles becomes a horizontal line and
hence is called a Ø=0 condition. We get
τ = cu= c
where cu is the undrained shear strength and is equal to the radius of the Mohr’s circles. Note that
the Ø=0 concept is applicable to only saturated clays and silts.
Unconfined Compression Test on Saturated Clay

The unconfined compression test is a special type of

unconsolidated-undrained test that is commonly used
for clay specimens. In this test, the confining pressure s3
is 0. An axial load is rapidly applied to the specimen to
cause failure. At failure, the total minor principal stress is
zero and the total major principal stress is s1 (Figure
12.33). Because the undrained shear strength is
independent of the confining pressure as long as the soil
is fully saturated and fully undrained, we have
σ1 𝑞𝑢
τ= = = cu
2 2

where qu is the unconfined compression strength.

Sensitivity and Thixotropy of Clay
For many naturally deposited clay soils, the
unconfined compression strength is reduced
greatly when the soils are tested after
remolding without any change in the
moisture content. This property of clay soils is
called sensitivity. The degree of sensitivity
may be defined as the ratio of the unconfined
compression strength in an undisturbed state
to that in a remolded state, or

𝑞𝑢 (𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑)
St =
𝑞𝑢 (𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑒𝑑)
The sensitivity ratio of most clays
ranges from about 1 to 8; however,
highly flocculent marine clay deposits
may have sensitivity ratios ranging
from about 10 to 80. Some clays turn
to viscous fluids upon remolding.
These clays are found mostly in the
previously glaciated areas of North
America and Scandinavia. Such clays
are referred to as quick clays.
Rosenqvist (1953) classified clays on
the basis of their sensitivity. This
general classification is shown in
Figure 12.38.
The loss of strength of clay soils from
remolding is caused primarily by the
destruction of the clay particle structure that
was developed during the original process of
sedimentation. If, however, after remolding, a
soil specimen is kept in an undisturbed state
(that is,
without any change in the moisture content), it
will continue to gain strength with time. This
phenomenon is referred to as thixotropy.
Thixotropy is a time-dependent, reversible
process in which materials under constant
composition and volume soften when
remolded.
This loss of strength is gradually regained with
time when the materials are allowed to rest.
Strength Anisotropy in Clay
The unconsolidated-undrained shear
strength of some saturated clays can vary,
depending on the direction of load
application; this variation is referred to as
anisotropy with respect to strength.
Anisotropy is caused primarily by the
nature of the deposition of the cohesive
soils, and subsequent consolidation
makes the clay particles orient
perpendicular to the direction of the
major principal stress. Parallel orientation
of the clay particles can cause
the strength of clay to vary with direction.