SAINT MARY’S ANGELS COLLEGE OF PAMPANGA

Olongapo-Gapan Road, Sta. Ana, 2022, Pampanga

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL
IN HIGHWAY AND
RAILROAD ENGINEERING
(CEPC 313)

A.Y. 2020-2021

REFERENCES:

1. DPWH, 2012 Highway Safety Design Standards Part 1: Road Safety Design Manual

2. IES Master Highway Engineering

3. Fajardo, Max Jr. B. Elements of Roads and Highways, Second Edition, 5138 Merchandising
Publisher, Manila, 1998.

4. The Handbook of Highway Engineering, Taylor & Francis Group, LLC, 2006
Unit 6: Design Criteria for Highways and Railways

Consistency
Consistency is the most important single rule in highway design. That is, by making every element of the
roadway conforms to the expectation of every driver.

Drivers expect the highway agency to provide them with:

1. Clear information and guidance tlrough a variety of road slgns.

2. Avoiding abrupt changes in the traffic as well as the road standards.

If these guides and directions could be planned properly to convey one single message at a time, and if
these directions will be followed smoothly and easily without undue haste, or changes in speed, lhen,
the roadway facilities are considered satisfactory. Experienced highway Engineers recommended that
highway signs and directions should be integrated as early as the preliminary layout studies.

The Design Speed

There is no single set of Geometric Standards that will apply to all highways. For every highway segment,
decisions regarding appropriate control for each of the many details or requirements must be addressed
individually or separately.

AASHTO defined Design Speed as:

"The speed determined for design and correlation of the physical feature of a highway that influence
vehicles operation. It is the maximum speed that can be maintained over a specified section of the
highway when weather and traffic conditions are so favorable that the design features of the highway
govern.

Basic Design Features refers to the tightness and super elevation of curves, the sight distance, and
grade. The design speed is basically higher than the anticipated average speed. AASHTO recommend
that:

"The design speed be set to the greatest degree possible, to satisfy the needs of nearly all drivers both
today and throughout the road anticipated life."

For economic reasons, the Geometric Features of certain road sections are designed for speed from 30
to 50 kilometers per hour. And yet, some motorists drive faster on straight road alignment or less
sharply curved sections. Under these situations, highway design adopted control by reducing the super
elevation combined with easement curves, delineators, stripping signs and rumble strips, to alert
motorists and inform them that they are approaching sharp curves or blind curves.

ACTUAL PHOTO OF RUMBLE STRIPS

The AASHTO practice is to classify first the highway as Rural or Urban, then as Freeways, Arterials,
Collectors and Local. Rural collectors and local facilities are classified as flat, rolling, or mountainous.
Although the design speed presently used is 80 km. per hour, highway designers projected design speed
up ta 120 kilometers per hour to guarantee against future obsolescence as well as the increased margin
of operating safety. The high speed road design must anticipate future generation high speed vehicles
and advanced transportation systems that may operate on many of these road alignments.

Although the design speed of most highways is governed by construction costs, the concept of the
relatively high speed design for freeways is Regardless of Cost. They are planned for a nationwide high
volume traffic and high speed network.

AADT or ADT refers to traffic volume or flow on a highway as measured by the number of vehicles
passing a partial station during a given interval of time. It is called "Average Annual Daily Traffic". if the
period is less than one year. Volume may be stated on hourly "Observed Traffic Volume" or estimated
30th hour volume commonly used for design purposes. Some highway agencies use traffic volume for 5
minutes interval to distinguish short peak movements of vehicles.

Speed Implications
Research shows that lower speeds lead to fewer and less serious crashes. There are two reasons for this:

• At higher speeds a rider or a driver has less time to react to a situation and therefore there is a
greater likelihood that an error will result in a crash; and
• The momentum and kinetic energy of a vehicle increases rapidly with speed. The sudden
dissipation of this energy in a crash means that the injury to occupants is more severe.

Therefore, a carefully planned speed limit regime can make a significant contribution to road safety.

Current Speed Limits

The current speed restrictions are set out in Chapter IV – Traffic Rules, in Republic Act No. 4136 Land
Transportation and Traffic Code.

The rules indicate that a motorist shall drive at a safe speed determined by the driver based on the road
environment conditions. There are however maximum allowable speeds for different road
environments.

On open country roads with no "blind corners" not closely bordered by habitation, the maximum speed
for passenger cars and motorcycles is 80 kph and for motor trucks and buses, 50 kph.

On "through streets" or boulevards clear of traffic, with no "blind corners", when so designated, the
maximum speed for passenger cars and motorcycles is 40 kph and for motor trucks and buses, 30 kph.

On city and municipal streets, with light traffic, when not designated "through streets," the maximum
speed for passenger cars, motorcycles, motor trucks and buses is 30 kph.

Where it is determined that a road should have a different speed restriction to that indicated above,
then specific speed restriction signs should be installed to inform motorists. The following sections
describe where certain speed restriction could be appropriate.

High Risk Pedestrian Areas – 40 kph

Vulnerable road users, especially pedestrians, are particularly vulnerable at higher speeds. The graph
below based on international research shows the risk of a pedestrian fatality if hit by a vehicle at
different speeds.

RISK OF PEDESTRIAN FATALITY

For instance, 25% of people struck by a vehicle traveling at 40 kph would suffer fatal injuries. At 50 kph
this risk increases to 85%. Therefore, a speed limit of 40 kph or lower would be appropriate on roads
where there is high pedestrian activity such as in city areas.

A 40 kph speed limit would also be appropriate on roads where there are no one footpaths and
pedestrians are required to walk on the road.
Low risk pedestrian areas – 60 kph
On roads through built-up areas where there are not so many pedestrians. It is appropriate to allow
motorized traffic to travel more quickly.

The following pictures shows the type of environment where 60 kph may be appropriate. Although this
road is carrying vulnerable road users, they have separate lane to travel in.

HIGH SPEED ROAD WITH SEPARATE LANE FOR NON-MOTORIZED VEHICLES

80 kph
An 80 kph speed limit would be appropriate on a high standard duplicated carriage road where there is
only occasional access from adjoining properties.

100 kph
A 100 kph speed limit would only be appropriate on very high standard expressways, which have a low
crash rate. These expressways should have a high standard geometry and should be free of roadside
hazards. If hazards exist and they cannot be removed or modified, they should be shielded with a safety
barrier.

Speed Restriction Signs

Good speed management practice depends on speed limit signs being placed in visible locations and
repeated frequently enough for motorists to be certain of which speed zone they are in.

At the start of a new speed zone, a speed limit sign should be erected on the left and right sides of the
road. Then within the first kilometer, there should be two (2) farther pairs of repeater speed limit signs.
After that, repeater signs should be placed at one kilometer spacing.

Repeater signs should also be placed before and after all major intersections to confirm the speed limit
to all traffic turning into the road being considered.
Poor Road Standards
If the standard of the road geometry or its surface is poor, then it may be appropriate to adopt a lower
speed limit than would normally apply until such time that the road improvements can be made. The
lower speeds compensate for the hazardous conditions of the road.

An 80 kph or 90 kph speed limit may also be appropriate on lower standard expressways. For instance,
the concrete plant cylinders on the side of the expressway as shown below are a serious road hazard
within the clear zone which would cause injury to the occupants of an out of control vehicle. If this road
hazard cannot be removed or protection for vehicles provided, the speed limit should be restricted to
reduce the risk to motorists and riders.

HIGH SPEED ROAD WITH WIDE MEDIAN

Road Capacity
Road capacity, as defined in the U.S. Highway Capacity Manual (HCM), is the maximum number of
vehicles, which have a reasonable expectation of passing over a given section of a lane or a roadway in
one direction or in both directions during one hour under prevailing road and traffic conditions.

Generally, road capacity with respect to road sections is measured in terms of level-of-service. This is
designated with letters ‘A’ and ‘F’ with ‘A’ the most ideal condition and ‘F’ the saturated condition
where volume is equal to the road capacity.

In regard to intersections, capacity is generally measured in terms of ‘degree of saturation’

The capacity of a route can be affected by the following factors:

• Number of Lanes;
• Lane and shoulder width;
• Terrain and road gradient;
• Traffic composition;
• Side friction such as the presence of road furniture and pedestrians; and
• Intersection capacity (priority and movements, traffic signal phasing, number of lanes, etc.)
Ideal capacity of a road is 2.000 vehicles/hour (vph). However, based on several surveys conducted in
Metro Manila for various infrastructure projects, it was found that the maximum volume is achieved
only at a level of 1,400 vph on expressways and 1,100 for urban arterials.

In the design stage of a road project, appropriate capacity should be established to ensure satisfactory
operation. In establishing the capacity of the road, actual traffic surveys as well as investigation of future
use is required to ensure that safety is not compromised once the facility is in operation.

Traffic Forecasts
Experiences in the Philippines indicated that traffic forecasts for expressways (tolled facilities) are
usually optimistic. This may be seen as a factor to boost revenue forecasts to make the road appear
more interesting to investors. The opposite can be true in planning urban arterials as forecasts are often
below actual traffic counts once the facility is in operation. The latter has more impact on traffic safety
since it could mean more traffic is using the road than the volume for which it is originally designed.
Further, road maintenance is often compromised when traffic exceeds the forecasts (e.g. thickness of
pavement, lane width, maintenance budget, etc.)

Road Types
The basic functional types of roads are locals, collectors, arterials and freeways. Two major
considerations in the classification of highway functional types are access to land use and mobility. On
the two extremes, the design of local streets emphasizes access with little consideration for mobility,
while the design of freeways emphasizes mobility with limited access. The design of collectors and
arterials falls in between, with collectors emphasizes more for access and arterials favors mobility.

Design Vehicles
There are generally four classes of design vehicles:
(1) passenger cars,
(2) buses,
(3) trucks, and
(4) recreational vehicles.

The passenger car category includes sport utility vehicles, minivans, vans, and pickup trucks.

The bus and truck categories include buses and trucks of all sizes, respectively.

The highway designer should exercise his judgment in selecting the appropriate design vehicle for design
control, based on the intended use of the facility. For example, the design vehicle from the passenger
car category is adequate for the design of parking lots and their access roads. On the other hand, a city
transit bus should be used for the design of a street in the city along bus route, with little or no truck
traffic.

Turning radius limits the design of horizontal curves. Important vehicle characteristics that affect the
minimum turning radius are: minimum center line turning radius, wheelbase, track width, and out-of-
track width. AASHTO has provided the templates for turning paths of 17 design vehicles traveling at 15
km/h. The minimum design turning, center line turning and minimum inside radius are listed below.
Driver Characteristics
Geometric design of a highway should consider users, especially drivers’ performance limits. There are
limits to a driver’s vision, perception, reaction, concentration, and comfort that could impact the
highway safety and operating efficiency.

When driving, most drivers receive information visually from their views of the roadway alignment,
markings and signs. They do receive other information through vehicle feedback from the suspension
system and steering control, and roadway noise.

The information received by a driver needs time to be processed before a response action takes place. A
well-known study on the brake-reaction time has been made by Johannson and Rumar (1971). They
reported that when an event is expected, the driver’s reaction time has an average value of 0.6 sec. For
an unexpected event, the average reaction time is 0.8 sec. The average brake-reaction time of a driver
(including decision time), is 2.5 sec. This is dependent on the driver’s alertness. Brake-reaction time is
important in determining sight distance in highway geometric design. Koppa (2000) has summarized the
results obtained from recent studies on brake-reaction time. These findings are consistent with those
obtained by Johansson and Rumar. Readers may refer to Koppa (2000) for more details. Driver
expectancies are built up over time, with consistent road design. Unusual or unexpected geometric
design or event always leads to longer reaction and response time. The geometric design of highway
should be in accordance with the driver’s expectation.

In recent years, there has been increased concern for older drivers. The percentage of older drivers
among the driving population has increased over the years. Older drivers tend to have longer reaction
time, and this should be reflected in the design.

Number of Lanes
The number of lanes in a segment of the highway is determined from the estimated traffic volume for
the design year (AADT) and highway lane capacity at expected level of service. AASHTO policies accept a
dually divided 16 lanes roadway with four lanes in each direction for an inner freeway and four more
lanes in each direction on the outside. There are some instances where a reversible lane is located at the
center of freeways with unbalanced heavy traffic flow.
Level of Service Consideration
Given a fixed volume of traffic flow and vehicle composition, the geometric design of highways, such as
the horizontal and vertical curves, grades, lane width, number of lanes, etc., affects the travel speed of
vehicles and the interaction between vehicles. The outcome of such effect is the observable operational
performance of the highway, qualitatively represented by the highway level of service. The concept of
LOS and methods of evaluation for different highway types are covered in great detail in the Highway
Capacity Manual (TRB 2000).

The highway designer should strive to provide a LOS that is as high as possible. AASHTO (2001) has
published a list of acceptable LOS for different road types.

It is recommended that, after the designer has come out with the geometric elements of the highway
(horizontal and vertical curves, grades, super-elevation, etc.) after checking through all the design
elements, he should estimate the LOS based on the road type, designed volume, vehicle composition,
number of lanes, and lane width. The geometric design should be revised if the LOS is not meeting.

the expectation (for examples, by modifying the grades, radius of curvature). He should also ensure that
continuous segments of the same highway do not have sudden change in LOS that may cause surprise to
the drivers.

Railroad - Highway Separation

The main question asked on a railroad and highway separation is: 'Where one is to go over- the railroad
or the highway? If the highway is to go over the railroad, the structure itself is lighter and the highway
load is much smaller than the railroad loads. With regards to the vertical clearance height, the railroad
requires a minimum of 7.00 meters as against 4.80 meters clear distance above the highway. If the
highway goes under the railroad, special provision is required for the removal of rainwater that falls
within the opposing area. If the ground water is high in the vicinity of the crossing, the roadway must be
sealed against leakage and be made heavy enough to prevent from floating.

DESIGN CRITERIA FOR RAILWAYS

Equilibrium speed

• When the speed of a vehicle negotiating a curved track is such that the resultant force of the weight
of the vehicle and of radial acceleration is perpendicular to the plane of the rails, the vehicle is not
subjected to any unbalanced radial acceleration and is said to be in equilibrium.
• This particular speed is called the equilibrium speed. The equilibrium speed, as such, is the speed at
which the effect of the centrifugal force is completely balanced by the cant provided.

Maximum permissible speed

• This is the highest speed permitted to a train on a curve taking into consideration the radius of
curvature, actual cant, cant deficiency, cant excess, and the length of transition.
• On cruves where the maximum permissible speed is less than the maximum sectional speed of the
section of the line, permanent speed restriction becomes necessary.
Cant deficiency

• Cant deficiency (Cd) occurs when a train travels around a curve at a speed higher than the
equilibrium speed. It is the difference between the theoretical cant required for such high speeds
and the actual cant provided.

Cant Excess

• Cant excess (Ce) occurs when a train travels around a curve at a speed lower than the equilibrium
speed. It is the difference between the actual cant provided and the theoretical cant required for
such a low speed.
• The limiting values of cant excess have also been prescribed. Cant excess should not be more than
75 mm on broad gauge and 65 mm on metre gauge for all types of rolling stock.

Cant gradient and cant deficiency gradient

• These indicate the increase or decrease in the cant or the deficiency of cant in a given length of
transition.
• A gradient of 1 in 1000 means that a cant or a deficiency of cant of 1 mm is attained or lost in every
1000 mm of transition length.

Rate of change of cant or cant deficiency

• This is the rate at which cant deficiency increases while passing over the transition curve, e.g., a rate
of 35 mm per second means that a vehicle will experience a change in cant or a cant deficiency of 35
mm in each second of travel over the transition when travelling at the maximum permissible speed.

Centrifugal Force on a Curved Track

• A vehicle has a tendency to travel in a straight direction, which is tangential to the curve, even when
it moves on a circular curve. As a result, the vehicle is subjected to a constant radial acceleration:

Radial acceleration, g = V2/R

where V is the velocity (metres per second) and R is the radius of curve (metres)

• This radial acceleration produces a centrifugal force which acts in a radial direction away from the
centre. The value of the centrifugal force is given by the formula:
Force = mass × acceleration
F = m × (V2/R) = (W/g) × (V2/R)
where F is the centrifugal force (tonnes), W is the weight of the vehicle (tonnes), V is the speed
(metre/sec), g is the acceleration due to gravity (metre/sec2), and R is the radius of the curve
(metres).
• To counteract the effect of the centrifugal force, the outer rail of the curve is elevated with respect
to the inner rail by an amount equal to the superelevation.
• A state of equilibrium is reached when both the wheels exert equal pressure on the rails and the
superelevation is enough to bring the resultant of the centrifugal force and the force exerted by the
weight of the vehicle at right angles to the plane of the top surface of the rails. In this state of
equilibrium, the difference in the heights of the outer and inner rails of the curve known as
equilibrium superelevation.