Hydraulic Jump

A moving hydraulic jump is called a surge.

A hydraulic jump is a phenomenon in the science of hydraulics which is frequently
observed in open channel flow such as rivers and spillways. When liquid at high
velocity discharges into a zone of lower velocity, a rather abrupt rise occurs in the
liquid surface. The rapidly flowing liquid is abruptly slowed and increases in height,
converting some of the flow's initial kinetic energy into an increase in potential energy,
with some energy irreversibly lost through turbulence to heat. In an open channel
flow, this manifests as the fast flow rapidly slowing and piling up on top of itself similar
to how a shockwave forms.

For Visualisation, view thw video link given;

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZYHtxojTJmM

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It was first observed and documented by Leonardo da Vinci in 1500s.[1] The
mathematics were first described by Giorgio Bidone when he published a paper in
1820 called Experiences sur le remou et sur la propagation des ondes.[2]

The phenomenon is dependent upon the initial fluid speed. If the initial speed of the
fluid is below the critical speed, then no jump is possible. For initial flow speeds which
are not significantly above the critical speed, the transition appears as an undulating
wave. As the initial flow speed increases further, the transition becomes more abrupt,
until at high enough speeds, the transition front will break and curl back upon itself.
When this happens, the jump can be accompanied by violent turbulence, eddying, air
entrainment, and surface undulations, or waves.

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There are two main manifestations of hydraulic jumps and historically different
terminology has been used for each. However, the mechanisms behind them are
similar because they are simply variations of each other seen from different frames of
reference, and so the physics and analysis techniques can be used for both types.
The different manifestations are:
• The stationary hydraulic jump – rapidly flowing water transitions in a stationary
jump to slowly moving water as shown in Figures 1 and 2.
• The tidal bore – a wall or undulating wave of water moves upstream against
water flowing downstream as shown in Figures 3 and 4. If one considers a
frame of reference which moves along with the wave front, then the wave
front is stationary relative to the frame and has the same essential behavior as
the stationary jump.

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Figure 1 Figure 2

4
Figure 3 Figure 4

5
1 Classes of hydraulic jumps
Hydraulic jumps can be seen in both a stationary form, which is known as a
"hydraulic jump", and a dynamic or moving form, which is known as a positive
surge or "hydraulic jump in translation".[16] They can be described using the same
analytic approaches and are simply variants of a single phenomenon.

1.1 Moving hydraulic jump

A tidal bore is a hydraulic jump which occurs when the incoming tide forms a wave (or
waves) of water that travel up a river or narrow bay against the direction of the
current.[16] As is true for hydraulic jumps in general, bores take on various forms
depending upon the difference in the waterlevel upstream and down, ranging from an
undular wavefront to a shock-wave-like wall of water.[9] .

6
Figure 3 shows a tidal bore with the characteristics common to shallow upstream
water – a large elevation difference is observed. Figure 4 shows a tidal bore with the
characteristics common to deep upstream water – a small elevation difference is
observed and the wavefront undulates
In both cases the tidal wave moves at the speed characteristic of waves in water of the
depth found immediately behind the wave front. A key feature of tidal bores and
positive surges is the intense turbulent mixing induced by the passage of the bore
front and by the following wave motion.[20]

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Another variation of the moving hydraulic jump is the cascade. In the cascade, a
series of roll waves or undulating waves of water moves downstream overtaking a
shallower downstream flow of water.
A moving hydraulic jump is called a surge. The travel of wave is faster in the upper
portion than in the lower portion in case of positive surges

1.2 Stationary hydraulic jump

A stationary hydraulic jump is the type most frequently seen on rivers and on
engineered features such as outfalls of dams and irrigation works. They occur when a
flow of liquid at high velocity discharges into a zone of the river or engineered
structure which can only sustain a lower velocity. When this occurs, the water slows in
a rather abrupt rise (a step or standing wave) on the liquid surface.[17]

8
Comparing the characteristics before and after, one finds:
Descriptive Hydraulic Jump Characteristics[7][8][13][15]

Characteristic Before the jump After the jump

supercritical (faster than subcritical also known as

the wave speed) also tranquil or subundal
fluid speed
known as shooting or
superundal
fluid height low high

flow typically smooth typically turbulent

turbulent flow (rough and choppy)

The other stationary hydraulic jump occurs when a rapid flow encounters a
submerged object which throws the water upward. The mathematics behind this form
is more complex and will need to take into account the shape of the object and the
flow characteristics of the fluid around it.
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Analysis of the hydraulic jump on a liquid surface
In spite of the apparent complexity of the flow transition, application of simple
analytic tools to a two dimensional analysis is effective in providing analytic
results which closely parallel both field and laboratory results. Analysis shows:
• Height of the jump: the relationship between the depths before and after the
jump as a function of flow rate[18]
• Energy loss in the jump
• Location of the jump on a natural or an engineered structure
• Character of the jump: undular or abrupt

Height of the jump

The height of the jump is derived from the application of the equations of
conservation of mass and momentum.[18] There are several methods of
predicting the height of a hydraulic jump.[3][4][5][6][10][15][18][21]

10
They all reach common conclusions that:
• The ratio of the water depth before and after the jump depend solely on the ratio
of velocity of the water entering the jump to the speed of the wave over-running
the moving water.
• The height of the jump can be many times the initial depth of the water.

For a known flow rate q, as shown by the figure below, the approximation that the
momentum flux is the same just up- and downstream of the energy principle yields an
expression of the energy loss in the hydraulic jump.
Hydraulic jumps are commonly used as energy dissipators downstream of dam
spillways.

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Applying the continuity principle
In fluid dynamics, the equation of continuity is effectively an equation of conservation
of mass. Considering any fixed closed surface within an incompressible moving fluid,
the fluid flows into a given volume at some points and flows out at other points along
the surface with no net change in mass within the space since the density is constant.
In case of a rectangular channel, then the equality of mass flux upstream (𝜌𝑣0 ℎ0 )and
downstream (𝜌𝑣1 ℎ1 ) gives:
ℎ0
𝑣0 ℎ0 = 𝑣1 ℎ1 = 𝑞 𝑜𝑟 𝑣1 = 𝑣0 ,
ℎ1
With 𝜌 the fluid density, 𝑣0 & 𝑣1 the depth-averaged flow velocities upstream and
downstream and ℎ0 and ℎ1 the corresponding water depths.

Conservation of momentum flux

For a straight prismatic rectangular channel, the conservation of
momentum flux across the jump, assuming constant density, can be expressed as:
1 1
𝜌𝑣0 ℎ0 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ0 = 𝜌𝑣1 ℎ1 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ1 2
2 2 2
2 2

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In rectangular channel, such conservation equation can be further simplified
to dimensionless M-y equation form, which is widely used in hydraulic jump analysis in
open channel flow. Link given below. There are examples for hydraulic jump problems
given as well in this link towards the end. Please view.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimensionless_momentum-
depth_relationship_in_open-channel_flow

Jump height in terms of flow Dividing by constant {\displaystyle \rho } and introducing
the result from continuity gives
2
ℎ0 𝑔
𝑣0 2 ℎ0 − + ℎ0 2 − ℎ1 2 = 0
ℎ1 2
which, after some algebra, simplifies to:
1 ℎ1 ℎ1
+ 1 − 𝐹𝑟 2 = 0
2 ℎ0 ℎ0
𝑣0 2
Where 𝐹𝑟 2 = . Here 𝐹𝑟 is the dimensionless Froude number, and relates inertial
𝑔ℎ0
to gravitational forces in the upstream flow. Solving this quadratic yields:

13
 8𝑣0 2
−1 ± 1+
ℎ1 𝑔ℎ0
=
ℎ0 2
Negative answers do not yield meaningful physical solutions, so this reduces to:
8𝑣0 2
−1 + 1+
ℎ1 𝑔ℎ0
= 𝑠𝑜
ℎ0 2

ℎ1 1 + 8𝐹𝑟 2 − 1
= ,
ℎ0 2

known as Bélanger equation. The result may be extended to an irregular cross-

section.[18]
This produces three solution classes:

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 𝑣0 2 ℎ
• When = 1, then ℎ1 = 1 (i.e., there is no jump)
𝑔ℎ0 0

𝑣0 2 ℎ1
• When < 1, then < 1 (i.e., there is a negative jump – this can be shown as
𝑔ℎ0 ℎ0
not conserving energy and is only physically possible if some force were to
accelerate the fluid at that point)

𝑣0 2 ℎ
• When > 1, then ℎ1 > 1 (i.e., there is a positive jump)
𝑔ℎ0 0

This is equivalent to the condition that 𝐹𝑟 > 1. Since the 𝑔ℎ0 is the speed of a
shallow gravity wave, the condition that 𝐹𝑟 > 1 is equivalent to stating that the
initial velocity represents supercritical flow (Froude number > 1) while the final
velocity represents subcritical flow (Froude number < 1).

15
Undulations downstream of the jumpPractically this means that water accelerated by
large drops can create stronger standing waves (undular bores) in the form of
hydraulic jumps as it decelerates at the base of the drop. Such standing waves, when
found downstream of a weir or natural rock ledge, can form an extremely dangerous
"keeper" with a water wall that "keeps" floating objects (e.g., logs, kayaks, or kayakers)
recirculating in the standing wave for extended periods.

Energy dissipation by a hydraulic jump

One of the most important engineering applications of the hydraulic jump is to
dissipate energy in channels, dam spillways, and similar structures so that the
excess kinetic energy does not damage these structures. The rate of energy
dissipation or head loss across a hydraulic jump is a function of the hydraulic jump
inflow Froude number and the height of the jump.[15]

The energy loss at a hydraulic jump expressed as a head loss is:

ℎ1 − ℎ0 3
∆𝐸 =
4ℎ0 ℎ1

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Location of hydraulic jump in a streambed or an engineered
structure
In the design of a dam the energy of the fast-flowing stream over a spillway must be
partially dissipated to prevent erosion of the streambed downstream of the spillway,
which could ultimately lead to failure of the dam. This can be done by arranging for
the formation of a hydraulic jump to dissipate energy. To limit damage, this hydraulic
jump normally occurs on an apron engineered to withstand hydraulic forces and to
prevent local cavitation and other phenomena which accelerate erosion.

In the design of a spillway and apron, the engineers select the point at which a
hydraulic jump will occur. Obstructions or slope changes are routinely designed into
the apron to force a jump at a specific location. Obstructions are unnecessary, as the
slope change alone is normally sufficient. To trigger the hydraulic jump without
obstacles, an apron is designed such that the flat slope of the apron retards the rapidly
flowing water from the spillway. If the apron slope is insufficient to maintain the
original high velocity, a jump will occur.

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Saint Anthony Falls on the Mississippi
River showing a pronounced hydraulic
jump.

Supercritical flow down the Cleveland Dam spillway at the head of

the Capilano River in North Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada.
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Two methods of designing an induced jump are common:
• If the downstream flow is restricted by the down-stream channel such that
water backs up onto the foot of the spillway, that downstream water level can
be used to identify the location of the jump.
• If the spillway continues to drop for some distance, but the slope changes such
that it will no longer support supercritical flow, the depth in the lower
subcritical flow region is sufficient to determine the location of the jump.
In both cases, the final depth of the water is determined by the downstream
characteristics. The jump will occur if and only if the level of inflowing
(supercritical) water level (ℎ0 ) satisfies the condition:
ℎ1
ℎ0 = −1 + 1 + 8𝐹𝑟2 2
2
𝐹𝑟 = Upstream Froude Number
𝑔 = acceleration due to gravity (essentially constant for this case)
ℎ = height of the fluid (ℎ0 = initial height while ℎ1 = upstream height)

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Air entrainment in hydraulic jumps
The hydraulic jump is characterised by a highly turbulent flow. Macro-scale vortices
develop in the jump roller and interact with the free surface leading to air bubble
entrainment, splashes and droplets formation in the two-phase flow region.[23][24] The
air–water flow is associated with turbulence, which can also lead to sediment
transport. The turbulence may be strongly affected by the bubble dynamics. Physically,
the mechanisms involved in these processes are complex.

The air entrainment occurs in the form of air bubbles and air packets entrapped at the
impingement of the upstream jet flow with the roller. The air packets are broken up in
very small air bubbles as they are entrained in the shear region, characterised by large
air contents and maximum bubble count rates.[25] Once the entrained bubbles are
advected into regions of lesser shear, bubble collisions and coalescence lead to larger
air entities that are driven toward the free-surface by a combination of buoyancy and
turbulent advection.

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Tabular summary of the analytic conclusions
Hydraulic Jump Characteristics[7][8][13][15]

Amount upstream Ratio of Descriptive characteristics of Fraction of energy

flow is height after jump dissipated by
supercritical (i.e., to height jump[11]
prejump Froude before
Number) jump

No jump; flow must be

≤ 1.0 1.0 supercritical for jump to none
occur

1.0–1.7 1.0–2.0 Standing or undulating wave < 5%

Weak jump (series of small
1.7–2.5 2.0–3.1 5% – 15%
rollers)
2.5–4.5 3.1–5.9 Oscillating jump 15% – 45%
Stable clearly defined well-
4.5–9.0 5.9–12.0 45% – 70%
balanced jump
Clearly defined, turbulent,
> 9.0 > 12.0 70% – 85%
strong jump
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NB: the above classification is very rough. Undular hydraulic jumps have been
observed with inflow/prejump Froude numbers up to 3.5 to 4.[15][16]

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References and notes[edit]
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21. ^ This section outlines the approaches at an overview level only.
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Water Shear Flow in a Hydraulic Jump" (PDF). International Journal of
Multiphase Flow. 26 (4): 583–607. doi:10.1016/S0301-9322(99)00016-
6.

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24. Murzyn, F.; Chanson, H. (2009). "Two-phase gas-liquid flow properties in
the hydraulic jump: Review and perspectives". In S. Martin and J.R. Williams
(ed.). Multiphase Flow Research (PDF). Hauppauge NY, USA: Nova Science
Publishers. Chapter 9, pp. 497–542. ISBN 978-1-60692-448-8.
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384. Bibcode:2007EJMF...26..367C. doi:10.1016/j.euromechflu.2006.08.001.
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