Learning and Teaching Early Math

In this important book for pre- and in-service teachers, early math experts Douglas Clements and
Julie Sarama show how “learning trajectories” help diagnose a child’s level of mathematical under-
standing and provide guidance for teaching. By focusing on the inherent delight and curiosity behind
young children’s mathematical reasoning, learning trajectories ultimately make teaching more
joyous. They help teachers understand the varying levels of knowledge exhibited by individual
students, which, in turn, allows them to better meet the learning needs of all children. Using straight-
forward, no-nonsense language, this book summarizes the current research about how children
learn mathematics, and how teachers can build on what children already know to realize more effec-
tive teaching.
This second edition of Learning and Teaching Early Math remains the definitive, research-based
resource to help teachers understand the learning trajectories of early mathematics and thus to
become quintessential professionals. Updates to the new edition include:

• Explicit connections between “learning trajectories” and the Common Core State Standards;
• New coverage of patterns and patterning;
• The incorporation of hundreds of recent research studies.

Douglas H. Clements is the Kennedy Institute’s Endowed Chair in Early Childhood Learning,
Executive Director of the Marsico Institute of Early Learning and Literacy, part of the Morgridge
College of Education, and a Professor in the Department of Educational Research, Policy, and
Practice at the University of Denver, USA.

Julie Sarama is the Kennedy Institute’s Endowed Chair in Innovative Learning Technologies and a
Professor in the Department of Educational Research, Policy, and Practice at the University of
Denver, USA.
Studies in Mathematical Thinking and Learning
Alan H. Schoenfeld, Series Editor

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Clements, D. H. & Sarama, J. (2014). Learning and Teaching Early Math: The Learning Trajectories
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This page intentionally left bank
Learning and Teaching Early Math
The Learning Trajectories Approach

Second edition

Douglas H. Clements and Julie Sarama

Second edition published 2014
by Routledge
8th Floor, 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017, USA
and by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxford, OX14 4RN, UK
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2014 Taylor & Francis
The right of Douglas H. Clements and Julie Sarama to be identified as
authors of this work has been asserted by them in accordance with
sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or
utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means,
now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording,
or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in
writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or
registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and
explanation without intent to infringe.
First edition published in 2009 by Taylor & Francis
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Clements, Douglas H.
Learning and teaching early math : the learning trajectories approach /
Douglas H. Clements, Julie A. Sarama. – Second edition.
pages cm. – (Studies in mathematical thinking and learning series)
Includes bibliographical references and index. 1. Mathematics–Study and
teaching (Early childhood) 2. Educational psychology. 3. Child
development. 4. Curriculum planning. I. Sarama, Julie. II. Title.
QA135.6.C55 2014
372.7’049–dc23
2013037230

ISBN: 978–0–415–82851–2 (hbk)

ISBN: 978–0–415–82850–5 (pbk)
ISBN: 978–0–203–52057–4 (ebk)

Typeset in Minion
by RefineCatch Limited, Bungay, Suffolk, UK
 Contents

Preface ix
Acknowledgments xii

1. Young Children and Mathematics Learning 1

2. Quantity, Number, and Subitizing 9
3. Verbal and Object Counting 22
4. Comparing, Ordering, and Estimating 50
5. Arithmetic: Early Addition and Subtraction and Counting Strategies 68
6. Arithmetic: Composition of Number, Place Value, and Multidigit Addition
and Subtraction 93
7. Spatial Thinking 124
8. Shape 141
9. Composition and Decomposition of Shapes 170
10. Geometric Measurement: Length 186
11. Geometric Measurement: Area, Volume, and Angle 198
12. Other Content Domains 214
13. Mathematical Processes and Practices 230
14. Cognition, Affect, and Equity 237
15. Early Childhood Mathematics Education: Contexts and Curricula 266
16. Instructional Practices and Pedagogical Issues 291

References 334
Index 363

vii
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 Preface

Who dares to teach must never cease to learn.

(John Cotton Dana, 1856–1929)

Think of the biggest number you can. Now add five. Then, imagine if
you had that many Twinkies. Wow, that’s five more than the biggest
number you could come up with!
(Child, age 6)

Everyone knows that effective teaching involves “meeting the students where they are” and helping
them build on what they know. But that’s easier said than done. Which aspects of mathematics
are important, which less so? How do we diagnose what a child knows? How do we build on that
knowledge—in which directions, and in what ways?
We believe that “learning trajectories” answer these questions and help teachers become more
effective professionals. Just as importantly, they open up windows to seeing young children and math
in new ways, making teaching more joyous because the mathematical reasoning of children is
impressive and delightful.
Learning trajectories have three parts: (a) a specific mathematical goal, (b) a path along which
children develop to reach that goal, and (c) a set of instructional activities that help children move
along that path. So, teachers who understand learning trajectories understand the math, the way
children think and learn about math, and how to help children learn it better.
Learning trajectories connect research and practice. They connect children to math. They connect
teachers to children. They help teachers understand the level of knowledge and thinking of their
classes and the individuals in their classes as key in serving the needs of all children. (Equity issues
are important to us and to the nation. This entire book is designed to help you teach all children, but
equity concerns are discussed specifically and at length in Chapters 14, 15, and 16.) Learning and
Teaching Early Math will help you understand the learning trajectories of early mathematics and so
to become a quintessential professional.
Learning and teaching, of course, take place in a context. For the last decade, we have had
the honor and advantage of working with several hundred early childhood teachers, who have
worked with us creating new ideas for teaching and invited us into their classrooms to test these
ideas with the children in their charge. We wish to share with you a bit about this collaborative
work.

ix
x • Preface

Background
In 1998, we began a four-year project funded by the National Science Foundation (NSF). The
purpose of “Building Blocks—Foundations for Mathematical Thinking, Pre-Kindergarten to Grade
2: Research-Based Materials Development” was to create and evaluate mathematics curricula for
young children based on a theoretically sound research and development framework. Based
on theory and research on early childhood learning and teaching, we determined that Building
Blocks’ basic approach would be finding the mathematics in, and developing mathematics from, chil-
dren’s activity. To achieve this, all aspects of the Building Blocks project have been based on learning
trajectories. Teachers have found this combination of the Building Blocks’ approach and
learning trajectories to be a powerful teaching tool.
More than a decade later, we are still finding new opportunities for exciting research and develop-
ment in early mathematics. Funding from the U.S. Department of Education’s Institute of Education
Sciences (IES) and the NSF has allowed us to work closely with hundreds of teachers and thousands
of children over the past ten years. All of these agencies and individuals have contributed ideas to
this book and its companion. In addition, these projects have increased our confidence that our
approach, based on learning trajectories and rigorous empirical testing at every step, can, in turn,
make a contribution to all educators in the field of early mathematics. The model for working
with educators in all positions—from teachers to administrators, trainers to researchers—has been
developed with IES funding to our TRIAD (technology-enhanced, research-based instruction,
assessment, and professional development)1 project.

The “Companion” Books

We believe that our successes are due to the people who have contributed to our projects, as well
as to our commitment to grounding everything that we have done in research. Because the work
has been so drenched in research, we decided to publish two books. The companion to the
present book—Early Childhood Mathematics Education Research: Learning Trajectories for Young
Children (Sarama & Clements, 2009)—reviews the research underlying our learning trajectories,
emphasizing the research that describes the paths of learning; that is, children’s natural progressions
in developing the concepts and skills within a certain domain of mathematics (most research
citations for these are in the companion book, although we have added recent ones to this edition).
The present book describes and illustrates how these learning trajectories can be implemented in the
classroom.

Reading this Book

In straightforward, no-nonsense language, we summarize what is known about how children learn,
and how to build on what they know. In Chapter 1, we introduce the topic of mathematics education
for very young children. We discuss why people are particularly interested in engaging young
children with mathematics and what President Bush’s National Mathematics Advisory Panel (often
called the “National Math Panel” or NMP) (NMP, 2008) recommended. Next, we describe the idea
of learning trajectories in detail. We end with an introduction to the Building Blocks project and
explain how learning trajectories are at its core.
Most of the following chapters address one mathematics topic, and we describe how children
understand and learn about that topic. These descriptions are brief summaries of the more elaborate
reviews of the research that can be found in the aforementioned companion book, Early Childhood
Mathematics Education Research: Learning Trajectories for Young Children (Sarama & Clements,
2009). Next, we describe how experiences—from the beginning of life—and classroom-based
 Preface • xi

education affect children’s learning of the topic. Chapters 2 to 11 then culminate in a detailed
description of learning trajectories for the chapter’s topic.
Read more than the topic chapters, even if you just want to teach a topic! In the last three chapters,
we discuss issues that are important for putting these ideas into practice. In Chapter 14, we describe
how children think about mathematics and how their feelings are involved. Equity concerns complete
that chapter. In Chapter 15, we discuss the contexts in which early childhood education occurs, and
the curricula that are used. In Chapter 16, we review what we know about specific instructional prac-
tices. The topics of these three chapters are unique to this book. Because there are no corresponding
chapters in the companion book for these three important chapters, we review more research in this
book. We have made the implications for practitioners clear.
To teach children with different needs, and to teach effectively, make sure you read Chapters 14, 15,
and especially 16. Some readers may wish to read those chapters immediately after having read
Chapter 1! Whichever way you choose, please know that the learning trajectories that describe
children’s learning and effective teaching for each topic are only part of the story—the other, critical
part is found in those final three chapters.
This is not a typical book of “cute teaching ideas.” We believe, however, that it may be the most
practical book that you, as a teacher of early mathematics, could read. The many teachers with whom
we have worked claim that, once they understood the learning trajectories and ways to implement
them in their classrooms, they—and the children they teach—were changed for the better forever.
Moreover, they also changed their beliefs, shedding the unfortunate misconceptions that many
teachers hold about early mathematics education, such as:

• Young children are not ready for mathematics education.

• Mathematics is for some bright kids with mathematics genes.
• Simple numbers and shapes are enough.
• Language and literacy are more important than mathematics.
• Teachers should provide an enriched physical environment, step back, and let the children
play.
• Mathematics should not be taught as a stand-alone subject matter.
• Assessment in mathematics is irrelevant when it comes to young children.
• Children learn mathematics only by interacting with concrete objects.
• Computers are inappropriate for the teaching and learning of mathematics.
(From Sun Lee & Ginsburg, 2009)

Note
1 Like many acronyms, TRIAD almost works . . . we jokingly ask people to accept the “silent p” in “professional development.”
 Acknowledgments

Appreciation to the Funding Agencies

We wish to express our appreciation for the funding agencies that have not only provided financial
support but also intellectual support, in the form of guidance from program officers (most notably
and recently, Caroline Ebanks and Christina S. Chhin from the IES and Edith S. Gummer from the
NSF) as well as opportunities to collaborate with other projects and attend conferences to exchange
ideas with colleagues.
The ideas and research reported here have been supported by all of the following grants. Any
opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the
authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the funding agencies.

Grants
Barrett, J., Clements, D. H., & Sarama, J. A longitudinal account of children’s knowledge of measure-
ment. Awarded by the NSF (Directorate for Education & Human Resources (EHR), Division of
Research on Learning in Formal and Informal Settings (DRL)), award no. DRL-0732217. Arlington,
VA: NSF.

xii
 Acknowledgments • xiii

Barrett, J., Clements, D. H., Sarama, J., & Cullen, C. Learning trajectories to support the growth of
measurement knowledge: Prekindergarten through middle school. Awarded by the NSF (EHR, DRL),
award no. DRL-1222944. Arlington, VA: NSF.
Clements, D. H. & Sarama, J. Building blocks—Foundations for mathematical thinking, prekinder-
garten to grade 2: Research-based materials development. Awarded by the NSF (EHR, Division of
Elementary, Secondary & Informal Education (ESIE), Instructional Materials Development (IMD)
program), award no. ESI-9730804. Arlington, VA: NSF.
Clements, D. H. & Sarama, J. Scaling up TRIAD: Teaching early mathematics for understanding with
trajectories and technologies—Supplement. Awarded by the IES as part of the Interagency Education
Research Initiative (IERI) program, a combination of the IES, the NSF (EHR, Division of Research,
Evaluation and Communication (REC)), and the National Institutes of Health (NIH) (National
Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD)). Washington, D.C.: IES.
Clements, D. H. Conference on standards for preschool and kindergarten mathematics education.
Supported in part by the NSF (EHR, ESIE) and the ExxonMobil Foundation, award no. ESI-9817540.
Arlington, VA: NSF. In Clements, D. H., Sarama, J., & DiBiase, A.-M. (Eds.). (2004). Engaging young
children in mathematics: Standards for early childhood mathematics education. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates.
Clements, D. H., Sarama, J., & Layzer, C. Longitudinal study of a successful scaling-up project: Extending
TRIAD. Awarded by the IES (Mathematics and Science Education program), award no. R305A110188.
Washington, D.C.: National Center for Education Research (NCER), IES.
Clements, D. H., Sarama, J., & Lee, J. Scaling up TRIAD: Teaching early mathematics for understanding
with trajectories and technologies. Awarded by the IES as part of the IERI program, a combination of
the IES, the NSF (EHR, REC), and the NIH (NICHD). Washington, D.C.: IES.
Clements, D. H., Sarama, J., & Tatsuoka, C. Using rule space and poset-based adaptive testing method-
ologies to identify ability patterns in early mathematics and create a comprehensive mathematics ability
test. Awarded by the NSF, award no. 1313695 (previously funded under award no. DRL-1019925).
Arlington, VA: NSF.
Clements, D. H., Sarama, J., Bodrova, E., & Layzer, C. Increasing the efficacy of an early mathematics
curriculum with scaffolding designed to promote self-regulation. Awarded by the IES, Early Learning
Programs and Policies program, award no. R305A080200. Washington, D.C.: NCER, IES.
Clements, D. H., Sarama, J., Klein, A., & Starkey, P. Scaling up the implementation of a pre-kindergarten
mathematics curricula: Teaching for understanding with trajectories and technologies. Awarded by the
NSF as part of the IERI program, a combination of the NSF (EHR, REC), the IES, and the NIH
(NICHD). Arlington, VA: NSF.
Clements, D. H., Watt, D., Bjork, E., & Lehrer, R. Technology-enhanced learning of geometry in elemen-
tary schools. Awarded by the NSF (EHR, ESIE), Research on Education, Policy and Practice (REPP)
program. Arlington, VA: NSF.
Sarama, J. & Clements, D. H. Planning for professional development in pre-school mathematics: Meeting
the challenge of Standards 2000. Awarded by the NSF (EHR, ESIE), Teacher Enhancement (TE)
program, award no. ESI-9814218. Arlington, VA: NSF.
Sarama, J., Clements, D. H., Duke, N., & Brenneman, K. Early childhood education in the context of
mathematics, science, and literacy. Awarded by the NSF, award no. 1313718 (previously funded under
award no. DRL-1020118). Arlington, VA: NSF.
Starkey, Prentice, Sarama, J., Clements, D. H., & Klein, A. A longitudinal study of the effects of a prekin-
dergarten mathematics curriculum on low-income children’s mathematical knowledge. Awarded by the
Office of Educational Research and Improvement (OERI), U.S. Department of Education, as
Preschool Curriculum Evaluation Research (PCER) project. Washington, D.C.: OERI.
xiv • Acknowledgments

Appreciation to SRA/McGraw-Hill
The author and publisher wish to express appreciation to SRA/McGraw-Hill for kindly giving
permission for the many screen shots provided by them for use throughout this title.
 1
Young Children and Mathematics Learning

Snow was falling in Boston and preschool teacher Sarah Gardner’s chil-
dren were coming in slowly, one bus at a time. She had been doing high-
quality mathematics all year, but was still amazed at her children’s ability
to keep track of the situation: The children kept saying, “Now, 11 are
here and 7 absent. Now, 13 are here and 5 absent. Now . . . .”

Why are so many people interested in mathe-

matics for very young children?1 According to the During most of the 20th century, the
findings of the National Mathematics Advisory United States possessed peerless
Panel created by former U.S. President George mathematical prowess—not just as
W. Bush, mathematics is increasingly important measured by the depth and number of the
in a modern global economy, but mathematics mathematical specialists who practiced
achievement in the USA has been declining. Also, here but also by the scale and quality of its
U.S. math achievement is far lower than that of engineering, science, and financial
most other countries, as early as first grade, leadership, and even by the extent of
kindergarten . . . and even preschool (e.g., Mullis, mathematical education in its broad
Martin, Foy, & Arora, 2012; see Sarama & population. But, without substantial and
Clements, 2009, for full references)! American sustained changes to its educational
children do not even get the chance to learn the system, the United States will relinquish
more advanced mathematics taught in many its leadership in the 21st century.
other countries (again, remember that most The National Math Panel2 (NMP, 2008,
research references are in the companion book: p. xi)
Sarama & Clements, 2009).
An even larger and more damaging gap lies
between children growing up in higher- and lower-resource communities. Both the income gap and
the achievement gap have been increasing for decades (Reardon, 2011). For these children especially,
the long-term success of their learning and development requires high-quality experience during
their early “years of promise” (Carnegie Corporation, 1998). These early years have been found to be
especially important for mathematics development. From the first years of life, children have an ability
to learn math and develop their interest in math. What they know when they enter kindergarten and

1
2 • Mathematics Learning

first grade predicts their mathematics achieve-

ment for years to come—even throughout their Most children acquire considerable
school career. Moreover, what they know in math knowledge of numbers and other aspects
predicts their reading achievement later. Their of mathematics before they enter
early knowledge of literacy also predicts their later kindergarten. This is important, because
reading ability . . . but that’s all. Because math the mathematical knowledge that
predicts later math and later reading, mathematics kindergartners bring to school is related to
appears to be a core component of cognition their mathematics learning for years
(Duncan et al., 2007; Duncan & Magnuson, 2011). thereafter—in elementary school,
If our country’s children have limited knowledge middle school, and even high school.
initially and achieve less later in school, compared Unfortunately, most children from
to children in other countries, can there possibly be low-income backgrounds enter school
a bright spot? Yes. In high-quality early childhood with far less knowledge than peers
education programs, young children can engage in from middle-income backgrounds,
surprisingly deep investigations of mathematics and the achievement gap in mathematical
ideas. They can learn skills, problem solving, and knowledge progressively widens
concepts in ways that are natural and motivating to throughout their pre-K–12 years.
them. This brings us to the main reason to engage The National Math Panel (NMP, 2008,
young children in mathematics: Young children love p. xvii)
to think mathematically. They become exhilarated
by their own ideas (like the 6-year-old quoted at
the beginning of the preface) and the ideas of
others. To develop the whole child, we must develop Fortunately, encouraging results have
the mathematical child. Further, teachers enjoy been obtained for a variety of
the reasoning and learning that high-quality instructional programs developed to
mathematics education brings forth from their improve the mathematical knowledge of
children. High-quality mathematics throughout preschoolers and kindergartners,
early childhood does not involve pushing elemen- especially those from low-income
tary arithmetic onto younger children. Instead, backgrounds. There are effective
good education allows children to experience techniques—derived from scientific
mathematics as they play in and explore their world. research on learning—that could be
A higher proportion of children are in early care put to work in the classroom today to
and education programs every year. We teachers improve children’s mathematical
are responsible for bringing the knowledge and knowledge.
intellectual delight of mathematics to all children, The National Math Panel (NMP, 2008,
especially those who have not yet had many high- p. xvii)
quality educational experiences. Good teachers can
meet this challenge with research-based “tools.”
These tools include specific guidance on how to help children learn in ways that are both appro-
priate and effective. In this book, we pull that knowledge together to provide a core tool: “learning
trajectories” for each major topic in early mathematics.

What are Learning Trajectories?

Children follow natural developmental progressions in learning and development. As a simple
example, they learn to crawl, then walk, then run, skip, and jump with increasing speed and dexterity.
These are levels in the developmental progression of movement. Children follow natural develop-
mental progressions in learning math, too, learning mathematical ideas and skills in their own way.
 Mathematics Learning • 3

Figure 1.1 Carmen Brown encourages a preschooler to “mathematize.”

When teachers understand these developmental progressions for each major domain or topic of
mathematics, and sequence activities based on them, they build mathematics learning environments
that are particularly developmentally appropriate and effective. These developmental paths are the
basis for this book’s “learning trajectories.” Learning trajectories help us answer several questions:
What objectives should we establish? Where do we start? How do we know where to go next? How
do we get there?
Learning trajectories have three parts: (a) a mathematical goal, (b) a developmental path along
which children develop to reach that goal, and (c) a set of instructional activities, or tasks, matched
to each of the levels of thinking in that path that help children develop ever-higher levels of thinking.
Let’s examine each of these three parts.

Goals: The Big Ideas of Mathematics

The first part of a learning trajectory is a mathematical goal. Our goals include the “big ideas of
mathematics”—clusters of concepts and skills that are mathematically central and coherent, consis-
tent with children’s thinking, and generative of future learning. These big ideas come from several
large projects, including those from the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) and
the National Mathematics Advisory Panel (NMP) (Clements & Conference Working Group, 2004;
NCTM, 2006; NMP, 2008) and especially the Common Core State Standards (CCSSO/NGA, 2010).
For example, one big idea is counting can be used to find out how many in a collection.

Development Progressions: The Paths of Learning

The second part of a learning trajectory consists Humans are born with a fundamental
of levels of thinking, each more sophisticated than sense of quantity.
the last, through which children develop on their (Geary, 1994, p. 1)
way to achieving the mathematical goal. That is,
4 • Mathematics Learning

the developmental progression describes a typical path children follow in developing an under-
standing and skill about that mathematical topic.
This development of mathematics abilities begins when life begins. As we will see, young
children have certain mathematical-like competencies in number, spatial sense, and patterns from
birth. However, young children’s ideas and their interpretations of situations are uniquely different
from those of adults. For this reason, good early childhood teachers are careful not to assume that
children “see” situations, problems, or solutions the way adults do. Instead, good teachers interpret
what the child is doing and thinking, and attempt to see the situation from the child’s point of view.
Similarly, when they interact with the child, these teachers also consider the instructional tasks and
their own actions from the child’s point of view so they can help the child develop the next level of
thinking. This makes early childhood teaching both demanding and rewarding.
Our learning trajectories provide simple labels and examples for each level of each developmental
progression. The “Developmental Progression” column in Table 1.1 describes three main levels of
thinking in the counting learning trajectory (this is just a sample of levels that actually have other
levels in between them—the full learning trajectory is described in Chapter 3). Under each descrip-
tion is an example of children’s thinking and behavior for each level.

Instructional Tasks: The Paths of Teaching

The third part of a learning trajectory consists of a set of instructional tasks matched to each of the
levels of thinking in the developmental progression. These tasks are designed to help children learn

Table 1.1 Samples from the Learning Trajectory for Counting.

Age Developmental Progression Instructional Tasks

1–2 Chanter Verbal Chants “sing-song” or sometimes Repeated experience with the counting sequence in
indistinguishable number words. varied context. This can include songs; finger plays,
Count for me. such as “This Old Man”; counting going up and
“One, two-twee, four, sev-, en, ten.” down stairs; and just verbal counting for the fun of it
(how high can you go?)!
3 Corresponder Keeps one-to-one correspondence Kitchen Counter: Students click on objects one at a
between counting words and objects (one word for time while the numbers from one to ten are counted
each object), at least for small groups of objects laid aloud. For example, they click on pieces of food and
in a line. a bite is taken out of each as it is counted.

Counts:
■ ■ ■ ■
“1, 2, 3, 4”
But may answer the question, “How many?” by
re-counting the objects or naming any number
word.

Counter (10) Counts arrangements of objects to 10. Counting Towers (Up to 10): A day before, read
May be able to write numerals to represent 1 to 10. Shape Space. Ask what shapes work well in which
May be able to tell the number just after or just part of a tower. Set up stations with different
before another number, but only by counting up objects to stack. Encourage children to stack as
from 1. many as they can, and count them to see how
Accurately counts a line of 9 blocks and says there are 9. many they stacked.
What comes after 4? “1, 2, 3, 4, 5. 5!”
 Mathematics Learning • 5

the ideas and skills needed to achieve that level of thinking. That is, as teachers, we can use these tasks
to promote children’s growth from the previous level to the target level. The last column of Table 1.1
provides example instructional tasks. (Again, the complete learning trajectory in Chapter 3 includes
not only all the developmental levels but also several instructional tasks for each level.)
In summary, learning trajectories describe the goals of learning, the thinking and learning
processes of children at various levels, and the learning activities in which they might engage. People
often have several questions about learning trajectories. You may wish to read our responses to those
questions that interest you now and return to this section after you read more about specific learning
trajectories in the chapters that follow.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ) about Learning Trajectories

Why Use Learning Trajectories? Learning trajectories allow teachers to build the mathematics of
children—the thinking of children as it develops naturally. Because they are formed on research of
children’s natural thinking, we know that all the goals and activities are within the developmental
capacities of children. We also know that each level provides a natural developmental building block
to the next level. Finally, we know that the activities provide the mathematical building blocks for
school success, because the research on which they are based typically involves more children who
have had the educational advantages that allow them to do well at school.
When are Children “At” a Level? Children are identified to be “at” a certain level when most of their
behaviors reflect the thinking—ideas and skills—of that level. Often, they show a few behaviors from
the next and previous levels as they learn.
Can Children Work at More Than One Level at the Same Time? Yes, although most children work
mainly at one level or in transition between two levels (of course, if they are tired or distracted, they
may operate at a lower level). Levels are not “absolute stages.” They are “benchmarks” of complex
growth that represent distinct ways of thinking. So, another way to think of them is as a sequence of
different patterns of thinking and reasoning. Children are continually learning, within levels and
then moving from one level to the next.
Can Children Jump Ahead? Yes, especially if there are separate “subtopics.” For example, we have
combined many counting competencies into one “counting” sequence with subtopics, such as verbal
counting skills. Many children learn to count to 100 at age 6 after learning to count objects to 10 or
more; some may learn that verbal skill earlier. The subtopic of verbal counting skills would still be
followed. There is another possibility: Children may learn deeply and thus appear to jump ahead
several “levels” after a rich learning experience.
Are all Levels Similar in Nature? Most levels are levels of thinking—a distinct period of time of
qualitatively distinct ways, or patterns, of thinking. However, a few are merely “levels of attain-
ment,” similar to a mark on a wall to show a child’s height; that is, a couple signify simply that a child
has gained more knowledge. For example, consider reading numerals such as “2” or “9.” Children
do following a learning trajectory of first matching, then recognizing, then naming numerals (Wang,
Resnick, & Boozer, 1971). However, once they have reached that level, children must learn simply to
name (and write) more numerals, but at this level, that does not require deeper or more complex
thinking. Thus, some trajectories are more tightly constrained by natural cognitive development
than others. Often a critical component of such constraints is the mathematical development in a
domain; that is, mathematics is a highly sequential, hierarchical domain in which certain ideas and
skills must be learned before others.
How are Learning Trajectories Different from just a Scope and Sequence? They are related, of course.
But they are not lists of everything children need to learn, because they don’t cover every single “fact”
and they emphasize the “big ideas.” Further, they are about children’s levels of thinking, not just
6 • Mathematics Learning

about the answer to a mathematics question. So, for example, a single mathematical problem may be
solved differently by students at different (separable) levels of thinking.
Does Every Trajectory Represent Just “One Path”? In broad terms, there is one main developmental
path; however, for some topics, there are “subtrajectories”—strands within the topic. For example, as
previously stated, the counting learning trajectory in Chapter 3 includes both verbal and object
counting—they are related, but can develop somewhat independently. In some cases, the names
make this clear. For example, in Comparing and Ordering, some levels are about the “Comparer”
levels, and others about building a “mental number line.” Similarly, the related subtrajectories of
“Composition” and “Decomposition” are easy to distinguish. Sometimes, for clarification, subtrajec-
tories are indicated with a note in italics after the title. For example, in Shapes, “Parts” and
“Representing” are subtrajectories within the Shapes trajectory.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ) about Using the Learning Trajectories

How Do These Developmental Levels Support Teaching and Learning? The levels help teachers, as well
as curriculum developers, assess, teach, and sequence activities. Teachers who understand learning
trajectories (especially the developmental levels that are at their foundation) are more effective and effi-
cient. Through planned teaching and also by encouraging informal, incidental mathematics, teachers
help children learn at an appropriate and deep level.
There are Ages in the Charts. Should I Plan to Help Children Develop Just the Levels that Correspond
to my Children’s Ages? No! The ages in the table are typical ages at which children develop these ideas.
But these are rough guides only—children differ widely. Furthermore, the ages are often lower
bounds on what children achieve without high-quality instruction. So, these are “starting levels,”
not goals. We have found that children who are provided high-quality mathematics experiences are
capable of developing to levels one or more years beyond their peers.
Are the Instructional Tasks the Only Way to Teach Children to Achieve Higher Levels of Thinking? No,
there are many ways. In some cases, however, there is some research evidence that these are especially
effective ways. In other cases, they are simply illustrations of the kind of activity that would be appro-
priate to reach that level of thinking. Further, teachers need to use a variety of pedagogical strategies
in teaching the content, presenting the tasks, guiding children in completing them, and so forth.
Are Learning Trajectories Consistent with Teaching the Common Core? Unfortunately, some people
have interpreted that “teaching the Common Core” means teaching each standard only once and
then moving on. Our view and that of many studies is that learning is not an all-or-nothing acquisi-
tion of knowledge or skills (Sarama & Clements, 2009; Sophian, 2013). The Common Core and CFP
goals are benchmarks, but good curricula and teaching always weave the learning trajectories
throughout children’s lives. They learn the ideas at higher levels of sophistication and generality.
Finally, when we wrote the Common Core we started by writing learning trajectories—at least the goals
and developmental progressions. Thus, learning trajectories are at the core of the Common Core. And
learning trajectories are not based on the idea to “teach once and drop it.”

Other Critical Goals: Strategies, Reasoning, Creativity, and a Productive Disposition

Learning trajectories are organized around topics, but they include far more than facts and ideas.
Processes, or mathematical practices, and attitudes are important in every one. Chapter 13 focuses
on general processes, such as problem solving and reasoning. But these general processes are also
an integral part of every learning trajectory. Also, specific processes are involved in every learning
trajectory. For example, the process of composition—putting together and taking apart—is
fundamental to both number and arithmetic (e.g., adding and subtracting) and geometry (shape
composition).
 Mathematics Learning • 7

Finally, other general educational goals must

never be neglected. The “habits of mind” mentioned As important as mathematical content
in the box include curiosity, imagination, inven- are general mathematical processes such
tiveness, risk-taking, creativity, and persistence. as problem solving, reasoning and proof,
These are some of the components of the essential communication, connections, and
goal of productive disposition. Children need to representation; specific mathematical
view mathematics as sensible, useful, and worth- processes such as organizing information,
while and view themselves as capable of thinking patterning, and composing, and habits
mathematically. Children should also come to of mind such as curiosity, imagination,
appreciate the beauty and creativity that is at the inventiveness, persistence, willingness
heart of mathematics. to experiment, and sensitivity to
All these should be involved in a high-quality patterns. All should be involved in a
early childhood mathematics program. These high-quality early childhood
goals are included in the suggestions for teaching mathematics program.
throughout this book. Further, Chapters 14, 15, (Clements & Conference Working
and 16 discuss how to achieve these goals. These Group, 2004, p. 57)
chapters discuss different learning and teaching
contexts, including early childhood school settings
and education, equity issues, affect, and instruc-
tional strategies.

The overriding premise of our work is that

Learning Trajectories and the “Building Blocks”
throughout the grades from pre-K through
Project
8 all students can and should be
The “Building Blocks” project was funded by the mathematically proficient. [p. 10]
National Science Foundation (NSF)3 to develop
Mathematical proficiency . . . has five
prekindergarten (pre-K) to grade 2, software-
strands:
enhanced, mathematics curricula. Building Blocks
was designed to enable all young children to build 1. conceptual understanding—
mathematics concepts, skills, and processes. The comprehension of mathematical
name “Building Blocks” has three meanings (see concepts, operations, and relations
Figure 1.2). First, our goals are to help children 2. procedural fluency—skill in carrying
develop the main mathematical building blocks— out procedures flexibly, accurately,
that is, the big ideas described previously. Second efficiently, and appropriately
is the related goal to develop cognitive building 3. strategic competence—ability to
blocks: general cognitive and metacognitive formulate, represent, and solve
(higher-order) processes such as moving or mathematical problems
combining shapes to higher-order thinking 4. adaptive reasoning—capacity for
processes such as self regulation. The third is the logical thought, reflection, explanation,
most straightforward—children should be using and justification
building blocks for many purposes, but one of 5. productive disposition—habitual
them is for learning mathematics. inclination to see mathematics as
Based on theory and research on early child- sensible, useful, and worthwhile,
hood learning and teaching (Bowman, Donovan, coupled with a belief in diligence and
& Burns, 2001; Clements, 2001), we determined one’s own efficacy.
that Building Blocks’ basic approach would be (Kilpatrick, Swafford, & Findell, 2001,
finding the mathematics in, and developing mathe- p. 5)
matics from, children’s activity. To do so, all aspects
8 • Mathematics Learning

Figure 1.2 The Building Blocks project was named because we wanted to use manipulatives like children’s building blocks (on and
off the computer) to help children develop mathematical and cognitive building blocks—the foundations for later learning (see http://
buildingblocksmath.org).

of the Building Blocks project are based on learning trajectories. Therefore, most of the examples of
learning trajectories stemmed from our work developing, field-testing, and evaluating curricula
from that project.

Final Words
Against this background, let us explore the learning trajectories in Chapters 2 through 12. Chapter 2
begins with the critical topic of number. When do children first understand number? How do they
do it? How can we help children’s initial ideas develop? Throughout, we emphasize mathematical
processes, or practices, and attitudes. Further, the last few chapters provide guidance regarding
understanding children, communities, and cultures and tools such as effective teaching strategies.
You may want to at least skim Chapter 13 before reading the following chapters on learning
trajectories.

Notes
1 As stated in the Preface, an elaborate review of the research supporting this and all other statements in this book can be found in the
companion book, Early Childhood Mathematics Education Research: Learning Trajectories for Young Children (Sarama & Clements, 2009).
2 One of the authors, Douglas Clements, was a member of the National Math Panel and co-author of the report, which can be found at
http://www.ed.gov/about/bdscomm/list/mathpanel/.
3 The “Building Blocks—Foundations for Mathematical Thinking, Prekindergarten to Grade 2: Research-based Materials Development”
project was funded by the NSF (award no. ESI-9730804; granted to D. H. Clements and J. Sarama) to create and evaluate mathematics
curricula for young children based on a theoretically sound research and development framework. We describe the framework and re-
search in detail in Chapter 15. For the purposes of full disclosure, note that we have subsequently made this curriculum available through
a publisher and thus receive royalties. All research was conducted with independent assessors and evaluators.
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