Unit-IEnvironment, EcosystemsandBiodiversity 2.

To motivate the active participation of individuals in the protection and improvement of

Environment environment.
INTRODUCTION 3. To develop skills for identifying and solving environmental problems.
The word environment is coined form the French word "Environ" meaning” surround or 4. To know the necessity of conservation of natural resources.
surroundings" i.e., each and everything surrounding us. E.g. Lion in a forest surrounded by living 5. To conduct environmental programmes in terms of social, economic, ecological and aesthetic
and non-living things like air, water, trees, other animals etc. factors.

DEFINITIONS IMPORTANCE/ SIGNIFICANCE/ NEED OF ENVIRONEMNTAL STUDIES

1. Environment
Environment is defined as "the sum of total of all the living and the non-living things around us The air we breathe, water we drink, food we eat and the land we live are all polluted. There is
influencing one another." E.g. Lion in a jungle surrounded by living and non-living things like no zero pollution.
air, water, trees, other animals etc. To solve the above problems, knowledge of environment and its studies are very important.
1. To understand the concept of "need of development without destruction of environment".
2. Environmental Science 2. To gain knowledge of different types of environment their various resources and the effects
The study of the environment, its biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) components and their of different environmental hazards.
interrelationship is called environmental science. It includes the basic concepts of physics, 3. To inform people about their effective role in protecting the environment by demanding
chemistry, geography, geology etc., which is used in understanding the structure, function and changes in laws and enforcement systems.
physical characteristics of environment. 4. To develop a concern and respect for the environment.

3. Environmental Engineering
NEED FOR PUBLIC AWARENESS
Environmental engineering is the application of engineering principles, science, education, 1. Necessity to maintain a natural balance, sensible planning of development in order to save
ethics and law in the protection and enhancement of the quality of environment, public health humanity from extinction.
and welfare. 2. To check nominal use of natural resources as watch dogs informing government about the
degradation of environment.
4. Environmental Studies 3.To educate and create awareness through mass media like tv, radio, short films, internet,
mobile phones, etc.,
Environmental studies are the process of educating the people for preserving quality
4. To motivate and active participation of individuals in protecting the environment from
environment. It is the multidisciplinary studies of science, engineering, technology and
various types of pollution.
management which shows the impact of human activities on the environment.
ECOSYSTEM
TYPES OF ENVIRONMENT Definition:
Environment is divided into 2 types: Ecology
Ecology is the study of various ecosystems which is the relationship between organisms and
1. Natural Environment: Natural environment consists of natural components including all their surroundings (living and non-living).
biotic (biological) and abiotic (physical) components created through a natural process without
any human support. Ecosystem
E.g. Soil, water, air, trees, radiations, noise etc. Ecosystem is the basic functional unit of ecology. It is derived from Greek word "study of
home". Ecosystem is a group of organisms interacting among themselves and with the
2. Man- made environment: Man is most powerful agent who modifies the environment using environment exchanging its energy and matter.
modern technologies, according to his needs for survival and well-being. E.g, forest, desert etc.
E.g. Houses, parks, hospitals, schools, roads etc.
Biome
SCOPE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES Biome is a small ecosystem within another ecosystem having dominant species with similar
lifestyle, climatic conditions and physical structure etc.,
Environmental Studies is the tool for educating people to preserve environment. Main scope
includes:
1. To get awareness and sensitivity of environment and its related problems.
 TYPES OF ECOSYSTEM (A) Primary consumers/Herbivores. Depend on plants for their food. E.g. Insects, rats.
(B) Secondary consumers/Primary carnivores: They feed on primary consumers.
E.g. Frogs, cat, snakes.
(C) Tertiary consumers/Secondary carnivores: They feed on secondary consumers e.g. lions,
tigers

Grass Rat Cat Tiger

3. Decomposers: They feed on dead plants and animals and decompose them into simpler
compounds releasing inorganic nutrients. These are again utilized by plants with other organic
substances for the synthesis of food.
e.g. Bacteria, fungi.

FUNCTION OF AN ECOSYSTEM
Its main function is to allow the flow of energy and nutrients.
Types of function
1. Primary function/ production: It is manufacturing of starch by photosynthesis.
STRUCTURE OR COMPONENTS OF AN ECOSYSTEM 2. Secondary function/ production: It is the distribution of energy to all consumers in the form
of food which is stored by them.
The ecosystem has two major components (a) abiotic and (b) biotic.
3. Tertiary function: The dead systems (plants and animals) are decomposed by decomposers
thereby initiating the third function called "cycling".
(a) Abiotic Components
Non-living components of ecosystem (physical and chemical) form the abiotic community. ENERGY FLOW IN THE ECOSYSTEM
(i) Physical components: It includes energy, climate, raw materials and living space. Solar energy is the main energy on earth‟s surface. About 1% of this is used by plants for
E.g. Air, water, soil, sunlight photosynthesis. They convert this into chemical energy part of which is used for their growth
(ii) Chemical components: They are the sources of nutrients. and remaining is passed onto consumers.
(a) Organic substances E.g. proteins, lipids, carbohydrates Thus, energy enters ecosystem through photosynthesis and travels through different feeding or
(b) Inorganic substances E.g. (C, N, O, P, K, H) and (Al, Co, Cu, Zn). trophic levels at the rate of 10% and the rest 90% is lost in the form of heat. This indicates that
the energy flow is greatly reduced at each trophic levels from producers to carnivores. The
(b) Biotic Components energy flow is unidirectional i.e energy from sun never return back to sun.
Living members in a community form the biotic community.
Energy flow through an atmosphere in an ecosystem is governed by laws of thermodynamics
I law of thermodynamics - Energy can neither be created nor destroyed, but it can only be
(i) Autotrophic/Producers/Self-feeders: They prepare their own food with the help of
converted from one form to another.
chlorophyll, sunlight, water and carbondioxide. E.g. plants, trees.
II law of thermodynamics - Whenever there is transformation of energy, there is loss of
energy in the form of heat. The loss of energy takes place through respiration, running, hunting
(ii)Heterotrophic / Consumers/ other-feeders: They lack chlorophyll and do not prepare their etc. Relationship between structure and function (flow model)
own food but depends on the producers for their food.
(a) Macro consumers: Herbivores, carnivores and omnivores.
(b) Micro consumers/ Saprotrophs: Decomposers (bacteria, fungi)

Classification/members of biotic components

Based on their source of food
1. Autotrophs/ Producers: Prepare their food through photosynthesis using chlorophyll, CO2
and sunlight.
6CO2 + 12H2O C6H12O6+ 6O2 + 6H2O

2. Heterotrophs/Consumers: They do not make their food but depend on producers for their
food.
ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION Functions:
The progressive replacement of one community by another till the development of a stable  Maintains the stability of ecosystems.
community in a particular area is called ecological succession.  Maintains the nutritional balance in an ecosystem.
Stages of Ecological succession  Control the population size of species in an ecosystem.
1. Pioneer Community:  Provide alternate food source.
The first group of organisms which establish their community in an area is called pioneer Energy flow in a food web
Community.
2. Seres or Seral Stage:
The various developmental stages of a community is called 'seres'.
Community: Group of plants or animals living in an area.
Types of ecological succession
1. Primary succession: Involves gradual establishment of biotic communities on a lifelessground.
2. (a) Hydrarch: Establishment starts in watery area (lake, pond)
3. (b) Xerarch: Establishment starts in dry land (desert, rocks)
4. Secondary succession: Involves the establishment of biotic communities in an area, where
some type of biotic community is already present.
Process of ecological succession
Ecological succession takes place in the following steps:
1. NUDATION: It is the development of bare land without any life form. Significance of food chains and food webs
2. INVASION: It is the establishment of one/more species on a bare land through migration 1. Food webs and food chains play an important role in ecosystem as energy and nutrient flow
followed by establishment. takes place through them.
(a) MIGRATION: Migration of seeds by wind, water and birds. 2. They maintain and regulate the population size of different trophic levels thereby
Types of food chain maintaining ecological balance.
1. Grazing food chain: 3. They have property of biomagnification. The passing of non-biodegradable material from one
Found in grass land and pond ecosystems. It starts with green plants and goes to the trophic level to another causing its concentration to increase and this is called biomagnification.
decomposer/detritus food chain through herbivores and carnivores. E.g., Biomagnification of DDT
The concentration of DDT sprayed on plants increases along the food chain through
2. Detritus food chain: phytoplankton to zooplanktons and then goes to fish, animals and human beings. Thus
concentration of DDT is magnified in birds, animals and humans damaging the egg shells in
Found in grassland and forest ecosystems. It starts with dead organic matter and goes to birds and cell tissues in humans. As DDT is fat soluble its accumulation in human body is
decomposer food chain through herbivores and carnivores. easier and cannot be removed easily.
Trophic levels ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS
The various steps through which food energy passes in an ecosystem is called trophic levels. Definition: The graphical representation of structure and function of trophic levels of an
ecosystem is called ecological pyramid.
Tl T2 T3 T4 T5
In an ecological pyramid the producers forms the base level and the tertiary consumer occupies
T1 - Green plants/producer the apex level.
T2 - Herbivores/primary consumers Types of Ecological Pyramids
T3 - Carnivores/secondary consumers 1. Pyramids of Numbers:
T4 -Tertiary consumers It represents the number of individual organisms present in each trophic level. e.g., Grassland
T5 – Decomposers ecosystem
Here, the producers are grasses which are small in size and large in numbers. So, they occupy
FOOD WEB the lower most level of the pyramid. The primary consumers (rats) occupy the second trophic
Definition: The interlocking pattern of various food chains which are linked together in an level as its number is lower compared to that of grass. The secondary consumers (snakes)
ecosystem is called food web. Different types of organisms are connected at different trophic which are even larger in size and smaller in number form the third level. The tertiary consumers
levels so that there are number of opportunities of eating and being eaten at any trophic level. (eagles) occupy the top layer as the numbers of it is the least.
 It represents the total amount of biomass (mass or weight of biological material or organism)
present in each trophic level.
e.g., Forest ecosystem
The trees in forest ecosystem are the producers and they are maximum in number contributing
to a huge biomass. The next tropic levels are the herbivores (insects, birds) and then carnivores
(snakes, foxes). The topmost level is the tertiary consumers (tiger, lion) which are few and
hence having low biomass.

FOREST ECOSYTEM
Forest consists of densely growing trees which cover 40% of world's land and 19% of Indian land.
Types of forests and their features
Depending on the climatic conditions forests are classified into the following types:
2. Pyramids of energy (a) Tropical rain forest: They are found near the equator. They are characterized by high
temperature. Trees like teak and sandal and animals like lion and tiger are found in these
forests.
(b) Tropical deciduous forest: They are found a little away from equator. They have warm
climate and rain only during monsoon. Trees like maple, oak and animals like deer and fox are
found in these forests.
(c) Tropical shrub forest: They have dry climate for long time. Have small deciduous trees
and shrubs and animals like deer, fox, etc.
(d) Temperate rain forest: They are found in temperate areas with adequate rain.Coniferous
trees like fir, pines and animals like squirrels, fox are found here.
(e) Temperate deciduous forest: These are found in areas with moderate temperatures. Trees
like oak, hickory and animals like deer, fox are found in these forests.
Characteristics of forests ecosystem
It represents the amount of energy present in each trophic level. At every successive tropic level 1. They have warm climate and adequate rainfall, which generates number of ponds, lakes etc.
there is a heavy loss of energy (about 90%) in the form of heat. Thus at each next higher tropic 2. Forests maintain rainfall and climate.
level only 10% of energy is transferred. 3. Forests support many wild animals and protect biodiversity.
4. Soil is rich in nutrients and organic matter which support the growth of trees.
3. Pyramids of energy
5. As sunlight penetration is poor, conversion of organic matter into nutrients is very fast.

Structure and function of forest ecosystem

1. Abiotic components: e.g., Temperature, light, rain and minerals.
They are the inorganic and organic substances found in soil and atmosphere.
2. Biotic components:
(a) Producers: Trees, shrubs
(b) Consumers:
(i) Primary consumers: Insects
(ii) Secondary consumers: Birds, snakes
(iii) Tertiary consumers: Tiger, lion
(c) Decomposers: Bacteria, fungi. Rate of decomposition of dead matter in tropical and
subtropical forest is more than in temperate forest.

GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEM
Grasslands are large areas of grass with scattered trees which occupies about 20% of world's
land.
 1.19.1 Types and features of grasslands 2. Biotic components:
1. Tropical Grassland: they are found near borders of tropical rain forests. They have high (a) Producers: Shrubs, bushes, some grass
temperature and moderate rainfall (40 to 100cm). They are also called Savanna-type. They have In desert there are succulent plants like cacti which have water inside them and waxy outer
tall grasses and shrubs and animals like zebra, giraffe. coating to protect form sun.
2. Temperate grassland: They are found in centres of continents, on flat, sloped hills. They (b) Consumers: Squirrels, mice, reptiles.
have cold winters and hot summers. Intense grazing and summer fires do not allow shrubs or These animals dig holes in the ground to live and come out at night for food. Most of the desert
trees to grow in this grassland. animals can extract water from seeds.
3. Polar grassland: They are found in arctic polar region and have severe cold and strong wind (c) Decomposers: Fungi and bacteria
with snow and ice. In summers several annual plants grow and animals like arctic wolf, arctic Desert has poor vegetation with low amount of dead organic matter. They are decomposed by
fox is found here. few bacteria and fungi.
Characteristics of grassland ecosystem
1. Grassland ecosystem is plain land occupied by grasses. AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM
2. Soil is rich in nutrients and organic matter. This deals with water bodies. The major types of organisms found in aquatic environments are
3. Since there are tall grasses, it is an ideal place for grazing animals. determined by water salinity.
4. It is characterized by low or even rainfall. Types of aquatic ecosystems: Based on the salinity it is classified into 2 types as
Structure and function of grassland ecosystem (i) Fresh water ecosystem: Ponds, lakes, rivers, streams
1. Abiotic components: e.g., Nutrients (C, H, O ,N ,P , S) supplied by CO2, H2O, nitrates, (ii) Marine/ salt water ecosystem: Oceans, estuaries
phosphates and sulphates.
2. Biotic components: 1. Fresh water ecosystem:
(a) Producers: Grasses, shrubs POND ECOSYSTEM
(b) Consumers: Characteristic features of pond ecosystem
(i) Primary consumers: Cows, deer 1. Pond is temporary, only seasonal.
(ii) Secondary consumers: Snakes, lizards 2. It is stagnant fresh water body.
(iii) Tertiary consumers: Eagles 3. Pond gets polluted easily due to limited amount of water.
(c) Decomposers: Fungi and bacteria. Structure and Function of Pond ecosystem
1. Abiotic components: Temperature, light, water, organic and inorganic compounds.
DESERT ECOSYSTEM 2. Biotic components:
Deserts occupy about 35% of world's land. The atmosphere is dry and hence a poor insulator. (a) Producers: They are of 2 types
Types and features of desert (i) Phytoplankton: These are microscopic aquatic plants, which freely float on the water
1. Tropical desert: They are found in surface. e.g., Algae, pandorina.
(i) Africa: Sahara desert (ii) Microphytes: These are large floating plants and submerged plants. e.g., Hydrilla, wolfia.
(ii) India: Thar desert (b) Consumers: (i) Primary consumers (Zooplanktons): These are microscopic animals
They have few species and wind-blown sand dunes are common. which float freely on the water surface. e.g., Protozoa, very small fish, ciliates.
2. Temperate desert: They are found in Zooplanktons are found along with phytoplankton sans they feed on them.
South California: Majave desert (ii) Secondary consumers (Carnivores): Insects like water beetles and small fish.
They have very hot summer and very cool winter. (iii) Tertiary consumers: Large fish like game fish.
3. Cold desert: They are found in China: Gobi desert (c) Decomposers: Fungi, bacteria, flagellates.
They have cold winters and warm summers.
Characteristic features of desert ecosystem LAKE ECOSYSTEM
1. The desert air is dry and climate is hot. Lakes are supplied water by rainfall, melting snow and streams.
2. Annual rainfall is less than 25cm. Types of lakes
3. The soil is poor in nutrients and organic matter. 1. Oligotrophic lakes: They have low nutrient concentrations.
4. Vegetation is poor. 2. Eutrophic lakes: They are over nourished by nutrients like N and P.
3. Dystrophic lakes: They have low pH, high humic content and brown waters.
Structure and function of desert ecosystem 4. Volcanic lakes: They receive water from magma after volcanic eruptions.
1. Abiotic components: Temperature, rainfall, sunlight 5. Meromictic lakes: They are rich in salts.
The temperature is very high and rainfall and nutrient cycling are very low. 6. Artificial lakes: They are created due to construction of dams.
 Zones of lake Structure and function of river ecosystem
Depending upon their distance from the shore, a lake consists of 4 distinct zones. 1. Abiotic components: Temperature, light, pH, nutrients.
1. Littoral zone: It is the top layer of the lake. It has shallow water. 2. Biotic components:
2. Limnetic zone: It lies below the littoral zone, where effective penetration of sunlight takes (a) Producers: Phytoplankton, algae, water grasses.
place. (b) Consumers:
3. Profundal zone: This is the deep open water, where it is too dark. (i) Primary consumers: Water insects, snails
4. Benthic zone: This layer is the bottommost layer of the lake. (ii) Secondary consumers: Birds and mammals
(c) Decomposers: Bacteria, fungi

MARINE/OCEAN ECOSYSTEM
Oceans cover more than two thirds of earth's surface. It supplies a vast variety of sea products
and drugs. It has high concentration of salts and minerals.
Zones of Oceans
The oceans have two major life zones.
(i) Coastal zone: It is relatively nutrient rich, shallow water and has high productivity because
of high nutrients and sunlight.
(ii) Open sea: It is the deeper part of the ocean and is vertically divided into 3 regions. (a)
Euphotic zone: It receives abundant light and shows high photosynthetric activity. (b) Bathyal
zone: It receives dim light and is geologically active.
(c) Abyssal zone: It is the dark zone and is very deep (2000 to 5000 m).

Characteristic feature of lake ecosystem

1. Lake is shallow fresh water body.
2. It is a permanent water body with large water resources.
3. It is useful for irrigation and drinking purpose.

Structure and function of Lake Ecosystem

1. Abiotic components: Temperature, light, proteins and lipids.
2. Biotic components:
(a) Producers: These are the green plants which may be submerged, free floating and Characteristic features of marine ecosystem
amphibious plants. e.g., Phytoplankton, algae 1. It occupies a large surface area with saline water.
(b) Consumers: 2. Since, ships, submarines can sail in ocean a large number of commercial activities are carried out.
(i) Primary consumers (Zooplankton): Ciliates, protozoans. 3. It is rich in biodiversity.
(ii) Secondary consumers (Carnivores): Insects and small fishes. 4. It moderates the temperature of earth.
(iii) Tertiary consumers: Large fish like game fish. Structure and function of marine ecosystem
(c) Decomposers: Bacteria and fungi 1. Abiotic components: Temperature, light, NaCl, KCl.
2. Biotic components:
RIVER/STREAM ECOSYSTEM (a) Producers: Phytoplankton and marine plants
The running water of a river or stream is well oxygenated, because it absorbs oxygen from air. (b) Consumers:
The numbers of animals are low in river or stream. (i) Primary consumers (Herbivores): Crustaceans, molluscs (ii) Secondary consumers
Characteristic features of river or stream ecosystem (Carnivores): Herring, mackerel (iii) Tertiary consumers: Cod
1. It is fresh water and free flowing water system. (c) Decomposers: Bacteria, fungi.
2. Due to mixing of water, dissolved oxygen content is more.
3. River deposits large amount of nutrients.
ESTUARINE ECOSYSTEM B. SPECIES BIODIVERSITY
"An estuary is a partially enclosed coastal area at the mouth of a river which joins the sea". This is the variability found within the population of a species or between different species of a
They are rich in nutrients and have high food potential. community. It broadly represents the species richness and their abundance in a community.
Characteristics of estuarine ecosystem Shannon Wiener index and Simpson index are two popular indices of measuring species
1. Estuaries are transition zones, which are strongly affected by tides of sea. diversity.
2. Water characteristics are periodically changed. C. ECOSYSTEM BIODIVERSITY
3. The living organisms here have wide tolerance. This is the diversity of ecological complexity showing variations in ecological niche, trophic
4. Salinity in estuaries are highest in summer and lowest in winter. structure, food webs, nutrient cycling etc. The ecosystem also shows variations with respect to
Structure and function of estuarine ecosystem physical parameters like moisture, temperature, altitude, precipitation etc.
1. Abiotic components: Temperature, pH, sodium and potassium salts. BIOGEOGRAPHICAL CLASSIFICATION OF INDIA:
2. Biotic components:
(a) Producers: Marsh grasses, sea weeds, sea grasses. S.
Biogeographic zone Biotic province Important Flora & Fauna
(b) Consumers: Oysters, Crabs, small fishes. No.
(c) Decomposers: Bacteria, fungi.
1 Trans-Himalayan Upper region Pine,deodar-
Wild sheep, yak, leopard, wolf
KEYSTONE SPECIES
Within a habitat each species connects to and depends on other species. But, while each species 2 Himalayan North west, west, Pine, cork tree, sal, dhaak- Wild bear,
contribute to habitat functioning, some species do more than others in the overall scheme of central and East sambar, leopard, Sikkim stag, musk deer
things. Without the work of these key species, the habitat changes significantly. These species Himalayas
are called “keystone species". When a keystone species disappears from its habitat, that habitat 3 Desert Kutch, Thar and Acacia, zizyphus, khejri, date palm-
changes dramatically. Ladkh Camel, bastard, wild ass, desert cat, fox,
Illustration - 1 rat
Elephants as keystone species in Grasslands 4 Semi-arid Central India, Acacia, date palm, peepal -Gir lion, tiger,
Elephants are keystone species in African grasslands. When elephants are taken away from Gujarat sariska and Ranthampore tiger
grasslands, it is converted into forest or shrub areas by overgrowth of woody plants. As
keystone species, elephants prevent this conversion. 5 Western ghats Malabar coast Sheeshan, peepal, tuna, bahera- Tortoise,
Illustration - 2 Western ghats frog, lizards, snakes
Forest elephants hold keystone status in some woodland (forest) in western Africa mountain
In the above forest elephants are the only species large enough to eat and disperse the seeds of 6 Deccan peninsula Deccan plateau Acacia, palaash, tuna, pine, castor-
some plant species whose shells are very hard. Thus only elephants can feed on them and Sambar, sloth bear, tiger, cheetal, four
disperse the seeds through their dung thereby maintains the forest. horned stag, wild elephant, wild buffalo
7 Gangetic plain Upper and lower Sal, acacia, jamun, mango, bael-
Introduction to biodiversity definition: genetic, species and ecosystem diversity: Gangetic plain black chinkara, stag, rhinoceros, gazzel,
BIODIVERSITY DEFINITION: Bio means „life‟ and diversity means „variety‟, hence Aligator, turtle
Biodiversity refers to variety of life on the earth. Planet earth (biosphere) contains more than 20
million species of organisms. They differ widely from one another. Diversification in the 8 North-east India Brahmaputra Bamboo, sal, jack fruit, tuna, Chestnut
species is influenced by various physical and climatic factors, resulting in the production of valley cator- Elephnat, Rhinocers, yak, deer,
new sub-species. Biodiversity is defined as, “the variety and variability among all groups of porcupine
living organisms and the ecosystem in which they occur”. 9 Islands Andaman islands, Bahera, Harar, jack fruit, cardamom,
Nicobar islands & coconut, cloves- Dolphin, alligator,
LEVELS OF BIODIVERSITY: Lakshadeep Molluscs
A. GENETIC BIODIVERSITY islands
The genes found in organisms can form enormous number of combinations each of which gives 10 Coasts West coast Coconut, Banana, cashew Nut – Dugong,
rise to some variability. When the genes within the same species show different version due to East coast Dolphin, Turtle, Alligator, Molluscs
new combinations, it is called genetic variability. For example rice belongs to the species
Oryzasativa which has many varieties that differ in size, shape, aroma etc.
VALUE OF BIODIVERSITY: (Consumptive use, Productive use, Social, Ethical, Aesthetic BIODIVERSITY AT NATIONAL LEVEL:
and Option values) India is rich in biodiversity due to its varying climate and topographical features. It occupies
1. CONSUMPTIVE USE VALUE only 2.5% of global land of which about 40% is under cultivation. There are 96 national parks, 572
 Food: A large number of wild plants are consumed by human beings as food. About wildlife sanctuaries 14 biosphere reserves and 2 hotspots with 46,000 plant species and 91,000
80,000 plants are from wild. About 90% of crops are domesticated from tropical forest. animal species, 50,000 varieties of rice, 1000 varities of mango, etc.,
 Drugs and medicine: About 75% of population depends upon plant or plant extracts for 1. India ranks 10th among the plant rich countries of the world
medicine. Penicillin antibiotic drug is derived from the fungus penicillium. 2. 11th in terms of Endemic species.
 Fuel: The fossil fuels coal, petroleum and natural gas are products of fossilized biodiversity. 3. 6th among origin of agricultural crops.
4. 12th mega biodiversity country in the world.
2. PRODUCTIVE USE VALUE
These are the commercially usable values where the product is marketed and sold. It may BIODIVERSITY AT REGIONAL OR LOCAL LEVEL:
include lumber or wild gene resources that can be traded for use by scientist for introducing Tamilnadu is rich in biodiversity with natural habitat constituting 4% of country‟s total area
desirable traits in the crops and domesticated animals. It includes animal products like tusk of which shares the Western Ghats with Kerala, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Goa and, Eastern Ghats
elephants, musk deer, silk from silk worm, wool from sheep, fur of many animals etc. Many with Andhra Pradesh and Odisha accounting for nearly about one third of the total flora of India.
industries like paper and pulp. Silk, textile, ivory works industry depend on them. 1. Point Richness: Refers to number of species at a single point.
2. Alpha Richness: Refers to the number of species found in a small homogeneous area.
3. SOCIAL VALUE 3. Beta Richness: Refers to rate of change in species composition across different habitats.
It is associated with social life, customs, and religion and psycho-spiritual aspects of the people. 4. Gamma Richness: Refers to the rate of change across large landscape gradients.
Many plants are considered holy and sacred in our country like tulsi, peepal, Mango, Lotus,
Bael etc. many animals like cow, snake, peacock, bull, owl etc also have significant place in INDIA AS A MEGA BIODIVERSITY NATION:
social importance. The tribal people are very closely linked with the wildlife in the forest.
India is one of the 12 mega biodiversity countries in the world. The Ministry of environmental
4. ETHICAL VALUE and forests, Government of India (2000) records 47,000 species of plants and 81,000 species of
It is otherwise called existence value. It involves ethical issues like “all life must be preserved” animals which is about 7% and 6.5% respectively of global flora and fauna.
and “live and let live” concept. For the survival of human race, all biodiversity has to be 1. Endemism: Species which are restricted to only to a particular area are known as
protected because biodiversity is valuable. endemic. India shows a good number of endemic species. About 62% of amphibians and 50% of
lizards are endemic.
5. AESTHETIC VALUE 2. Centre of origin: A large number of species have known to originate in India. Nearly
People from far and wide spend a lot of time and money to visit wilderness areas where they can 5000 flowering species, 166 species of crop plants and 320 species of wild relatives of cultivated
enjoy the aesthetic value of biodiversity and this type of tourism is known as eco –tourism. The crops origin in India.
willingness to pay concept annually generates 12 billion revenue. 3. Marine diversity: Along 7500 km long coastline of our country in the mangroves,
estuaries, coral reefs, back waters etc. there exist a rich biodiversity. More than 340 species of
6. OPTION VALUE corals of the world are found here.
It is the value of knowing that there are biological resources existing on the biosphere that may
one day prove to be an effective option for something important in the future it suggests that any HOTSPOTS OF BIODIVERSITY
species may prove to be miracle species someday. A biodiversity hotspot is a biogeographic region with a significant reservoir of biodiversity
that is under threat from humans. To qualify as a biodiversity hotspot on Myers 2000 edition of the
BIODIVERSITY AT GLOBAL, NATIONAL AND LOCAL LEVEL: hotspot- map, a region must meet two strict criteria:
BIODIVERSITY AT GLOBAL LEVEL: 1. It must contain at least 0.5% or 1,500 species of vascular plants as endemics.
It is estimated that there are about 20 million species of plants and animals in earth of which 2. It must have lost at least 70% of its primary vegetation.
only 1.6 million species have been formally identified with 34 hotspot regions at the global Around the world, at least 25 areas qualify under this definition, with nine others possible
level. There are 12 megadiversity nations which are highly rich in biodiversity which includes candidates. These sites support nearly 60% of the world's plant, bird, mammal, reptile, and
India. Most of the world‟s biodiversity are near the equator especially tropical rain forests and amphibian species, with a very high share of endemic species.
coral reefs. South America also has unique species and biodiversity. The importance of biodiversity: Biodiversity is often used to draw attention to issues related
to the environment. It can be closely related to:
 The health of ecosystems.
For example, the loss of just one species can have different effects ranging from the
 disappearance of the species to complete collapse of the ecosystem itself. This is due to every lower latitudes or in forests or oceans are more sensitive to reduction in habitat area.
species having a certain role within an ecosystem and being interlinked with other species. Climate change:
 The health of mankind. Global warming is also considered to be a major potential threat to global biodiversity in the
Experiencing nature is of great importance to humans and teaches us different values. It is good future. Climate change has seen many claims about potential to affect biodiversity but evidence
to take a walk in the forest, to smell flowers and breathe fresh air. More specifically, natural food supporting the statement is tenuous. Increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide certainly affects plant
and medicine can be linked to biodiversity. morphology and is acidifying oceans, and temperature affects species ranges, phenology, and
weather, but the major impacts that have been predicted are still just potential impacts. We have
Hot spots of Biodiversity in India: not documented major extinctions yet, even as climate change drastically alters the biology of
many species.
The hot spots of biodiversity are the geographic areas which possess the high endemic species.
At the global level these are the areas of high conservation priority, if these species are lost they POACHING: Illegal trade of wildlife products by killing prohibited endangered animals i.e.
can never be replaced or regenerated. poaching is another threat to wildlife. Despite international ban on trade in products from
Criteria for recognizing Hotspots: The richness of the endemic species is the primary endangered species, smuggling of wildlife items like furs, hides, horns, tusks, live specimens and
criterion; they should have a significant percentage of specialized species; the site should be under herbal products worth millions of dollars per year continues. The developing nations in Asia, Latin
threat and should contain important gene pools of plants of potential use. America and Africa are the richest source of biodiversity and have enormous wealth in wildlife.
Two hot spots in India are:
1. Eastern Himalayas (Indo-Burma region) and Overexploitation:
2. Western Ghats (Srilanka region). Overexploitation occurs when a resource is consumed at an unsustainable rate. This occurs on
land in the form of overhunting, excessive logging, poor soil conservation in agriculture and the
Eastern Himalayas: Comprises of Nepal, Bhutan and neighboring states of Northern India- illegal wildlife trade Joe Walston, director of the Wildlife Conservation Society's Asian programs,
35,000 plant species are found here and 30 % are endemic – also rich in wild plants of economic called the latter the "single largest threat" to biodiversity in Asia. The international trade of
value eg. Rice, banana, citrus, ginger, chilli, jute and sugarcane – Taxal yielding plant also endangered species is second in size only to drug trafficking.
scarcely distributed – 63% mammals are from this region- 60% of Indian Birds- huge wealth of
fungi, insects, mammals and birds found in this region MAN-WILDLIFE CONFLICTS:

Western Ghats: Comprises of parts of Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamilnadu and Kerala – nearly CAUSES OF MAN WILDLIFE CONFLICT:
1500 endemic, dicotyledones 62% amphibians and 50% lizards are endemic here- Ternstroemia, 1. Dwindling habitats of elephants, Tigers, rhinos and bears due to forest shrinkage compels
Japonica, Rhododendron and Hypericum common plants- Blue Bird and Lizard hawk are common them to move outside forest.
animals. 2. Usually ill, weak, and injured animals have a tendency to attack the humans.
3. Earlier Forest department used to cultivate paddy, sugarcane within the sanctuaries, due to
Biodiversity is the richness & varied species of different organisms contained in a particular lack of such practices the animals move out of forest food.
ecosystem – Indian biodiversity is highly diverse and rich such that there are various hot spots. 4. Villagers put Electric Wiring around their crop field which injures the elephants and turn
However there are numerous threats to our Biodiversity. them violent.
5. Wildlife corridors have been disrupted which makes the animals attack human beings
during their migration.
THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY :( Habitat loss, Poaching of wildlife & Man-wildlife conflicts)
REMEDIAL MEASURES TO CURB THE CONFLICT:
In 2006 many species were formally classified as rare or endangered or threatened; moreover,
1. Tiger conservation Project (TCP) has made provisions for making available vehicles,
scientists have estimated that millions more species are at risk which has not been formally
tranquillizer guns, binoculars and radio sets etc., to tactfully deal with any imminent danger.
recognized. About 40 percent of the 40,177 species assessed using the IUCN Red List criteria are
2. Adequate crop compensation and cattle compensation scheme must be started.
now listed as threatened with extinction.
3. Solar powered fencing should be provided to prevent animals from straying into fields.
LOSS OF HABITAT: 4. Cropping pattern should be changed near the border.
Habitat destruction: 5. Wildlife corridors should be provided.
Habitat destruction has played a key role in extinctions, especially related to tropical forest
destruction. Factors contributing to habitat loss are: overpopulation, deforestation, pollution (air Introduced and invasive species:
pollution, water pollution, soil contamination) and global warming or climate change. Habitat size Barriers such as large rivers, seas, oceans, mountains and deserts encourage diversity by enabling
and numbers of species are systematically related. Physically larger species and those living at independent evolution on either side of the barrier, via the process of allopatric speciation. The term
invasive species is applied to species that breach the natural barriers that would normally keep them
constrained. Without barriers, such species occupy new territory, often supplanting native species endemic to Western Ghats. Different species of Monitor lizards, reticulated python and Indian
by occupying their niches, or by using resources that would normally sustain native species. salamander and viviparous toad are some important endemic species of our country.
Genetic pollution: CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY (In-situ conservation & Ex-situ conservation)
Endemic species can be threatened with extinction through the process of genetic pollution, i.e. In-situ and ex-situ conservation along with their merits and limitations:
uncontrolled hybridization, introgression and genetic swamping. Genetic pollution leads to Conservation of Biodiversity: Biodiversity faces threat of extinction – due human activities – to
homogenization or replacement of local genomes as a result of either a numerical and/or fitness salvage situation – conservation of biodiversity need of the hour- to preserve biodiversity to
advantage of an introduced species. Hybridization and introgression are side-effects of prevent their extinction and future flourishing – conservation of Biodiversity required
introduction and invasion. In-situ conservation: Involves allocating large areas of the land mass for wild life development-
such areas can be closed to the public for tourism – wild life can be allowed to flourish in their
Hybridization, genetic pollution/Erosion and food security own environment- promotes genetic diversity- does not stagnate the gene pool
In agriculture and animal husbandry, the Green Revolution popularized the use of conventional
hybridization to increase yield. Often hybridized breeds originated in developed countries and Advantages: cheap and convenient method Species gets adjusted the natural disasters like
were further hybridized with local varieties in the developing world to create high yield strains drought, floods, forest fires.
resistant to local climate and diseases. Local governments and industry have been pushing
hybridization. Formerly huge gene pools of various wild and indigenous breeds have collapsed Limitations: Large surface area of the earth required – shortage of staff and pollution may lead
causing widespread genetic erosion and genetic pollution. This has resulted in loss of genetic to improper maintenance of the habitat.
diversity and biodiversity as a whole.
Ex-situ conservation: Involves conservation of wild life in zoos, botanical gardens-human
ENDANGERED AND ENDEMIC SPECIES OF INDIA: supervision- wildlife can grow under controlled conditions - animals would be properly taken care-
1. ENDANGERED SPECIES OFINDIA
food, shelter and water- help in the flourishing of endangered species- possible the gene pool could
The international Union for conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) publishes
stagnate and result in no genetic diversity taking place.
the red Data book which includes the list of endangered species of plants and animals.

S.No. Species Names Advantages: Special care and attention lead to survival of endangered species– In captive
breeding, animals are assured food, water, shelter and security - hence longer life span- it is carried
1 Reptiles Gharial, green sea turtle, tortoise,python out for the endangered species, which do not have any chances of survival in the wild.
Limitations: Expensive method- freedom of wild life is lost – animals cannot survive in such
2 Birds Great Indian bustard, Peacock, Pelican, Great Indian hornbill, Siberian confined places.
White crane
UNIT 1 - ENVIRONMENT, ECOSYSTEMS AND BIODIVERSITY (QUESTION BANK)
3 Carnivors Indian Wolf, red fox, sloth bear, red panda, tiger, leopard, Stripped
PART - A
Mammals Hyena, Indian lion, Golden cat, desert cat, Dugong
1. Define ecosystem. (May 2012)
4 Primates Hoolock Gibbon, lion tailed Macaque, Nilgiri languor, capped monkey, 2. Write about ecological pyramids. (May 2012)
Golden monkey 3. What are producers, consumers and decomposers? (Nov 2011)
4. What are hotspots of biodiversity? Mention the criteria for hot spots. (Nov 2011)
5 Plants A large number of species of Orchids, Rhododendrons, Medicinal 5. Define genetic and species diversity. (Nov 2011)
Plants like Rauvolfia serpentine, the sandal wood tree santalum, 6. What is Biodiversity? (Nov 2011, May 2011)
Cycasbeddonei 7. What is ecological succession? (Nov 2011)
8. Differentiate between endangered and endemic species. (Nov 2011)
2. ENDEMIC SPECIES OFINDIA: 9. Differentiate between food chain and food web. (Nov 2011, May 2011)
India has two biodiversity hotspots and thus possesses a large number of endemic species. Out 10. What is meant by hot spots of biodiversity? (May 2011)
of about 47,000 species of plants in our country 7000 species are endemic. Thus, Indian 11. What are endangered species? (May 2011)
subcontinent has about 62% endemic flora, restricted mainly to Himalayas, Khasi Hills and 12. Define environment and ecosystems. (May 2011)
WesternGhats. Some of the endemic flora includes orchids and species like Sapria Himalaya, 13. What is the major significance of biodiversity? (May 2011)
Uvarialurdia 14. Why knowledge on environment at individual level is very important? (May 2011)
15. What do you mean by Red Data Book? (May 2011)
A large number out of total 81,000 species of animals in our country is endemic. The Western 16. Define Species diversity. (Nov 2010)
Ghats are particularly rich in amphibians and reptiles. About 62% Amphibians and 50% lizards are 17. What are the types of grassland ecosystem? (Nov 2010)
18. What are food chains? Mention their types. (Nov 2010) 64. Explain Biosphere. (Dec 05)
19. What are the biotic components of an ecosystem? (Nov 2010) 65. Explain threatened and endangered species. (Dec 05)
20. Justify the need for environmental education. (Nov 2010) 66. State the need for public awareness for solving environmental problems. (May 05)
21. Write short notes on wetland ecosystem. (Nov 2010) 67. What is biodiversity and what is its significance? (May 05)
22. Mention any two significance of Biodiversity. (Nov 2010) 68. What is ecological succession? (May 05)
23. Write a short note on biodiversity. (May 10)
24. Name various ecosystems. (May 10) PART - B
25. Suggest three important features if forest ecosystem. (May 10) 1. Explain the structure and function of Ecosystem with a neat sketch. (16) (May 2012, May
26. What is meant by food web? (May 10, Dec 09, Dec 08) (OR) What is food web? Give 2011, Nov 2011, Nov 2010, May 10) (OR) Describe the structural features of ecosystem. (8) (Dec
example. (Dec 07) 09) (OR) Define ecosystem. Give an account of the structure and function of an ecosystem. (8)
27. Define ecological pyramids. (May 10) (May 08, May 06) (OR) What is an ecosystem? Describe the structure and function of various
28. What is ecology? (May 10) components of an ecosystem. (16) (Dec 05) (OR) Define and explain the term ecosystem, its types,
29. Why do we need environmentalist? (May 10) characteristics, structure and function. (16) (May10, Dec 05)
30. Write a short note on biodiversity. (May 10) 2. Explain the conservation of Biodiversity in Global level. (8) (May 2012)
31. State the significance and scope of environmental education. (Dec 09,Dec 08) 3. What is food chain? How it is important to nation? (8) (May 2012) (OR) Write a note on
32.'India is a mega diversity nation' - Account. (Dec 09, Dec 08) food chain. (6) (May 07, Dec 06) (OR) Explain food chain and food web. (4) (Dec 05)
33. What are food chains and food webs? (Dec 09, May 06) 4. Discuss the Universal model of energy flow in an ecosystem and explain how the flow of
34. Define primary production and secondary production. (Dec 09) energy follows the I and II law of thermodynamics? (8) (Nov 2011) (OR) Give an account of
35. Where is most of the world's biodiversity found? (Dec 09) energy flow in ecosystem. (8) (Dec 09, Dec 08, May 07, Dec 06, May 06) (OR) Explain the flow
36. What do you mean by the term indicator species? (Dec 09) of energy through the atmosphere and its utilisation in an ecosystem. (8) (May 08) (OR) With a
37. What are the main kinds of organisms in aquatic life zones? (Dec 09) neat sketch explain the flow of energy through the various components of the ecosystem
38. What is ecological pyramid? Why is pyramid of energy always taking up-right? (Dec 09) (producers, consumers and decomposers) (8) (Dec 07) (OR) Briefly explain the energy flow
39. Define 'Hot spots of Biodiversity'. (Dec 09, Dec08) through ecosystem. (4) (Dec 05) (OR) Energy flow in an ecosystem obeys 1st and 2nd laws of
40. Distinguish between primary and secondary succession. (May09) thermodynamics. Justify. (6) (Dec 07)
41. What are endangered and endemic species? (May 09) 5. What are ecological pyramids? Explain why in grassland ecosystems the pyramids of
42. Mention the major causes of human-wildlife conflicts. (May 09) numbers are upright while in parasitic food chain it is inverted? (8) (Nov 2011)
43. What do you understand by the terms flora and fauna? (Dec 08) 6. Explain different methods of In-situ conservation of Biodiversity. (8) (Nov 2011)
44. What is meant by key stone species? (Dec 08) 7. What are the major causes of man-wildlife conflicts? Discuss the remedial steps that can curb
45. What are the characteristics of the Desert ecosystem? (Dec 08) the conflict. (8) (Nov 2011)
46. Distinguish a biome and an ecosystem. (May 08) (OR) How a biome does differ from an 8. Explain the values of biodiversity. (16) (Nov 2011, May 10) (OR) Discuss the consumptive
ecosystem? (Dec 07) use, ethical, optional and ecosystem service value of biodiversity. (10)
47. Give the classification of Biodiversity. (May 08) (May 2011) (OR) Classify and explain the value of biodiversity. (8) (Nov 2011, Nov 2010)
48. Define the terms producers and consumers. (May 08) (OR) Enumerate the values of biodiversity. (5) (May 09) (OR) Substantiate the value of
49. What is meant by genetic diversity? (May 08) biodiversity with suitable illustrations and statistical evidences. (8) (Dec 08)
50. Define the term biodiversity. (Dec 07, May 07, Dec 05) 9. Explain in-situ and ex-situ conservation of biodiversity. (8) (Nov 2011, May 2011) (OR)
51. Define genetic diversity and species diversity. (Dec 07) Give an account of conservation of biodiversity. (16) (May 10, Dec 09, May 06) (OR) How is
52. What is food chain? (May 07, Dec 06, May 06) biodiversity conserved? Explain. (8) (Dec 08) (OR) How is conservation of biodiversity achieved?
53. Define endangered species. (May 07) (OR) Explain endangered species. (Dec 06) Give details. (8) (May 08) (OR) Explain the strategy adopted to conserve biodiversity. (Dec 05)
54. Explain the concept of an ecosystem. (May 07) Write informative notes on 'In-situ' Conservation. (8) (Dec 09, Dec 08) (OR) Explain the various
55. Explain ecological succession. (Dec 06) methods of conversation of biodiversity. (6) (May 09) (OR) Explain in-situ and ex- situ
56. State any four components of ecosystem. (4) (Dec 06) conservation along with their merits and limitations. (8) (May 08) (OR) Describe in-situ and ex-
57. What are the classifications of biotic components of ecosystems? (May 06) situ conservation of biodiversity. (8) (May 06)
58. Name the few endangered wild life species of India. (May 06) 10. Discuss elaborately the characteristic features, structure and functions of grassland and
60. Define environmental science. (Dec 05) aquatic ecosystems. (16) (Nov 2011) (OR) Discuss the major features of grass land ecosystem. (8)
61. Define producers. (Dec 05) (Dec 09, May 06)
62. Name the four ecosystems. (Dec 05) 11. Explain the role of producers, consumers and decomposers in ecosystem. (8) (Nov 2011)
63. Enumerate the human activities which destroy the biodiversity. (Dec 05) (OR) Explain the role of producers, consumers and decomposers in an ecosystem. (8) (May 08)
(OR) Define: Producers, Consumers and Decomposers (9) (May 07 (OR) Write short notes on: 31. Briefly discuss the characteristic features of the various bio geographical zones in India.
Producers, Consumers and Decomposers (3x2=6) (Dec 06) (6) (May 06)
12. What are the major factors that are responsible for the loss of biodiversity? Explain. (8) 32. Describe the salient features of tropical rain forests and temperate deciduous forests. (5)
(Nov 2011) (May 09)
13. Discuss the aquatic ecosystem and forest ecosystem. (16) (May 10) (OR) Show the 33. Explain the different components of an ecosystem with the help of pond ecosystem. (8)
structure and function of (i) Forest Ecosystem (ii) Aquatic Ecosystem (8) (Dec 09, May 08) (OR) (Dec 07, May 06)
Describe the types, characteristics features, structure and function of (i) Forest Ecosystem (ii) 34. Why conversation in parks, sanctuaries and nature reserves is considered inadequate and the
Aquatic Ecosystem (8+8) (Nov 2011, Dec 08, May 05) only sensible way is to conserve the entire ecosystem or habitats. Discuss (10) (Dec 07)
14. Write notes on (i) Ecological pyramid (ii) Values of biodiversity (8+8) (May 2011) 35. Explain how fat-soluble pollutants like DDT get biomagnified. (8) (Dec 07)
15. Give a detailed account of the following: (i) Components of Ecosystem (ii) In-situ and 36. Discuss the most important advantages of ecosystems. (8) (May 07)
Ex- situ conservation of biodiversity. (4+12) (May 2011) 37. Discuss the four kinds of diversity. (4) (Dec 06)
16. Explain the structure and functions of the following: (i) Forest ecosystem (ii) Grassland 38. Write a note on measuring biodiversity. (4) (Dec 06)
ecosystem (iii) Desert ecosystem (iv) Aquatic ecosystem (16) (May 2011) 39. Why biodiversity rich in tropics? (4) (Dec 06)
17. Write elaborately on biodiversity at global, national local levels. (16) (May 2011, May10, 40. Explain the following: (i) Forest ecosystem (ii) Ecological succession (4+4) (May 06)
May 07) 41. What are the different types of ecosystem and explain them with an example. (16) (May 06)
18. Discuss the process of Ecological Succession with an example using neat sketch. (16) 42. Explain briefly the structure of atmosphere. (6) (Dec 05)
(May2011) (OR) Discuss briefly the ecological succession. Explain how it is classified. (8) (Nov 43. Explain the various threats to biodiversity and the measures recommended for conservation
2010) of biodiversity. (16) (May 05)
19. Write the significance of the two Hot spots of Biodiversity in India. (6) (May 2011, Nov 44. Explain: Ecosystem, energy flow in ecosystem, food chain, food webs and ecological
2010) (OR) Discuss the biodiversity hot-spots in India. (5) (May 09) (OR) What are the various pyramids. (3+3+3+3+4) (May 05)
hot spots of Bio-diversity in India? (8) (Dec 08) (OR) What do you understand by hot spots of 45. Explain in detail the scope of environmental sciences. (16) (May 10)
biodiversity? Name and briefly describe two hot spots of biodiversity that extend in India. (8)
(May 08) (OR) Describe the term hot spot in biodiversity. (8) (Dec 07) (OR) Explain the
biodiversity of India. (8) (May 06)
20. Compare (1) Extinct & Endangered (2) Vulnerable and Rare with an example. (6) (May 2011)
21. Write a note on ecological succession and ecological pyramids. (8) (Nov 2010)
22. Explain the features of ecological pyramids including inverted pyramids. (8) (Nov 2010)
(OR) Illustrate the ecological pyramids. (5) (May 09) (OR) Write a note on ecological pyramids
and their types. (8) (Dec 08, Dec 06) (OR) Discuss the concept of ecological pyramid. (8) (Dec 07)
(OR) Explain ecological pyramids. (4) (May 07)
23. What are the threats to biodiversity? Discuss. (8) (Nov 2010) (OR) Summarize the major
threats to biodiversity. (8) (Dec 09) (OR) Identify and explain the major threats to biodiversity. (8)
(May 08) (OR) What are the major causes of degeneration of biodiversity? (8) (Dec 07) (OR)
What is biodiversity and explain the reasons for its decline. (8) (May 07, Dec 06) (OR) Write short
notes on threats to biodiversity. (5) (May 06) (OR) What are the causes for loss of biodiversity? (4)
(Dec 06) (OR) Discuss the threat faced by Indian Biodiversity. (8) (Dec 05)
24. Explain the components, structure and functions of a desert ecosystem. (8) (Nov 2010)
25. Describe the biotic component of an ecosystem. (8) (Dec 09, Dec 08) (OR) State the
components of ecosystem. (10) (May 07) (OR) What are the major biological components of
ecosystem? Explain their activities. (8) (Dec 09)
26. Discuss the importance of biodiversity. (8) (Dec 09, Dec 08)
27. Write a note on endangered and endemic species of India. (8) (Dec 09, Dec 08)
28. Discuss the major types of deserts, grass lands and forests. (8) (Dec 09)
29. Describe the major parts of the earth's life support system. (8) (Dec 09)
30. What do you understand about "Biodiversity"? Discuss the different levels of hierarchical
levels to understand the concept of biodiversity. List out the major threats to biodiversity.
(4+6+6=16) (Dec 09)
 UNIT – II
ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION

WHAT IS POLLUTION? AIR POLLUTION

Air pollution may be defined as, “the presence of one or more contaminants like dust,
Undesirable change in the physical, chemical or biological characteristics of any
smoke, mist and odour in the atmosphere which are injurious to human beings, plants
component of the environment (air, water, soil) causing harmful effects on various forms of life or
and animals”.
property is termed as environmental pollution.
Rapid industrialization, fast urbanization, rapid growth in population, drastic increase in
vehicles on the roads and other activities of human beings disturbed the balance of natural
INTRODUCTION:
atmosphere.
 Pollution is derived from Latin word „polluere‟ meaning contaminate any feature of During several billion years of chemical and biological evolution, the composition of
environment. earth‟s atmosphere has varied. Today, about 99% of the volume of air we inhale consists
 Pollution is the effect of undesirable changes in our surroundings that have harmful of two gases: Nitrogen and Oxygen.
effects on plants, animals and human beings.
 Soil is a natural resource for which there is no substitute. Soil cannot be Chemical composition of atmospheric air
manufactured with a tank of chemicals. Soil is formed from the parent material by
physical and chemical weathering of rocks. Climate and time are also important in Constituents %
the development of soils. Nitrogen 78
 Extremely dry or cold climates develop soils very slowly while humid and warm
climates develop them more rapidly. It is a thin covering over the land consisting of Oxygen 21
a mixture of minerals, organic material, living organisms, air and water that
together support the growth of plant life. Argon (Ar) <1
 The organic portion, which is derived from the decayed remains of plants and CO2 0.037
animals, is concentrated in the dark top soil.
 The inorganic portion, which is made up of rock fragments, is formed over Water vapour Remaining
thousands of years by physical and chemical weathering of bedrock. We may O2, He, NH3 Trace amount
enhance the soil by helping its processes along, but we can never recreate what we
destroy.
 Soil pollution damages the nutritional, physical and chemical composition of soil CAUSES / SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTION
hence it is important to understand and pollution. The sources of air pollution are natural and man-made (anthropogenic).
 Pollution may be local, regional, trans-boundary or global. The agent which causes
pollution is called pollutant. Natural Sources:
The natural sources of air pollution are volcanic eruptions, forest fires, sea salt sprays,
biological decay, photochemical oxidation of terpenes, marshes, extraterrestrial bodies,
Pollutants can be classified as: pollen grains of flowers, spores etc. Radioactive minerals present in the earth crust are the
1. Degradable or non-persistent pollutants: These can be rapidly broken by natural sources of radioactivity in the atmosphere.
processes. Eg. Domestic sewage, discarded vegetables etc. Man-made Sources:
2. Slowly degradable or persistent pollutants: These remain in the environment for many Man-made sources include thermal power plants, industrial units, vehicular emissions, fossil
years in an unchanged condition and take decades or longer to degrade. Eg: DDT fuel burning, agricultural activities etc. The main pollutants emitted are fly ash and SO2.
3. Non degradable pollutants: These cannot be degraded by natural processes. Eg: Toxic Fertilizer plants, smelters, textile mills, tanneries, refineries, chemical industries, paper and
elements like lead or mercury and nuclear wastes pulp mills are other sources of air pollution.
Indoor Air Pollution
Types of environmental pollution:- The most important indoor air pollutant is radon gas. Radon gas and its radioactive daughters
are responsible for a large number of lung cancer deaths each year. Radon can be emitted
1. Air pollution from building materials like bricks, concrete, tiles etc. which are derived from soil containing
2. Water pollution radium. Radon is also present in groundwater and natural gas and is emitted indoors while
3. Soil pollution using them.
4. Marine pollution
5. Noise pollution
6. Thermal pollution
7. Nuclear hazard
Indian Ambient air quality standards (2) Nitrogen Dioxide: It is a reddish brown irritating gas that gives photochemical smog. In
the atmosphere it can get converted into Nitric Acid (HNO3).
NO2 + Moisture HNO3
Concentration in µg/m3
Human Sources: Fossil fuel burning motor vehicles (49%) and Industrial Power Plants (49%)
Category Area
Health effects: Lung irritation and damage
SPM SO2 NOX CO
Environmental effects: Acid deposition of HNO3 could damage trees, soils and aquatic life in
Industrial lakes. HNO3 could corrode metals and eat away stone on the buildings, statues and
A and mixed 500 120 120 5,000 monuments. NO2 could damage fabrics.
use (3) Sulphur Dioxide:
It is again an irritating gas that is also colorless. It is mostly formed from the
Residential combustion of sulphur containing fossil fuels such as coal and oil. In the atmosphere it can be
B 200 80 80 2,000
and rural converted into Sulphurous and Sulphuric acid. These are the major components of acid
deposition.
Sensitive
Human Sources: Coal combustion in Thermal Power Plants (88%) and other industrial
(hill
processes (10%)
stations,
C 100 30 30 1,000 Health Effects: Breathing problems even for healthy people
tourist
Environmental effects: Reduces visibility, acid deposition of H2SO4. It can cause damage to
resorts,
trees, soils and aquatic life in lakes.
monuments
(4) Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM)
These include a variety of particles and droplets (aerosols) suspended in atmospheric
air for short to long periods. (Room deodorizers)
CLASSIFICATION OF AIR POLLUTANTS: Human Sources: Burning of coal in power and industrial plants (40%), burning diesel
Air pollutants can be classified depending upon the form in which they are present in the and other fuels in vehicles (17%), agriculture, unpaved roads, construction work etc.
environment as: Health Effects: Nose and throat irritation, lung damage, bronchitis, asthma, reproductive
1) Primary pollutants and 2) Secondary pollutants problems and cancer.
Environmental Effects: Reduces visibility, causes acid deposition and H2SO4 droplets.
Primary pollutants are those emitted directly into the atmosphere in the harmful form. eg. These could damage trees, soils and aquatic life in lakes.
CO, NO, SO2 etc., Secondary pollutants: Some of the primary pollutants might react with (5) Ozone:
one another or with the basic components of air to form new pollutants. These resultant This is a highly reactive gas which possess an unpleasant, irritant odour. It forms a
new pollutants are called secondary pollutants. major portion of the troposphere. It is the major component of photochemical smog.
Moisture Human Sources: Chemical reaction with volatile organic compounds (emitted mostly
Eg. NO/NO2 (HNO3/ NO3) etc. by cars and industries) and nitrogen oxides.
Environmental Effect: Moderates the climate.
Indoor Air Pollutants: These are primary air pollutants. Important example is ‗Radon Gas„
(i) Radon gas emitted from the building materials like bricks. Concrete, tiles etc. – derived (6) Hydrocarbons: Both aliphatic and aromatic get accumulated due to the decay of
from soil containing Radium vegetable matter.
(ii) Also present in natural gas, ground water and is emitted during their usage indoors. It is carcinogenic and produces an oily film on the surface and react to form secondary
(iii) Burning of fuels in the kitchen, smoking, - CO, SO2, formaldehyde, pollutants. Ethylene causes plant damage even at low concentrations.
BAP(Benzo-(a) pyrene etc.
Causes of Air pollution
Common air pollutants sources (causes) and their effects:  Air pollution may originate from one or more variety of sources. The natural
(1) Carbon monoxide (CO): pollution includes sources such as oceanic aerosol, volcanic emissions, biogenic
Description: It is a colorless, odorless gas (hence not perceived by the nose) that is sources, windblown terrestrial dust and lightening.
poisonous to air breathing beings. It is formed during the incomplete combustion of carbon  The artificial pollution generates from human activities and includes sources such
containing fuels: as fuel burning, refuge burning, transportation, and construction of buildings,
2 C + O2 2 CO chemical factories, metallurgical factories and vehicles.
In villages, people using fire wood and charcoal for their cooking purposes can cause
emission of CO. The general human sources for this dangerous pollutant are: Cigarette
smoking, incomplete burning of fossil fuels. About 77% comes from motor vehicle exhaust.
Health Effects: CO reacts with the Haemoglobin in red cells and reduces the ability of blood
to bring Oxygen to body cells and tissues – causing headaches and anaemia. At high levels it
causes coma, irreversible brain cell damage and death.
  The third category includes solvent usage and sources include spray painting and REDUCTION OF AIR POLLUTION AT SOURCE
solvent extraction. Automobiles are the first rate of polluters. Industries occupy Control of particulate pollutants
second position. Cyclones Separator
Effects of Air Pollution
 Effects on human health: Particulates cause carcinogenic effects,
accumulate in lungs and interfere with ability of lungs to exchange gases. Prolonged
exposure causes lung cancer and asthma.
 Effects on plants: Gaseous pollutants enter the leaf pores and damage the
leaves of crop plants, interfere with photosynthesis and plants growth and reduces
nutrient uptake and causes the leaves to turn yellow, brown or drop off altogether.
 On materials: Air pollutants break down the exterior paint on cars and
houses.
 Effect on stratosphere: The upper stratosphere consists of considerable
amounts of ozone, which works as an effective screen for UV light. Presence of certain
pollutants can accelerate the breakdown of ozone. Depletion of ozone effects human
health, food productivity and climate

CONTROL OF AIR POLLUTION

Two approaches
1. Preventive technique
2. Effective control Cyclones provide a low-cost, low-maintenance method of removing larger particulates
from a gas stream. The general principle of inertia separation is that the particulate-laden
Air pollution can be minimized by the following methods: gas is forced to change direction. As gas changes direction, the inertia of the particles
> Siting of industries after proper Environmental Impact Assessment studies. causes them to continue in the original direction and be separated from the gas stream.
> Using low sulphur coal in industries The walls of the cyclone narrow toward the bottom of the unit, allowing the particles to
> Removing sulphur from coal (by washing or with the help of bacteria) be collected in a hopper. The cleaner air leaves the cyclone through the top of the
 Removing NOX during the combustion process.
chamber, flowing upward in a spiral vortex, formed within a downward moving spiral.
 Removing particulate from stack exhaust gases by employing electrostatic
precipitators, bag-house filters, cyclone separators, scrubbers etc. Electrostatic precipitator:

 Vehicular pollution can be checked by regular tune-up of engines ; replacement of The electrostatic precipitator works by removing particles and smoke from a gas stream
more polluting old vehicles; installing catalytic converters ; by engine modification to using an induced electrostatic charge. Dust particles pass by wires that have a high DC
have fuel efficient (lean) mixtures to reduce CO and hydrocarbon emissions; and voltage applied, which ionizes the surrounding gas.
slow and cooler burning of fuels to reduce NOx emission (Honda Technology).
.
 Using mass transport system, bicycles etc.
 Shifting to less polluting fuels (hydrogen gas).
 Using non-conventional sources of energy.
 Using biological filters and bio-scrubbers
Wet scrubber Chemical and photochemical reactions in the atmosphere.

A wet scrubber is a device that removes gaseous and/or particle contaminants from a gas FORMATION OF SMOG
stream. It operates by bringing the gas stream into contact with a scrubbing liquid (usually Smog is a mixture of smoke and fog in the form of suspended droplets. The Brownish smoke
water). Gaseous pollutants are removed by absorption into the scrubbing liquid (absorbers) that frequently forms on sunny days over large cities with significant amounts of automobile
while particles are removed by physical capture of the particles in the droplets. traffic.
Types of smog
There are two types of smog.
1. London smog
2. Los Angles smog (or) Photochemical smog.

1. London Smog
It is a coal smoke plus fog. Fog mainly consists of mixture of SO2 + SO3 + humidity. It is bad in
morning hours and becomes worse after sun rise. This is due to sunlight induced oxidation of
SO2 + SO3, followed by reaction with humidity giving sulphuric acid.
SO2 + (O) SO3
SO3+H2O H2SO4

2. Los Angles Smog (or) Photochemical smog

It is not related to smoke (or) fog. It is formed by the combination of NO, NO2, CO2, H2O, CO,
SO2 and unburnt hydrocarbon particles. The important reaction is dissociation of NO2 in
sunlight.

Bag House filters

Bag filters, alternatively known as fabric filters or baghouses, use fabric filter bags to
remove particles from dust-laden gas. These filters can achieve high efficiencies for very
fine particles due to the build-up of particles on the surface of the bag.

Health Effects: Breathing problems, cough, eye, nose and throat irritation, heart ailments,
reduces resistance to colds and pneumonia.
Environmental effects: Ozone can cause damage to plants and trees, Smog can affect
visibility

PEROXYACYL NITRATES (PAN) GENERATION

MECHANISM
In the atmosphere peroxyacyl nitrates are not generated as they are generated in
situ by photochemical reactions having NOx and VOC as precursors.
Depending on organic radical, peroxyacyl nitrates can be: peroxy acetyl nitrates
(PAN): CH3C(O)OONO2; peroxy propionyl nitrates (PPN): CH3CH2C(O)OONO2;
peroxy n-butyryl nitrates (PnBN): CH3CH2CH2C(O)OONO2 etc. Among these, PAN
plays an important in atmospheric chemistry.
The reactions of PAN formation are based on generation of acetyl radicals by
radiation of some VOC (hydrocarbons, alcohols, aldehides). For example:
Acid Rain (or) Acid Precipitation

Normal rain water is always slightly acidic because of the presence of dissolved CO2 existing in
the atmosphere. Presence of SO2 and NO2 gases as pollutants in the atmosphere further lowers
the pH of rain water due to the formation of acids. This type of precipitation of water is called
acid rain (or) acid deposition.

Recent evidence has shown that certain parts of the ozone layer are becoming thinner and
ozone „holes‟ have developed. The consequence of any thinning of the ozone layer is that more
Acid rain means the presence of excessive acids in rain water. The thermal power plants, UV-B radiation reaches the earth‟s surface. UV-B radiation affects DNA molecules, causing
industries and vehicles release nitrous oxide and sulphur dioxide into atmosphere due to damage to the outer surface of plants and animals. In humans it causes skin cancer, and eye
burning of coal and oil. disease.
When these gases react with water vapour in the atmosphere, they form acids and
descend on to earth as “acid rain”. Mechanism of Ozone layer depletion (or) Formation (or) Causes of ozone hole

In 1970, it was found that the ozone layer was attacked by chlorofluoro carbons (CFCs) which
are released into atmosphere by refrigeration units, air conditioning systems, aerosol sprays
and cleaning solvents.
Effects of Acid Rain: Chlorofluoro carbons release chlorine which breaks ozone into oxygen.

Acid rain causes acidification of lakes and streams and contributes to damage of trees at high
elevations (for example, red spruce trees above 2,000 feet) and many sensitive forest soils. In
addition, acid rain accelerates the decay of building materials and paints, including
irreplaceable buildings, statues, and sculptures that are part of our nation's cultural heritage.
Prior to falling to the earth, SO2 and NOx gases and their particulate matter derivatives,
sulfates and nitrates, contribute to visibility degradation and harm public health.
Effects of UV radiations on human:
1. In humans, the increased UV radiation increases the incidence in cancer (including
Ozone Layer Depletion (Ozone hole): nelanoma).
2. Reduces the functioning of immune system.
Ozone is a gas (O3) found throughout the atmosphere, but most highly concentrated in the
3. Cornea absorbs UV-B radiations, and a high dose of UV-B causes inflammation of
stratosphere between 10 and 50 km above sea level, where it is known as the „ozone layer‟.
cornea called snow blindness, cataract etc. Exposure may permanently damage cornea and
cause cataract.
Importance of ozone layer:
Measures to prevent ozone layer depletion
Without the ozone layer, life on the earth‟s surface would not be possible. It protects us from  Cut down the use of CFCs
the damaging ultraviolet radiation of the sun. In particular it filters out UV-B radiation.  Do not use polystyrene cups that have chlorofluorocarbon molecules in them which
destroy ozone layer.
 Use CFC free refrigerators.
 Use the chemicals derived from peaches and plums to clean computer chips and
circuit boards instead of CFCs.
 Measurement of Ozone (Dobson Unit) 2. Alkalinity

The amount of atmospheric ozone is measured by Alkalinity of water is a measure of its acid-neutralising ability. Natural alkalinity in waters is
„Dobson spectrometer‟ and is expressed in Dobson units (DU).1 DU is equivalent to a 0.01 imparted by the hydroxides, carbonates and bicarbonates.
mm thickness of pure ozone at the density it possess if it is brought to the ground level (1 atm)
pressure. 3. Fluoride
In temperate latitude its concentration is 350 DU. Fluoride is found in ground water as a result of dissolution from geologic formulations. Surface
In tropics its concentration is 250 DU. waters generally contain much smaller concentration of fluoride
In sub-polar region its concentration is 450 DU.
4. Nitrogen
Nitrogen is an inert gas, which is relatively unimportant as far as water treatment is concerned.
WATER POLLUTION
5. Chlorides
WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS: Although chlorides are not considered as harmful as such their concentrations over 250 mg/lit
impart peculiar taste to water, which is unacceptable for drinking purposes.
The quality of water is an important parameter to be determined in order to decide the type of
application or treatment required. The quality of water varies to place to place and seasons. 6. Sulphates
The followings are some important parameters of quality of water.
1. Physical parameters. When sulphates are present in excess amount in drinking water, they may produce a cathartic
2. Chemical parameters. effect on the people consuming such water.
3. Biological parameters
7. Nitrates
Physical Parameters
1. Colour: Colour is a shade imparted by organic or inorganic material, which change the Excessive concentrations of nitrates are undesirable especially for infants. The maximum
appearance of the water. The colour of natural water range from pale straw through yellowish- contaminant level for nitrate is 10 mg/lit.
brown to dark brown. The colour of natural waters is mainly due to the presence of dissolved or 9. Arsenic
colloidal organic or inorganic materials. Arsenic is a toxic heavy metal even a very small dose can result in severe poisoning. Only 0.05
2. Taste and Odour: Disagreeable odour and taste are objectionable for various industrial mg/lit has been recommended for arsenic in drinking water.
processes such as food products, beverages, textiles, paper, pulp. Most of the odour in natural
waters are organic in nature, except H2S. Biological impurities
3. Turbidity and sediments: Turbidity is the reduction of clarity of natural water due to the Micro-organisms are more abundant in surface waters, where as in deep well waters, the
presence of finely divided, insoluble impurities suspended in water. bacterial count is very low or even absent. The growth of these organisms in water, used for
industrial purposes, may cause serious problems and hence effective measures must be taken to
Chemical Parameters prevent the growth of these organisms. Organic growths in water generally take place at
1. pH temperatures ranging from 100C - 350C.
The hydrogen ion concentration is represented by the pH value, which is defined as
pH =-log10[ H+ ] Specifications for Drinking Water
pH is defined as negative logarithm of hydrogen ion concentration.
0 ----- 7 ------- 14 The common specifications recommended by the U.S Public Health for Drinking Water are
Acidic -------- Neutral ------- Basic given below.
1. Water should be clear and odourless.
Generally pH of natural waters lies in the neutral range. For drinking water recommended pH = 2. It should be cool.
6.5 to 8.5. For irrigation recommended pH = 6.0 to 9.0. Some surface waters passing over areas 3. It should be pleasant to taste.
rich in sodium and potassium posses alkaline pH. The rain water contaminated by the dissolved 4. Turbidity of the water should not exceed 10 ppm.
gases such as SO2 and NOx will have acidic pH. 5. pH of the water should be in the range of 7.0 - 8.5.
2. Acidity 6. Chloride and sulphate contents should be less than 250 ppm.
Acidity of water is a measure of its base-neutralizing ability. The acidity in water is usually Total hardness of the water should be less than 500 ppm.
imparted by the dissolved carbondioxide (or) by the mineral acids. In pure water, the decrease 8. Total dissolved solids should be less than 500 ppm.
in pH of about 0.45 occurs as the temperature is raised by 250C. 9. Fluoride content of the water should be less than 1.5 ppm.
10. The water must be free from disease-producing bacteria.
11. Water should be free from objectionable dissolved gases like H2S.
12. Water should be free from objectionable minerals such as lead, chromium, manganese
and arsenic salts
WATER POLLUTION (v) Planting trees would reduce pollution by sediments and will also prevent soil erosion.
(vi) Setting up of effluent treatment plants to treat waste water can reduce the pollution load
Water pollution may be defined as, “the alteration in physical, chemical and biological in the recipient water. The treated effluent can be reused either for gardening or cooling
characteristics of water which may cause harmful effects on humans and aquatic life.” purposes or wherever possible.
(vii) Root zone process has been developed by Thermax by running contaminated
Causes of Water Pollution water through the root zone of specially designed reed beds. These have the capacity to
Disease causing agents absorb from the surrounding air through their stomata openings. It creates O2 rich
1. Oxygen depleting wastes conditions where bacteria and fungi oxidize the wastes.
2. Inorganic plant nutrients (viii) Providing sanitation and waste water treatment facility.
3. Excess pesticides (ix) Integrated nutrient management (INM) and integrated pest management (IPM)
4. Water soluble organic chemicals practices will reduce the effects caused due to excess pesticides.
5. Variety of organic chemicals
6. The sediments of suspended matter WASTE WATER TREATMENT
7. Water soluble radioactive isotopes Primary treatment (or) settling process
8. Hot water released by power plants & industries In this treatment, greater proportion of the suspended inorganic and organic solids are removed
9. Acid drainage into rivers. from the liquid sewage by settling. In order to facilitate quick settling coagulants like alum,
ferrous sulphate are added.
Two types of pollutions: These produce large gelatinous precipitates, which entrap finely divided organic matter and
settle rapidly.
Point source of pollution: This source of pollution can be readily identified because it
has a definite source and place, where it enters the water. Eg: Municipal industrial
discharges pipes.
Non-point source of pollution: When a source of pollution cannot be readily identified
such as agricultural runoff, acid rain etc, it is called as non-point source of pollution.

Effects of Water pollution

1. Large amount of human waste in water increase the number of bacteria which
cause gastro intestinal diseases, Water borne diseases diarrhea, typhoid etc.
2. If more organic matter is added to water the O2 is used up. This causes fish and
other forms of O2 dependent aquatic life dies.
3. High levels of organicchemicals (acids, salts& toxic metals) can make the water
a. unfit to drink, harm fish and other aquatic life, reduce crop yields.
b. Variety of organic chemicals / oil gasoline, plastics & detergents are
harmful to aquatic life and human life.
4. Radioisotopes cause birth defects, cancer and genetic damage.
5. Hot water has low solubility of oxygen which may change the breeding cycles
of various aquatic organisms. TRICKLING FILTER
6. Accidental oil spills cause environmental damage. Trickling filter is a circular tank and is filled with either coarse or crushed rock. Sewage is
7. NO3 contamination causes Blue baby disease (Methaemoglobinaceae). sprayed over this bed by means of slowly rotating arms.
When sewage starts percolating downwards, microorganisms present in the sewage grow on
CONTROL OF WATER POLLUTION the surface of filtering media using organic material of the sewage as food.
After completion of aerobic oxidation the treated sewage is taken to the settling tank and the
(i) Judicious use of agrochemicals like pesticides and fertilizers which will reduce their sludge is removed. This process removes about 80-85% of BOD.
surface run-off and leaching. Avoid use of these on sloped lands.Use of nitrogen
fixing plants to supplement the use of fertilizers.
(ii) Adopting integrated pest management to reduce relying on pesticides.
(iii) Prevent run-off of manure. Divert such run-off to basin for settlement. The nutrient
rich water can be used as fertilizer in the fields.
(iv) Separate drainage of sewage and rain water should be provided to prevent overflow of
sewage with rainwater.
 V Disposal of sludge

Component %

Mineral
2. Activated sludge process 45
matter (inorganic)

Organic
5
matter

Soil water 25

Soil air 25

SOIL POLLUTION
Soil pollution is the introduction of substances, biological organisms, or energy into the soil,
resulting in a change of the soil quality, which is likely to affect the normal use of the soil or
endangering public health and the living environment.
Composition of soil
Types, effects and sources (causes) of soil pollution
Soil pollution mainly results from the following sources
1. Industrial wastes.
The industrial pollutants are mainly discharged from the various origins such as pulp and
IV. Tertiary treatment paper mills, chemical industries, oil refineries, sugar factories, tanneries, textiles, steel,
After the secondary treatment, the sewage effluent has a lower BOD (25 ppm), which distilleries, fertilizers, pesticides, coal and mineral mining industries, drugs, glass, cement,
can be removed by the tertiary treatment process. petroleum and engineering industries etc.,
In the tertiary treatment, the effluent is introduced into a flocculation tank, where lime is added 2. Urban wastes.
to remove phosphates. Urban wastes comprises both commercial and domestic wastes consisting of dried sludge of
From the flocculation tank the effluent is led to ammonia stripping tower, where pH is sewage. All the urban solid wastes are commonly referred to as refuse.
maintained to 11 and the NH4 is converted to gaseous NH3. This refuse contains garbage and rubbish materials like plastics, glasses, metallic cans,
Then the effluent is allowed to pass through activated charcoal column, where minute fibres, paper, rubbers, street sweepings, fuel residues, leaves, containers, abandoned vehicles
organic wastes are adsorbed by charcoal. Finally the effluent water is treated with disinfectant and other discarded manufactured products.
(chlorine). Urban domestic wastes though disposed off separately from the industrial wastes, can
still be dangerous. This is so because they cannot be easily degraded.
3. Agricultural practices.
Modern agricultural practices pollute the soil to a large extent. Today with the advancing
agro-technology, huge quantities of fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides, weedicides are added to
increase the crop yield. Apart from these farm wastes, manure, slurry, debris, soil erosion
containing mostly inorganic chemicals are reported to cause soil pollution.
 4. Radioactive pollutants. Types
Radioactive substances resulting from explosions of nuclear dust and radioactive wastes 1. Garbage or food waste
(produced by nuclear testing laboratories and industries) penetrate the soil and accumulate 2. Rubbish
there by creating land pollution. 3. Agricultural waste
4. Industrial waste
5. Biological agents. 5. Hazardous waste
Soil gets large quantities of human, animal and bird‟s excreta which constitute the major Cause
source of land pollution by biological agents.  Over population
 Affluence
Causes of Soil Pollution  Technology
 Soil erosion Effects
 Soil contaminants 1. Health hazard
 Fertilizers and pesticides 2. Environmental impact
 Excess use of irrigation water Control measures
Solid waste management include
Effects of Soil Pollution 1. The waste generation
Food shortage 2. Collection of solidwaste
1. Desertification 3. Disposalofsolidwaste
2. Decrease in the extent of agricultural land o Land fill- Disposal of municipal waste in the upper layers of the
3. Top soil erosion mantle.
4. Excess use of irrigation leads to waterlogging and soil salinization. o Incineration- Burn highlycombustible wastes at very high temperature
5. Fertilizer run off leads to the eutrophication of waterways. o Composting or Bio degradation- Decompose the organic components of
the municipal solidwastes.
Control measures Waste utilization
Proper soil conservation measures to minimize the loss of top soil a) Reuse
1. Soil erosion can be controlled by a variety of forestry and farm practices b) Recycling
2. Reducing deforestation and substituting chemical manures by animal wastes would c) Reclamation
also help to arrest soil erosion in the long term. Maintaining soil productivity is
vital and essential for sustainable agriculture. SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

Proper dumping of unwanted materials Management of solid waste has, therefore, become very important in order to minimize the
Excess of waste products by man and animals cause chronic disposal problem. Open adverse effects of solid wastes. Solid waste (waste other than liquid or gaseous) can be
dumping is most commonly practiced method. Recently controlled tipping is followed for classified as municipal, industrial, agricultural, medical, mining waste and sewage sludge.
solid waste disposal. The surface so obtained then can be used for housing or sports field.
INM, IPM, using bio pesticides and integrated environment friendly agriculture Sources of Urban and Industrial Wastes
to reduce pesticides or fertilizers.
Urban waste
Recycling and Reuse of wastes
To minimize soil pollution, the wastes such as paper, plastics, metals, Urban waste consists of medical waste from hospitals; municipal solid wastes from homes,
glasses, organics, petroleum products and industrial effluents etc., should be offices, markets (commercial waste) small cottage units, and horticulture waste from parks,
recycled and reused. gardens, orchards etc. Waste from homes (Domestic waste) contains a variety of discarded
materials like polyethylene bags, empty metal and aluminium cans, scrap metals, glass
SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT bottles, waste paper, diapers, cloth/rags, food waste etc.
 The combined effects of population explosion and changing modern living 1. Waste from shops mainly consists of waste paper, packaging material, cans, bottles,
standards have had a cumulative effect in the generation of a large amount of polyethylene bags, peanut shells, eggshells, tea leaves etc.
various types of wastes. 2. Biomedical waste includes anatomical wastes, pathological wastes, infectious wastes
 Management of solid waste is very important in order to minimize the adverse etc.
effects of solid wastes. 3. Construction/demolition waste includes debris and rubbles, wood, concrete etc.
 Any material that is thrown away or discarded as unwanted is considered as 4. Horticulture waste and waste from slaughter houses include vegetable parts, residues
solid waste. and remains of slaughtered animals, respectively.
Industrial waste: 1. Landfill
Industrial waste consists of a large number of materials including factory rubbish, Solid wastes are placed in sanitary landfill system in alternate layers of 80cm thick
packaging material, organic wastes, acids, alkalis and metals etc. refuse, covered with selected earth fill of 20cm thickness. After two or three years, solid waste
Effects of Solid Wastes: volume shrinks by 25-30% and the land is used for parks, roads and small buildings.
Municipal solid wastes heap up on the roads due to improper disposal system. This produces
foul smell and breeds various types of insects and infectious organisms besides spoiling the 2. Incineration (or) Thermal process
aesthetics of the site. It is a hygienic way of disposing solid waste. It is more suitable if the waste contains
more hazardous material and organic content.
MANAGEMENT OF SOLID WASTE: It is a thermal process and is very effective for detoxification of all combustible
pathogens.
For waste management we stress on .three R„s-Reduce, reuse and recycle before destruction It is an expensive technology compared to land-fill and composting because incinerators
and safe storage of wastes. are costly.
(I) REDUCTION IN USE OF RAW MATERIALS:

Reduction in the use of raw materials will correspondingly decrease the production of waste. 3. Composting
Reduced demand for any metallic product will decrease the mining of their metal and cause It is another popular method practiced in many cities in our country. In this method,
less production of waste. bulk organic waste is converted into fertile manure by biological action.
The separated compostable waste is dumped in underground earthen trenches in layers
(II) REUSE OF WASTE MATERIALS: of 1.5 m and is finally covered with earth of about 20 cm and left over for decomposition.
Sometimes certain microorganisms such as actinomycetes are introduced for active
The refillable containers which are discarded after use can be reused. Villagers make decomposition.
casseroles and silos from waste paper and other waste materials. Making rubber rings from Within 2 to 3 days biological action starts, the organic matters are being destroyed by
the discarded cycle tubes which are used by the newspaper vendors, instead of rubber bands, actinomycetes and lot of heat is liberated increasing the temperature of the compost by about
reduces the waste generation during manufacturing of rubber bands. 750C and finally the refuse is converted to powdery brown coloured odourless mass known as
humus and has a fertilizing value which can be used for agricultural field.
(III) RECYCLING OF MATERIALS: The compost contains lot of nitrogen essential for plant growth apart from phosphates
and other minerals.
Recycling is the reprocessing of discarded materials into new useful products. (i) Formation
of some old type products e.g. old aluminium cans and glass bottles are melted and recast into MARINE POLLUTION
new cans and bottles. Marine pollution is defined as the introduction of substances to the marine
environment directly or indirectly by man resulting in adverse effects such as hazardous
to human health, obstruction of marine activities and lowering the quality of sea water

Sources
1. Municipal waste & sewage from residences and hotels in coastal towns
2. Pesticides and fertilizers from agriculture
3. Petroleum & oil washedofffromroads entersewagesystem & finallyintoseas
4. Ship accidents & accidental spillage at
5. Off shore oil exploration also pollute the sea water to a large extent
6. Dry docking
7. Pollution due to organic wastes
8. Pollution due to oil
9. Tanker accidents
10. Volcanic eruptions in the sea.
11. Deep sea mining
Effects of marine pollution
Methods of disposal of Solid Waste
 A large amount of organic wastes can also result in the development of „red tides„.
1. Landfill
These are phytoplankton blooms because of which the whole area is discolored.
2. Incineration
 Commercially important marine species are also killed due to clogging of gills
3. Composting
and other structures.
 For salt marshy plants oil slick can affect the flowering, fruiting and germination.
  The coral reefs are the productive ecosystems offer many benefits to people. Sources of noise pollution
These coral reefs are threatened by a) the sediments from deforestation carried by 1. Industrial units
the runoffs. 2. Transportation modes
 Drill cuttings dumped on the seabed result in the production of toxic sulphides in 3. Construction activities
the bottom sediment thus eliminating the benthic fauna. 4. Celebrations
5. Electric home appliances
Control measures of marine pollution Effects of noise pollution
 Introduction of sewage treatment plants to reduce BOD of final product before i. Interferes communication
discharging into sea. ii. Hearingdamage(90 dB)
 Cleaning oil from surface waters and contaminated beaches can be accelerated iii. Physiological and Psychologicaldisorders
through the use of chemical dispersants which can be sprayed on the oil. Control of noise pollution
 Load on top system reduces oil pollution cleaned with high pressures jets of  Reduction in source of noise]
water.  Noise making machines should be kept in containers with sound absorbing
 Crude oil washing: The spillage is removed by jets of crude oil while the cargo is media
being unloaded.  Proper oiling will reduce noise from machinery
 Using silencers – fibrous material
(i) Toxic pollutants from industries and sewage treatment plants should not be discharged  Planting trees
in coastal waters.
 Legislation can prevent excess sound production, unnecessary horn blowing
(ii) Run off from non-point sources should be prevented to reach coastal areas.
etc.
(iii) Sewer overflows should be prevented by having separate sewer and rain water pipes.
(iv) Dumping of toxic, hazardous wastes and sewage sludge should be banned.
THERMAL POLLUTION
(i) Developmental activities on coastal areas should be minimized.
Thermal pollution is the degradation of water quality by any process that increases
(ii) Oil and grease from service stations should be processed for reuse.
the ambient water temperature. The increase in temperature decreases the dissolved
(iii) Oil ballast should not be dumped into sea.
oxygen/oxygen supply and affects ecosystem composition.
(iv) Ecologically sensitive coastal areas should be protected by not allowing drilling.
Causes
NOISE POLLUTION
 Nuclear power plant
Sound is mechanical energy from a vibrating source. Unpleasant and unwanted
 Domestic sewage
sound is called noise.
 Hydro-electric power
Sound can propagate through air, liquid or solid. Sound is pressure perturbation in
the medium through which it travels. Sound pressure creates alternate compression and Effects
rarefaction. The number of c and r per unit time is called frequency. 1. Reduction in dissolved oxygen
Sound pressure does not produce linear impact on human. A logarithmic scale has 2. Increaseintoxicity
been devised. 3. Direct mortality
Noise is measure in terms of SPL which is a log ratio of sound P to a std. P. It has Control measures
a dimensionless unit decibel (dB). The international reference P is 2X10 power -5 Pa.  Cooling towers
 Cooling ponds
Sound can affect ears either by loudness or by pitch (frequency). The CPCB has
 Spray ponds
recommended the permissible noise levels for various places.

Sounds and their decibel scale CONTROL OF THERMAL POLLUTION:

1. Rocket engine – 180 dB The following methods can be employed for control of thermal pollution:
2. Jet plane take off – 150 dB (i) Cooling ponds
3. Threshold of pain – 140 dB (ii) Spray Ponds
4. Recorded music (max) – 130 dB (iii) Cooling towers
5. Construction works, news paper press – 100 dB
6. Motor cycle – 90 dB (i) Cooling Ponds:
7. Ordinary conservation – 70/80 dB
8. Air conditioning unit/ Light traffic – 60 dB Water from condensers is stored in ponds where natural evaporation cools the water which
9. Normal living room – 50 dB can then be recirculated or discharged in nearby water body.
10. Library or soft whisper – 30 B
11. Threshold of hearing – 0 dB
 in the form of gamma rays (high energy electromagnetic radiation) or ionization particles i.e.
alpha particles and beta particles.
Alpha particles can be interrupted by a sheet of paper while beta particles can be blocked by a
piece of wood or a few millimeters of aluminium sheet. The gamma rays can pass through
paper and wood but can be stopped by concrete wall, lead slabs or water.

(ii) Spray Ponds:

The water from condensers is received in spray ponds. Here the water is sprayed through Sources of Radioactivity
nozzles where fine droplets are formed. Heat from these fine droplets is dissipated to the
atmosphere. (i) Natural sources
(ii) Anthropogenic (man-made) sources.
(i) Natural Sources: Sources of natural radioactivity include cosmic rays from outer space,
radioactive radon-222, soil, rocks, air, water and food, which contain one or more radioactive
substances.
(ii) Anthropogenic sources: These sources are nuclear power plants, nuclear accidents, X-
rays, diagnostic kits, test laboratories etc. where radioactive substances are used.

Effects of Radiations
Ionizing radiations can affect living organisms by causing harmful changes in the body cells and
(iii)Cooling Towers: also changes at genetic level.
(a) Wet cooling tower (b) Dry cooling tower (i) Genetic damage is caused by radiations, which induce mutations in the DNA, thereby
affecting genes and chromosomes. The damage is often seen in the offspring and may be
transmitted upto several generations.
(i) Somatic damage includes burns, miscarriages, eye cataract and cancer of bone, thyroid,
breast, lungs and skin
Control of Nuclear Pollution
(i) Siting of nuclear power plants should be carefully done after studying long term and short
term effects.
(ii) Proper disposal of wastes from laboratory involving the use of radioisotopes should be
done.

ROLE OF AN INDIVIDUAL IN PREVENTION OF POLLUTION

 Use stairs instead of elevators
 Use public transportation walk or ride a bicycle
 Plant trees around building
 Turn off lights, television sets and computer when not in use.
 Pay immediate attention to leaks in pipes.
 Install waste saving equipment.
 Recycle glass metal and paper.
 Compost garden waste
NUCLEAR HAZARDS  Segregate waste and recycle
 Buy locally made long losing material
Radioactive substances are present in nature. They undergo natural radioactive decay in  Buy environmentally degradable products.
which unstable isotopes spontaneously give out fast moving particles, high energy radiations  Take some bag from home to market to purchase.
or both, at a fixed rate until a new stable isotope is formed. The isotopes release energy either
Each individual should change his or her life style in such a way as to reduce environmental POLLUTION CASE STUDIES
pollution BHOPAL GAS TRAGEDY
Help more in pollution prevention than pollution control. The careless siting of industries and relatively poor regulatory controls leads to ill
 Use eco-friendly products. health in the surroundings.
 Cut down the use of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) as they destroy the ozone layer. The Bhopal gas tragedy on December 2nd 1984, where Union Carbide's Plant
 Use the chemicals derived from peaches and plums to clean computer chips and circuit leaked 43 tons of Methyl Isocynate and other substances, used in the manufacture of
boards instead of CFCs. pesticides is one of the worst industrial accidents in the recent past.
 Use CFC free refrigerators. Of the 5,20,000 people who were exposed to the gas - 8,000 died during the first
 Reduce your dependency on fossil fuel especially coal or oil. week and another 8,000 later. The impact of the survivors is visible even today.
 Save electricity by not wasting it when not required because electricity saved is
electricity generated without polluting the environment. Put on warm clothes rather
than switching on a heater.
 Adopt and popularize renewable energy sources.
 Improve energy efficiency. This will reduce the amount of waste energy, i.e. more is
achieved with less energy.
 Promote reuse and recycling wherever possible and reduce the production of wastes.
 Use mass transport system. For short-visits use bicycle or go on foot. Decrease the use
of automobiles.
 Use pesticides only when absolutely necessary and that too in right amounts.
Wherever possible integrated pest management, including alternate pest control
methods (biological control), should be used. Bhopal gas tragedy plant
 Use rechargeable batteries. Rechargeable batteries will reduce metal pollution.
 Use less hazardous chemicals wherever their application can be afforded. Baking CHERNOBYL REACTOR INCIDENT
soda, vinegar and borax can help in cleaning, bleaching and softening. Baking soda On April 25, 1986, Russian engineers and scientists begin preliminary tests on
can replace modern deodorants. Chernobyl power plant's 4th reactor. In order to control the experiment, the automatic
 The solid waste generated during one manufacturing process can be used as a raw control system was shut down. After some work, stability was reached at very low power
material for some other processes. outputs. Unfortunately, manual control of the water pressure wasn't maintained. The
 Use low phosphate, phosphate-free or biodegradable dish washing liquid, laundry reactor began to create excess heat. Without the automatic control, the control rods
detergent and shampoo. This will reduce eutrophication of water bodies. couldn't be reinserted in time; a deadly chain reaction had begun. Within a matter of 3-4
 Use organic manure instead of commercial inorganic fertilizers seconds, the reactor went from 5% output to 100 times its normal level.
The water in the reactor flash- boiled, creating an explosion that leveled thousands
Role of Women in Environmental Protection of tons of concrete and steel, including the housing for the reactor. The steam carried
Women play an important role in environmental protection, considering their status in social almost 70% of the nuclear material out of the reactor into the surrounding environment.
production, consumption and their influence to future generations at home. Various roles of Several thousand volunteers died on the scene, and it is estimated that 7,000 to 10,000
women are volunteers died in total, considering short and long-term effects. Thousands of miles from
1. In rural areas, women plant trees and grass, grow vegetables with the drip-irrigation the birth defect rate became double the world average.
method in order to save water.
2. In urban areas, they go shopping using cloth bags to reduce white pollution.
3. Women refuse to use disposal products to save energy and resources
4. Women choose green products instead of poor quality that harm the environment.
5. Women reduce the amount of trash they dispose off so as to recycle natural resources.
6. Women buy non-phosphate detergents to reduce the
incidence of water pollution.
7. They refuse to eat the meat, so variety of animals are preserved.
8. They value paper and thus protect trees.
9. Women bring the concept of environmental protection into families and thus plant a
green seed in the heart of children.

Chernobyl Reactor
 It is also estimated that 150,000 were put at risk for thyroid cancer, and over The effect of diversity of phytoplankton ecology of mangrove estuaries of
800,000 children were put at risk of contracting leukemia. 2 million acres of land (1/5 of Tuticorin is greatly affected by industrial effluents. The Chennai coastal waters showed
the usable farmland in the Ukraine) was, and still is, completely unusable. It remains high levels of pesticides like DDT, lindane, endosulphan and heptachlor. The
difficult to determine the scope of the disaster; radiation resulting from the event was bioaccumulation of these pesticides in marine organisms could pose major health hazards.
detected all over the globe. It is estimated that it may cost up to $400 billion and will take
up to 200 years to correct the damage done to the area, and to compensate those affected NOISE HITS WHALES IN HONG KONG
by the meltdown. Studies have shown that shipping traffic in Hong Kong, which is one of the
busiest ports in the world with approximately half a million oceanic vessels traveling
CASHEW IN KASARGOD, KERALA POISONOUS NUTS through its waters every year (including over 10,000 transits by high speed ferries) has
Endosulfan, a pesticide banned by many countries in the world including India caused changes in the dolphin and whale behavior especially in response to fast moving
was extensively sprayed aerially in the cashew plantations of Plantation Corporation of vessels. A special sanctuary was established by the Hong Kong government in 1995,
Kerala (PCK) spread over 2209 hectares in various divisions of Kasargod district, Kerala. surrounding the islands of Sha Chau and Lung Kwu Chau, an important place occupied
Endosulfan is slated to be phased out globally under the Stockholm Convention 2001, to by the humpback dolphins. At any given time approximately 200 vessels surrounds this
which India is a signatory. The pesticide is classified as an organochlorine compound and sanctuary. The sanctuary was a measure to mitigate boat traffic and tremendous noise
its breakdown products are persistent in the environment, with an estimated half-life of produced. Adjacent to the sanctuary is an airport, where 700 planes descend and take off
nine months to six years. It is known to potentially bioaccumulate in humans and other every day, directly over the sanctuary. All the above activities have caused high noise
animals, in the liver, kidneys and fatty tissue. PCK started using this pesticide in 1979 input into the natural whale habitat. Noise, a major anthropogenic stress factor has caused
and unusual health disorders were reported from places like Vaninagar, Adur, Mulleria, a general decline in the whale populations.
Padre etc. The people were unaware that this was a lethal poison.
DISASTER MANAGEMENT:
A study conducted by the Centre for Science and Environment (CSE) confirmed EARTHQUAKE
the presence of high quantities of endosulfan in the samples of water, soil, fruits,
mother„s milk and blood in Kasargode. Further disorders of the central nervous system, • An earthquake (also known as a quake, tremor or temblor) is the result of a sudden
cerebral palsy, mental and physical retardation, epilepsy and congenital anomalies like release of energy in the Earth's crust that creates seismic waves.
stag horns, liver cancer, blood cancer, infertility, miscarriages, hormonal imbalances, skin • Seismic waves are waves of energy that travel through the Earth's layers, and are a result
diseases and asthma have been reported. All these disorders were traced to endosulfan of an earthquake, explosion, or a volcano that imparts low-frequency acoustic energy
effects. After mass agitations and several reports by various agencies, the use of • The seismicity, seismism or seismic activity of an area refers to the frequency, type and
endosulfan was banned in Kerala in August 2001. Though, the state government has paid size of earthquakes experienced over a period of time.
compensations, the rehabilitation of the living victims is really tough and challenging.
Reports reveal that approximately, 224 people were critically affected and 226 have a
60percent disability. This tragedy was spread over 20 villages in the state.

GROUNDWATER POLLUTION IN INDIA

An example of groundwater pollution caused by excessive extraction is that
fluoride contamination. It has spread across 19 states and across a variety of ecological
regions ranging from the Thar desert, the Gangetic plains and the Deccan plateau. Source:
When the bedrock weathers the fluoride leaches into water and the soil. surfaced during
the last three decades - extraction of groundwater which has resulted in the tapping of
aquifers with high fluoride concentrations was noticed during 1970s and the 1980s when
there was massive state investment in rural water development for irrigation as well as for
drinking. Encouraged by state subsidies on diesel and electricity, people invested in diesel
and submersible pumps in a bid to extract groundwater through borewells. This policy
aggravated the fluoride problem. Effects: combines with the bones as it has an affinity for
calcium phosphate in the bones. Excess intake of fluoride can lead to dental fluorosis,
skeletal fluorosis or non-skeletal fluorosis. Correction: - Deflouridation plants and
household water treatment kits are stop-gap solutions.

MARINE POLLUTION IN TAMIL NADU: OCEANS NOT SPARED

Industrial pollution has threatened the natural habitats of pearls in the pearl banks
of Tuticorin coast in the Gulf of Mannar. It has affected fish and other organisms as far as
30 kms south of Tuticorin due to effluents released from chemical industries. Tannery
wastes have caused the pollution of coastal waters from Chennai to Vedaranyam.
FLOODS
 Floods refer to huge amount of water reaching land in a short span of time, causing land
surface to be submerged under water – at places, where, land surface is usually not
covered with water. Cyclone
Floods could be caused due to natural causes, or, human activities, or, a combination of both. In meteorology, a cyclone is an area of closed, circular fluid motion rotating in the same
Floods are caused by discharge of huge volume of water in a short span of time. direction as the Earth. This is usually characterized by inward spiraling winds that rotate anti-
clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere of the Earth.
Some of the possible reasons for such huge discharge of water could be: Most large-scale cyclonic circulations are centered on areas of low atmospheric pressure

 Very heavy rainfall (say: due to cyclones, typhoons etc.) in a short span of time. It
should be noted that the amount of rainfall itself is not a sufficient cause, the duration
within which the rainfall is receive is equally important contributor
 Breakage of dams etc.
 Very high tidal waves (sometimes in the aftermath of a seismic activity, e.g.
earthquakes) etc. – also called tsunamis

Landslides
A landslide is defined as the movement of a mass of rock, debris, or earth down a slope due to
gravity. The materials may move by falling, toppling, sliding, spreading, or flowing.
Causes
Heavy rainfall, snowmelt, changes in water level, stream erosion, changes in ground water,
earthquakes, volcanic activity, disturbance by human activities.
Effects
Loss of forest, loss of human life, some landslides may cause tsunami.
Major land slide
The Thistle, Utah, landslide cost in excess of $200 million dollars to fix. The landslide occurred
during the spring of 1983, when unseasonably warm weather caused rapid snowmelt to saturate
the slope.

Public awareness
• Among students through education
• Among the masses through mass media
• Among the planners, decision makers and leaders
• Role of Non Government Organisations (NGO)
 Unit III - NATURAL RESOURCES (iv) Soil Conservation: Forests bind the soil particles tightly in their roots and prevent soil
erosion. They also act as wind breakers.
Natural resources (economically referred to as land or raw materials) occur naturally within (v) Pollution moderators: Forests can absorb many toxic gases and can help in keeping the air
environment existing relatively undisturbed by mankind, in the natural form. pure and in preventing noise pollution.

FOREST RESOURCES: It is one of the most important renewable natural resources on this Aesthetic values: Forests also have aesthetic values and serve as generates of important species.
earth. About one-third of the world‟s land surface is covered with forest. Ex;
1. Tribal utilize bamboo and wild grass for making other products like mats, baskets, cots etc.,
Commercial uses 2. There are varieties of daily plants fruits, leaves, seeds, roots are used as food by tribal and
(i) Man depends heavily on a larger number of plant and animal products from forests for his poor people.
daily needs. 3. Many kinds of alcoholic drinks and medicines are derived.
(ii) The chief product that forests supply is wood, which is used as fuel, raw material for various 4. Aromatic oils and other oils used for lighting and cooking, are also derived from forests.
industries as pulp, paper, newsprint, board, timber for furniture items, other uses as in packing
articles, matches, sports goods etc. Touristic value: Ecotourism provides a growing income for those who have facilitated it.
(iii) Indian forests also supply minor products like gums, resins, dyes, tannins, fibers, etc.
Many of the plants are utilized in preparing medicines and drugs; Total worth of which is Uses of Forests:
estimated to be more than $300 billion per year.
(iv) Many forests lands are used for mining, agriculture, grazing, and recreation and for
development of dams.

Depending upon the climate conditions, forest may be classified as:

1. Tropical Rain Forests: They are evergreen broadleaf forests found near the equator. They are
characterized by high temperature, high humidity and high rainfall, all of which favor the growth
of trees.
2. Tropical deciduous forests: They are found a little away from the equator and are
characterized by a warm climate the year round. Rain occurs only during monsoon.
3. Tropical scrub forests: They are found in areas where the day season is even longer.
4. Temperate rain forests: They are found in temperate areas with adequate rainfall. These are
dominated by trees like pines, firs, redwoods etc.
5. Temperate deciduous forests: They are found in areas with moderate temperatures.
6. Evergreen coniferous forests (Boreal Forests): They are found just south of arctic tundra. Here
winters are long, cold and dry. Sunlight is available for a few hours only.
Over Exploitation of Forests: Due to over-population the materials supplied by the forest like
Ecological uses: food, medicine, shelter, wood and fuel are not sufficient to meet the people‟s demand. Hence
The ecological services provided by our forests may be summed up as follows: exploitation of forest materials is going to increasing day by day. Causes for over exploitations
are.
(i) Production of Oxygen: The main greenhouse gas carbon dioxide is absorbed by the forests as Especially with growing civilization, the demand for raw materials like timber, pulp,
a raw material for photo synthesis. Thus forest canopy acts as a sink for carbon dioxide thereby minerals, fuel wood, etc., increases resulting in large scale logging, mining, building and
reducing the problem of global warming caused by greenhouse gas CO2 cleaning forests.
(ii) Wild life habitat: Forests are the homes of millions of wild animals and plants. About 7
million species are found in the tropical forests alone. The international timber trade alone is worth over US $ 40 billion per year.
(iii) Regulation of hydrological Cycle: Forested watersheds act like giant sponges, absorbing the The devastating effects of deforestation in India include soil, water and wind erosion, estimated
rainfall, slowing down the runoff. They control climate through transpiration of water and seed to cost over 16,400 cores every year.
clouding.
 Consequences of deforestation: Some of the effects of deforestation are listed below:
a) Effect on climate: Global warming, Less rainfall, Hot climate etc.,

b) Effect on biodiversity: Loss of medicinal plants, Loss of timber and fuel wood.

c) Effect on resources: Loss of land resource, Loss of soil fertility, Soil erosion and
Drastic changes in biogeochemical cycles

d) Effect on economy: Increase in medicinal values, Demand of industrial products etc.,

Effects of over exploitation: e) Effect on food: Loss of fruit production, Loss of root based foods.
1. Leads to migration of the farmers.
2. Environmental damage caused by over exploitation. Preventive measures or avoid of deforestation:
3. Tropical forests are destroyed at very fast rate. 1. Planting of new trees.
4. Countless plant species and animals at very fast rate. 2. Use of wood for fuel should be discouraged.
5. Marine pollution will go into extinction. 3. Forests pests can be controlled by spraying pesticides.
6. Dumping of wastes into land, water and air has become a severe problem. 4. Forest fire must be controlled by modern techniques.
5. Over grazing by cattle must be controlled.
Deforestation: It is the process of removal of forest resources due to many natural or man-made 6. Steps should be taken by government to discourage the migration of people.
activities. In general deforestation means destruction of forests. 7. Education and awareness programmes must be conducted.
The total forests area of the world in 1900 was estimated to be 7,000 million hectares 8. Strict implementation of law of forest conservation act.
which was reduced to 2890 million ha in 1975 fell down to just 2,300 million ha by 2000.
Deforestation rate is relatively less in temperature countries, but it is very alarming in tropical Case Studies:
countries. Deforestation is a continuous process in India where about 1.3 hectares of forest land (i) Desertification in hilly regions of the Himalayas:
has been lost. The per capita availability of forest in India is 0.08 hectares per person which is Desertification in Himalayas, involving clearance of natural forests and plantation of
much lower than the world average of 0.8 hectares. The presence of waste land is a sign of monocultures like Pinus roxburghi, Eucalyptus camadulensis etc., have upset the ecosystem by
deforestation in India. changing various soil and biological properties.
The area is invaded by exotic weeds. These areas are not able to recover and are losing their
Causes of Deforestation: Major causes of deforestation are listed below: fertility.
1. Development projects
2. Shifting cultivation (ii) Disappearing Tea gardens in Chhota Nagpur:
3. Fuel requirements cutting and burning
4. Construction of dams Following the destruction of forest rain fall declined in Chhota Nagpur to such an extent that tea-
5. Growing food needs. gardens also disappeared from the region.
6. Forest fire
(iii) Waning rain fall in Udhagamandalam:

The rainfall pattern was found to fluctuate with wooded land area in the hills. When the Nilgiri
mountains had luxuriant forest cover annual rainfall used to be much higher.

TIMBER EXTRACTION: Logging for valuable timber such as teak and mahogany not only
involves a few large trees per hectare but about a dozen more trees since they are strongly
interlocked with each other by vines etc.

Uses: 1. Industries like pulp and paper, composite wood, furniture etc.,
2. Developmental activities like railways, boats, road construction etc.,
  Migration of people from mining areas to other areas for searching land and food.
Effects:  Indiscriminate mining in Goa since 1961 has destroyed more than 50,000 ha of forest
1. Large scale timber extraction causes deforestation. land.
2. It is leads to soil erosion, loss of fertility, landslides, loss of biodiversity etc.,  Mining of radioactive mineral in Kerala, Tamilnadu and Karnataka are posing similar
3. It is also leads to loss of tribal culture and extinction of tribal people. threats of deforestation.
4. Thickness of forest also reduced.

Also road construction for making approach to the trees causes further damage to the forests.
In India, firewood demand would continue to rise in future mostly consumed in rural areas,
where alternative sources of energy, are yet to reach.

DAMS AND THEIR EFFECTS ON FORESTS AND TRIBAL PEOPLE:

Dams are the massive artificial structures built across the river to create a reservoir in order to
store water for many beneficial purposes. However, it‟s also responsible for the destruction of
vast areas of forest and displacement of local people.

MINING: It is the process of extracting minerals resources and fossil fuels like coal from the India scenario: India has more than 1600 large dams.
earth.
Types of mining: It is generally divided into two types. States Number of dams
1. Surface mining: shallow deposits.
2. Underground mining: deep deposits. Maharashtra More than 600 dams
Steps involved in mining: It involves the following five steps.
Step 1: Exploration (investigation and searching of minerals) Gujarat More than 250 dams
Step 2: Development Madhya Pradesh More than 130 dams
Step 3: Exploitation (extraction of minerals)
Step 4: Ore processing (Separation of ores)
Step 5: Extraction and purification of minerals. Tehri dam is the highest built across the river in the state of Uttaranchal.
More than 80,000 ha of land of the country are presently under the stress of mining
activities. Effects of dams:
 Thousands of hectares of forest have been cleared for executing river.
 The forest also cleared for residential accommodation, storing materials, laying roads
Effects of mining:
etc.,
 Mining activity not only destroys trees, but also affects soil, water and air.
 Destruction of natural habitat.  Hydroelectric projects also have led to loss of forest.
 Due to continuous removal of minerals, forest covers, trenches are mixed with ground  Construction of dams under these projects led to killing of wild animals & aquatic life.
water.  The big river valley projects also cause water logging which leads to salinity and fertility
 Vibration are developed, which leads to earthquake. of the land.
 When materials are disturbed in significant quantities during mining process. Ex: 1. Narmada sagar project: (it has submerged 3.5 lakes hectares of forest in teak and bamboo
 Noise pollution is another problem from mining operations. trees).
 It also reduces the shape and size of the forest areas. 2. Tehri dam: 1000 hectares of forest affecting about 430 species of plants.
 Sometimes landslides may also occur.
Effects of dam on tribal people: force of gravity or gravity induced pressures. Groundwater tends to move slowly, and is
 Tribal people are ill-treated by modern society. replenished slowly, so it can remain in aquifers for thousands of years.
 Many of the displaced people were not recognized and resettled or compensated. Sublimation: The state change directly from solid water (snow or ice) to water vapor.
 Tribal people and their culture cannot be questioned and destroyed.
 Displacement and cultural change affects the tribal people for both mentally and Flow chart
physically.
 Tribal people will not suit with the new areas and hence they will be affected by many
diseases.
 The greatest social cost of big dam is the widespread displacement of tribal people; such
a biodiversity cannot be tolerated.

WATER RESOURCES: Water is an important component of all living beings. Nearly 80% of
earth‟s surface is covered by water.
Ex: 1. A tree is made up of 60% by weight of water
2. Animals are made up of 50-65% of water

Forms of water: Water exists in three phases, solid, liquid and gas. It is circulated in accordance
with the hydrological cycle.

1.9.2 Hydrological cycle

1. Evaporation
2. Precipitation Fig. Water Cycle
3. Transpiration
1. Evaporation : The transformation of water from liquid to gas phases as it moves from the Uses of water Resources-Different Types: (Mainly two types)
ground or bodies of water into the overlying atmosphere. The source of energy for evaporation is 1. Consumptive Use: Water is completely utilized and is not reused: (in domestic application,
primarily solar radiation. Evaporation often implicitly includes transpiration from plants, though industry and irrigation).
together they are specifically referred to as evapotranspiration. Total annual evaporation amounts 2. Non-Consumptive Use: Water is not completely utilized and is reused: (Hydro power plant).
to approximately 505,000 km3 (121,000 cu mi) of water, 434,000 km3 (104,000 cu mi) of which 3. Other important Use of Water:
evaporates from the oceans. (i) Mainly used for domestic purposes- drinking, cooking, washing, bathing etc.,
2. Precipitation: Condensed water vapor that falls to the Earth's surface .Most precipitation (ii) Due to its unique properties, water is of multiple uses for all living organisms.
occurs as rain, but also includes snow, hail, fog drip, graupel, and sleet. Approximately 505,000 (iii) Water is absolutely essential for life.
km3 (121,000 cu mi) of water falls as precipitation each year, 398,000 km3 (95,000 cu mi) of it (iv) Most of the life processes take place in water contained in the body.
over the oceans. (v) Uptake of nutrients, their distribution in the body, regulation of temperature, and removal
3. Condensation: The transformation of water vapor to liquid water droplets in the air, creating of wastes are all mediated through water.
clouds and fog. (vi) Human beings depend on water for almost every developmental activity.
4. Transpiration: The release of water vapor from plants and soil into the air. Water vapor is a (vii) Water is used for drinking, irrigation, and transportation, washing and waste disposal for
gas that cannot be seen. industries and used as a coolant for thermal power plants.
Snowmelt :The runoff produced by melting snow. (viii) Water shaped the earth's surface and regulates our climate.
Runoff : The variety of ways by which water moves across the land. This includes both surface
runoff and channel runoff. As it flows, the water may seep into the ground, evaporate into the air, OVER UTILIZATION OF SURFACE AND GROUND WATER: With increasing human
become stored in lakes or reservoirs, or be extracted for agricultural or other human uses. population and rapid development, the world water withdrawal demands have increased many
Infiltration: The flow of water from the ground surface into the ground. Once infiltrated, the folds and a large proportion of the water withdrawn is polluted due to anthropogenic activities.
water becomes soil moisture or groundwater. Out of the total water reserves of the world, about 97% is salty water and only 3% is fresh
Subsurface Flow: The flow of water underground, in the vadose zone and aquifers. Subsurface water. Even this small fraction of fresh water is not available to us as most of it is locked up in
water may return to the surface (e.g. as a spring or by being pumped) or eventually seep into the polar ice caps and just 0.003% is readily available to us in the form of ground water and surface
oceans. Water returns to the land surface at lower elevation than where it infiltrated, under the water.
Effects of over exploitation of water: Causes of flood and drought:
1. Decrease of Ground Water - Due to increased usage of ground water, the ground water level (i) Deforestation, overgrazing, mining, rapid industrialization, global warming etc., have
decreases. contributed largely to a sharp rise in the incidence of floods.
Reason: a) The erratic and inadequate rainfall. (ii) Deforestation leads to desertification and drought too. When the trees are cut, the soil is
b) The building construction activities are sealing the permeable soil zone, reduce the area for subject to erosion by heavy rains, winds and sun.
percolation of rain water and increase in surface runoff. (iii) The removal of thin top layer of soil takes away the nutrients and the soil becomes useless.
2. Ground subsidence: When the ground water withdrawal is more than its recharge rate, the The eroded soils exhibit droughty tendency.
sediments in the aquifer get compacted, which results in sinking of overlaying land surface Preventive measures:
(Ground subsidence). 1. Clear knowledge in control of drought and desertification can be very useful for dealing with
Problems: the problem.
1. Structural damage in buildings 2. Carefully selected mixed cropping helps to optimize production and minimize the risks of crop
2. Fracture in Pipes failures.
3. Reversing the flow of canals and tidal flooding. 3. Social forestry and Wasteland development can prove quite effective to fight the problem, but
3. Lowering of water table: Over utilization of ground water disturb the hydrological cycle. it should be based on proper understanding of ecological requirement and natural process.
1. Lowering of water table
2. Decreased pressure in the aquifers and change in the speed and direction of water flow. CONFLICTS OVER WATER: Indispensability of water and its unequal distribution has often
4. Intrusion of salt water: In coastal area, over exploitation of ground water would lead to rapid led to inter-state or international disputes. Issues related to sharing of river water have been
intrusion of salt water from the sea. largely affecting our farmers and also shaking our governments. Many countries are engaged in
Problems: Water cannot be used for drinking and agriculture bitter rivalries over this precious resource.
5. Earthquake and landslides: Over utilization of ground water leads to decrease in water level, For instance,
which cause earthquake, landslides and famine. (i) Argentina and Brazil, dispute each other's claims to the La Plata river,
6. Earthquake and Landslides - As a result of over utilization of ground water, the level of (ii) India and Pakistan fight over the rights to water from the Indus,
ground water getting depleted. (iii) Mexico and USA have come in conflict over the Colorado river,
7. Pollution of water - When ground water level near the agricultural land decrease. water (iv) India and Bangladesh are fighting for Bhrahmaputra river, and
containing the nitrogen as nitrate fertilizer, percolates rapidly into the ground and pollute the (v) Iran and Iraq contest for the water from Shatt-Al- Arab River.
ground water.
Problems: Water becomes unsuitable for potable use by infants, when nitrate concentration
exceeds 45 mgs/ lit.

FLOODS AND DROUGHT:

1. Heavy rainfall often causes floods in the low-lying coastal areas.
2. Prolonged downpour can also cause the over-flowing of lakes and rivers resulting into floods.
3. When annual rainfall is below normal and less than evaporation, drought conditions are
created.

Fig. Conflicts of water

Within India, water conflicts are still being continues between the states.
For Eg.,
1. Sharing of Krishna water between Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh,
2. Sharing of Siruvani water between Tamilnadu and Kerala, and others.
3. Sharing of Cauvery between Karnataka and Tamilnadu
4. On June 2,1990, the Cauvery Water dispute Tribunal was set up which through an interim
award directed Karnataka to ensure that 205 TMCF of water was made available in Tamil Nadu's
Mettur dam every year, till a settlement was reached.
Fig. Drought
5. In 1991-1992 due to good monsoon, there was no dispute. In 1995, the situation turned into a  Minerals formed, due to the concentration of minerals during cooling of molten
crisis due to delayed rains and an expert Committee was set up to look into the matter which rock.
found that there was a complex cropping pattern in Cauvery basin.  Formed due to evaporation of sea water
6. Samba paddy in winter, Kuravai paddy in summer and some cash crops demanded intensive  Formed due to oxidation-Reduction reaction inside the earth
water; thus aggravating the water crisis.  Minerals also formed, due to concentration of minerals during weathering, transport and
7. Proper selection of crop varieties, optimum use of water, better rationing are suggested as sedimentation.
some measures to solve the problem
Classification of Mineral Resources:
1.13 BIG-DAMS –BENEFITS AND PROBLEMS
Dams are built across the river in order to store water for drinking, agricultural, industrial 1. Identified Resources - The location, existence, quantity and quality of these mineral resources
purpose. Now days they are mainly used for the hydropower production. are known by direct geological evidences and measurements.
Benefits: 2. Undiscovered Resources - To exist on the basis of geological knowledge and theory but their
1. Dams are built to control flood and store flood water. specific locations, quantity, and quality are unknown
2. Used for diverting the water from river into a channel. 3. Reserves-identified resources - From which a usable minerals can be extracted profitably.
3. Used mainly for drinking and agricultural purposes.
4. Dams are built for generating electricity. Uses of minerals:
5. Dams are used for recreational purposes • Development of industrial plants and machinery – Fe, Al, Cu etc.,
6. Navigation and fishery can be developed in the dam area. • Construction, housing, settlements - Fe, Al, Ni etc.,
Problems: Problems of constructing dams: • Generation of energy - Coal, Lignite, Uranium etc.,
Upstream problems: • Designing defence equipments, weapons, ornaments.
• Displacement of tribal people. • Agricultural purposes, as fertilizers, seed dressings and fungicides - Ex: zineb (Zn),
• Loss of non-forest land. Maneb (Mn)
• Loss of forests, flora and fauna. • Jewellery - Au, Ag, Pt, and Diamond.
• Landslips, sedimentation and siltation occurs. • Making of alloys for various purposes - Phosphorites.
• Stagnation and water logging around reservoirs retards plant growth. • Communication purposes - Telephone wires, cables, electronic devices.
• Breeding of vectors and spread of vector-borne diseases. • Medicinal purposes (Ayurvedic) - Sulphur pyrites.
• Reservoir induced seismicity causes earthquakes.
• Navigation and aquaculture activities can be developed in the dam area. Table 1 Distribution and uses of major reserves and metals
Downstream problems:
 Water logging and salinity due to over irrigation. Metals Major world reserves Major uses
 Reduce water flow and slit deposition in rivers.
 Salt water intrusion at river mouth. Aluminum Australia, Jamaica Packing food items, transportation,
 Sediments carrying nutrients get deposited in the reservoir, the fertility of the land along utensils, electronics
the river gets reduced. Chromium CIS(The common For making high strength steel alloys,
 Due to structural defects the dam may collapse suddenly and destroy many living wealth of Independent in textiles and tanning industries
organisms. states), South Africa
 Salt water intrusion at river mouth. Copper U.S.A, Canada, CIS Electronic and electrical goods,
building, construction, vessels
MINERAL RESOURCES: Minerals are naturally occurring substances with definite chemical Iron CIS, Canada, U.S.A Heavy machinery, steel production
and physical properties. transportation means.
Formation of mineral deposits: „Concentration of minerals at a particular spot, which can be Manganese South Africa, CIS For making high strength heat
extracted profitably, gives rise to a mineral deposit. Formation of these deposits is a very slow resistant steel alloys
biological process-it takes millions of years. Platinum South Africa, CIS Use in automobiles, catalytic
Various Biological Processes converters, electronics, medical uses.
 Minerals formed, due to the biological decomposition of dead animals and organic Gold South Africa, CIS, Ornaments, medical use, electronic
matters Canada use, in aerospace
 Silver Canada, South Africa Photography, electronic jewellery. 7. Search for new deposit
Nickel CIS, Canada Chemical industry, steel alloys 8. Reuse and Recycling of the metals

Table 2 Major uses of some of the nonmetallic minerals Case studies:

Non-metal mineral Major uses 1. Mining and quarrying in Udaipur:
Soap stones, building stone, and dolomite mines spread over 15,000 hectares in Udaipur have
Silicate minerals Sand and grovel for construction, bricks, paving caused many adverse impacts on environment. About 150 tons of explosives are used per month
etc. in blasting. The Maton mines have badly polluted the Ahar river. The hills around the mines are
Limestone Used for concrete, building stone, used in suffering from acute soil erosion.
agriculture for neutralizing acid soils, used in The waste water flows towards a big tank of “Bag Dara".
cement industry Due to scarcity of water people are compelled to use this effluent for irrigation purpose.
Gypsum Used in plaster wall-board, in agriculture The animals like tiger, lion, deer, and birds have disappeared from the mining area.
Potash, phosphorite Used as fertilizers 2. Mining in Sariska and Tiger Reserve in Aravallis:
Sulphur pyrites Used in medicine, car battery, industry
Environmental impacts of mineral extraction: The Aravalli range is spread over about 692 Km in the North-west India covering Gujrat,
Mining: „Mining is the process of extraction of metals from a mineral deposits‟ Rajasthan, Haryana, and Delhi. The hill is rich in mineral resources. Mining operations within
Types of Mining: and around the Sariska Tiger reserve has left many areas permanently infertile and barren.
1. Surface Mining: Process of extraction of raw materials from the near-surface deposits. The precious wild life is under serious threat.
2. Underground Mining: Process of extraction of raw materials below the earth‟s surface.
Open-pit Mining - Machines dig holes and remove the ores. Ex: Fe, Cu, Limestone, sand stone, FOOD RESOURCES: Food is an essential requirement for survival of life. Main components
marble etc., are carbohydrates, fats, proteins, minerals and vitamins.
Dredging: Chained buckets and draglines used, which scrap up the minerals from under water 1. Croplands: Produces Grains and provides 76% of the earth‟s food. (Rice, wheat, maize,barley,
mineral deposit. sugarcane, potato, etc.,)
Strip Mining: the ore is stripped off by using bulldozers, stripping wheels.
Environmental Damage: - (Caused by Mining activities) 2. Rangelands: From the grazing livestock and provides 17% of the world‟s food. (Meat, Milk,
1. Devegetation and defacing of landscape fruits etc.,)
2. Groundwater contamination
3. Underground Mining 3. Oceans: Oceanic fisheries supply about 7% of the world‟s food. (Fish, prawn, crab)
4. Surface water pollution
5. Air pollution Major food sources:
6. Subsidence of land  Earth is provided with more than thousands of edible plants and animals.
7. Occupational Health Hazards:  Only 15 plants and 8 terrestrial animal species supply 90% of our global intake of
Effects of over exploitation of mineral resources: calories.
1. Rapid depletion of mineral deposits Ex: Rice, wheat, maize, barley, sugarcane, potato, pulses, fruits, vegetables, milk, meat, fish and
2. Wastage and dissemination of mineral deposits sea food. Rice, wheat and maize are the major grains, provide more than 50% of the calories
3. Causes environmental pollution people consume.
Remedial measures:

1. Adopting eco-friendly mining technology

2. Utilization of low grade ores by using microbial – leaching technique. In this method, the ores World Food Problems:
are inoculated with the desired strains of bacteria like Thiobacillus ferroxidans, which remove 1. Arises due the would population increases and cultivable land area decreases.
the impurities and leave the pure mineral. 2. Environmental degradation like soil erosion, water logging, water pollution, salinity, affect
3. Re-vegetating mined areas with appropriate plants agricultural lands.
4. Gradual restoration of flora 3. Urbanization-deteriorates the affect agricultural lands.
5. Prevention of toxic drainage discharge. 4. Food grains are the major food for the people all over the world, the food problem raises.
6. Modernization of the mining industries
5. Human activity-which degrade most of the earth‟s net primary productivity which supports all a) Deforestation: cutting and burning of trees
life. b) Soil erosion: clearing of forest cover exposes the soil to wind and rainfall.
Effects: c) Loss of nutrients: organic matter in the soil gets destroyed and most of the nutrients are taken
1. Every 40 million people die of undernourishment and malnutrition. up by the crops within a short period. Thus soil becomes poor in nutrient, which makes the
2. This means that every year our food problem is killing as many people as were killed by the farmers shift to another area.
atomic bomb dropped on Hiroshima during World War II. Modern Agriculture: It makes use of hybrid seeds of single crop variety, high-tech equipment's,
3. This statistic emphasizes the need to increase our food production, and also to control lot of fertilizers, pesticides, and water to produce large amount of single crops.
population growth. Effects or Impacts of Modern agriculture:
4. It is estimated that 300 million are still undernourished. 1. Problems in using fertilizer:
 Micronutrient imbalance: (excess N, P, K-causes micronutrient imbalance).
Under nutrition and Malnutrition:  Blue baby syndrome: (Nitrate exceeds 25 mg/lit, it causes serious health problem).
1. Nutrition or nourished: The minimum calorie intake on a global scale-2,500 calories/ day.  Eutrophication: (A large Proportion of N & P fertilizer used in crop yield, is washed off
2. Under nutrition or under nourished: People who cannot buy enough food to meet their by the run off) (affect the aquatic life).
basic energy needs suffer from under nutrition. They receive less than 90% of these 2. Problems in using Pesticides:
minimum dietary calories. Effects- Mental retardation and infectious diseases such as First generation pesticides (As, S, Pb, Hg)
measeles and diarrohea. Second generation pesticides (DDT)
3. Malnutrition or malnourished - Deficiency or lack of nutrition often leads to malnutrition (i) Death of non-Target organisms
resulting in several diseases. Growth, Anemia, Goitre, Cretinism, Blindness etc., (ii) Bio-magnification (Non bio-degradable-harmful to the human beings).
Impacts of overgrazing and agriculture (iii) Risk of cancer
3. Desired quality of an ideal pesticide:
Overgrazing: Overgrazing can limit livestock production. Over grazing occurs when too many 1. Kill only the target species
animals graze for too long and exceed the carrying capacity of a grass land area. 2. It must be a bio-degradable
3. It‟s should not produce new pests
Impact of overgrazing 4. It‟s should not produce any toxic pesticide vapors.
5. Excessive synthetic pesticide should not be used.
1. Land degradation: Overgrazing removes the grass cover. The humus content of the soil is 6. Chlorinated or Organophosphate pesticides are hazardous-should not be used.
decreased and it leads to poor, dry, compacted soil. 4. Water logging: „Is the land where water stand for most of the year‟.
2. Soil erosion: The soil roots are very good binders of soil. When the grasses are removed, the Problems: Mechanical strength of the soil decrease sand crop yield falls.
soil becomes loose and susceptible to the action of wind and water. Causes: Excessive water supply to the croplands, Heavy rain, Poor drainage
3. Loss of useful species: Due to overgrazing the nutritious species like cenchrus, panicum etc. Remedy: Preventing excessive irrigation, Sub-surface drainage technology and bio-drainage by
are replaced by thorny plants like Parthenium, Xanthium etc. These species do not have a good trees like Eucalyptus
capacity of binding the soil particles and, therefore, the soil becomes more prone to soil erosion. 5. Salinity: (pH of the water-exceeds 8.0): The water, not absorbed by the soil, undergo
evaporation leaving behind a thin layer of dissolved salts in the topsoil. This process of
Agriculture: „Agriculture is an art, science and industry of managing the growth of plants and accumulation of salts is called salinity of the soil (NaCl, CaCl2, MgCl2, Na2SO4, Na2CO3,
animals for human use‟. It includes cultivation of the soil, growing and harvesting crops, NaHCO3).
breeding and raising livestock, dairying and forestry. Problems: Due to salinity, the soil becomes alkaline and crop yield decreases.
Remedy: The salt deposit is removed by flushing, Sub-surface drainage system the salt water is
flushed out slowly.
Types of Agriculture:
1. Traditional agriculture
2. Modern or Industrialized agriculture

Traditional Agriculture: It involves a small plot, simple tools, surface water, organic fertilizers
and a mix of crops. They produce enough food to feed their families and to sell it for their
income.
Effects or Impacts of traditional agriculture:
 Case studies:
1. Salinity and water logging in Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan:
The first alarming report of salt-affected wasteland formation due to irrigation practices came
from Haryana in 1858.
2. Several villages in Panipat, and Delhi lying in Western Yamuna Canal were suffering from
salinity problems.
3. The floods of 1947, 1950, 1952, 1954-55 in Punjab resulted in aggravated water logging with
serious drainage problems.
4. Rajasthan too has suffered badly in this regard following the biggest irrigation project "Indhra
Gandhi Canal Project".

ENERGY RESOURCES:
Definition: Energy may be defined as, “any property, which can be converted into work.”
(or)
Energy is defined as, “the capacity to do work.”

Forms of energy, some of immediately used to do work; others require some process of
transformation. Life is unthinkable without energy.
All the developmental activities in the world are directly or indirectly dependent upon energy.
Fig. Eutrophication Energy production and energy utilization are the indicators of a country‟s progress.

Development of energy:
1. The first form of energy is the fire.
2. The early man discovered fire and used it for cooking and heating purposes
3. Wood is the main source of energy, which is later replaced by coal.
4. Coal is now being replaced by the oil and gas.
5. Now due to insufficient availability and price hike, people started of thinking and using
several alternative sources of energy.

Wood  coal  oil  alternate energy (solar, wind, tidal energy)

Growing energy Needs:

(i) Energy is essential to all human societies.
(ii) All industrial process like, mining, transport, living, heating and cooling in buildings, all
require energy.
(iii) With the demands of growing population, the world is facing further energy deficit,
Our life style is also changing from al simple way of life to luxurious life style. At present 95%
of the commercial energy is available only from the fossil fuels like coal, oil and natural gas, and
are not going to last for many years. It would be really ironic if fuel becomes more expensive
than food.

Energy Distribution –World Scenario

U.S.A and Canada 5% of the world‟s population- consume 25% of the available world‟s energy
resources.
Fig. Biomagnification
It has been observed, that in U.S.A and Canada an average person consumes 300 GJ (Giga
Joules; equal to 60 barrels of oil) per year.
But in poor countries like Bhutan, Nepal and Ethiopia, an average person consumes less than 1 There by potential difference between two layers is created, which causes flow of electrons
GJ per year. So a person in a developed country consumes almost as much energy in a single day (ie.,an electric current)
as one person consumes in a whole year in a poor country. From the above scenario it is clear
that our life style and standard of living are closely related to energy needs.
1. Renewable energy resources (or) non-conventional energy resources:
Natural resources can be regenerated continuously and are inexhaustible. They can be used again
and again in an endless manner.
Example: Wood, solar energy, wind energy, hydropower energy, etc.,

Merits of renewable energy resources:

1. Unlimited supply.
2. Provides energy security.
3. Fits into sustainable development concept.
4. Reliable and the devices are modular in size.
5. Decentralized energy production.

2. Non- Renewable energy resources (or) Conventional energy resources:

Natural resources which cannot be regenerated once they are exhausted. They cannot be used
again.
Example: Coal, petroleum, natural gas, and nuclear fuels.

Even our renewable resources can become non-renewable if we exploit them to such
extent their rate of consumption exceeds their rate of regeneration.
Wood is renewable resources but not coal-why?
Wood is renewable resources because we can get new wood by growing sapling into a tree
within 15-20 years. But the formation of coal from trees has taken millions of years and cannot
be regenerated in our life time. Fig. Solar cell

RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCES: Renewable resources are parts of our natural Uses:
environment and form our eco-system Used in calculators, electronic watches. Street lights, water pumps to run radios and TVs.

1. SOLAR ENERGY:
The energy that we get directly from the sun is called solar energy. (ii) Solar Battery: When a large number of solar cells are connected in series it forms a solar
The nuclear fusion reactions occurring inside the sun release enormous amount of energy in the battery. Solar battery produces more electricity which is enough to run water pump, to run street-
form of heat and light. light, etc., They are used in remote areas where conventional electricity supply is a problem.
The solar energy received by the near earth space is approximately1.4 kJ/s/m2 known as solar
constant. (iii) Solar heat collectors: Solar heat collectors consist of natural materials like stones, bricks,
(or) materials like glass, which can absorb heat during the day time and release it slowly at night.
Methods of Harvesting Solar Energy:
Uses:
(i) Solar cells (or) photovoltaic cells (or) PV cells: Used in cold places, where houses are kept in hot condition using solar heat collectors.
Solar cells consist of a p-type semiconductor (such as Si doped with B) and n-type semi-
conductor (Si doped with P). They are in close contact with each other. When the solar rays fall
on the top layer of p-type semi-conductor, the electrons from the valence band get promoted to
the conduction band and cross the p-n junction into n-type semi-conductor.
 2. WIND ENERGY:
Definition: Moving air is called wind. Energy recovered from the force of the wind is called
wind energy. The energy possessed by wind is because of its high speed. The wind energy is
harnessed by making use of wind mills.
Harvesting of wind energy:
(i) Wind Mills: The strike of blowing wind on the blades of the wind mill makes it rotating
continuously. The rotational motion of the blade drives a number of machines like water pump,
flour mills and electric generators.

Fig. 1.9 Wind mill

Fig. Solar heat collector

(iv) Solar water heater: It consists of an insulated box inside of which is painted with black
paint. Provided with a glass lid to receive and store solar heat. Inside the box it has black painted
copper coil, through which cold water is allowed to flow in, which gets heated up and flows out
into a storage tank. From the storage tank water is then supplied through pipes.

(ii) Wind farms: When a large number of wind mills are installed and joined together in a
definite pattern it forms a wind farm. The wind farms produce a large amount of electricity.
Conditions:
The minimum speed required for satisfactory working of a wind generator is 15 km/hr.
Advantages:
It does not cause any air pollution
It is very cheap.

3. OCEAN ENERGY:
It can be generated by following ways.

(i) Tidal energy (or) Tidal power: Ocean tides, produced by gravitational forces of sun and
moon, contain enormous amount of energy. The “high tide” and “low tide” refer to the rise and
fall of water in the oceans. The tidal energy can be harnessed by constructing a tidal barrage.
During high tide, the sea-water is allowed to flow into the reservoir of the barrage and
rotates the turbine, which intern produces electricity by rotating the generators.
Fig. Solar water heater During low tide, when the sea level is low, the sea water stored in the barrage reservoir is
allowed to flow into the sea and again rotates the turbine.
 Condition:
The temperature difference should be of 200C or more is required between surface water and
Fig. 1.10 Tidal energy deeper water.

Process:
The warm surface water of ocean is used to boil a low boiling liquid like ammonia.
The high vapour pressure of the liquid, formed by boiling is then to turn the turbine of the
generator and generates electricity.
The cold water from the deeper ocean is pumped to cool and condense the vapour into liquid.
Significance:
 OTE is continuous, renewable and pollution free.
 The use of cold deep water, as the chiller fluid in AC.
 Electric power generator by OTE can be used to produce hydrogen.
(iii) Geo-thermal Energy:
1. Temperature of the earth increases at a rate of 20-750C per km, when we move down the earth
surface.
2. High temperature and high pressure steam fields exists below the earth‟s surface in many
Significance of Tidal energy: places.
 Tidal power plants do not require large areas. 3. The energy harnessed from the high temperature present inside the earth is called geothermal
 As the sea water is inexhaustible, it is completely independent of the uncertainty energy.
of precipitation.
 It is pollution free energy sources, it does not use any energy fuel and also
produced any wastes.

(ii) Ocean thermal energy (OTE): There is often large temperature difference between the
surface level and deeper level of the tropical oceans. This temperature difference can be utilized
to generate electricity. The energy available due to the difference in temperature of water is
called ocean thermal energy.

Fig. Geothermal energy

a) Natural geysers:
In some places, the hot water (or) steam comes out of the ground through cracks naturally in the
form
b) Artificial geysers:
In some places, we can artificially drill a hole up to the hot region and by sending a pipe in it, we
can make the hot water or steam to rush out through the pipe with very high pressure. Thus, the
hot water (or) steam coming out from the natural (or) artificial geysers is allowed to rotate the
Fig. Ocean thermal energy turbine of a generator to produce electricity.
BIOMASS ENERGY: Biomass is the organic matter, produced by plants or animals, used as Disadvantages of hydrogen fuel:
sources of energy. Most of the biomass is burned directly for heating, cooling and industrial 1. Hydrogen is highly inflammable and explosive in nature
purposes. Eg: Wood, crop residues, seeds, cattle dung, sewage, agricultural wastes. 2. Safe handling is required
Biogas: Mixture of methane, carbondioxide, hydrogen sulphide, etc., It contains about 65% of 3. It is difficult to store and transport.
methane gas as a major constituent
Biogas is obtained by the anaerobic fermentation of animal dung or plant wastes in the presence NON-RENEABLE ENERGY SOURCES:
of water. 1. Coal: Coal is a solid fossil fuel formed in several stages as buried remains of land plants that
(i) Bio fuels: lived 300-400 million years ago were subjected to intense heat and pressure over millions of
Biofuels are the fuels, obtained by the fermentation of biomass. Eg: Ethanol, Methanol years.
(a) Ethanol: Various stages of coal
Ethanol can be easily produced from the sugarcane. Its calorific value is less when compared to Wood Peat Lignite Bituminous coal Anthracite
petrol, and produces much less heat than petrol.
(b) Methanol: 1. The carbon content of Anthracite is 90% and its calorific value is 8700 k.cal.
Methanol can be easily obtained from ethanol or sugar-containing plants. 2. The carbon content of bituminous, lignite and peat are 80, 70 and 60% respectively
Its calorific value is also too low when compared to gasoline and diesel. 3. India has about 5% of world‟s coal. Indian coal is not good because of poor heat capacity.
(c) Gasohol: Disadvantages
Gasohol is a mixture of ethanol+gasoline. 1. When coal is burnt it produces CO2 causes global warming
2. Since coal contains impurities like S and N, it produces toxic gases during burning.
In India trial is being carried out to use Gasohol in cars and buses. 2. Petroleum: Petroleum or crude oil = hydrocarbons +small amount S, O, N.
Occurrence
i. Gasohol is common fuel in Brazil and Zimbabwe for running cars and buses. The fossil fuel formed by the decomposition of dead animals and plants that were buried under
ii. Methanol is very useful since it burns at a lower temperature than gasoline or diesel. Due to its lake and ocean at high temperature and pressure for million years
high calorific value, hydrogen can serve as an excellent fuel. Fractional distillation
iii. Moreover it is non-polluting and can be easily produced. Hydrocarbons are separated by fractioning the crude oil.
iv. Presently H2 is used in the form of liquid hydrogen as a fuel in spaceships. Petroleum World Scenario
1. 67% oil reserves.
(ii) Hydrogen Fuel: Hydrogen can be produced by thermal dissociation or photolysis or 2. 25% of the oil reserves in Saudi Arabia.
electrolysis of water. It possesses high calorific value, it is non-polluting, because the At the present rate of usage, the world‟s crude oil reserves are expected to get exhausted in just
combustion product is water. 40 years.
2H2 + O2 -----> 2H2O + 150KJ

Fig. Hydrogen fuel cell Fig. Fractionating column

3. LPG (Liquefied Petroleum Gas): (ii) Nuclear fusion:
1. The petroleum gas, converted into liquid under high pressure as LPG Lighter nucleuses are combined together at extremely high temperatures to form heavier nucleus
2. LPG is colorless and odorless gas. and a large amount of energy is released.
3. During bottling some mercaptans is added, to detect leakage of LPG from the cylinder. Eg: Fusion of H2 1.Two hydrogen-2 (Deuterium) atoms may fuse to form helium at 1 billion0C
with the release of large amount of energy
4. Natural Gas:
2 2 2 1
1. Mixture of 50-90% methane and small amount of other hydrocarbons. 1H +1H → 3He +0n +energy
2. Its calorific value ranges from 12,000-14,000 k-cal/m3.
(i) Dry gas: If the natural gas contains lower hydrocarbons like methane and ethane, it is called Nuclear power of India:
dry gas. Tarapur(Maharashtra),
(ii)Wet gas: If the natural gas contains higher hydrocarbons like propane, butane along with Ranapratap Sagar (Rajasthan)
methane it is called wet gas. Kalpakkam (Tamilnadu)
Occurrence: Formed by the decomposition of dead animals and plants, those were buried under Narora (U.P).
lake and ocean, at high temperature and pressure for millions of years. USES OF ALTERNATE (RENEWABLE) ENERGY SOURCES:
1. Why Alternate (Renewable) Energy Sources are required?
5. NUCLEAR ENERGY: The importance of solar energy can be emphasized particularly in view of the fact that fossil
Dr. H. Bhabha –father. India has 10 nuclear reactors, which produce 2% of India‟s electricity. fuels and other conventional sources are not free from environmental implications.
(i) Nuclear Fission: Heavier nucleus is split into lighter nuclei, on bombardment by fast moving 2. least pollution, safety and security snags and are universally available have the best enhance of
neutrons, and a large amount of energy is released. large scale utilization in future
Eg: Fission of U235 When U235 nucleus is hit by a thermal neutron, it undergoes the following 3. Hydro-electric power generation is expected to upset the ecological balance existing on earth
reaction with the release of 3 neutrons. Besides space heating, hydel power plants critically pollute the aquatic and terrestrial biota.
U 235 + n1 Ba139 + Kr 94 + 3n1 + Energy
92 0 56 36 0 4. Radioactive pollutants released from nuclear power plants are chronically hazardous.
The commissioning of boiling water power reactors (BWRS) have resulted in the critical
235
Each of the above 3 neutrons strikes another U nucleus causing (3x3) 9 subsequent reactions. accumulation of large number of long lived radionuclides in water. The dangerous radiowaste
These 9 reactions further give rise to (3x9) 27 reactions. cannot be buried in land without the risk of polluting soil and underground water.
This process of propagation of the reaction by multiplication in threes at each fission is called 5. The burning of coal, oil, wood, dung cakes and petroleum products has well debated
chain reaction: environmental problems. The smoke so produced causes respiratory and digestive problems
leading to lungs, stomach and eye diseases.
Fission reaction of U235 is given below. 6. The disposal of fly ash requires large ash ponds and may pose a severe problem considering
235 92 141
92U +0n1 → 36Kr + 56Ba + 3 0n1 + energy the limited availability of land. Thus the non-conventional sources of energy are needed.
Objectives:
To provide more energy to meet the requirements of increasing population.
To reduce environmental pollution
To reduce safety and security risks associated with the use of nuclear energy.
LAND RESOURCES: It provides food, fibre, wood, medicine and other biological materials
Soil is the mixture of inorganic materials (rocks and minerals) and organic materials (dead
animals and plants).
Top soil is classified as renewable resources.
Uses of land resources:
1. Land provide, food, wood, minerals, etc., for us
2. Land nurtures the plants and animals that provide our food and shelter.
3. Land is used as watershed or reservoir
4. Land acts as a dust bin for most of the wastes, created by the modern society.
5. Land is used for construction of buildings, industries.

Fig. Nuclear fission-chain reaction

LAND DEGRADATION: Process of degradation of soil or loss of fertility of the soil. Surface creep: Here the large particles (5-10 mm diameter) creep over the soil surface along
with wind.
Harmful effects of land degradation: (iii) Biotic agents: Overgrazing, mining and deforestation are the major biotic agents, cause soil
(i) The soil texture and soil structure are deteriorated erosion. Deforestation without reforestation, overgrazing by cattle, surface mining without land
(ii) Loss of soil fertility, due to loss of invaluable nutrients reclamation, irrigation techniques that lead to salt build- up, water logged soil, make the top soil
(iii) Increase in water logging, salinity, and alkalinity and acidity problems. vulnerable to erosion. 35% of world soil erosion is due to overgrazing. 30% of world soil erosion
(iv) Loss of economic social and biodiversity. is due to deforestation.
(iv) Landslides: Causes soil erosion.
Causes of land degradation: (v)Construction: Construction of dams, buildings, roads removes the protective vegetal cover
1. Population - Land resources degraded by over population &over exploitation. and leads to soil erosion.
2. Urbanization - Urbanization leads to deforestation, reduces the land Control of soil erosion (or) soil conservation practices:
3. Fertilizers and pesticides -Increased applications of fertilizers and pesticides leads to 1. Conservational till farming (or) no-till-farming:
pollution of land and water and soil degradation. In tradition method, the land is ploughed and soil is broken up and leveled to make a planting
4. Damage of top soil - Increase in food production generally leads to damage to top soil surface. This disturbs the soil and makes it susceptible to erosion. However, no-till-farming
through nutrient depletion. causes minimum disturbance to the top soil. Here the tilling machines make slits in the
5. Water-logging - Soil erosion, salination and contamination of the soil with industrial wastes unploughed soil and inject seeds, fertilizers and water in the slit. So the seed germinates and the
all cause land degradation. crop grows.
6. Soil erosion - Soil erosion is the process of removal of superficial layer of the soil from one
place to another.
Harmful effects of soil erosion:
(i) Soil fertility is lost because of loss of top soil layer.
(ii) Loss of its ability to hold water and sediment.
(iii) Sediment runoff can pollute water and kill aquatic life.
Types of soil erosion:
(i) Normal erosion: Gradual removal of top soil by the natural process.
The rate of erosion is slower.
(ii) Accelerated erosion: Caused by man-made activities. The rate of erosion is much faster than
the rate of formation of soil.
Causes of soil erosion:
(i) Water: Affects soil erosion in the form of rain, run-off, rapid flow, wave action. Fig. Conservational till farming
Sheet erosion: When there is uniform removal of a thin layer of soil from a large surface area, it
is called sheet erosion. 2. Contour farming: It involves planting crops in rows across the contour of gently sloped land.
Rill erosion: when there is rainfall and rapidly running water produces finger-shaped grooves or Each row acts as a small dam to hold soil and to slow water runoff.
rills over the area, it is called rill erosion.
Gully erosion: When the rainfall is very heavy, deeper cavities or gullies are formed, which may
be U or V shaped.
Slip erosion: This occurs due to heavy rainfall on slopes of hills and mountains.
Stream bank erosion: During the rainy season, when fast running streams take a turn in some
other direction, they cut the soil and make caves in the bank.
(ii) Wind: Wind is the important climatic agent, who carry away the fine particles of soil and
creates soil erosion.
Saltation: This occurs under the influence of direct pressure of stormy wind and the soil particles
of 1-1.5 mm diameter move up in vertical direction.
Suspension: Here fine soil particles (less than 1mm diameter) which are suspended on the air are
kicked up and taken away to distant places.
Fig. Contour farming
3. Terracing: It involves conversion of steep slopes into broad terraces, which run across the
contour. This retains water for crops and reduces soil erosion by controlling runoff.

Fig. Wind breaks

DESERTIFICATION: Progressive destruction or degradation of arid or semiarid lands to

desert. Desertification leads to the conversion of range lands or irrigated croplands to desert.
Desertification is characterized by devegetation, depletion of ground water, salination and soil
erosion.
Harmful effect of desertification: Around 80% of the productive land in the arid and semi-
Fig. Terracing regions are converted into desert. Almost 600 million people are threatened by desertification.

4. Alley cropping (or) Agro forestry: It involves planting crops in strips or alleys between rows Causes of Desertification:
of trees of shrubs that can provide fruits and fuel wood. Even when the crop is harvested, the soil (a) Deforestation: The process of denuding and degrading a forest land initiates a desert. If there
will not be eroded because trees and shrubs still remain on the soil and hold the soil particles. is no vegetation to hold back the rain water, soil cannot soak and groundwater level do not
increase. This also increases, soil erosion, loss of fertility.
(b) Over grazing: The increase in cattle population heavily grazes the grass land or forests and
as a result denudes the land area.
The denuded land becomes dry, loose and more prone to soil erosion and leads to desert.
(c) Water management: Over utilization of ground water, particularly in the coastal regions, is
resulting in saline water intrusion into aquifers which is unfit for irrigation.
(d) Mining and quarrying: These activities are also responsible for loss of vegetal cover and
denudation of extensive land area leading to desertification.
(e) Climate change: Formation of deserts may also take place due to climate change, ie., failure
of monsoon, frequent droughts.
(f) Pollution: Excessive use of fertilizers and pesticides and disposal of toxic water into the land
also leads to desertification.

LANDSLIDES: Landslides are the downward and outward movement of a slope composed of
earth materials such as rock, soil, artificial fills. Other names of landslides are rockslide, debris
slide, slump, earth flow and soil creep.

Fig. Alley cropping Man induced landslides

During construction of roads and mining activities huge portions of fragile mountainous areas
4. Wind breaks or shelter belts: The trees are planted in long rows along the boundary of are cut and thrown into adjacent areas and streams. These land masses weaken the already fragile
cultivated lands, which block the wind and reduce soil erosion. Wind breaks help in mountain slopes and lead to landslides called man induced landslides.
retaining soil moisture, supply of some wood for fuel and provide habitats for birds.
Causes of landslides:
1. Removal of vegetation: In the sloppy area creates soil erosion, which leads to landslides.
2. Underground mining: Cause subsidence of the ground. V. Promote Sustainable Agriculture:
3. Transport: Due to the movement of buses and trains in the unstable sloppy region cause
landslides. o Do not waste food. Take as much as you can eat.
4. Addition of weight: Addition of extra weight (or) construction on the slope areas leads to o Reduce the use of pesticides.
landslide. o Fertilize your crop primarily with organic fertilizers.
5. Ground water level: Over exploitation of ground water also leads to landslides. o Eat local and seasonal vegetables. This saves lot of energy on transport, storage and
Harmful effect of landslides: preservation.
1. Landslide increases the turbidity of nearby streams, thereby reducing their productivity. o Control pests by a combination of cultivation and biological control methods.
2. Destruction of communication links.
3. Loss of habitat and biodiversity. EQUITABLE USE OF RESOURCES FOR SUSTAINABLE LIFE STYLE:
4. Loss of infrastructure and economic loss. Sustainable development: It is the development of healthy environment without damaging the
natural resources.
CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES - ROLE OF AN INDIVIDUAL: Unsustainable development: It is the degradation of the environment due to over utilization and
Different natural resources like forests, water, soil, food, mineral and energy resources play a over exploitation of natural resources.
vital role in the development of a nation. While conservation efforts are underway at National as Life style in different countries: Life style in world can be explained in two ways.
well as International level, the individual efforts for conservation of natural resources can go a Most developed countries:
long way. 22% of world‟spopulation,
I. Conserve Water: 88% natural resources,
o Use minimum water for all domestic purposes. 85% total global income
o Check for water leaks in pipes. Less developed countries:
o Use drip irrigation method and reduce evaporation. 78% world‟s population,
o The wasted water, coming out from domestic usages, it can be used for watering the 12% natural resources,
plants. 15% total global income
o Building rainwater harvesting system. (They are still struggling hard with their large population, poverty and also consume too low
II. Conserve energy: natural resources leading to unsustainability).
o Switch off lights, fan, and other appliances when not in use.
o Use solar water heater for cooking food. Causes of Unsustainable:
o Grow trees near the house and get a cool breeze and shade.  Over population in poor countries, consume too low resources with low income.
o Use always pressure cooker.  Rich countries consume more resources with more income.
o Ride bicycle or just walk instead of car & scooter. Conditions for sustainable life style:
o Dry the clothes in sunlight instead of driers.  To achieve a more balanced and equitable distribution of natural resource and income.
III. Protect the soil:  Rich countries should lower down their consumption levels, while the minimum needs of
o Grow different types of plants in garden and open places, which bind the soil reduce the poor people.
erosion.
o While constructing the house don‟t uproot the trees as far as possible.
o Don‟t irrigate the plants using strong flow of water, which will wash off the top of soil.
o Soil erosion prevented by sprinkling irrigation.
o Use green manure in the garden.
IV. Conservation of Food Resources:
o Eat only minimum amount food.
o Don‟t waste the food.
o Cooke only required amount of the food.
o Don‟t cook food unnecessarily.
o Don‟t store large amounts of food grains and protect them from damaging insects.
 GE6351 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING oThis can be possible only if we stop over-exploitation of resources, reduce waste discharge
UNIT-4 and emissions and maintain ecological balance.
SOCIAL ISSUES AND ENVIRONMENT  Intra-generational equity
o This emphasizes that the development processes should seek to minimize the wealth gaps
within and between nations and lead to sustainability. i.e., The technology should address to
the problems of the developing countries, producing drought tolerant varieties for uncertain
UNSUSTAINABLE TO SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
climates, vaccines for infectious diseases, clean fuels for domestic and industrial use.
Until two decades ago the world looked at economic status alone as a measure of human development.
Thus countries that were economically well developed and where people were relatively richer were called Important measures for sustainable development-
Advanced Nations/Developed Nations while the rest where poverty was widespread and were economically  Using appropriate technology
backward were called Developing Nations. o It should be locally adaptable, co-friendly, resource-efficient and culturally suitable.
o The Technology should use less of resources, local labor and should produce Minimum
waste.
Developed Nations not only exploited their own natural resources rapidly but also used the natural resources of
 3-R approach
developing countries to grow even larger economies. Later they realized that their lives were being seriously
o Reduce - This insists on minimization of resource usage.
affected by the environmental consequences of development based on economic growth alone. This form of
o Reuse - Using it again and again instead of passing it on to the waste stream.
development did not add to the quality of life as the environmental conditions had begun to deteriorate.
o Recycle - This reduces pressure on our resources as well as reduces waste generation and
pollution.
The current strategies of economic development are using up resources of the world so rapidly that our future
 Prompting environmental education and awareness
generations, would have serious environmental problems, much worse than those that we are facing at present o Making environmental education the centre of all learning process will greatly help in
and considered unsustainable for the world’s long-term development. The newer concept of development has changing the thinking and attitude of people towards our earth and the environment.
come to be known as “Sustainable Development”.  Resource utilization as per carrying capacity
o Renewable resources: In order to attain sustainability, it is very important to consume the
The nations of the world came to clearly understand these issues in the UN Conference on Environment and natural resources in such a way that the consumption should not exceed the regeneration
Development (UNCED), popularly known as “The Earth Summit”, held at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in 1992. capacity.
o Non-renewable resources: For sustainability non-renewable resources should be conserved
Sustainable Development: by recycling and reusing.
o Norwegian Prime Minister and Director of World Health Organization G.H. Brundtland defined it as
“Meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to Sustainability of a system depends largely upon the carrying capacity of the system. Carrying capacity has
meet their own needs”. two basic components:
Economy 1. Supporting capacity -the capacity to regenerate.
2. Assimilative capacity -the capacity to tolerate different stresses.

“Consumption should not exceed regeneration and changes should not be allowed to occur beyond the
tolerance capacity of the system”.
In order to attain sustainability it is very important to utilize the resources based upon the above two properties
of the system.
In case of human beings, the carrying capacity concept becomes all the more complex because unlike other
animals, human beings, not only need food to live, but need so many other things to maintain the quality of
life.
Sustainable
A True sustainable development should aim at optimum use of natural resources with
Developmen
 High degree of reusability
 Minimum wastage
Society Environment  Least generation of toxic by-products
 Maximum productivity.
o It is a multidimensional concept aiming at benefits derived from the interaction between society,
economy and environment. URBAN PROBLEMS RELATED TO ENERGY
 Urban sprawl
Key aspects for Sustainable Development- o Earlier a big majority of human population lived in rural areas and their economic activities
 Inter-generational equity centered on agriculture, cattle rearing, fishing, hunting or some cottage industry.
o This emphasizes that we should minimize any adverse impacts on resources and environment o It was some 200 years ago, with the dawn of Industrial era, the cities showed a rapid
for future generations. development.
 o More than 50 percent of the world population lives in urban areas and there is increasing Huge water-loss occurs due to runoff on soils, which can be reduced by allowing most of the
movement of rural people to cities in search of employment. water to infiltrate into the soil. This can be achieved by using the following techniques.
o The urban growth is so fast that it is becoming difficult to accommodate all the industrial, a. Contour cultivation on small furrows and ridges across the slopes trap rainwater and allow more
commercial and residential facilities within a limited municipal boundary. As a result, there is time for infiltration. Terracing constructed on deep soils has large water-storage capacity.On
spreading of the cities into the sub-urban or rural areas too. This phenomenon is called urban gentle slopes trapped run off is spread over a large area for better infiltration.
sprawl. b. Conservation-bench terracing involves construction of a series of benches for catching the
 Urbanization runoff water.
Urbanization is the movement of human population from rural areas to urban areas for the c. Water spreading is done by channeling or lagoon-leveling.
want of better education, communication, health, employment etc. o In channeling, the water-flow is controlled by a series of diversions with vertical
 Causes of urbanization intervals.
Cities are the main centers of economic growth, trade, transportation, education, medical o In lagoon leveling, small depressions are dug in the area so that there is
facilities and employment. Hence rural people move to cities. temporary storage of water.
d. Chemical wetting agents (Surfactants) increase the water intake rates when added to normal
In developing countries too urban growth is very fast and in most of the cases it is uncontrollable and irrigated soils.
unplanned growth. Due to high population density and high energy demanding activities, a higher standard life e. Surface crop residues Tillage, mulch, animal residues etc. help in reducing run-off by allowing
and their life style the urban problems related to energy are much more magnified as compared to the rural more time for water to penetrate into the land.
population. f. Chemical conditioners like gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) when applied to sodic soils improve soil
 The energy demanding activities include permeability and reduce run off. Another useful conditioner is HPAN (hydrolyzed
o Residential and commercial lighting. polyacrylonitrile).
o Transportation means including automobiles and public transport for moving from residence to g. Water-storage structures like farm ponds, dug-outs etc. built by individual farmers can be useful
workplace. measures for conserving water through reduction of runoff.
o Modern life-style using a large number of electrical gadgets in everyday life.  Reducing evaporation losses
o Industrial plants using a big proportion of energy. o This is more relevant in humid regions.
o A large amount of waste generation which has to be disposed off properly using energy based o Horizontal barriers of asphalt placed below the soil surface increase water availability and
techniques. increase crop yield by 35-40%. This is more effective on sandy soil but less effective on
o Control and prevention of air and water pollution which need energy dependent technologies. loamy sand soils.
o A co-polymer of starch and acrylonitrile called super. it has been reported to absorb water
 Solution for urban energy problem upto 1400 times its weight. The chemical has been found to be useful for sandy soils.
o Urban people should be encouraged to use public transport instead of individual transport modes like  Storing water in soil
cars or motor cycles. o Storage of water takes place in the soil root zone in humid regions when the soil is wetted to
o Energy consumption must be minimized. field capacity.
o Energy production capacity may be increased. o By leaving the soil fallow for one season water can be made available for the crop grown in
o Use of energy efficient technologies adopted. next season.
o Usage of Solar energy and wind energy should be encouraged.  Reducing irrigation losses
o Apart from encouraging energy saving methods strict laws and penalties have to be imposed together o Irrigation in early morning or late evening to reduce evaporation losses.
with energy audit. o Sprinkling irrigation and drip irrigation conserve water by 30-50%.
o Growing hybrid crop varieties with less water requirements and tolerance to saline water help
WATER CONSERVATION conserve water.
 Re-use of water
Water conservation refers to reducing use of fresh water, through technological or social methods. o Treated wastewater can be used for ferti-irrigation.
 Need for water conservation o Use grey water from washings, bath-tubs etc. for watering gardens, washing cars or paths.
1. Rising population  Preventing wastage of water
2. Growing industrialization o This can be done in households, commercial buildings and public places.
3. Expanding agriculture o Closing taps when not in use
4. Decrease in rainfall o Repairing any leakage from pipes.
5. Overexploitation of ground water has raised the demand for water. o Using small capacity flush in toilets.
 Increasing block pricing
Efforts have been made to collect water by building dams and reservoirs and digging wells some countries o The consumer has to pay a proportionately higher bill with higher use of water.
have also tried to recycle and desalinate (remove salts) water. Conserving water has become a prime o This helps in economic use of water by the consumers.
environmental concern. The idea of ground water recharging by harvesting rainwater is gaining importance in The goals of water conservation efforts include
many cities.  Sustainability - To ensure availability for future generations, the withdrawal of fresh water from
Strategies that can be adopted to conserve water- an ecosystem should not exceed its natural replacement rate.
 Decreasing run-off losses
  Energy conservation - Water pumping, delivery, and wastewater treatment facilities consume a o In roof top rainwater harvesting, which is a low cost and effective technique for urban
significant amount of energy. houses and buildings, the rain-water from the top of the roofs is diverted to some surface tank
 Habitat conservation - Minimizing human water use helps to preserve fresh water habitats for or pit through a delivery system which can be later used for several purposes.
local wildlife and migrating waterfowl, as well as reducing the need to build new dams and other .
water diversion infrastructure. Some of the benefits of rainwater harvesting are as follows-
Methods of water conservation o Increases water availability
There are so many methods available for water conservation of which the following are important methods o Checks the declining water table
1. Rainwater harvesting o Is environmentally friendly
2. Watershed management o Improves the quality of groundwater through the dilution of fluoride, nitrate, and salinity
o Prevents soil erosion and flooding especially in urban areas
RAINWATER HARVESTING

Rainwater harvesting is a technique of increasing the recharge of groundwater by capturing and storing WATERSHED
rainwater. This is done by constructing special water-harvesting structures like dug wells, Percolation pits,
lagoons, check dams etc. MANAGEMENT
 Objectives of Rainwater harvesting
o To reduce run off loss. Watershed
o To avoid flooding of roads. It is defined as the land area from which water drains under gravity to a common drainage channel. It
o To meet the increasing demands of water. is a delineated area with a well-defined topographic boundary and one water outlet.
o To raise the water table by recharging ground water. The watershed can range from a few square kilometers to few thousand square kilometers in size. The
o To reduce groundwater contamination. watershed comprises complex interactions of soil, landform, vegetation, land use activities and water. A
o To supplement groundwater supplies during lean season. watershed affects us as it is directly involved in sustained food production, water supply for irrigation, power
 Methods generation, and transportation as well as for influencing sedimentation and erosion, vegetation growth, floods
o By storing in tanks or reservoirs above or below ground. and droughts.
o By constructing pits, dug-wells, lagoons, trench or check-dams on small rivulets Thus, management of watersheds, treating them as a basic functional unit, is extremely important and
o By recharging the groundwater. the first such Integrated Watershed Management was adopted in 1949 by the Damodar Valley Corporation.
Watershed degradation
Before adopting a rain-water harvesting system, the soil characteristics, topography, rainfall pattern and The watersheds are very often found to be degraded due to uncontrolled, unplanned and unscientific
climatic conditions should be understood. Rainwater harvesting helps in recharging the aquifers, improves land use activities. Overgrazing, deforestation, mining, construction activities, industrialization, shifting
groundwater quality by dilution, improves soil moisture and reduces soil erosion by minimizing run-off water cultivation, natural and artificial fires, soil erosion and ignorance of local people have been responsible for
degradation of various watersheds.
 Traditional Rain Water Harvesting Watershed Management
o In high rainfall areas rainwater is collected from roof-tops into storage tanks. In foot hills, Rational utilization of land and water resources for optimum production causing minimum damage to
water flowing from springs is collected by embankment type water storage. the natural resources is known as watershed management.
o In Himalayan foot-hills people use the hollow bamboos as pipelines to transport the water of The objectives of watershed management are as follows-
natural springs. Rajasthan is known for its tankas. (Underground tanks) and khadins o To rehabilitate the watershed through proper land use adopting conservation strategies for minimizing
(embankments) for harvesting rainwater. soil erosion and moisture retention so as to ensure good productivity of the land for the farmers.
o In our ancient times Talaabs, Baawaris, Johars, Hauz were used to collect rain-water and o To manage the watershed for beneficial developmental activities like domestic water supply,
ensured adequate water supply in dry periods. irrigation, hydropower generation etc.
o To minimize the risks of floods, droughts and landslides.
 Modern Techniques of Rain Water Harvesting o To develop rural areas in the region with clear plans for improving the economy of the region.
o In arid and semi-arid regions artificial ground water recharging is done by constructing Watershed Management Practices
shallow percolation tanks. In the Fifth Five Year Plan, watershed management approach was included with a number of
o Check-dams made of any suitable native material (brush, poles, rocks, plants, loose rocks, programmes for it and a national policy was developed. The practices of conservation and development of land
wire nets, stones, slabs, sacks etc.) are constructed for harvesting runoff from large catchment and water are taken up with respect to their suitability for peoples benefit as well as sustainability.
areas. Various measures taken up for management include the following-
o Rajendra Singh of Rajasthan popularly known as water man has been doing a commendable  Water harvesting
job for harvesting rainwater by building check dams in Rajasthan and he was honored with o Proper storage of water is done with provision for use in dry seasons in low rainfall areas.
the prestigious Magsaysay Award for his work.  Afforestation and Agroforestry
o Groundwater flow can be intercepted by building groundwater dams for storing water o They help to prevent soil erosion and retention of moisture. In high rainfall areas woody trees
underground. As compared to surface dams, groundwater dams have several advantages like are grown in between crops to substantially reduce the runoff and loss of fertile soil.
minimum evaporation loss, reduced chances of contamination etc. o In Dehradun, trees like Eucalyptus and Leucaena and grasses like Chrysopogon are grown
along with maize or wheat to achieve the above objectives.
 Mechanical measures for reducing soil erosion and runoff losses
 o Several mechanical measures like terracing, bunding, bench terracing, no-till farming, contour REHABILITATION
cropping, strip cropping etc. are used to minimize runoff and soil erosion particularly on the The United Nations Universal Declaration on Human Rights [Article25 (1)] has declared that right to
slopes of watersheds. housing is a basic human right. In India, most of the displacements have resulted due to land acquisition by the
o Bunding has proved to be a very useful method in reducing runoff, peak discharge and soil government for various reasons. For this purpose, the government has the Land Acquisition Act, 1894 which
loss in Dehradun and Siwaliks. empowers it to serve notice to the people to vacate their lands if there is a need as per government planning.
 Scientific mining and quarrying Provision of cash compensation in lieu of the land vacated exists in section 16 of the Act.
o Due to improper mining, the hills lose stability and get disturbed resulting in landslides, rapid The major issues related to displacement and rehabilitation is as follows-
erosion etc. o Tribals are usually the most affected amongst the displaced who are already poor. Displacement
o Contour trenching at an interval of 1 meter on overburden dump, planting some soil binding further increases their poverty due to loss of land, home, jobs, food insecurity, loss of access to
plants like Ipomoea and Vitex and draining of water courses in the mined area are common property assets, increased morbidity and mortality and social isolation.
recommended for minimizing the destructive effects of mining in watershed areas. o Break up of families is an important social issue arising due to displacement in which the women are
 Public participation the worst affected and they are not even given cash/land compensation.
o People involvement cooperation as well as participation has to be ensured to the success of o The tribals are not familiar with the market policies and trends. Even if they get cash compensation,
any watershed management programme. they get alienated in the modern economic set-up.
o Properly educating the people about the campaign and its benefits or sometimes paying o The land acquisition laws ignore the communal ownership of property, which is an inbuilt system
certain incentives to them can help in effective people’s participation. amongst the tribals. Thus the tribals lose their communitarian basis of economic and cultural
existence. They feel like fish out of water.
Successful watershed management has been done at Sukhomajri Panchkula, Haryana through active o Kinship systems, marriages, social and cultural functions, their folk-songs, dances and activities
participation of the local people. Watershed management in Himalayan region is of vital importance since vanish with their displacement. Even when they are resettled, it is individual-based resettlement,
most of the watersheds of our country lie here. Several anthropogenic activities accelerate its slope instability which totally ignores communal settlement.
which needs to be prevented. On steeper slopes with sliding faces, straw mulching tied with thin wires and o Loss of identity and loss of the intimate link between the people and the environment is one of the
ropes helps in establishing the vegetation and stabilizing the slopes. Efforts should be made to protect the biggest losses. The age-long indigenous knowledge, which has been inherited and experienced by
watershed by preventing overgrazing, terracing and contour farming to check runoff and erosion etc. them about the flora, fauna, their uses etc. gets lost.

RESETTLEMENT Rehabilitation Policy

Economic development raises the quality and standard of living of the people of a country. There is a need for a comprehensive National Rehabilitation Policy. Different states are following
Developmental projects are planned to bring benefits to the society. However, in the process of development, different practices in this regard. There is a need to raise public awareness on these issues to bring the
very often there is over-exploitation of natural resources and degradation of the environment. resettlement and rehabilitation plans on a humane footing and to honour the human rights.
The native people(under privileged tribal people) of the project site are directly affected. Various
types of projects result in the displacement of the native people who undergo tremendous economic and Case study
psychological distress, as the socio-economic and ecological base of the local community isdisturbed. The much debated Sardar Sarovar Project which plans to build 30 big, 135 medium and 3000 minor
 Displacement problems due to dams: dams on the Narmada River and its tributaries is estimated to submerge almost as much area as it is meant to
o The big river valley projects is one of the most serious socio-economic impacts due to large irrigate. A total of 573 villages, consisting of about three lakh people are going to be affected due to
scale displacement of local people from their ancestral home and loss of their traditional submergence under water. As a result of the big dams the community rights of the tribal’s is breached. It is a
profession or occupation. traumatic experience to get uprooted from ones native place where its generations have lived and move
o India is one of countries in the world leading in big dam construction. The Hirakund Dam to a new place as a total stranger. Very often the family breaks up. It is a big price that the tribal’s have to pay
has displaced more than 20,000 people residing in about 250 villages. The Bhakra Nangal for a big dam project which is supposed to bring happiness and prosperity to the country. In return of this big
Dam was constructed during 1950.s and till now it has not been possible to rehabiltate even sacrifice, the tribal’s must be given adequate compensation in the form of land, jobs, cash compensation etc.
half of the displaced persons. Tehri Dam on the river Bhagirathi, construction of which was and care should be taken to improve their quality of life
green signalled after three decades of long campaign against the project by the noted activist
Sunderlal Bahuguna the propagator of Chipko Movement . ROLE OF NON-GOVERNMENT ORGANISATIONS (NGO’s)
 Displacement due to Mining: Voluntary organizations can help by advising the government about some local environmental issues
o Mining causes displacement of the native people. Several thousands of hectares of land area and at the same time interacting at the grass-root levels. They can act as an effective and viable link between
are covered in mining operation and the native people are displaced. the two. They can act both as an action group or a pressure group. They can be very effective in organizing
o Sometimes displacement of local people is due to accidents occurring in mined areas like public movements for the protection of environment through creation of awareness.
subsidence of land that often leads to shifting of people. The Chipko Movement for conservation of trees by Dasholi Gram Swarajya Mandal in Gopeshwar or
o Displacement due to Creation of National Parks: the Narmada Bachao Andolan organized by Kalpavriksh, are some of the instances where NGO’s have played
o When some forest area is covered under a National Park, it is a welcome step for conservation a landmark role in the society for conservation of environment.
of the natural resources. But, it also has a social aspect associated with it which is often The Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS), the World Wide Fund for Nature - India (WWF,
neglected. India) Kerala Sastra Sahitya Parishad,Centre for Science and Environment (CSE) and many others are playing
o A major portion of the Forest is declared as core-area, where the entry of local dwellers or a significant role in creating environmental awareness through research as well as extension work.
tribals is prohibited. When these villagers are deprived of their ancestral right or access to the The recent report by CSE on more than permissible limits of pesticides in the cola drinks sensitized
forests, they usually retaliate by starting destructive activities.
the people all over the country.
  One should consume the material goods in moderate amounts so that all may share the earth’s
ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS precious treasure of resources.
It refers to the issues, principles and guidelines relating to human interactions with their environment. If we critically go through the above Ten Commandments for earth ethics and reflect upon the same, we will
The environmental crisis is an outward manifestation of the crisis of mind and spirit. It all depends on how do find that various religions teach us the same things in one form or the other. The concept of ahimsa (non-
we think and act. If we think Man is all powerful and the supreme creature on this earth and man is the master violence) in Buddhism and Jainism ensure the protection and conservation of all forms of life, thereby keeping
of nature and can harness it at his will it reflects our human-centric thinking. the ecological balance of the earth intact. Our teachings on having fewer wants ensure to put .limits to growth
On the other hand, if we think Nature has provided us with all the resources for leading a beautiful life and thus, guide us to have an eco-centric life style.
and she nourishes us like a mother, we should respect her and nurture her is an earth-centric thinking.
The first view urges us to march ahead gloriously to conquer the nature and establish our supremacy TWELVE PRINCIPLES OF GREEN CHEMISTRY:
over nature through technological innovations, economic growth and development without much botheration
to care for the damage done to the planet earth.
The second view urges us to live on this earth as a part of it, like any other creation of Nature and live
sustainably. So, we can see that our acts will follow what we think. If we want to check the environmental
crisis, we will have to transform our thinking and attitude. That in turn, would transform our deeds, leading to
a better environment and better future. These two world-views are discussed here in relation to environmental
protection:
 Anthropocentric Worldview
This view is guiding most industrial societies. It puts human beings in the center giving them the
highest status. Man is considered to be most capable for managing the planet earth. The guiding principles of
this view are-
o Man is the planets most important species and is the in-charge of the rest of nature.
o Earth has an unlimited supply of resources and it all belongs to us.
o Economic growth is very good and more the growth, the better it is, because it raises our
quality of life and the potential for economic growth is unlimited.
o A healthy environment depends upon a healthy economy.
o The success of mankind depends upon how good managers we are for deriving benefits for us
from nature.
 Eco-centric Worldview
This is based on earth-wisdom. The basic beliefs are as follows-
o Nature exists not for human beings alone, but for all the species.
o The earth resources are limited and they do not belong only to human beings.
o Economic growth is good till it encourages earth-sustaining development and discourages
earth-degrading development.
o A healthy economy depends upon a healthy environment.
o The success of mankind depends upon how best we can cooperate with the rest of the nature
while trying to use the resources of nature for our benefit.

Environmental ethics can provide us the guidelines for putting our beliefs into action and help us decide what
to do when faced with crucial situations. Some important ethical guidelines known as Earth ethics or
Environmental Ethics are as follows-
 One should love and honour the earth since it has blessed you with life and governs your survival.
 One should keep each day sacred to earth and celebrate the turning of its seasons.
 One should not hold yourself above other living things and have no right to drive them to extinction.
 One should be grateful to the plants and animals which nourish you by giving you food.
 One should limit your offsprings because too many people will overburden the earth.
 One should not waste your resources on destructive weapons.
 One should not run after gains at the cost of nature, rather should strive to restore its damaged
majesty.
 One should not conceal from others the effects you have caused by your actions on earth.
 One should not steal from future generations their right to live in a clean and safe planet by
impoverishing or polluting it.
 Nuclear physicists and others have speculated that nuclear holocaust could result in an end to human
life, or at least to modern civilization on Earth due to the immediate effects of nuclear fallout, the temporary
loss of much modern technology due to electromagnetic pulses, or nuclear winter and resulting extinctions.

Case study
Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki:
During the final stages of World War II in 1945, the United States conducted two atomic bombings
against the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, the first on August 6, 1945, and the second on August
9, 1945. These two events are the only use of nuclear weapons in war to date.
For six months before the atomic bombings, the United States intensely fire-bombed 67 Japanese
cities. Together with the United Kingdom and the Republic of China, the United States called for the
unconditional surrender of Japan in the Potsdam Declaration issued July 26, 1945.
The Japanese government ignored this ultimatum. By executive order of President Harry S. Truman,
the U.S. employed the uranium-type nuclear weapon code named "Little Boy" on the city of Hiroshima on
Monday, August 6, 1945, followed three days later by the detonation of the plutonium-type weapon code
named "Fat Man" over the city of Nagasaki on August 9.
Within the first two to four months after the bombings, acute effects killed 90,000–166,000 people in
Hiroshima and 60,000–80,000 in Nagasaki, with roughly half of the deaths in each city occurring in the first 24
hours. The Hiroshima prefectural health department estimates that - of the people who died on the day of the
detonation - 60% died from flash or flame burns, 30% from falling or flying debris, and 10% from other
causes.
During the following months, large numbers died from the chronic effects of burns, radiation sickness,
and other injuries, compounded by illnesses. In a U.S. estimate of the total immediate and short-term causes of
death, 15–20% died from radiation sickness, 20–30% from flash burns, and 50–60% from other injuries,
compounded by illnesses. In both cities, most of the dead were civilians.
NUCLEAR ACCIDENTS AND HOLOCAUST
Nuclear accidents can occur at any stage of the nuclear fuel cycle. However, the possibility of reactor WASTELAND RECLAMATION
accidents is viewed more seriously because the effects of reactor accidents are more drastic. Many estimates of Economically unproductive lands suffering from environmental deterioration are known as
hypothetical accidents in a nuclear power station are made taking into consideration various parameters like wastelands. Eg: salt affected lands, sandy areas, gullied areas, undulating uplands, barren hill-ridge etc. Snow
reactor safety measures which if fail would release large amount of reactor contents, that is, radioactive debris covered areas, glacial areas and areas rendered barren after Jhum cultivation.
affecting a substantial portion of human population within a particular site in a Particular area. More than half of our country’s geographical area (about 175 million ha) is estimated to be wasteland,
The modern fusion bombs (nuclear bombs) are of the explosive force of 500 kilotons and 10 thus indicating the seriousness of the problem for a country like ours which has to support 1/6th of the world’s
megatons. In case of a world war total nuclear exchange of more than 5,000 megatons can be expected. population.
Nuclear bombardment will cause combustion of wood, plastics, petroleum, forests etc. Large quantity of black Maximum wasteland areas in our country lie in Rajasthan (36 million ha) followed by M.P. and Andhra
soot will be carried to the stratosphere. Black soot will absorb solar radiations and won’t allow the radiations Pradesh. Wastelands are formed by natural processes, which include undulating uplands, snow-covered lands,
to reach the earth. Therefore, cooling will result. coastal saline areas, sandy areas etc. or by anthropogenic (man-made) activities leading to eroded, saline or
The infrared radiations which are re-radiated from the atmosphere to the earth will have very less waterlogged lands.
water vapors and carbon dioxide to absorb them. If they leave the lower atmosphere the greenhouse effect will The major anthropogenic activities leading to waste land formation are deforestation, overgrazing, mining
be disturbed and cooling will occur. and erroneous agricultural practices. Although deserts are wastelands formed by natural process, but there are
Due to this cooling effect, water evaporation will also reduce. Therefore, infra-red radiations many human activities which accelerate the spreading of desert as we have already discussed. Wasteland
absorbing water vapors will reduce in the atmosphere. This will also cause cooling. In the stratosphere there reclamation and development in our country falls under the purview of Wasteland Development Board, which
won’t be significant moisture to rainout the thick soot. So, due to nuclear explosions, a phenomenon opposite works to fulfil the following objectives-
to global warming will occur. This is called nuclear winter. It may result in lower global temperature.  To improve the physical structure and quality of the marginal soils.
Even the summer time will experience freezing temperature and drastically affect crop production.  To improve the availability of good quality water for irrigating these lands.
Crop productivity will reduce substantially causing famines and human sufferings. The Chernobyl nuclear  To prevent soil erosion, flooding and landslides.
accident, 1986 has resulted in wide spread contamination by radioactive substances. The devastation caused by  To conserve the biological resources of the land for sustainable use.
nuclear bombs is not only immediate but may be long lasting. Towards, the end of World War II, bombing of
Dresden, Germany caused huge firestorms. This caused particle laden updrafts in the atmosphere. Some important reclamation practices are discussed here-
Nuclear holocaust refers to a possible nearly complete annihilation of human civilization by nuclear  Land development and leaching
warfare. Under such a scenario, all or most of the Earth is made uninhabitable by nuclear weapons in future o For reclamation of the salt affected soil, it is necessary to remove the salts from the root-zone
world wars. which is usually achieved by leaching i.e. by applying excess amount of water to push down
the salts.
 o After levelling and ploughing, the field is bundled in small plots and leaching is done. In Earlier we used to live a much simpler life and used to have fewer wants. In the modern society our
continuous leaching, 0.5 to 1.0 cm water is required to remove 90% of soluble salts from each needs have multiplied and so consumerism of resources has also multiplied. Our population was less than 1
cm of the soil depending upon texture. million for thousands of years ever since we evolved on this earth.
 Drainage Today we have crossed the six billion mark and are likely to reach 11 billion by 2045 as per World
o This is required for water-logged soil reclamation where excess water is removed by artificial Bank estimates. Let us see how the changing population trends influence consumerism of natural resources and
drainage. generation of wastes. Two types of conditions of population and consumerism exist.
1. Surface drainage: This is used in areas where water stands on the fields after heavy rains by  People over-population
providing ditches to runoff the excess water. Usually 30-45 cm deep ditches lying parallel to each other at o It occurs when there are more people than available supplies of food, water and other
20-60 m distance are able to remove 5 cm of water within 24 hours. important resources in the area.
2. Sub-surface drainage: Horizontal sub-surface drainage is provided in the form of perforated o Excessive population pressure causes degradation of the limited resources, and there is
corrugated PVC pipes or open-jointed pipes with an envelope of gravel 2-3 m below the land surface. absolute poverty, under-nourishment and premature deaths.
Chancesof evaporation of water leading to accumulation of salts almost become nil in this method. The o This occurs in less developed countries (LDCs). Here due to large number of people,
World Bank has funded sub-surface drainage system at Sampla, Rohtak (Haryana) for reducing soil adequate resources are not available for all. So there is less per capita consumption although
salinity by this method. overall consumption is high.
 Irrigation Practices  Consumption over-population
o Surface irrigation with precise land levelling, smoothening and efficient hydraulic design help o This occurs in the more developed countries (MDCs). Here population size is smaller while
to reduce water logging and salinity. High frequency irrigation with controlled amount of resources are in abundance and due to luxurious life-style per capita consumption of
water helps to maintain better water availability in the upper root zone. resources is very high.
o Thin and frequent irrigations have been found to be more useful for better crop yield when the o More the consumption of resources more is the waste generation and greater is the
irrigation water is saline as compared to little heavy irrigation. degradationof the environment.
 Selection of tolerant crops and crop rotations
o Tolerance of crops to salts is found to range from sensitive, semi-tolerant, tolerant to highly This concept can be explained by using the model of Paul Ehrlich and John Hodlren (1972)
tolerant. Barley, sugar beet and date-palm are highly tolerant crops which do not suffer from
any reduction in crop yield even at a high salinity with electrical conductivity (EC) of 10
dS/m.
o Wheat, sorghum, pearl millet, soyabean, mustard and coconut are salt-tolerant crops. Rice,
millets, maize, pulses, sunflower, sugarcane and many vegetables like bottle gourd, brinjal
etc. are semi-tolerant. These different crop combinations can be grown on saline soils.
 Gypsum amendment
o Amendment of sodic soils with gypsum is recommended for reducing soil sodicity as calcium In LDC.s - No. of people is very high, but per capita use of resources and waste generated are less.
of gypsum replaces sodium from the exchangeable sites. In MDC.s - No. of people is low, but per capita use of resources and wastes generated are very high.
 Green-manures, fertilizers and Biofertilizers The overall environmental impact of these two types of consumerism may be same or even greater in case of
o Application of farm yard manure or nitrogen fertilizers have been found to improve saline MDCs. Thus, consumerism varies with the country and USA is known for maximum consumerism.
soils. Green manuring with dhaincha (Sesbania aculeata) sunhemp or guar have also been The throw-away attitude and luxurious life-style of the west results in very high resource use as
reported to improve salt-affected soils. compared to less developed countries. With every unit of energy, mineral or any resource used there is waste
o Blue green algae have been found to be quite promising as biofertilizers for improving salt- generation and pollution in the environment.
affected soils. A comparison of USA and India can illustrate this point more clearly with every unit of energy,
 Afforestation Programmes mineral or any resource used there is waste generation and pollution in the environment.
o The National Commission on Agriculture (NCA) launched several afforestation schemes in Comparison of consumerism and waste generation Percent global values
the VI th plan to cope up with the problem of spreading wasteland. Parameter USA India
o The National Wasteland Development Board, in the Ministry of Environment and Forests has Population 4.7% 16 %
set a target of bringing 5 million hacres of wasteland annually under firewood and fodder Production of Goods 21% 1%
plantation. Energy use 25% 3%
 Social Forestry Programmes Pollutants/wastes 25% 3%
o These programmes mostly involve strip plantation on road, rail and canal-sides, rehabilitation CFC.s Production 22% 0.7 %
of degraded forest lands, farm-forestry, waste-land forest development etc. The table shows that although the population of India is 3.4 times more than that of U.S.A. its overall energy
use and waste generation are less than 1/8th that of USA. Thus more consumerism leads to more waste
CONSUMERISM AND WASTE PRODUCTS production
Consumerism refers to the consumption of resources by the people. While early human societies used
to consume much less resources, with the dawn of industrial era, consumerism has shown an exponential THE ENVIRONMENT (PROTECTION) ACT, 1986
rise. It has been related both to the increase in the population size as well as increase in our demands due to
change in life-style. The Act came into force on Nov 19, 1986, the birth anniversary of our Late Prime Minister Indira Gandhi,
who was a pioneer of environmental protection issues in our country.
 1. Environment includes water, air and land and the inter-relationships that exist among and between categories recognized under this rule and there are guidelines for their proper handling, storage, treatment,
them and human beings, all other living organisms and property. transport and disposal which should be strictly followed by the owner.
2. Environmental pollution means the presence of any solid, liquid or gaseous substance present in The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 has also made provision for environmental Audit as a means
such concentration, as may be, or tend to be, injurious to environment. of checking whether or not a company is complying with the environmental laws and regulations. Thus, ample
3. Hazardous Substance means any substance or preparation which by its physico-chemical provisions have been made in our country through law for improving the quality of our environment.
properties or handling is liable to cause harm to human beings, other living organisms, property or
environment The Act has given powers to the Central Government to take measures to protect and THE AIR (PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF POLLUTION) ACT, 1981
improve environment while the state governments coordinate the actions. The most important Salient features of the act are as follows-
functions of Central Govt. under this Act include setting up of- 1. The Act provides for prevention, control and abatement of air pollution.
a. The standards of quality of air, water or soil for various areas and purposes. 2. In the Act, air pollution has been defined as the presence of any solid, liquid or gaseous
b. The maximum permissible limits of concentration of various environmental pollutants substance (including noise) in the atmosphere in such concentration as may be or tend to be
(including noise) for different areas. harmful to human beings or any other living creatures or plants or property or environment.
c. The procedures and safeguards for the handling of hazardous substances. 3. Noise pollution has been inserted as pollution in the Act in 1987.
d. The prohibition and restrictions on the handling of hazardous substances in different 4. Pollution control boards at the central or state level have the regulatory authority to
areas. implement the Air Act. Just parallel to the functions related to Water (Prevention and Control
e. The prohibition and restriction on the location of industries and to carry on process and of Pollution) Act, the board performs similar functions related to improvement of air quality.
operations in different areas. The boards have to check whether or not the industry strictly follows the norms or standards
The procedures and safeguards for the prevention of accidents which may cause environmental pollution and laid down by the Board under section 17, regarding the discharge of emission of any air
providing for remedial measures for such accidents. pollutant. Based upon analysis report consent is granted or refused to the industry.
For the purpose of protecting and improving the quality of the environment and preventing and 5. Just like the Water Act, the Air Act has provisions for defining the constitution, powers and
abating pollution, standards have been specified under Schedule I- IV of Environment (Protection) Rules, 1986 function of Pollution Control Boards, funds, accounts, audit, penalties and procedures.
for emission of gaseous pollutants and discharge of effluents/waste water from industries. 6. Section 20 of the Act has provision for ensuring emission standards from automobiles. Based
These standards vary from industry to industry and also vary with the medium into which the effluent upon it, the state govt. is empowered to issue instructions to the authority incharge of
in discharged or the area of emission. For instance, the maximum permissible limits of B.O.D. (Biochemical registration of motor vehicles (under Motor Vehicles Act, 1939) that is bound to comply with
Oxygen Demand) of the waste water is 30 ppm if it is discharged into inland waters, 350 ppm if discharged such instructions.
into a public sewer and 100 ppm, if discharged onto land or coastal region. 7. As per Section 19, in consultation with the State Pollution Control Board, the state
Likewise, emission standards vary in residential, sensitive and industrial area. Naturally the standards government may declare an area within the state as .air pollution control area. and can
for sensitive areas like hospitals are more stringent. It is the duty of the Pollution Control Board to check prohibit the use of any fuel other than approved fuel in the area causing air pollution. No
whether the industries are following the prescribed norms or not. person shall, without prior consent of State Board operate or establish any industrial unit in
Under the Environmental (Protection) Rules, 1986 the State Pollution Control Boards have to follow the the .air pollution control area. The Water and Air Acts have also made special provisions for
guidelines provided under Schedule VI, some of which are as follows- appeals. Under Section 28 of Water Act and Section 31 of Air Act, a provision for appeals
1. They have to advise the Industries for treating the waste water and gases with the best available has been made. An Appellate Authority consisting of a single person or three persons
technology to achieve the prescribed standards. appointed by the Head of the State, Governor is constituted to hear such appeals as filed by
2. The industries have to be encouraged for recycling and reusing the wastes. some grieved party (industry) due to some order made by the State Board within 30 days of
3. They have to encourage the industries for recovery of biogas, energy and reusable materials. passing the orders. The Appellate Authority after giving the appellant and the State Board an
4. While permitting the discharge of effluents and emissions into the environment, the State Boards have opportunity of being heard, disposes off the appeal as expeditiously as possible.
to take into account the assimilative capacity of the receiving water body.
5. The Central and State Boards have to emphasize on the implementation of clean technologies by the WATER (PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF POLLUTION) ACT, 1974
industries in order to increase fuel efficiency and reduce the generation of environmental pollutants. It provides for maintaining and restoring the wholesomeness of water by preventing and controlling its
Under the Environment (Protection) Rules, 1986 and amendment was made in 1994 for Environmental Impact pollution.
Assessment (EIA) of Various Development Projects. Pollution is defined as such contamination of water, or such alteration of the physical, chemical or
There are 29 types of projects listed under Schedule I of the rule which require clearance from the biological properties of water, or such discharge as is likely to cause a nuisance or render the water harmful or
Central Government before establishing. Others require clearance from the State Pollution Control Board, injurious to public health and safety or harmful for any other use or to aquatic plants and other organisms or
when the proposed project or expansion activity is going to cause pollution load exceeding the existing levels. animal life.
The project proponent has to provide EIA report, risk analysis report, NOC from State Pollution Control The salient features and provisions of the Act are summed up as follows-
Board, Commitment regarding availability of water and electricity, 1. It provides for maintenance and restoration of quality of all types of surface and ground
Summary of project report/feasibility report filled in a questionnaire for environmental appraisal of the water.
project and comprehensive rehabilitation plan, if more than 1000 people are likely to be displaced due to the 2. It provides for the establishment of Central and State Boards for pollution control.
project. Under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 the Central Government also made the Hazardous 3. It confers them with powers and functions to control pollution. The Central and State
Wastes (Management and Handling) Rules, 1989. Pollution Control Boards are widely represented and are given comprehensive powers to
Under these rules, it is the responsibility of the occupier to take all practical steps to ensure that such advise, coordinate and provide technical assistance for prevention and control of pollution of
wastes are properly handled and disposed off without any adverse effects. There are 18 Hazardous Waste water.
 4. The Act has provisions for funds, budgets, accounts and audit of the Central and State These activities are setting of transmission lines, seismic surveys, exploration, drilling and hydroelectric
Pollution Control Boards. projects. The last activity involves large scale destruction of forest, for which prior approval of the Centre is
5. The Act makes provisions for various penalties for the defaulters and procedure for the same. necessary.
Wildlife sanctuaries, National Parks etc. are totally prohibited for any exploration or survey under this
WILDLIFE (PROTECTION) ACT, 1972 Act without prior approval of Central Govt. even if no tree-felling is involved. Cultivation of tea, coffee,
Wildlife was transferred from State list to concurrent list in 1976, thus giving power to the Central spices, rubber and plants which are cash-crops, are included under non-forestry activity and not allowed in
Govt. to enact the legislation. reserve forests.
The Indian Board of Wildlife (IBWL) was created in 1952 in our country, which after the enactment Even cultivation of fruit-bearing trees, oil-yielding plants or plants of medicinal value in forest area
of the Wildlife (Protection) Act actively took up the task of setting up wildlife National Parks and sanctuaries. need to be first approved by the Central Government. This is because newly introduced species in the forest
The major activities and provisions in the act can be summed up as follows area may cause an imbalance in the ecology of the forest. If the species to be planted is a native species, then
1. It defines the wild-life related terminology. no prior clearance is required.
2. It provides for the appointment of wildlife advisory Board, Wildlife warden, their powers, duties Tusser cultivation (a type of silk-yielding insect) in forest areas by tribal as a means of their livelihood
etc. is treated as a forestry activity as long as it does not involve some specific host tree like Asan or Arjun.
3. Under the Act, comprehensive listing of endangered wild life species was done for the first time This is done in order to discourage monoculture practices in the forests which are otherwise rich in
and prohibition of hunting of the endangered species was mentioned. biodiversity.
4. Protection to some endangered plants like Beddome cycad, Blue Vanda, Ladies Slipper Orchid, Plantation of mulberry for rearing silkworm is considered a non-forest activity. Mining is a non-
Pitcher plant etc. is also provided under the Act. forestry activity and prior approval of Central Govt. is mandatory. The Supreme Court in a case T.N.
5. The Act provides for setting up of National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries etc. Godavarman Thirumulkpad vs. Union of India (1997) directed all on-going mining activity to be ceased
6. The Act provides for the constitution of Central Zoo Authority. immediately in any forest area of India if it had not got prior approval of Central government.
7. There is provision for trade and commerce in some wildlife species with license for sale, Removal of stones, bajri, boulder etc., from river-beds located within the forest area fall under non-
possession, transfer etc. forest activity.
8. The Act imposes a ban on the trade or commerce in scheduled animals. Any proposal sent to central govt. for non-forest activity must have a cost-benefit analysis and
9. It provides for legal powers to officers and punishment to offenders. Environmental Impact statement (EIS) of the proposed activity with reference to its ecological and socio-
10. It provides for captive breeding programme for endangered species. economic impacts. Thus, the Forests (Conservation) Act has made ample provisions for conservation and
Several Conservation Projects for individual endangered species like lion (1972) Tiger (1973), Crocodile protection of forests and prevents deforestation.
(1974) and Brown antlered Deer (1981) were started under this Act.
Some of the major drawbacks of the Act include mild penalty to offenders, illegal wild life trade in J ECOMARK
& K, personal ownership certificate for animal articles like tiger and leopard skins, no coverage of foreign It is the certificate issued by Bureau of Indian Standards. Its objective is to increase the environmental
endangered wildlife, pitiable condition of wildlife in mobile zoos and little emphasis on protection of plant awareness among the consumers.
genetic resources.
ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATION
FOREST (CONSERVATION) ACT, 1980 India is the first country in the world to have made provisions for the protection and conservation of
This act deals with the conservation of forests and related aspects. The Act covers under it all types of environment in its constitution. On 5th June, 1972, environment was first discussed as an item of international
forests including reserved forests, protected forests or any forested land irrespective of its ownership. agenda in the U.N. Conference on Human Environment in Stockholm and thereafter 5th June is celebrated all
The salient features of the Act are as follows- over the world as World Environment Day.
1. The State Govt. has been empowered under this Act to use the forests only for forestry purposes.
If at all it wants to use it in any other way, it has to take prior approval of central Government, Constitutional Provisions
after which it can pass orders for declaring some part of reserve forest for non-forest purposes (e.g Article 48-A of the constitution provides: .The state shall endeavour to protect and improve the
mining) or for clearing some naturally growing trees and replacing them by economically environment and to safeguard forests and wildlife of the country.
important trees (reforestation). Article 51A (g) provides: It shall be the duty of every citizen of India to protect and improve the natural
2. It makes provision for conservation of all types of forests and for this purpose there is an environment including forests, lakes, rivers and wildlife and to have compassion for living creatures.
Advisory committee which recommends funding for it to the Central Government.
3. Any illegal non-forest activity within a forest area can be immediately stopped under this Act. ENFORCEMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATION
Non-forest activities include clearing of forest land for cultivation of any type of plants/crops or There are a number of important environmental laws in the form of Acts for safeguarding our
any other purpose (except re-afforestation). However, some construction work in the forest for environmental quality. But in spite of these acts, we find that we are not able to achieve the target of bringing
wildlife or forest management is exempted from non-forest activity (e.g. fencing, making water- 33% of our land cover under forests. Still we are losing our wild life.
holes, trench, pipelines, check posts, wireless communication etc.) The rivers have been turned into open sewers in many places and the air in our big cities is badly
polluted. The status of environment shows that there are drawbacks in environmental legislations and problems
1992 Amendment in the Forest Act in their effective implementation.
In 1992, some amendment was made in the Act which made provisions for allowing some non-forest Let us examine some important issues related to our acts-
activities in forests, without cutting trees or limited cutting with prior approval of Central Government.  Drawbacks of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, (1972)
o The Act has been enacted just as fallout of Stockholm Conference held in 1972 and it has not
included any locally evolved conservation measures.
 o The ownership certificates for animal articles (tiger, leopard skins etc.) are permissible which very restrict new outlets, restrict expansion, enter and inspect the units and sanction or refuse consent to the industry
often serve as a tool for illegal trading. after effluent analysis.
o The wildlife traders in Jammu and Kashmir easily get illegal furs and skins from other states While development is necessary, it is all the more important to prevent pollution, which can
which after making caps, belts etc. are sold or smuggled to other countries. This is so happening jeopardize the lives of the people. Installation and proper functioning of effluent treatment plants (ETP) in all
because J & K has its own Wildlife Act and it does not follow the Central Wild Life Act. polluting industries is a must for checking pollution of water and land.
o Moreover, hunting and trading of several endangered species prohibited in other states are Despite certain weaknesses in the Act, the Water Act has ample provisions for preventing and controlling
allowed in J & K, thereby opening avenues for illegal trading in such animals and articles. The water pollution through legal measures.
offender of the Act is not subject to very harsh penalties. It is just up to 3 years imprisonment or a
fine of Rs. 25,000 or both.
 Drawbacks of the Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980 DRAWBACKS OF POLLUTION RELATED ACTS
o This Act has inherited the exploitative and consumerist elements from the Forest laws of The power and authority has been given to central government with little delegation of power to state
British period. It has just transferred the powers from state to centre, to decide the conversion government. Excessive centralization very often hinders efficient execution of the provisions of the Acts in the
of reserve forest lands to non-forest areas. states. Illegal mining is taking place in many forest areas.
o Thus power has been centralized at the top. At the same time, the local communities have In Rajasthan alone, about 14000 cases of illegal mining have been reported. It becomes more difficult
been completely kept out from the decision- making process regarding the nature of use of to check such activities at the central level. The provision of penalties in the Act is very insignificant as
forest area. Very often, the tribals who lived in the forest and were totally dependent on compared to the damage caused by the big industries due to pollution. The penalty is much less than the cost of
forests retaliate when stopped from taking any resources from there and start criminal the treatment pollution control equipments. This always gives a loose rope to the industries.
activities including smuggling, killing etc. The Act has not included the right to information for the citizens. This greatly restricts the
o The Act has failed to attract public support because it has infringed upon the human rights of involvement or participation of the general public. The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 regarded as an
the poor native people. They argue that the law is concerned about protecting the trees, birds umbrella Act, encompassing the earlier two Acts often seems superfluous due to overlapping areas of
and animals, but is treating the poor people as marginal. Very poor community participation jurisdiction. For instance Section 24 (2) of the new Act has made a provision that if the offender is punishable
in the Act remains
under the other Acts like Water Act or Air Act also, then he may be considered under their provisions.
o One of the major drawbacks which affects proper execution of the Act. The forest-dwelling
Interestingly, the penalty under the older two Acts is much lighter than the new Act. So the offender
tribal communities have a rich knowledge about the forest resources, their importance and
easily gets away with a lighter punishment. Under Section 19, a person cannot directly file a petition in the
conservation. But, their role and contribution is neither acknowledged nor honoured. Efforts
court on a question of environment and has to give a notice of minimum 60 days to the central government. In
are now being made to make up for the gaps in laws by introducing the principles of Public
case no action is taken by the latter, then alone the person can file a petition which certainly delays the
trust or Human rights Protection.
remedial action.
CPCB (Central and state Pollution Control Board)
Litigation, particularly related to environment is very expensive, tedious and difficult since it involves
1. It advises the central govt. in matters related to prevention and control of water pollution.
expert testimony, technical knowledge of the issues and terminologies, technical understanding of the unit
2. Coordinates the activities of State Pollution Control Boards and provides them technical
process, lengthy prosecutions etc.
assistance and guidance.
The State Boards very often lack adequate funds and expertise to pursue their objectives. A tendency
3. Organizes training programs for prevention and control of pollution.
to seek to exercise gentle pressure on the polluter and out of the court settlements usually hinders the
4. Organizes comprehensive programs on pollution related issues through mass media.
implementation of legal measures. For small units it is very expensive to install Effluent Treatment Plant
5. Collects, compiles and publishes technical and statistical data related to pollution.
(ETP) or Air pollution control devices and sometimes they have no other option but to close the unit.
6. Prepares manuals for treatment and disposal of sewage and trade effluents. Plans nation-wide
The Act should make some provision for providing subsidies for installing treatment plants or
programs for prevention, control or abatement of pollution.
common effluent treatment plants for several small units. The pollution control laws are not backed by sound
7. Establishes and recognizes laboratories for analysis of water, sewage or trade effluent sample.
policy pronouncements or guiding principles. The position of chairman of the boards is usually occupied by
8. The State Pollution Control Boards also have similar functions to be executed at state level and
political appointee. Hence it is difficult to keep political interference at bay.
are governed by the directions of CPCB.
The policy statement of the Ministry of Environment and Forests (1992) of involving public in
9. The Board advises the state govt. with respect to the location of any industry that might pollute a
decision-making and facilitating public monitoring of environmental issues has mostly remained on paper.
stream or a well.
Environmental policies and laws need to be aimed at democratic decentralization of power, community-state
10. It lays down standards for effluents and is empowered to take samples from any stream, well or
partnership, administrative transparency and accountability and more stringent penalties to the offender. There
trade effluent or sewage passing through an industry.
is also a need for environmental law education and capacity building in environmental issues for managers.
The State Board is empowered to take legal samples of trade effluent in accordance with the procedure laid
down in the Act. The sample taken in the presence of the occupier or his agent is divided into two parts, sealed,
signed by both parties and sent for analysis to some recognized lab. DISASTER MANAGEMENT:
If the samples do not conform to the prescribed water quality standards (crossing maximum  FLOOD
permissible limits), then consent is refused to the unit. Every industry has to obtain consent from the Board A flood occurs due to continuous heavy rainfall in an area, overflowing of rivers and submerging the
(granted for a fixed duration) by applying on a prescribed Performa providing all technical details, along with a surrounding areas damaging life and property.
prescribed fee following which analysis of the effluent is carried out. Control
The Board suggests efficient methods for utilization, treatment and disposal of trade effluents. The
(i) Various preventive measures are proper embankment of water bodies, building check dams on
Act has made detailed provisions regarding the power of the Boards to obtain information, take trade samples,
flood-prone streams, prohibiting cultivation in flood plain of rivers and growing forests and perennial trees,
interlinking of river of the country and constructing houses on raised platforms and supported by reinforced PUBLIC ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS
stilts. Public awareness about environment is at a stage of infancy. Some awareness has taken place related
to environmental degradation, pollution etc. but incomplete knowledge and information and ignorance about
(ii) Floods can be controlled by collecting data from meteorological department and alerting the
many aspects has often led to misconceptions.
people of affecting area. Development has paved the path for rise in the levels or standards of living but it has simultaneously
(iii) Educating the people about the steps to be taken in the event of disaster. led to serious environmental disasters. Issues related to environment have often been branded as
(iv) Hill slopes and catchment areas of rivers must be afforested and reforested. antidevelopment.
Some of the main reasons responsible for widespread of environmental ignorance can be summed up as
follows
o Our courses in Science, technology, economics etc. have so far failed to integrate the knowledge in
 EARTHQUAKE environmental aspects as an essential component of the curriculum.
Sudden tremors of the earth’s surface are produced due to movement of tectonic plates under the o Our planners, decision-makers, politicians and administrators have not been trained so as to consider
earth. This displacement of earth’s crust releases energy stored within the earth’s interior which produces the environmental aspects associated with their plans.
vibratory waves. o In zeal to go ahead with some ambitious development projects, quite often there is purposeful
concealment of information about environmental aspects.
The intensity of earthquake is measured by Richter, Scale which ranges from 0 to 9. The point from o (iv)There is greater consideration of economic gains and issues related to eliminating poverty by
which the earthquake originates is called as epicenter. providing employment that overshadows the basic environmental issues.
Prevention, Control & Mitigation
(i) Constructing earthquake resistant building in the known earthquake prone zones e.g. wooden Methods to Propagate Environmental Awareness-
Environmental awareness needs to be created through formal and informal education to all sections of
houses are preferred in Japan. the society. Everyone needs to understand it because environment belongs to all and every individual matters.
(ii) Installation of earthquake study centers studying seismic activities and analysis of seismic zones. When it comes to conservation and protection of environment various stages and methods that can be useful
(iii) There must be insurance policies for earthquake victims rehabilitate them. for raising environmental awareness in different sections of the society are as follows:
 Among students through education
(iv) Creation of special task forces, fully trained and equipped, to manage such calamities within
o Environmental education must be imparted to the students right from the childhood stage.
shortest possible time. o It is a welcome step that now all over the country we are introducing environmental studies
as a subject at all stages including school and college level, following the directives of the
 CYCLONE. Supreme Court.
 Through mass-media
A cyclone is powerful circular or oval swirling storm of high velocity wind in the coastal regions of o Media can play an important role to educate the masses on environmental issues through
Indian Ocean. It is called hurricane in Atlantic Ocean, typhoon in Western Pacific and Willy-willy in sea articles, environmental rallies, plantation campaigns, street plays, real eco-disaster stories and
around Australia. success stories of conservation efforts.
Control-  Among the planners, decision-makers and leaders
o Since this elite section of the society plays the most important role in shaping the future of the
(i) Afforestation of coastal areas is the best measure. society, it is very important to give them the necessary orientation and training through
(ii) Construction of dams, embankments, wind breakers etc. specially organized workshops and training programmers.
(iii) Conservation of mangroves in coastal plains. o Publication of environment - related resource material in the form of pamphlets or booklets
published by Ministry of Environment &Forests can also help in keeping this section abreast
(iv) Better forecast, warning systems with the help of remote sensing satellites. of the latest developments in the field.
(v) Construction of cyclone proof houses and building in coastal areas.
CLIMATE CHANGE
Climate is the average weather of an area. It includes general weather conditions, seasonal variations
 LANDSLIDES
and extremes of weather in a region. Such conditions which average over a long period- at least 30 years is
Landslide is the sudden down slope movement of a mass of rock or soil due to gravitational pull, called climate.
generally in the rainy season. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in 1990 and 1992 published best available
Control evidence about past climate change, the greenhouse effect and recent changes in global temperature. It is
(i) Afforestation and reforestation in the landslide prone areas is the best measure. observed that earth’s temperature has changed considerably during the geological times. It has experienced
several glacial and interglacial periods.
(ii) There should be no construction activity in slope areas. During the past 10,000 years of the current interglacial period the mean average temperature has
(iii) Proper drainage of surface and sub surface water. fluctuated by 0.5- 1°C over 100 to 200 year period. We have relatively stable climate for thousands of years
(iv) Making concrete support at the base of slope along the road. due to which we have practiced agriculture and increased in population. Even small changes in climatic
conditions may disturb agriculture that would lead to migration of animals including humans.
(v) Construction of curved stone blocks in the risky areas.
 Anthropogenic (man-made) activities are upsetting the delicate balance that has established between o CO2 stays in the atmosphere for about 500 years. CO2 concentration in the atmosphere was 355
various components of the environment. Greenhouse gases are increasing in the atmosphere resulting in ppm in 1990 that is increasing at a rate of 1.5 ppm every year
increase in the average global temperature. This may upset the hydrological cycle, result in floods and 2. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
droughts in different regions of the world, cause sea level rise, changes in agriculture productivity, famines and o This is responsible for 24% of the human contribution to greenhouse gases.
death of humans as well as live stock. o They also deplete ozone in the stratosphere. The main sources of CFCs include leaking air
The global change in temperature will not be uniform everywhere and will fluctuate in different conditioners and refrigerators, evaporation of industrial solvents, production of plastic foams,
regions. The places at higher latitudes will be warmed up more during late autumn and winter than the places aerosols, propellants etc.
in tropics. o CFCs take 10-15 years to reach the stratosphere and generally trap 1500 to 7000 times more heat
Poles may experience 2 to 3 times more warming than the global average, while warming in the per molecule than CO2 while they are in the troposphere. This heating effect in the troposphere
tropics may be only 50 to 100% on an average. The increased warming at poles will reduce the thermal may be partially offset by the cooling caused when CFCs deplete ozone during their 65 to 110
gradient between the equator and high latitude regions decreasing the energy available to the heat engine that years stay in the stratosphere.
drives the global weather machine. o Atmospheric concentration of CFC is 0.00225 ppm that is increasing at a rate of 0.5% annually.
This will disturb the global pattern of winds and ocean currents as well as the timing and distribution 3. Methane (CH4)
of rainfall. Shifting of ocean currents may change the climate of Iceland and Britain and may result in cooling o It accounts for 18% of the increased greenhouse gases.
at a time when rest of the world warms. o Methane is produced when bacteria break down dead organic matter in moist places that lack
By a temperature increase of 1.5 to 4.5°C the global hydrological cycle is expected to intensify by 5 to oxygen such as swamps, natural wetlands, paddy fields, landfills and digestive tracts of cattle,
10%. Disturbed rainfall will result in some areas becoming wetter and the others drier. Although rainfall may sheep and termites. Production and use of oil and natural gas and incomplete burning of organic
increase, higher temperatures will result in more evapo-transpiration leading to annual water deficit in crop material are also significant sources of methane.
fields. o Methane stays in the atmosphere for 7-10 years. Each methane molecule traps about 25 times as
much heat as a CO2 molecule.
GLOBAL WARMING o Atmospheric concentration of methane is 1.675 ppm and it is increasing at a rate of 1% annually.
Troposphere, the lowermost layer of the atmosphere, traps heat by a natural process due to the 4. Nitrous Oxide (N2O)
presence of certain gases. This effect is called Greenhouse Effect as it is similar to the warming effect o It is responsible for 6% of the human input of greenhouse gases. Besides trapping heat in the
troposphere it also depletes ozone in the stratosphere.
observed in the horticultural greenhouse made of glass.
o It is released from nylon products, from burning of biomass and nitrogen rich fuels (especially
The amount of heat trapped in the atmosphere depends mostly on the concentrations of heat trapping
coal) and from the breakdown of nitrogen fertilizers in soil, livestock wastes and nitrate
or greenhouse gases and the length of time they stay in the atmosphere. The major greenhouse gases are carbon contaminated ground water.
dioxide, ozone, methane, nitrous oxide, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and water vapors. o Its life span in the troposphere is 140-190 years and it traps about 230 times as much heat per
The average global temperature is 15°C. In the absence of greenhouse gases this temperature would molecule as CO2. The atmospheric concentration of N2O is 0.3 ppm and is increasing at a rate of
have been 18°C. Therefore, Greenhouse Effect contributes a temperature rise to the tune of 33°C. Heat trapped 0.2% annually.
by greenhouse gases in the atmosphere keeps the planet warm enough to allow us and other species to exist. Impacts of Enhanced Greenhouse Effect
The two predominant greenhouse gases are water vapors, which are controlled by hydrological cycle, The enhanced greenhouse effect will not only cause global warming but will also affect various other climatic
and carbon dioxide, which is controlled mostly by the global carbon cycle. While the levels of water vapor in and natural processes.
the troposphere have relatively remained constant, the levels of carbon dioxide have increased.  Global temperature increase
Other gases whose levels have increased due to human activities are methane, nitrous oxide and o It is estimated that the earth’s mean temperature will rise between 1.5 to 5.5°C by 2050 if
chlorofluorocarbons. Deforestation has further resulted in elevated levels of carbon dioxide due to non- input of greenhouse gases continues to rise at the present rate.
removal of carbon dioxide by plants through photosynthesis. o Even at the lower value, earth would be warmer than it has been for 10,000 years.
Warming or cooling by more than 2°C over the past few decades may prove to be disastrous for  Rise in Sea Level
various ecosystems on the earth including humans, as it would alter the conditions faster than some species o With the increase in global temperature sea water will expand. Heating will melt the polar ice
could adapt or migrate. Some areas will become inhabitable because of drought or floods following a rise in sheets and glaciers resulting in further rise in sea level.
average sea level. o Current models indicate that an increase in the average atmospheric temperature of 3°C
would raise the average global sea level by 0.2.1.5 meters over the next 50.100 years.
 Greenhouse Gases One meter rise in sea level will inundate low lying areas of cities like Shanghai, Cairo, Bangkok,
Due to anthropogenic activities there is an increase in the concentration of the greenhouse gases in the Sydney, Hamburg and Venice as well as agricultural lowlands and deltas in Egypt, Bangladesh, India, China
air that absorb infra-red light containing heat and results in the re-radiation of even more of the outgoing and will affect rice productivity. This will also disturb many commercially important spawning grounds, and
thermal infra-red energy, thereby increasing the average surface temperature beyond 15°C. The phenomenon is would probably increase the frequency of storm damage to lagoons, estuaries and coral reefs.
referred to as the enhanced greenhouse effect to distinguish its effect from the one that has been operating In India, the Lakshadweep Islands with a maximum height of 4 meters above the level may be
naturally for millennia. The greenhouse gases present in the troposphere and resulting in an increase in the vulnerable. Some of the most beautiful cities like Mumbai may be saved by heavy investment on embankment
temperature of air and the earth are discussed here- to prevent inundation.
1. Carbon dioxide Life of millions of people will be affected, by the sea level rise who have built homes in the deltas of
o It contributes about 55% to global warming from greenhouse gases produced by human activity. the Ganges, the Nile, the Mekong, the Yangtze and the Mississippi rivers.
Industrial countries account for about 76% of annual emissions.
o The main sources are fossil fuel burning (67%) and deforestation, other forms of land clearing and
burning (33%).
  Effects on Human Health The overall pH of any raindrop is due to the net effect of carbonic acid, sulfuric acid, nitric acid and
o The global warming will lead to changes in the rainfall pattern in many areas, thereby other acidic constituents or any neutralizers such as ammonia In the absence of rain, dry deposition of acid
affecting the distribution of vector-borne diseases like malaria, filariasis, elephantiasis etc. may occur.
o Areas which are presently free from diseases like malaria, schistosomiasis etc. may become Acid forming gases like oxides of sulphur and nitrogen and acid aerosols get deposited on the surface
the breeding grounds for the vectors of such diseases. The areas likely to be affected in this of water bodies, vegetation, soil and other materials. On moist surfaces or in liquids these acid forming gases
manner are Ethiopia, Kenya and Indonesia. can dissolve and form acids similar to that formed in acid rain. If the oxidizers are present on the liquid
o Warmer temperature and more waste stagnation would favour the breeding of mosquitoes, surfaces then these gases undergo oxidation to form acids.
snails and some insects, which are the vectors of such diseases. Higher temperature and Fine particles or acid droplets can act as nuclei for water to condense to form rain droplets. By such
humidity will increase/aggravate respiratory and skin diseases. process sulfuric acid is incorporated into the droplets. In the clouds additional SO2 and NO2 contact the
 Effects on Agriculture droplets and get absorbed which can be oxidized by the dissolved hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) or other
o The effect of global warming on agriculture may show positive or negative effects on various oxidizers. In the droplets falling from the clouds additional acidic gases and aerosol particles get incorporated,
types of crops in different regions of the world. further decreasing their pH.
o Tropical and subtropical regions will be more affected since the average temperature in these A unit decrease in pH value causes 10 times increase in acidity. Average pH in rainfall over eastern
regions is already on the higher side. Even a rise of 2°C may be quite harmful to crops. United States from April 1979 to March 1980 was less than 5.0. In India acid rain is recorded from certain
o Soil moisture will decrease and evapo-transpiration will increase, which may drastically places:
affect wheat and maize production. Increase in temperature and humidity will increase pest
Name of place pH of rainwater
growth like the growth of vectors for various diseases.
Kodaikanal 5.18
o Pests will adapt to such changes better than the crops. To cope up with the changing situation
drought resistant, heat resistant and pest resistant varieties of crops have to be developed. Minicoy 5.52
Mohanbari 5.50
Measures to Check Global Warming
To slow down enhanced global warming the following steps will be important-
 Cut down the current rate of use of CFCs and fossil fuel. Effects of acid rain
Acid rain causes a number of harmful effects below pH 5.1. The effects are visible in the aquatic
 Use energy more efficiently.
system even at pH less than 5.5.l It causes deterioration of buildings especially made of marble e.g.
 Shift to renewable energy resources.
monuments like Taj Mahal. Crystals of calcium and magnesium sulphate are formed as a result of corrosion
 Increase Nuclear Power Plants for electricity production. caused by acid rain.
 Shift from coal to natural gas. It damages stone statues. Priceless stone statues in Greece and Italy have been partially dissolved by
 Trap and use methane as a fuel. acid rain. It damages metals and car finishes. Aquatic life especially fish are badly affected by lake
 Reduce beef production. acidification. Aquatic animals suffer from toxicity of metals such as aluminium, mercury, manganese, zinc and
 Adopt sustainable agriculture. lead which leak from the surrounding rocks due to acid rain. It results in reproductive failure, and killing of
 Stabilize population growth. fish.
 Efficiently remove CO2 from smoke stacks. Many lakes of Sweden, Norway, Canada have become fishless due to acid rain. It damages foliage and
 Plant more trees. weakens trees. It makes trees more susceptible to stresses like cold temperature, drought, etc. Many insects and
 Remove atmospheric CO2 by utilizing photosynthetic algae. fungi are more tolerant to acidic conditions and hence they can attack the susceptible trees and cause diseases.
Control of Acid Rain
ACID RAIN Emission of SO2 and NO2 from industries and power plants should be reduced by using pollution
Oxides of sulphur and nitrogen originating from industrial operations and fossil fuel combustion are control equipments. Liming of lakes and soils should be done to correct the ad- verse effects of acid rain. A
the major sources of acid forming gases. Acid forming gases are oxidized over several days by which time they coating of protective layer of inert polymer should be given in the interior of water pipes for drinking water.
travel several thousand kilometres.
In the atmosphere these gases are ultimately converted into sulfuric and nitric acids. Hydrogen OZONE LAYER DEPLETION
chloride emission forms hydrochloric acid. These acids cause acidic rain. Acid rain is only one component of For the last 450 million years the earth has had a natural sunscreen in the stratosphere called the ozone
acidic deposition. Acidic deposition is the total of wet acidic deposition (acid rain) and dry deposition. Rain layer. This layer filters out harmful ultraviolet radiations from the sunlight and thus protects various life forms
water is turned acidic when its pH falls below 5.6. on the earth. Ozone is a form of oxygen.
The clean or natural rain water has a pH of 5.6 at 20°C because of formation of carbonic acid due to The molecule of oxygen contains two atoms whereas that of ozone contains three (O3). In the
dissolution of CO2 in water. The Adirondack Lakes located in the state of New York are known to receive acid stratosphere ozone is continuously being created by the absorption of short wave- length ultraviolet (UV)
rains. The strong acids like sulphuric acid (H2SO4) and nitric acid(HNO3) dissolved or formed in rainwater radiations. Ultraviolet radiations less than 242 nanometres decompose molecular oxygen into atomic oxygen
dissociate or release hydrogen ions thereby increasing the acidity in rain drops. (O) by photolytic decomposition.
Generally sulfuric acid forms a major fraction of acid rain, followed by nitric acid and a very small O2 + hv = O + O
fraction of other acids. However, in urban areas calcium (Ca2+), Magnesium (Mg2+) and ammonium (NH4+) The atomic oxygen rapidly reacts with molecular oxygen to form ozone.
ions help to neutralize the rain drops shifting the overall H+ towards basic scale. O + O2 + M = O3 + M
(M is a third body necessary to carry away the energy released in the reaction). Ozone thus formed distributes
itself in the stratosphere and absorbs harmful ultraviolet radiations (200 to 320 nm) and is continuously being
converted back to molecular oxygen.
 O3 + hv = O2 + O UNIT-5 HUMAN POPULATION AND THE ENVIRONMENT
Absorption of UV radiations results in heating of the stratosphere. The net result of the above reactions is an
equilibrium concentration of ozone. Population:
Ozone concentration in about 24 km of the stratosphere i.e. from 16 km to 40 Km away from earth is The group of individuals belonging to the same species living in an area at a given time is
about 10 ppm (as compared to 0.05 ppm concentration of harmful troposphere ozone). This equilibrium is called as population.
disturbed by reactive atoms of chlorine, bromine etc. which destroy ozone molecules and result is thinning of
ozone layer generally called ozone hole.
Population Density
The amount of atmospheric ozone is measured by Dobson Spectrometer and is expressed in Dobson
units (DU). One DU is equivalent to a 0.01 mm thickness of pure ozone at the density it would possess if it
It is expressed as the number of individuals of the population per unit area. This varies in
were brought to ground level (1atm) pressure. response to changes in the environment and introduction with other living organism.
Normally over temperate latitude concentration is about 350 DU, over tropics it is 250 DU whereas at
sub polar regions (except when ozone thinning occurs) it is on an average 450 DU. It is because of the Parameters affecting population size
stratospheric winds which transport ozone from tropical towards polar regions. 1. Birth rate or natality
Thinning of Ozone Layer It is the number of live birth per 1000 people in a population in a given year.
The Antarctic ozone hole was discovered by Dr Joe C. Farman and his colleagues in the British 2. Death rate or Mortality
Antarctic Survey who had been recording ozone levels over this region since 1957. During spring season of
south pole i.e. September to November each year ozone depletion is observed. Steep decline has been observed
It is the number of death per 1000 people in a population in a given year.
since mid 1970s with a record low concentration of 90 DU in early October of 1993. 3. Immigration
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) are mainly responsible for ozone depletion in the stratosphere. CFCs are a It denotes the arrival of individuals from neighboring population.
group of synthetic chemicals first discovered by Thomas Midgley Jr. in 1930. CFC-11 and CFC-12 are the 4. Emigration
CFCs most commonly used. CFCs are used as coolants in refrigerators and air conditioners, as propellants, It denotes the dispersal of individuals from native area to a new area.
cleaning solvents, sterilant and in styrofoam etc. CFCs released in the troposphere reach the stratosphere and
remain there for 65-110 years destroying O3 molecules. Population Growth
In 1974, Rowland and Molina warned that CFC are lowering the concentration of ozone in the
stratosphere and predicted severe consequences. It was in 1985 that scientists discovered that 50% (98% in
some areas) of upper stratospheric ozone over Antarctica was destroyed during the Antarctic spring and early  In 1800, the earth was home to about 1 billion people.
summer (September-December). At Antarctic region the temperature during winter drops to 90°C. The winds  It took about 39,000 years of human history to reach 1 billion, 130 years to reach the
blowing in a circular pattern over earth’s poles create polar vortices. second billion, 45 years to reach 4 billion and the next doubling is likely within a span of
Water droplets in clouds when enter these vortices form ice crystals. CFCs get collected on the a few decades.
surfaces of these ice crystals and destroy ozone much faster. Similar destruction of ozone over North Pole  Population had already crossed 6 billion and may reach 10 billion by 2050 as per the
occurs during Arctic spring and early summer (February-June). The depletion is 10-25% and it is less than that World Bank estimates. The dramatic way in which global human population grew
observed at South Pole. Nitrous oxide emitted by supersonic aircrafts, during combustion of fossil fuel and use thereafter is shown in Figure
of nitrogen fertilizers breaks ozone molecules.
Chlorine liberated from chlorofluorocarbons also break ozone molecules. The chain reaction started in
Antarctic spring i.e. August/ September continues till nitrogen dioxide is liberated from nitric acid formed in
the stratosphere by photolysis (breakdown by sunlight). Nitrogen dioxide combines with chlorine and stops
further destruction of ozone.
Effects of Ozone Depletion
Ozone depletion in the stratosphere will result in more UV radiation reaching the earth especially UV-
B (290-320 nm). The UV-B radiations affect DNA and the photosynthetic chemicals. Any change in DNA can
result in mutation and cancer. Cases of skin cancer (basal and squamous cell carcinoma) which do not cause
death but cause disfigurement will increase.
Easy absorption of UV rays by the lens and cornea of eye will result in increase in incidents of
cataract. Melanin producing cells of the epidermis (important for human immune system) will be destroyed by
UV-rays resulting in immuno-suppression.
Fair people (can’t produce enough melanin) will be at a greater risk of UV exposure. Phytoplanktons
are sensitive to UV exposure. Ozone depletion will result in decrease in their population thereby affecting the Reasons of this trend of human population growth:
population of zooplankton, fish, marine animals, in fact the whole aquatic food chain. During the Stone Age, population was quite stable. Environmental conditions were
Yield of vital crops like corn, rice, soybean, cotton, bean, pea, sorghum and wheat will decrease. hostile and humans had not yet developed adequate artificial means for adaptations to these
Degradation of paints, plastics and other polymer material will result in economic loss due to effects of UV stresses.
radiation resulting from ozone depletion. Droughts and outbreak of diseases used to be quite common leading to mass deaths. 14th
century A.D. experienced large scale mortality due to bubonic plague when about 50% of people
in Asia and Europe died due to the disease.
 With scientific and technological advancement, life expectancy of humans improved. scarce countries could nearly double to 3 billion. Nearly half of the world’s original forest
People started living in definite settlements leading a more stable life with better sanitation, food cover has been lost, and each year another 16 million hectares are cut, bulldozed, or burned.
and medical facilities. Victory over famine-related deaths and infant mortality became Forests provide over US$400 billion to the world economy annually and are vital to
instrumental for a rapid increase in population size. maintaining healthy ecosystems. Yet, current demand for forest products may exceed the
limit of sustainable consumption by 25%.
Effects:
The rapid increase of human population is putting an incredible strain on our environment. 5. Global Warming:
While developed countries continue to pollute the environment and deplete its resources, The earth’s surface is warming due to greenhouse gas emissions, largely from burning
developing countries are under increasing pressure to compete economically and their industrial fossil fuels. If the global temperature rises as projected, sea levels would rise by several meters,
advancements are damaging as well. causing widespread flooding. Global warming also could cause droughts and disrupt agriculture.
The demands that this growth places on our global environment are threatening the future of In 1998, global data are available for both population and heat-trapping carbon dioxide
sustainable life on earth. As the world’s population grows, improving living standards without emissions, per capita emissions of CO2 continued the upward trend that dominated the middle
destroying the environment is a global challenge. 1990s. When combined with growing world population, these increased per capita emissions
accelerated the accumulation of greenhouse gases in the global atmosphere and, thus, future
Many basic resources that are strained by our current population are given below: global warming.

1. Water Scarcity: 6. Species Extinction:

It is the lack of sufficient available water resources to meet the demands of water usage More than 1.1 billion people live in areas that conservationists consider the richest in
(water for consumption, agriculture and sanitation) within a region. non-human species and the most threatened by human activities. While these areas comprise
about 12 percent of the planet's land surface, they hold nearly 20 percent of its human
Aquifers are being depleted faster than they can be replenished. Melting glaciers threaten the
water supply for billions. More than 1.2 billion people lack access to clean drinking water. population.
The population in these biodiversity hotspots is growing at a collective rate of 1.8 percent
The supply of freshwater is finite, but demand is soaring as population grows and uses per
annually, compared to the world's population’s annual growth rate of 1.3 percent.
capita rises. Depending on future rates of population growth, between 2.6 billion and 3.1 billion
people may be living in either water-scarce or water-stressed conditions by 2025.
Human population growth is the number one threat to the world's environment. Each
2. Food supply: person requires energy, space and resources to survive, which results in environmental losses. If
the human population were maintained at sustainable levels, it would be possible to balance
In 64 of 105 developing countries studied by the UN Food and Agriculture Organization, the these environmental losses with renewable resources and regeneration. But our population is
population has been growing faster than food supplies. rapidly rising beyond the earth's ability to regenerate and sustain us with a reasonable quality of
Population pressures have degraded some 2 billion hectares of arable land, one billion life. We are exceeding the carrying capacity of our planet. We need to limit our growth
people, one out of every seven people alive, go to bed hungry. Every day 25,000 people die of voluntarily, and promote contraceptive use, before Nature controls our population for us with
malnutrition and hunger related diseases. famines, drought and plagues.
Almost 18,000 of them are children under 5 years old. The number of people living in
countries where cultivated land is critically scarce is projected to increase to between 600 million Population characteristics:
and 986 million in 2025. 1. Exponential growth:
Food production and distribution could catch up if our population stopped growing and When a quantity increases by a constant amount per unit time e.g. 1, 3, 5, 7 etc. it is
dropped to a sustainable level. called linear growth. And when it increases by a fixed percentage it is known as exponential
3. Coastlines and oceans: growth e.g. 10, 102, 103, 104, or 2, 4, 8, 16, 32 etc.
Half of all coastal ecosystems are pressured by high population densities and urban 2. Doubling time:
development. A tide of The time needed for a population to double its size at a constant annual rate is known as
pollution is rising in the world’s seas. Ocean fisheries are being overexploited, and fishery is doubling time. It is calculated as follow-
down. Td = 70/r
Most of the world’s ocean fisheries are already being fished to their maximum capacities and Td = Doubling time in years r
are in decline. = annual growth rate
4. Forests: 3. Total Fertility rates (TFR) :
Over 1.8 billion people live in 36 countries with less than 0.1 hectare of forested land per The average number of children that would be born to a woman in her lifetime if the age
capita, an indicator of critically low levels of forest cover. Based on the medium population specific birth rates remain constant. The value of TFR varies from 1.9 in developed nations to
projection and current deforestation trends, by 2025 the number of people living in forest- 4.7 in developing nations.
 resulting in a decline of population growth.
4. Infant mortality rate (IMR) :
It is the percentage of infants died out of those born in a year. Although this rate has The TFR, age structure, infant mortality and replacement level are all important parameters
declined in the last 50 years, but the pattern differs widely in developed and developing determining population growth. But population will not stop growing even when all couples have
countries. only 2 children.
5. Replacement level:
This is an important concept in population dynamics or demography. Two parents
bearing two children will be replaced by their offspring. But, due to infant mortality this
replacement level is usually changed.
For developing nations, where infant mortality is high and life expectancy is low, the
replacement level is approx 2.7, whereas in developed nations it is 2.1.
6. Age Structure:
Based upon people belonging to different age classes like pre-reproductive (0-14 years),
reproductive (15-44 years) and post reproductive (45 years and above) Age structure of
population of a nation can be represented by age pyramids,
a. Pyramid shaped: 7. Zero population growth (ZPG):
The very young population is more, making a broad base and old people are less. This When birth plus immigration in a population are just equal to deaths plus emigration, it is
indicates growing population such as India, Bangladesh, Ethiopia, and Nigeria. said to be zero population growth.
The large number of individuals in very young age will soon enter into reproductive age, thus 8. Male-Female ratio:
causing an increase in population, whereas less number of people in old age indicates less loss of
population due to death. The ratio of boys and girls should be fairly balanced in a society to flourish. However,
due to female infanticides and gender-based abortions, the ratio has been upset in many countries
including India.
In China, the ratio of boys to girls became 140:100 in many regions which led to scarcity
of brides.
9. Life expectancy:
It is the average age that a newborn infant is expected to attain in a given country. The
average life expectancy, over the globe, has risen from 40 to 65.5 years over the past century.
In India, life expectancy of males and females was only 22.6 years and 23.3 years,
respectively in 1900. In the last 100 years improved medical facilities and technological
b. Bell shaped:
advancement has increased the life expectancy to 60.3 years and 60.5 years, respectively for the
In Countries like France, USA and Canada where birth rates have in the past one or two Indian males and females.
decades declined resulting in people of almost equal number in age group 0-35 years.
10. Demographic transition:
So in the next 10 years, the people entering into reproductive age group is not going to
change much and such age-pyramids indicate stable populations. Population growth is usually related to economic development. There occurs a typical fall
in death rates and birth rates due to improved living conditions leading to low population growth,
a phenomenon called demographic transition. It is associated with urbanization and growth and
occurs in four phases:
i. Pre industrial phase - high growth and death rates and net population growth is low.
ii. Transitional phase - advent of industrialization providing better hygiene and medical
facilities and adequate food, thereby reducing deaths.
Birth rates, however, remain high and the population shows 2.5-3% growth rate.
iii. Industrial phase - fall in birth rates thereby lowering growth rate.
iv. Post industrial phase - zero population growth is achieved.
c. Urn shaped: Demographic transition is already observed in most developing nations. As a result of
In Countries like Germany, Italy, Hungary, Sweden and Japan number of individuals in very demographic transition the developed nations are now growing at a rate of about 0.5% with a
young class is smaller than the middle reproductive age class. doubling time of 118 years.
In the next 10 years the number in reproductive age class will thus become less than before However more than 90% of the global population is concentrated in developing nations
which have a growth rate a little more than 2%, and a doubling time of less than 35 years.
POPULATION EXPLOSION 4. Lack of Education:
The enormous increase in population due to low death rate (mortality) and high birth rate Illiteracy is another important cause of overpopulation. Those lacking education fail to
(natality) is termed as population explosion. understand the need to prevent excessive growth of population. They are unable to understand
the harmful effects that overpopulation has.
The population clock: They are unaware of the ways to control population. Lack of family planning is
Every second, on an average 4-5 child are born and 2 people die, thus resulting in net commonly seen in the illiterate lot of the world. This is one of the major factors leading to
gain of nearly 2.5 people every second. This means that every hour we are growing by about overpopulation.
9000 and every day by about 2, 14,000.
Consequences:
The Indian Scenario: Population grows fastest in the world's poorest countries. Overpopulation and poverty
a. For the developing countries like India, population explosion is a curse and is have long been associated with increased death and disease.
damaging to the development of the country and its society. The developing countries The world's current and projected population growth calls for an increase in efforts to
already facing a lack in their resources, and with the rapidly increasing population, meet the needs for food, water, health care, technology and education.
the resources available per person are reduced further, leading to increased poverty, In the poorest countries, massive efforts are needed to keep social and economic
malnutrition, and other large population-related problems. conditions from deteriorating further; any real advances in well-being and the quality of life are
b. India is the second most populous country of the world with 1.27 billion people. negated by further population growth.
Currently, there are about 51 births in India in a minute. India represents almost Many countries lack adequate supplies of basic materials needed to support their current
17.31% of the world's population, which means one out of six people on this planet population. Not every nation is capable of providing its people with the adequate amount of
live in India. resources.
c. Although, China leads in population for decades, India is all set to take the number The ever-increasing population will eventually leave no nation capable of providing its
one position by 2030. With the population growth rate at 1.58%, India is predicted to people with the resources they need to thrive. When the environment fails to accommodate the
have more than 1.53 billion people by the end of 2030. living beings that inhabit it, overpopulation becomes a disaster.
Causes:
1. Decline in the Death Rate: Measures:
Until recently, birth rates and death rates were about the same, keeping the population Alarmed by its swelling population, India started taking measures to stem the growth rate
stable. The success in reducing death rates was attributable to several factors like quite early. India launched the National Family Planning program in 1952 and became the first
1. increase in food production and distribution country in the world to have a population policy.
2. improvement in public health (water and sanitation) The family planning program yielded some noticeable results, bringing down
3. medical technology (vaccines and antibiotics) significantly the country's fertility rate. In 1965-2009 the contraceptive usage more than tripled
4. awareness education and standards of living and the fertility rate more than halved.
The fall in death rates that is decline in mortality rate is one fundamental causes of The efforts did produce positive results, however, failed to achieve the ultimate goal and
overpopulation. This has resulted in an increase in the life expectancy of individuals. Mortality the population of India since getting independence from Britain in 1947 increased almost three
times.
rate has declined leading to an increase in population. Thus the overall death rate has gone down
Whereas India has missed almost all its targets to bring the rate of population growth
same time as brought with it, the curse of overpopulation.
under control, China's 'One Child Policy' in 1978, has brought tremendous results for the latter.
2. Rise in the Birth Rate: The policy claims to have prevented between 250 and 300 million births from 1978 to 2000 and
With the new discoveries in nutritional science, we are able to bring in increase in the 400 million births from 1979 to 2010.
fertility rates of human beings.
Medicines of today can boost the reproductive rate in human beings. Problem with implementing measures:
There are medicines and treatments, which can help in conception. Thus, science has led Population explosion is causing severe resource depletion and environmental
to an increase in birth rate. degradation. Our resources like land, water, fossil fuels, minerals etc. are limited and due to over
3. Migration: exploitation these resources are getting exhausted.
The inhabitants of various countries migrate to a particular part of the world and settle Even many of the renewable resources like forests, grasslands etc. are under tremendous
over there, the area is bound to suffer from the ill effects of overpopulation. pressure. Industrial and economic growth are raising our quality of life but adding toxic
If the rates of emigration from a certain nation do not match the rates of immigration to pollutants into the air, water and soil. As a result, the ecological life-support systems are getting
that country, overpopulation makes its way. jeopardized. The two very important views on population growth are-
Crowding of immigrants in certain parts of the world, results in an imbalance in the 1. Malthusian Theory:
density of population. According to Malthus, human populations tend to grow at an exponential or compound
rate whereas food production increases very slowly or remains stable. Therefore, starvation,
poverty, disease, crime and misery are invariably associated with population explosion. The United Nations projections about population stabilization of developed and
He believes positive checks like famines, disease outbreak and violence as well as developing nations and that of Asia are shown in above Figure.
preventive checks like birth control need to stabilize population growth. The ratio is derived by dividing crude birth rate by crude death rate. As evident,
developed nations have already achieved a stabilization ratio of 1 around the year 2000, which is
2. Marxian Theory: more or less stabilized indicating zero population growth.
According to Karl Marx, population growth is a symptom rather than the cause of Developing nations including Asia, on the other hand, is yet having a high stabilization
poverty, resource depletion, pollution and other social ills. ratio nearing 3, which is however, on a decline and is expected to lower down substantially by
He believed that social exploitation and oppression of the less privileged people leads to 025.
poverty, overcrowding, unemployment, environmental degradation that in turn, causes over Stabilization in developing nations is possible only through various family welfare programmes.
population. ENVIRONMENT AND HUMAN HEALTH
A physically fit person not suffering from any disease is called a healthy person.
FAMILY WELFARE PROGRAMS According to World Health Organization (WHO) health is a state of complete physical, mental
It was implemented by the government of india as a voluntary programme. It is an integral part and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.
of overall national policy of growth covering human health, family welfare child care and Human health is influenced by many factors like nutritional, biological, chemical or
womens rights. psychological. These factors may cause harmful changes in the body’s conditions called disease.
Family planning:
Family planning allows couples to decide their family size and also the time spacing of Infectious organisms:
their offspring. Almost every culture in the past used to practice some traditional fertility control Disease causing organisms pose greater environmental threats to health, more severely in
methods through some traditions, taboos and folk medicine. the developing countries especially the tropical ones.
Modern science has provided several birth control techniques including mechanical High temperature and moisture along with malnutrition help many diseases to spread in
barriers, surgical methods, chemical pills and physical barriers to implantation. More than a these countries. Microbes especially bacteria can cause food poisoning by producing toxins in
hundred contraceptive methods are on trial. the contaminated food.
The United Nations Family Planning Agency provides funds to 135 countries. Many of Some molds grow on food and produce poisonous toxins. Infectious organisms can also
these countries include abortion as a part of the population control programme which very often cause respiratory diseases (pneumonia, tuberculosis, influenza etc.) and gastrointestinal diseases
encourages female infanticide thereby disturbing the optimal male and female ratio in a society. (diarrhoea, dysentery, cholera etc.) There are various types of parasites that cause diseases like
malaria, schistosomiasis, filariasis etc. Most of these infections take place when the
The birth control programmes have often faced strong opposition from religious groups. environmental conditions are unclean and unhygienic.
Nonetheless, World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that today about 50 percent of the
worlds married couples adopt some family planning measures as compared to just 10% about 30 Chemicals:
years back. Still some 300 million couples do not have access to family planning.
A large number of chemicals are introduced in the environment by anthropogenic
India started the family planning programme in 1951 with the objective of “reducing the activities. Industrial effluents containing various chemicals are of major concern. Chemicals can
birthrate to the extent necessary to stabilize the population at a level consistent with the be divided into two categories i.e. hazardous and toxic chemicals. Hazardous are the dangerous
requirements of national economy.”
chemicals like explosives, inflammable chemicals etc and toxic chemicals (toxins) are poisonous
chemicals which kill cells and can cause death.
Evolution:
Many other chemicals can cause cancer (carcinogenic), affect genetic material (DNA) in
cells (mutagenic) or cause abnormalities during embryonic growth and development
(teratogenic), while there are others that affect nervous system (neurotoxins) and the
reproductive system.
Some of the pesticides and other industrial pollutants may act as hormone analogs in
humans and other species. These environmental hormones affect reproduction, development and
cause various types of ailments including tumors.
Many chemicals like DDT and other chlorinated pesticides bio-accumulate in food-chain
and show deleterious effects at the top of the food chain. Many chemical substances present in
wastewaters like heavy metals (mercury, cadmium, lead etc.) fluoride and nitrate can affect
human health.
Metals can contaminate food while cooking in various types of utensils including alloys
like steel. Containers for canned food, especially which are acidic in nature, contaminate the
food with lead. Lead also comes in water from the water-pipes where it is added for plumbing The preamble envisages a deep concern regarding the consequences of environmental
purposes. harm caused by poverty, debt programmes and international trade. Environmental damages are
Various alcoholic beverages contain lead while tobacco contains cadmium that goes in often irreversible.
the body and affects human health. Various chemicals, gases and particulates laden with Human rights violations may lead to further environmental degradation on a long-term
chemicals, spewed into the environment from various industries cause air pollution and affect basis and the environmental degradation, in turn would lead to further human rights violation.
human health. The principles of the draft declaration are divided into five parts.
 Part I: It deals with human rights for an ecologically sound environment, sustainable
Noise: development and peace for all. It also emphasizes the present generation’s rights to fulfill
Although human ear is capable of tolerating a range of sound levels, yet if sound levels its needs to lead a dignified and good quality life. But, at the same time it lays stress on
beyond the permissible level exist for certain duration, it becomes painful and sometimes the fact that it should be without impairing the rights of the future generations to meet
irreparable damage occurs. their needs.
Radiations:  Part II: It mainly deals with human rights related to an environment free from pollution
Radiations are known to cause short-term and long term changes in various organs. and degradation. It also emphasizes the rights to enjoyment of natural ecosystems with
Cosmic rays and ultra-violet rays cause harmful effects on human health which may include their rich biodiversity. It defines right to own native land or home. No one can be evicted
cancer. from one’s native place except in emergency or due to a compelling purpose benefitting
the society as a whole which is not attainable by other means. All persons have the right
Diet: to timely assistance in the event of any natural or technological disaster.
Diet has a very important role in maintaining health. Malnutrition makes humans prone to  Part III: It deals with right of every person to environmental information, education,
other diseases. There is a strong correlation between cardiovascular diseases and the amount of awareness and also public participation in environmental decision making.
salt and fat in one’s diet. Food contamination can cause various ill effects. There had been cases  Part IV: It deals with the duties to protect and preserve the environment and prevent
of Dropsy in India, a disease which occurred due to contamination of mustard oil with the environmental harm. It includes all remedies for environmental degradation and measures
poisonous seeds of Argemonemexicana. to be taken for sustainable resource use. It emphasizes that states shall avoid using
environment as a means of war and shall respect international law for protection of
Settlement: environment.
Proper environment, availability of basic necessities of life like, water, sanitation etc. are  Part V: This lays stress on social justice and equity with respect to use of natural
essential for healthy living. Improper settlement and poor physical environment may cause resources and sustainable development. Right to development has to be linked to right to
various psychological problems which affect various vital physiological processes in the body. safe and clean environment which has to be considered not only at the level of individual
but at community, national and global level.
HUMAN RIGHTS:
Human beings are born equal in dignity and rights. These are moral claims which are VALUE EDUCATION:
inalienable and inherent in all individuals by virtue of their humanity alone, irrespective of caste, Education:
colour, creed, and place of birth, sex, cultural difference or any other consideration. It is one of the most important tools in bringing about socioeconomic and cultural
These claims are articulated and formulated in what is today known as human rights. Human progress of a country. However, the objective should not merely be imparting coaching to the
rights are sometimes referred to as fundamental rights, basic rights, inherent rights, natural rights students that they get through the examinations with good results and get some good job.
and birth rights. Education does not simply mean acquiring a lot of information but also its righteousness
and use within the framework of a spectrum of ethical values.
Definition:
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) 1948 defines human rights as Current scenario:
“Rights derived from the inherent dignity of the human person.” Human rights when they are The rapid strides of scientific and technological advancements have no doubt, brought
guaranteed by a written constitution are known as “Fundamental Rights” because a written revolutionary changes in our everyday life and information technology has shrunk the whole
constitution is the fundamental law of the state. world into a global village with access to very information sitting in one corner over the internet.
Human rights are essential for the overall development of individuals. The Constitution But, in this frenzy for development and mad race for progress perhaps man has become
of India makes provisions for basic rights also known as Fundamental Rights for its citizens as too materialistic, self-centered and over ambitious and the desired ideals of a real good life have
well as for aliens. A distinction is made between Specific Fundamental Rights and Unspecified been pushed to the background.
Fundamental Rights.
Draft Declaration of Human Rights and Environment: Objective of value education:
The draft declaration describes the rights as well as duties that apply to individuals, 1. It has a very significant role in providing proper direction to inculcate a positive
governments, international organizations and transnational corporations.
 attitude and to teach the distinction between right and wrong. attaining the goals of sustainable development and environmental conservation. The value
2. It teaches one to be compassionate, helpful, peace loving, generous and tolerant so elements in environmental education alone can succeed in achieving the real goals of
that they can move towards a more harmonious, peaceful, enjoyable and sustainable environmental literacy.
future. HIV/AIDS
3. It helps in arriving at value-based judgments in life based on practical understanding Dr. Robert Gallo at National Institute of Health, USA and Luc Montagnier at Pasteur
of various natural principles rather than acquiring certain prejudices. Institute, Paris isolated the virus, HIV which causes AIDS.
4. It encompasses human values, social values, professional values, religious values, HIV stands for H-Human: This particular virus can only infect human beings. I-
national values, aesthetic values and environmental values. Immunodeficiency: HIV weakens your immune system by destroying important cells that fight
5. It increases awareness about our national history, our cultural heritage, national pride, disease and infection. V-Virus: A virus can only reproduce itself by taking over a cell in the body
constitutional rights and duties, national integration, community development and of its host.
environment. AIDS stands for A-Acquired: AIDS is not something you inherit from your parents. You
acquire AIDS after birth. I-Immuno: our body's immune system includes all the organs and cells
Different phases: that work to fight off infection or disease. D-Deficiency: one get AIDS when your immune
Phases include value awareness, value orientation, value appraisal, value selection, value system is deficient. S-Syndrome: A syndrome is a collection of symptoms and signs of disease.
commitment and value action. The basic aim is to create and develop awareness about the The terms “HIV” refers to the virus itself and “AIDS” refers to the late stage of HIV infection.
values, their significance and role. Function of HIV inside human body:
After knowing them mindset of students would get oriented towards those values and HIV is like other viruses that cause the flu or the common cold. But an important
they will try to critically analyze the same and then select the values which really appeal to him.
difference over time is that our immune system can clear most viruses out of our body. That is
not the same in case of HIV, the human immune system can't seem to get rid of it i.e., once you
Value-based Environmental Education:
have HIV, you have it for life.
Following the Supreme Court directives (in M.C. Mehta’s Union of India, 1988)
HIV can hide for long periods of time in the cells of your body and that it attacks a key
environmental education has been included in the curriculum right from the school stage to part of immune system. White Blood Cells are responsible in the formation of antibodies are
college/university level. The prime objective of it is to make everyone environment literate. called T-helper cells.
Environmental education can be made value based by,
Our body has to have these cells to fight infections and disease, but HIV invades them,
1.Preparing text-books and resource materials about environmental education that play an uses them to make more copies of it, and then destroys them. Over time, HIV can destroy so
important role in building positive attitudes about environment. The basic human value is man in many of your CD4 cells that your body can't fight infections and diseases anymore.
nature rather than nature for man needs to be infused through the same.
When that happens, HIV infection can lead to AIDS, the final infection. No safe and
2. Including Social values like love, compassion, tolerance and justice which are the basic effective cure currently exists, but scientists are working hard to find one. But with proper
teachings of most of our religions into environmental education. These are the values to be medical care, HIV can be controlled.
nurtured so that all forms of life and the biodiversity on this earth are protected. Treatment for HIV is often called antiretroviral therapy or ART. This can dramatically
3. Cultural and religious values enshrined in Vedas emphasize that man should not exploit nature prolong the lives of many people infected with HIV and lower their chance of infecting others.
without nurturing her. Our cultural customs and rituals in many ways teach us to perform such
functions as would protect and nurture nature and respect every aspect of nature, treating them as Origin:
sacred, are it rivers, earth, mountains or forests. Though sufficient knowledge about the disease has been gained, yet a definite source of
4. Encompassing the Environmental education with the ethical values of earth-centric rather than this virus could not be identified. But it is believed that it is transferred to humans from African
human-centric world-view. The educational system should promote the earth-citizenship monkey, through contaminated polio vaccine prepared from monkey’s kidney, through Hepatitis-
thinking. Instead of considering human being as supreme we have to think of the welfare of the B viral vaccine, through small pox vaccine programme of Africa.
earth.
5. Global values stress upon the concept that the human civilization is a part of the planet as a Transmission:
whole and similarly nature and various natural phenomena over the earth are interconnected and 1. It is transmitted through certain body fluids from an HIV-infected person-Blood, Semen,
inter-linked with special bonds of harmony. Disturbing this harmony anywhere will be an Rectal fluids, vaginal fluids, Breast milk. These body fluids when come into contact with
ecological imbalance leading to catastrophic results. a mucous membrane or damaged tissue or when directly injected into bloodstream (by a
6.Spiritual values highlight the principles of self-restraint, self discipline, contentment, reduction needle or syringe) the transmission is possible.
of wants, freedom from greed and austerity. All these values promote conservationism and 2. Having unprotected sex with someone who has HIV.
transform our consumerist approach. 3. Sharing needles, syringes, rinse water, or other equipment used to prepare injection drugs
with someone who is infected with HIV.
Value-based environmental education can bring in a total transformation of our mindset, 4. Being born to an infected mother. (HIV can be passed from mother to child during
our attitudes and our lifestyles. The above mentioned human values will go a long way in pregnancy, birth, or breastfeeding).
 5. Receiving blood transfusions, blood products, or organ/tissue transplants that are
contaminated with HIV. Diagnosis:
6. Contact between broken skin, wounds, or mucous membranes and HIV-infected blood or 1. ELISA test (Enzyme Linked Immuno Sorbent Assay) is a sensitive preliminary blood test used
blood-contaminated body fluids. to detect HIV antibodies.
2. Western Blot is the confirmatory test, which is highly specific and based on specific antibodies
HIV is NOT spread by: to viral core proteins
 Air or water
 Insects, including mosquitoes or ticks Control and Management:
 Saliva, tears, or sweat  Education to people about protected sexual behavior and practices, the do’s and don’ts in
 Casual contact, like shaking hands, hugging or sharing dishes/drinking glasses AIDS contraction and bringing more awareness among the public.
 Protected sexual behavior.
Symptoms:  Screening of blood and blood products before blood transfusion.
1. Early Stage of HIV  Usage of disposable syringes in the hospitals.
Within 2-4 weeks after HIV infection, many people experience flu-like symptoms often  Not sharing the razors / blades in the saloon.
described as the ‘worst flu ever’. This is called “acute retroviral syndrome” (ARS) or  Avoid tattooing using common needle.
“primary HIV infection,” and it is the body’s natural response to the HIV infection.  Making the antiretroviral drugs such as AZTs (Azidothymidine/Zidovudin) and
Symptoms include Fever, Swollen glands, Sore throat, Rash, Fatigue, Headache, Muscle saquinovir available to patients.
and joint aches.
2. The Clinical Latency Stage WOMEN WELFARE
Latency means a period where a virus is living or developing in a person without Women and children are usually the soft targets, who suffer in a number of ways mainly
producing symptoms. During the clinical latency stage, people who are infected with HIV because they are weaker, helpless and economically dependent. The main aim is to improve the
experience no HIV-related symptoms, or only mild ones. This stage is sometimes called status of women by providing opportunities in education, employment and economic
“asymptomatic HIV infection” or “chronic HIV infection.” independence.
During the clinical latency stage, the HIV virus reproduces at very low levels, although it
is still active. If one takes antiretroviral therapy (ART), they may live with clinical latency for Need:
several decades because treatment helps keep the virus in check. Women usually suffer gender discrimination and devaluation at home, at workplace, in
It is important to remember that people in this symptom-free period are still able to matrimony, in inheritance, in public life and power, particularly in developing countries. The
transmit HIV to others even if they are on ART, although ART greatly reduces the risk of gender violence, victimization and harassment take many forms across culture, race or nation.
transmission. The exceptionally high number of cases of abduction, dowry deaths, rape, domestic
3. Progression to AIDS violence, criminal offences and mental torture to women is something that needs immediate
If one have HIV and you are not taking HIV medication (antiretroviral therapy), attention and reforms in the interest of the women.
eventually the HIV virus will weaken your body’s immune system. The onset of symptoms Women are often the worst victims of communal enmities. The human rights of women
signals the transition from the clinical latency stage to AIDS. are violated too often in a male dominated patriarchal society. Thus, there is an urgent need for
During this late stage of HIV infection, people infected with HIV may have the following policy reforms and more stringent legislation as well as educational and legal awareness amongst
symptoms: women for checking the atrocities and injustice towards her.
o Rapid weight loss There is a full-fledged Ministry for Women and Child development whose sole aim is to
o Recurring fever or profuse night sweats work for the welfare and upliftment of women encompassing family planning, health care,
o Extreme and unexplained tiredness education and awareness.
o Prolonged swelling of the lymph glands in the armpits, groin, or neck Environmental degradation:
o Diarrhea that lasts for more than a week Women are also the victims of capitalism, development and environment. The
o Sores of the mouth, anus, or genitals exploitative nature of capitalist development not only affects the natural environment but the
traditional, social, cultural and family life of women.
o Pneumonia
o Red, brown, pink, or purplish blotches on or under the skin or inside the mouth, After losing the forests and getting rehabilitated from their native places, men folk
nose, or eyelids usually migrate to towns in search of some job while the women are left behind to look after the
family and household with little resources.
o Memory loss, depression, and other neurologic disorders.
Many of the severe symptoms and illnesses of HIV disease come from the opportunistic Development projects like mining very often play havoc with the life of women. Men can
infections that occur because your body’s immune system has been damaged. still work in the mines or migrate to towns after getting compensation from the government. The
National Network for Women and Mining (NNWM) with about 20 groups in different mining
states of India is rightly fighting for a .gender audit of India’s mining companies. -The right to participation means freedom of thought, conscience and religion and appropriate
The displaced women are the worst affected as they do not get any compensation and are information to the child.
totally dependent upon the males for wages. The displaced women driven out from their land- The World Summit on Children, held on September 30, 1990 had a focused agenda for the
based work are forced to take up marginalized work which is highly un-organized and often wellbeing of the children targeted to be achieved in the beginning of the new millennium.
socially humiliating. Issues related to their dignity and honor has not yet received any attention. India is also a signatory to the World Declaration on Survival, protection and development of
The NNWM is now working for rights of women over natural resources, resettlement and children.
compensation issues. Besides the government initiatives there are now a number of A national plan of action for children has been formulated by the Ministry of Human Resource
nongovernment organizations mostly as Mahila Mandals. Development (MHRD), Government of India in which a strategic plan has been formulated for
To create awareness amongst women of remote villages even to empower them, train children’s welfare in the priority areas of health, education, nutrition, clean and safe drinking
them, educate them and help them to become economically self-dependent On an international water, sanitation and environment.
level, the United Nations Decade for Women (1975-85) witnessed inclusion of several women Universalisation of effective access to at least primary level schooling, special emphasis on girl
welfare related issues on international agenda. child’s education including health and nutrition, up gradation of home-based skills, mid-day
The CEDAW (International Convention on the Elimination of all forms of meals scheme, expansion of early childhood development activities including low-cost family
Discrimination Against Women, 1979) has been a landmark outcome of the decade to be based involvements are some of the important actions envisaged.
accepted as an international standard for the protection and promotion of women’s human rights Children are also the most affected due to environmental pollution. .They consume more water,
and socio-economic upliftment. It is, however, most important for all women in the mainstream, food and air than adults, hence more susceptible to any environmental contamination.- says one
tribal’s, refugees and the down-trodden to be educated about these issues. of the scientific reports of Center for Science and Environment (CSE), New Delhi. It is high time
to work together for a secure and cleaner environment so as to give our children a cleaner and
National commission for women: safer world to live in.
It has been created by government of India and its objectives are ROLE OF IT IN HUMAN HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENT
 To examine constitutional and legal rights for women Information technology has tremendous potential in the field of environmental education and
 To review existing legislations health as in any other field like business, economics, politics or culture. Development of internet
 To sensitize the enforcement and administrative machinery to women’s causes. facilities, worldwide web, geographical information system (GIS) and information through
satellites has generated a wealth of up-to-date information on various aspects of environment and
CHILD WELFARE health.
Children are considered to be the assets of a society. They nearly occupy 40% of total A number of soft-wares have been developed for environment and health studies which are user
friendly and can help an early learner in knowing and understanding the subject.
population. But the statistical figures tell us that about a million babies, out of 21 million born
every year in India are abandoned soon after their birth due to different socio-economic reasons.
a. Database:
Around 20 million children in our country are estimated to be working as child labours,
some of them in various hazardous industries like the match industry, firework industry, Database is the collection of inter-related data on various subjects. It is usually in
brassware industry and pottery industry. computerized form and can be retrieved whenever required. In the computer the information of
database is arranged in a systematic manner that is easily manageable and can be very quickly
Child labours: retrieved.
Application includes
Poverty is the main reason to drive these children into long hours of work in miserable,
unhealthy conditions and yet they do not get the minimum nutritive food, what to talk of  The Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India has taken up the task
educational and recreational facilities, which are their childhood rights. of compiling a database on various biotic communities. The comprehensive database
includes wildlife database, conservation database, forest cover database etc. Database is
Various organizations towards child welfare: also available for diseases like HIV/AIDS, Malaria, Fluorosis, etc.
The UN General Assembly in 1959 adopted the Declaration of the Rights of a child.  National Management Information System (NMIS) of the Department of Science and
After the UN convention on Rights of Child, it became International Law in the year 1990, Technology has compiled a database on Research and Development Projects along with
consisting of 54 articles and a set of international standards and measures to promote and protect information about research scientists and personnel involved.
the well being of children in a society. The law defines right of the child to survival, protection,  Environmental Information System (ENVIS) The Ministry of Environment and
development and participation. Forests, Government of India has created an Information System called Environmental
-The right to survival emphasizes on adequately good standards of living, good nutrition and Information System (ENVIS).
health. o Headquarters: Delhi, it functions in 25 different centers all over the country.
-The right to protection means freedom from exploitation, abuse, inhuman treatment and neglect. o The ENVIS centers work for generating a network of database in areas like
- -The right to development ensures access to education, early childhood care and support, social pollution control, clean technologies, remote sensing, coastal ecology,
security and right to leisure and recreation.
 biodiversity, western Ghats and eastern Ghats, environmental management, media 1. www.mhhe.com/environmental science
related to environment, renewable energy, desertification, mangroves, wildlife, 2. Multimedia Digital Content Manager (DCM) in the form of CD-ROM
Himalayan ecology, mining, etc. Provides the most current and relevant information on principles of environmental science,
o The National Institute of Occupational Health provides computerized various problems, queries, applications and solutions.
information on occupational health i.e. the health aspects of people working in The World Wide Web with resource material on every aspect, class-room activities, digital files
various hazardous and nonhazardous industries, safety measures etc. of photos, power-point lecture presentations, animations, web-exercises and quiz has proved to
be extremely useful both for the students and the teachers of environmental studies.
a. Remote sensing: Features:
Remote sensing is the acquisition of information about an object or phenomenon without making 1. Student friendly features:
physical contact with the object and thus in contrast to in situ observation.
These include practice quiz, how-to study tips and hyperlinks on every chapter topics with
In modern usage, the term generally refers to the use of aerial sensor technologies to detect and detailed information, web exercises, case studies, environment maps, key-terms, career
classify objects on Earth (surface, in the atmosphere and oceans) by means of propagated signals information, current articles, interactive encyclopedia and how to contact your elected officials.
(electromagnetic radiation). It may be split into active remote sensing or passive. It is applied in
following fields- 2. Teacher-friendly features:
In agriculture: provide valuable information about land and water management. In addition to above it include supplement resource charts, additional case studies, answers to
In forestry: provide valuable information for sustainable forest management. web exercises, solutions to critical thinking questions, editing facility to add or delete questions
and create multiple versions of same test etc.
In land cover: spatial information on land use is required at different scale depending on usage.
In water resources: for surface water mapping, ground water targeting, wetland, flood
Thus remote sensing and GIS play a key role in resource mapping, environmental conservation,
monitoring runoff modeling etc,.
management, planning and environmental impact assessment. It also helps in identifying several
disease infested areas which are prone to some vector-borne diseases like malaria,
Satellite imageries provide us actual information about various physical and biological resources
schistosomiasis etc. based upon mapping of such areas. There are several Distribution
and also to some extent about their state of degradation in a digital form through remote sensing.
Information Centers (DICs) in our country that are linked with each other and with the central
We are able to gather digital information on environmental aspects like water logging,
desertification, deforestation, urban sprawl, river and canal network, mineral and energy reserves information network having access to international database.
and so on.
Information technology is expanding rapidly with increasing applications and new avenues are
c. Geographical Information System (GIS): being opened with effective role in education, management and planning in the field of
It has proved to be a very effective tool in environmental management. environment and health.
GIS is a technique of superimposing various thematic maps using digital data on a large number
of inter related or interdependent aspects.
Its applications include
1. Different thematic maps containing digital information on a number of aspects like water
resources, industrial growth, human settlements, road network, soil type, forest land, crop land or
grassland etc. are superimposed in a layered form in computer using software. Such information
is very useful for future land-use planning.
2. Even interpretations of polluted zones, degraded lands or diseased cropland etc. can be made
based on GIS. Planning for locating suitable areas for industrial growth is now being done using
GIS by preparing Zoning Atlas.
3. GIS serves to check unplanned growth and related environmental problems.
d. Satellite data:
It helps in providing correct, reliable and verifiable information about forest cover, success of
conservation efforts etc.
They also provide information of atmospheric phenomena like approach of monsoon, ozone
layer depletion, inversion phenomena, smog etc. We are able to discover many new reserves of
oil, minerals etc. with the help of information generated by remote sensing satellites.

e. World Wide Web:

A vast quantum of current data is available on World Wide Web.
Important on-line learning center: