EARTH AND ROCK-

FILL DAMS
S.I.K. Ampadu,
March/April 2020
 PURPOSES FOR CONSTRUCTING
DAMS
• Storage of water for irrigation and stock
purposes
• water supply
• power generation,
• flood control and
• provision of recreational facilities.
 SAFETY OF DAMS IS
CRITICAL
Dams are one of the largest artificial structures

• Dams constantly impose very large loads to

their foundation and
• They impose extremely high water pressures
behind the dam

Consequently, damage to life and property is

tremenduous if a dam collapses.
 DAM FAILURES

According to one survey, the number of

dam accidents recorded exceeds 500 and
§ about one-third of these were caused
by problems with the foundation.
§ Most of the large-scale dam failures
which caused disasters in recent years
were associated with defects in
foundation rock.
 DAM FAILURES
• The failure of the Malpasset Dam in
France in 1959 was due to a slide in the
foundation rock.
• The Fraile Dam in Peru collapsed in 1961
due to increase in uplift in the foundation
• In 1928 the St. Francis Dam collapsed in
California due to problems with the
foundation rock
 THE ST. FRANCIS DAM FAILURE
• Structure
• St. Francis Dam was built by the City of Los Angeles Bureau
of Water Works and Supply in 1925-26
• It was a curved concrete gravity dam,
• approximately 200 (67m) feet high
• Purpose of Dam:
• to provide an additional 38,000 acre-feet of storage for Los
Angeles - Owens River Aqueduct water in close proximity
to Los Angeles.
• The Failure
• The dam failed catastrophically upon its first full filling, near
midnight on March 12/13, 1928,
• At least 450 people in the San Francisquito and Santa
Clara River valleys were killed
• It was the greatest American civil engineering failure in the
20th Century
 CLASSIFICATION OF
DAMS
There are different ways to classify dams.
Some of the common criteria used are:
Structural Purpose of Hydraulic Construction
Action Dam Design Material
• Gravity Dams • Storage • Overflow • Masonry
• Arch Dams Dams dams • Concrete
• Buttress • Diversion • Non-overflow • Earth dams
Dams Dams dams • Rock fill dams
• Embankment • Detention • Combined
Dams Dams concrete-
cum-earth
dam
 SELECTION OF APPROPRIATE DAM TYPE
Criteria for selection of best dam type
q Feasibility-
v topography, geology,
v climate and its effect on materials
q Cost-
v availability of construction materials near the site
v Transportation facilities
• Concrete
Gravity Dams • Rubble masonary
Arch Dams • Concrete
• Concrete
Buttress Dams • Timber and Steel
Embankment Dams • Earth or rock
 CONCRETE DAMS

reservoir
concrete dam

soil
 GRAVITY DAMS
• Gravity dams resist the horizontal thrust of the water entirely by
their own weight.
• Transfer horizontal load applied to the upstream face of the
dam to the foundation bedrock by means of its own weight
• Can be made of earth or rockfill or concrete
 GRAVITY DAMPlan

• Forces on Gravity Dam

• Weight of Dam
• Hydrostatic Pressure
• Uplift
• Earthquake Section
• Important stability Considerations
• Shear strength of the dam body
• Shear strength of the foundation bedrock
• Uplift from the foundation
• Differential settlement of foundation bedrock
 GRAVITY DAMS-2
Geological conditions that govern the shearing
strength and uplift of foundation bedrock of gravity
dams
• In soft formations including weathered or shattered
bedrock, the considerations are:
§ The problem of low shear strength
§ High uplift forces due to infiltration of water
after ponding where prevention of water
leakage is difficult
§ Increased deterioration of bedrock with time.
 CONCRETE GRAVITY DAM

Location: Sandouping, Yiling, Hubei

Length: 2,335 m (7,661 ft)
Purpose: Power, flood control, navigation
Normal elevation: 175 m (574 ft)
Three Gorges Dam is the largest hydroelectric power station in
the world by installed capacity (22,500 MW).
Three Gorges Dam, China
Gravity Dams-

The Tygart Dam, West Virginia

 ARCH CONCRETE DAMS
• Curved dam, dependent upon arch action for strength.
• Transfers load acting upstream to sides and lower flank bedrock by
means of horizontal arch and vertical cantilever action.
 ARCH DAMS-2
• Arch dam is advantageous when:
• Topographically the valley is narrow
• Crest length of dam is about 1.5 times dam height
• Large loads are generally transferred to
foundation bedrock at the left and right flanks of
the river. Consequently
• the bedrock up to the upper portion of the valley
must be hard, and its shear strength must be high
and
• hard rock with sufficient thickness is required at
downstream side of the abutment.
 ARCH DAMS-3
• The volume of material required in arch dams will
be reduced to one third of that for gravity dam
having identical dam height
• Arch dams are thinner and requires less material
than any other type of dam.
• Smaller width of arch dam abutment means
steeper hydraulic gradient results. Therefore the
permeability must be fully taken into consideration.
• Sliding is the most important consideration from the
stability of the foundation point of view.
• Arch dams require more stringent foundation than
other types of dams.
 HOOVER DAM, USA

Arch dam. Tallest (221 m) concrete dam

 Buttress Dams
q The face of buttress dam is held up by a series of supports.
q The face may be flat or curved.
q Usually, made of concrete and may be reinforced with steel
bars.
BUTTRESS DAMS

Daniel-Johnson Dam, Quebec

BUTTRESS DAMS

Bartlett Dam, Colorado

 EARTH DAMS

reservoir
clay
core shell

soil
 NATURE OF FILL–TYPE DAM
• Filled with natural rock and soil;
• Transfers the water pressure to the foundation
bedrock through its own weight.
• Both self-weight and water pressure are widely
distributed to its foundation
• Low foundation pressures
• Flexible structure
• small differential settlements in the foundation are
compensated by deformation of the dam body
without cracking.
 FILL-DAM VRS CONCRETE DAM
Concrete Dam
Fill Dam
• Much larger sectional area • Smaller cross-sectional area
and larger bottom width than and smaller bottom area
concrete dams, hence lower hence higher stresses in
stresses in foundation foundation
• Generally uses material near • Use large quantities of
site, hence lower cost imported and manufactured
• requires provision of material
concrete spillways separate • No spillways required since
from the main dam to pass flood water can be passed
flood waters over dam

• Require expensive diversion • During construction

structures such as tunnels temporary openings in the
and culverts of adequate dam are used to divert
capacity during water
construction,
 FILL-TYPE VRS CONCRETE DAM
§ Much less exacting foundation
requirements
§ Usually require
§ Generally more flexible and sound rock
can tolerate larger settlements
without distress. foundations.
§ Can be constructed on weak § Cannot take
and compressible foundations large settlements
§ Inherently more likely to fail § Cannot be
suddenly during and after constructed on
construction as a result of weak and
compressible
§ progressive internal erosion, foundations
§ overtopping,
§ slope instability and
inadequate protection of the
slopes of the dam
 CROSS-SECTION OF FILL-TYPE DAM

Considerations
§ Functions of dam
§ Type of soil suitable
structure
for function
§ to provide a
relatively impervious § Plastic clay of low
barrier to the flow of permeability
water

§ to transmit the load

§ A free-draining soil with
high angle of internal
resulting from that friction
structure and the
water to the
foundation
 CROSS-SECTION OF FILL DAM
ZONED EARTH DAM HOMOGENEOUS EARTH DAM

Provision of a central When suitable material mid-

impervious core of either fat way between a fat clay and
clay or concrete, and a shell a free-draining gravel – is
of either rock-fill or granular available, a HOMOGENEOUS
material, ZONED DAM cross-section is constructed
Clay or Concrete Core

Granular shell

H omogeneous Earthdam
Zoned Earth Dam
ZONED EMBANKMENT DAMS
Generally have water proof core covered with earth or rock
fill. Water will seep in through the earth or rock fill, but
should not seep into the core.
The water that seeps into the core material should stop at
the seepage line.
 CHOICE OF CROSS-SECTION
Main factors influencing the type of materials selected
in the dam cross-section

§ The quality and quantity of borrow pit materials available

§ The relative costs of excavating, hauling and compacting
the available materials
§ The type of labour and plant available
§ The foundation conditions, i.e. depth to bedrock, shear
strength, consolidation characteristics and permeability of
the over-burden
§ Climatic conditions in relation to placement water content
 SITE INVESTIGATION FOR FILL DAMS
Preliminary Investigation
§ Documentary Evidence- Sound knowledge of geology
§ Fieldwork at dam abutments and other appurtenance structures.
§ Prelim Material Survey-locate potential borrow pits
Detailed Investigation
§ Subsurface Investigation-
§ boreholes by rotary and percussion
§ Laboratory work-
§ rock cores and undisturbed soils
§ Detailed Construction Material Survey
§ Material for the construction of the main embankment
§ suitable concrete aggregates
§ riprap
§ Field Tests
§ Permeability
§ Strength Test
 DESIGN CRITERIA FOR FILL DAMS
Criteria Action
• Embankment slopes must be stable • Proper design of the embankment
both during construction and under slope inclinations
all conditions of reservoir operation

• The provision of spillways and

• The embankment must be safe outlet works of adequate section
against overtopping during
floods. • Provision for adequate freeboard
ensure dam is not overtopped by
wave action.

• Seepage flow though the dam, the • This condition is satisfied by the
foundation and the abutments must provision of a central impermeable
be reduced to the minimum in order core of either concrete or clay, and
to reduce the dangers of internal the provision of the appropriate
erosion, and prevent the excessive foundation treatment,
loss of impounded water.
• Embankment slopes should be • Use rip-rap on slope surface
protected against erosion
FAILURE OF EMBANKMENTS
FOUNDATION TREATMENT ON ROCK

§Competent rock
§ Clean rock surface of loose material
§ cut a “key trench” into the rock (good bond between
central core and foundation rock)

§Jointed/Fissured Rock
§ Provision of grout curtain (2 line just upstream)
USE OF GROUT CURTAIN
 TREATMENT OF CLAY
FOUNDATION-1
Concern is inadequate strength and excessive deformation

§ Sand drains to improve the shear strength and

compressibility characteristics of the soil prior to
the start of construction.
§ Use wider bases for dams in order to limit the
imposed stresses.
§ Install piezometers and settlement plates in the
foundation in order to monitor the behaviour of
the foundation material and to adjust the
construction rate
TREATMENT OF CLAY FOUNDATION-2
Sand drains improve the shear strength of clays
 TREATMENT OF CLAY FOUNDATION-3

• Principle of consolidation of soft clay by sand drains

 TREATMENT OF FOUNDATION ON SAND
AND GRAVELS
Excessive under-seepage and the generation of high seepage forces
constitute two serious problems with sand and gravel foundations.

§ Use of impervious Upstream Blanket

§ layer of rolled clay constructed in the reservoir just upstream of the dam,
and made contiguous with the impervious clay core of the dam
§ Cut off trenches
§ Extend to bedrock and provide a positive cut off.
§ partial cut-off, effectiveness enhanced by grouting.
§ Horizontal Drainage Blanket and Filters
§ layers of well selected materials placed beneath the downstream
shoulder of the dam to
§ provide access for the controlled discharge of the seeping water and
§ their weight provides a further safety factor against the occurrence
of piping failures
 PERMEABLE
FOUNDATION TREATMENT
 FILTER DESIGN
Criteria
§ Sufficiently pervious to facilitate easy dissipation of
the excess hydrostatic pressures.
§ Pore spaces within the filter must be small enough
not to permit the material of the foundation to be
washed through.
Hence Terzaghi’s filter rules,

D15 of filter material

= 5 or less
D15 of foundation material