ABELIAN FUNCTIONS

Abel's theorem and the allied theory

of theta functions
H. F Baker
St John's College, Cambridge

CAMBRIDGE
UNIVERSITY PRESS
 CONTENTS.

CHAPTER I.

THE SUBJECT OF INVESTIGATION.

§§ PAGES
I Fundamental algebraic irrationality 1
2, 3 The places and infinitesimal on a Riemann surface . . . 1, 2
4, 5 The theory unaltered by rational transformation . . . 3—6
6 The invariance of the deficiency in rational transformation; if a
rational function exists of order 1, the surface is of zero
deficiency 7, 8
7, 8 The greatest number of irremoveable parameters is 3p - 3 . . 9, 10
9, 10 The geometrical statement of the theory 11, 12
II Generality of Riemann's methods 12, 13

CHAPTEE II.
THE FUNDAMENTAL FUNCTIONS ON A RIEMANN SURFACE.

12 Riemann's existence theorem provisionally regarded as fundamental 14

13 Notation for normal elementary integral of second kind . . 15
14 Notation for normal elementary integral of third kind . . . 15
15 Choice of normal integrals of the first kind 16
16 Meaning of the word period. General remarks . . . . 16, 17
17 Examples of the integrals, and of the places of the surface . 18—20
18 Periods of the normal elementary integrals of the second kind . 21
19 The integral of the second kind arises by differentiation from the
integral of the third kind 22, 23
20 Expression of a rational function by integrals of the second kind . 24
21 Special rational functions, which are invariant in rational trans-
formation 25, 26
22 Riemann normal integrals depend on mode of dissection of the
surface 26

CHAPTER III.
THE INFINITIES OF RATIONAL FUNCTIONS.

23 The interdependence of the poles of a rational function . . 27

24, 25 Condition that specified places be the poles of a rational function . 28—30
26 General form of Weierstrass's gap theorem 31, 32
27 Provisional statement of the Riemann-Roch theorem . . . 33, 34
vi CONTENTS.

§§ PAGES
28, 29 Cases when t h e poles coalesce; t h e p critical integers . . 34, 35
30 Simple anticipatory geometrical illustration 36, 37
31—33 The (p-l)p(p +1) places which are the poles of rational functions
of order less t h a n p + 1 38—40
34—36 There are at least 2p + 2 such places which are distinct . . 41—44
37 Statement of the Riemann-Roch theorem, with examples . . 44—46

CHAPTER IV.

SPECIFICATION OF A GENERAL FORM OF RIEMANN'S INTEGRALS.

38 Explanations in regard to Integral Rational Functions . . 47, 48

39 Definition of dimension ; fundamental set of functions for the
expression of rational functions 48—52
40 Illustrative example for a surface of four sheets . . . . 53, 54
41 The sum of the dimensions of the fundamental set of functions
is p + n-1 54, 55
42 Fundamental set for the expression of integral functions . . 55, 56
43 Principal properties of the fundamental set of integral functions . 57—60
44 Definition of derived set of special functions <f>0, tf>u ..., <£„_, . 61—64
45 Algebraical form of elementary integral of the third kind, whose
infinities are ordinary places; and of integrals of the first
kind 65—68
46 Algebraical form of elementary integral of the third kind in general 68—70
47 Algebraical form of integral of the second kind, independently
deduced 71—73
48 The discriminant of the fundamental set of integral functions . 74
49 Deduction of the expression of a certain fundamental rational
function in the general case 75—77
50 The algebraical results of thia chapter are sufficient to replace
Riemann's existence theorem 78, 79

CHAPTER V.

CERTAIN FORMS OF THE FUNDAMENTAL EQUATION OF THE RIEMANN SURFACE.

51 Contents of the chapter 80

52 When p>l, existence of rational function of the second order
involves a (1, 1) correspondence 81
53—55- Existence of rational function of the second order involves the
hyperelliptic equation 81—84
56, 57 Fundamental integral functions and integrals of the first kind . 85—86
58 Examples 87
59 Number of irremoveable parameters in the hyperelliptic equation ;
transformation to the canonical form 88—89
60—63 Weierstrass's canonical equation for any deficiency . . . 90—92
 CONTENTS. Vll

§§ PAGES
64—66 Actual formation of the equation 93—98
67, 68 Illustrations of the theory of integral functions for Weierstrass's
canonical equation 99—101
69—71 The method can be considerably generalised 102—104
72—79 Hensel's determination of the fundamental integral functions . 105—112

CHAPTER VI.

GEOMETRICAL INVESTIGATIONS.

80 Comparison of the theory of rational functions with the theory

of intersections of curves 113
81—83 Introductory indications of elementary form of theory . . . 113—116
84 The method to be followed in this chapter 117
85 Treatment of infinity. Homogeneous variables might be used . 118, 119
86 Grade of an integral polynomial; number of terms ; generalised
zeros 120, 121
87 Adjoint polynomials ; definition of the index of a singular place . 122
88 Pliicker's equations; connection with theory of discriminant . 123, 124
89, 90 Expression of rational functions by adjoint polynomials . . . 125, 126
91 Expression of integral of the first kind 127
92 Number of terms in an adjoint polynomial; determination of
elementary integral of the third kind 128—132
93 Linear systems of adjoint polynomials ; reciprocal theorem . . 133, 134
94, 95 Definitions of set, lot, sequent, equivalent sets, coresidual sets . 135
96, 97 Theorem of coresidual sets; algebraic basis of the theorem . . 136 •
98 A rational function of order less than p+\ is expressible by <fy-
polynomials 137
99, 100 Criticism of the theory; Cayley's theorem 138—141
101—104 Rational transformation by means of ^-polynomials . . . 142—146
105—108 Application of special sets 147—151
109 The hyperelliptic surface; transformation to canonical form . 152
110—114 Whole rational theory can be represented by means of the invari-
ant ratios of (^-polynomials ; number of relations connecting
these 153—159
115—119 Elementary considerations in regard to curves in space . . 160—167

CHAPTER VII.

COORDINATION O F SIMPLE ELEMENTS. TRANSCENDENTAL UNIFORM

FUNCTIONS.

120 Scope of the chapter 168

121 Notation for integrals of t h e first kind . . . . . 169
122, 123 The function •$•(#, a; z, clt . . . , c p ) expressed by Riemann integrals 170, 171
124 Derivation of a certain prime function 172
125 Applications of this function to rational functions and integrals 173
viii CONTENTS.

§§ PAGES
126—128 The function \|c (%, a; z, c); its utility for the expression of
rational functions 174—176
129 The derived prime function E{x, z); used to express rational
functions 177
130, 131 Algebraic expression of the functions ty (x, a; z, cu ...,cp),
^{x,a; 2, e) . . . 177, 178
132 Examples of these functions; they determine algebraic expres-
sions for the elementary integrals 179—182
133, 134 Derivation of a canonical integral of the third kind; for which
interchange of argument and parameter holds; its algebraic
expression ; its relation with Riemann's elementary normal
integral 182—185
135 Algebraic theorem equivalent to interchange of argument and
parameter 185
136 Elementary canonical integral of the second kind . . . 186, 187
137 Applications. Canonical integral of the third kind deduced from
the function yfr(x,a; z,cx, ...,op). Modification for the func-
tion ^ (x, a; z, 0) 188—192
138 Associated integrals of first and second kind. Further canonical
integrals. The algebraic theory of the hyperelliptic integrals
in one formula 193, 194
139, 140 Deduction of Weierstrass's and Riemann's relations for periods
of integrals of the first and second kind . . . . 195—197
141 Either form is equivalent to the other 198
142 Alternative proofs of Weierstrass's and Riemann's period relations 199, 200
143 Expression of uniform transcendental function by the function
ty{x, a; 2, c) 201
144, 145 Mittag-Leffler's theorem 202—204
146 Expression of uniform transcendental function in prime factors 205
147 General form of interchange of argument and parameter, after
Abel 206

CHAPTER VIII.

ABEL'S THEOREM. ABEL'S DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.

148—150 A p p r o x i m a t i v e d e s c r i p t i o n of A b e l ' s t h e o r e m . . . . 207—210

151 E n u n c i a t i o n of t h e t h e o r e m 210
152 T h e general theorem reduced t o t w o simpler theorems . . 2 1 1 , 212
153, 154 P r o o f a n d a n a l y t i c a l s t a t e m e n t of t h e t h e o r e m . . . . 212—214
155 R e m a r k ; s t a t e m e n t i n t e r m s of p o l y n o m i a l s . . . . 215
156 T h e d i s a p p e a r a n c e of t h e l o g a r i t h m o n t h e r i g h t side of t h e
equation 216
157 A p p l i c a t i o n s of t h e t h e o r e m . A b e l ' s o w n proof . . . . 217—222
158, 1 5 9 T h e n u m b e r of a l g e b r a i c a l l y i n d e p e n d e n t e q u a t i o n s g i v e n b y t h e
t h e o r e m . I n v e r s e of A b e l ' s t h e o r e m
160, 161 I n t e g r a t i o n of A b e l ' s differential e q u a t i o n s
162 A b e l ' s t h e o r e m p r o v e d q u i t e s i m i l a r l y for c u r v e s i n s p a c e .
 CONTENTS. IX

CHAPTER IX.

JACOBI'S INVERSION PROBLEM.

§§ PAGES
163 Statement of the problem 235
164 Uniqueness of any solution 236
165 The necessity of using congruences and not equations . . 237
166, 167 Avoidance of functions with infinitesimal periods . . . 238, 239
168, 169 Proof of the existence of a solution 239—241
170—172 Formation of functions with which to express the solution;
connection with theta functions 242—245

CHAPTER X.

RIEMANN'S-THETA FUNCTIONS. GENERAL THEORY.

173 Sketch of the history of the introduction of theta functions . 246

174 Convergence. Notation. Introduction of matrices . . . 247, 248
175, 176 Periodicity of the theta functions. Odd and even functions . 249—251
177 Number of zeros is p 252
178 Position of the zeros in the simple case 253, 254
179 The places m^,..., mp 255
180 Position of the zeros in general 256, 257
181 Identical vanishing of the theta functions 258, 259
182, 183 Fundamental properties. Geometrical interpretation of the places
m1,...,mp . 259—267
184—186 Geometrical developments; special inversion problem; contact
curves 268—273
187 Solution of Jacobi's inversion problem by quotients of theta
functions 274, 275
188 Theory of the identical vanishing of the theta function. Ex-
pression of (^-polynomials by theta functions . . . 276—282
189—191 General form of theta function. Fundamental formulae. Periodicity 283—286
192 Introduction of the f functions. Generalisation of an elliptic formula 287
193 Difference of two f functions expressed by algebraic integrals and
rational functions 288
194—196 Development. Expression of single f function by algebraic integrals 289—292
197, 198 Introduction of the 0> functions. Expression by rational functions 292—295

CHAPTER XI.

THE HYPERELLIPTIC CASE O F RIEMANN'S THETA FUNCTIONS.

199 Hyperelliptic case illustrates the general theory . . . . 296

200 -• The places ml,...,mp. T h e rule for half periods . . . 297, 298
201, 202 F u n d a m e n t a l set of characteristics defined by branch places . 299—301
x CONTENTS.

§§ PAGES
203 Notation. General theorems to be illustrated . . . . 302
204, 205 Tables in illustration of the general theory 303—309
206—213 Algebraic expression of quotients of hyperelliptic theta functions.
Solution of hyperelliptic inversion problem . . . . 309—317
214, 215 Single £ function expressed by algebraical integrals and rational
functions 318—323
216 Rational expression of (j? function. Relation to quotients of theta
functions. Solution of inversion problem by fp function . . 323—327
217- Rational expression of g> function 327—330
218—220 Algebraic deduction of addition equation for theta functions
when j o = 2 ; generalisation of t h e equation <r(u+v) a (u-v)
= O%.O-22>.(^-J?K) 330—337
221 Examples for t h e case p = % Gopel's biquadratic relation . . 337—342

CHAPTER XII.
A PARTICULAR FORM OF FUNDAMENTAL SURFACE.
222 Chapter introduced as a change of independent variable, and as
introducing a particular prime function . . . . 343
223—225 Definition of a group of substitutions; fundamental properties . 343—348
226, 227 Convergence of a series; functions associated with the group . 349—352
228—232 The fundamental functions. Comparison with foregoing theory
of this volume
233—235 Definition and periodicity of the Schottky prime function .
236, 237 Its connection with the theta functions
238 A further function connected therewith
239 The hyperelliptic case

CHAPTER XIII.
RADICAL FUNCTIONS.
240 Introductory . 374
241, 242 Expression of any radical function by Riemann's integrals, and
by theta functions
243 Radical functions are a generalisation of rational functions
244, 245 Characteristics of radical functions
246—249 Bitangents of a plane quartic curve
250, 251 Solution of the inversion problem by radical functions

CHAPTER XIV.

FACTORIAL FUNCTIONS.

252 Statement of results obtained. Notations

253 Necessary dissection of the Riemann surface . . . .
254 Definition of a factorial function (including radical function).
Primary and associated systems of factorial functions .
 CONTENTS. XI

§§ PAGES
255 Factorial integrals of the primary and associated systems . . 397, 398
256 Factorial integrals which are everywhere finite, save at the fixed
infinities. Introduction of the numbers or, o- + l . . . 399
257 When o-+l>0, there are <r+l everywhere finite factorial functions
of the associated system 400
258 Alternative investigation of everywhere finite factorial functions
of the associated system. Theory divisible according to the
values of a+1 and o-' + l 401, 402
259 Expression of these functions by everywhere finite integrals . 403
260 General consideration of the periods of the factorial integrals . 404
261, 262 Riemann-Roch theorem for factorial functions. When cr' + l=O,
least number of arbitrary poles for function of the primary
system is •ai' + l 405, 406
263 Construction of factorial function of the primary system with
•sr' + l arbitrary poles 406, 407
264, 265 Construction of a factorial integral having only poles. Least
number of such poles, for an integral of the primary system,
is O- + 2 407, 410
266 This factorial integral can be simplified, in analogy with Riemann's
elementary integral of the second kind 411
267 Expression of the factorial function with ta-' + 1 poles in terms of
the factorial integral with o- + 2 poles. The factorial function
in analogy with the function ^ {x, a; z, clt ..., cp). . . 411—413
268 The theory tested by examination of a very particular case . 413—419
269 The radical functions as a particular case of factorial functions 419, 420
270 Factorial functions whose factors are any constants, having no
essential singularities 421
271, 272 Investigation of a general formula connecting factorial functions
and theta functions 422—426
273 Introduction of the Schottky-Klein prime form, in a certain shape 427—430
274 Expression of a theta function in terms of radical functions, as
a particular case of § 272 430
275, 276 The formula of § 272 for the case of rational functions . . 431—433
277 The formula of § 272 applied to define algebraically the hyper-
elliptic theta function, and its theta characteristic . . 433—437
278 Expression of any factorial function by simple theta functions;
examples 437, 438
279 Connection of theory of factorial functions with theory of auto-
morphic forms 439—442

CHAPTER XV.

RELATIONS CONNECTING PRODUCTS OF THETA FUNCTIONS—INTRODUCTORY.

280 Plan of this and the two following chapters . . . . 443

281 A single-valued integral analytical function of p variables, which
is periodic in each variable alone, can be represented by a
series of exponentials 443—445
 CONTENTS.

§§ PAGES
282, 283 Proof that the 2* theta functions with half-integer character-
istics are linearly independent 446—447
284, 285 Definition of general theta function of order r; its linear expres-
sion by t*> theta functions. Any p+2 theta functions of
same order, periods, and characteristic connected by a homo-
geneous polynomial relation 447—455
286 Addition theorem for hyperelliptic theta functions, or for the
general case when p<i 456—461
286, 288 Number of linearly independent theta functions of order r which
are all of the same parity 461—464
289 Examples. The Gopel biquadratic relation 465—470

CHAPTER XVI.

A DIRECT METHOD OF OBTAINING THE EQUATIONS CONNECTING THETA

PRODUCTS.

290 Contents of this chapter 471

291 An addition theorem obtained by multiplying two theta functions. 471—474
292 An addition theorem obtained by multiplying four theta functions 474—477
293 The general formula obtained by multiplying any number of
theta functions 477—485

CHAPTER XVII.

THETA RELATIONS ASSOCIATED WITH CERTAIN GROUPS OF CHARACTERISTICS.

294 Abbreviations. Definition of syzygetic and azygetic. References

to literature (see also p. 296) 486, 487
295 A preliminary lemma 488
296 Determination of a Gopel group of characteristics . . . 489, 490
297 Determination of a G6pel system of characteristics . . . 490, 491
298, 299 Determination and number of GSpel systems of the same parity 492—494
300—303 Determination of a fundamental set of Gopel systems . . 494—501
304, 305 Statement of results obtained, with the simpler applications . 502—504
306—308 Number of linearly independent theta functions of the second
order of a particular kind. Explicit mention of an import-
ant identity 505—510
309—311 The most important formulae of the chapter. A general addi-
tion theorem. The |jp function expressed by quotients of
theta functions 510—516
312—317 Other applications of the principles of the chapter. The expres-
sion of a function $ (nv) as an integral polynomial of order
n2 in 2P functions ${v) 517—527
 CONTENTS. xm

CHAPTER XVIII.
TRANSFORMATION OF PERIODS, ESPECIALLY LINEAR TRANSFORMATION.
§§ PAGES
318 Bearings of the theory of transformation 528, 529
319—323 The general theory of the modification of the period loops on a
Riemann surface 529—534
324 Analytical theory of transformation of periods and characteristic
of a theta function 534—538
325 Convergence of the transformed function 538
326 Specialisation of the formulae, for linear transformation . . 539, 540
327 Transformation of theta characteristics ; of even characteristics;
of syzygetic characteristics 541, 542
328 Period characteristics and theta characteristics . . . . 543
329 Determination of a linear transformation to transform any even
characteristic into the zero characteristic . . . . 544, 545
330, 331 Linear transformation of two azygetic systems of theta charac-
teristics into one another 546—550
332 Composition of two transformations of different orders; supple-
mentary transformations 551, 552
333, 334 Formation of p + 2 elementary linear transformations by the
composition of which every linear transformation can be
formed; determination of the constant factors for each of
these 553—557
335 The constant factor for any linear transformation . . . 558, 559
336 Any linear transformation may be associated with a change of
the period loops, of a Riemann surface 560, 561
337, 338 Linear transformation of the places m^, ..., mp . . . . 562
339 Linear transformation of the characteristics of a radical function 563, 564
340 Determination of the places wij, ..., mp upon a Riemann surface
whose mode of dissection is assigned 565—567
341 Linear transformation of quotients of hyperelliptic theta functions 568
342 A convenient form of the period loops in a special hyperelliptic
case. Weierstrass's number notation for half-integer charac-
teristics 569, 570

CHAPTER XIX.

ON SYSTEMS OF PERIODS AND ON GENERAL JACOBIAN FUNCTIONS.

343 Scope of this chapter 571

344—350 Columns of periods. Exclusion of infinitesimal periods. Expres-
sion of all period columns by a finite number of columns,
with integer coefficients 571—579
351—356 Definition of general Jacobian function, and comparison with
theta function 579—588
357—362 Expression of Jacobian function by means of theta functions.
Any p + 2 Jacobian functions of same periods and parameter
connected by a homogeneous polynomial relation . . 588—598
 CONTENTS.

CHAPTER XX.

TRANSFORMATION OF THETA FUNCTIONS.

§§ PAGES
363 Sketch of the results obtained. References to the literature . 599, 600
364, 365 Elementary theory of transformation of second order . . . 600—606
366, 367 Investigation of a general formula preliminary to transformation
of odd order 607—610
368, 369 The general theorem for transformation of odd order . . . 611—616
370 The general treatment of transformation of the second order . 617—619
371 The two steps in the determination of the constant coefficients 619
372 The first step in the determination of the constant coefficients 619—622
373 Remarks and examples in regard to the second step . . . 622—624
374 Transformation of periods when the coefficients are not integral 624—628
375 Reference to the algebraical applications of the theory . . 628

CHAPTER XXI.

C O M P L E X MULTIPLICATION O F THETA FUNCTIONS. CORRESPONDENCE

OF POINTS ON A RLEMANN SURFACE.

376 Scope of the chapter 629

377, 378 Necessary conditions for a complex multiplication, or special
transformation, of theta functions 629—632
379—382 Proof, in one case, that these conditions are sufficient . . 632—636
383 Example of the elliptic case 636—639
384 Meaning of an (r, a) correspondence on a Riemann surface . 639, 640
385 Equations necessary for the existence of such a correspondence 640—642
386 Algebraic determination of a correspondence existing on a per-
fectly general Riemann surface 642—645
387 The coincidences. Examples of the inflections and bitangents of
a plane curve 645—648
388 Conditions for a (1, s) correspondence on a special Riemann surface 648, 649
389 When p>l a (1, 1) correspondence is necessarily periodic . . 649, 650
390 And involves a special form of fundamental equation . . 651
391—393 When p>l there cannot be an infinite number of (1, 1) corre-
spondences 652—654
394 Example of the case p = l 654—656

CHAPTER XXII.

D E G E N E R A T E A B E L I A N INTEGRALS.

395 Example of the property to be considered 657

396 Weierstrass's theorem. The property involves a transformation
leading to a theta function which breaks into factors . . 657, 658
 CONTENTS. XV

§§ PAGES
3i)7 Weierstrass's and Picard's theorem. The property involves a
linear transformation leading to T^2 = l/r 658, 659
31)8 Existence of one degenerate integral involves another Q» = 2) . 659
39(J, 400 Connection with theory of special transformation, when p = 2 . 660, 661
401—403 Determination of necessary form of fundamental equation.
References 661—663

APPENDIX 1.

ON ALGEBRAIC CURVES IN SPACE.

404 Formal proof that an algebraic curve in space is an interpreta-

tion of the relations connecting three rational functions on
a Riemann surface (cf. § 162) 664, 665

APPENDIX II.

O N MATRICES.

405—410 Introductory explanations 666—669

411—415 Decomposition of an Abeliau matrix into simpler ones . . 669—674
416 A particular result 674
417, 418 Lemmas 675
419, 420 Proof of results assumed in §§ 396, 397 675, 676

INDEX OF AUTHORS QUOTED 677, 678

TABLE OF SOME FUNCTIONAL SYMBOLS . . . 679
SUBJECT INDEX 680—684