Energies 10 01774 PDF
Energies 10 01774 PDF
Article
Energy‐Saving Benefits of Adiabatic Humidification
in the Air Conditioning Systems of Semiconductor
Cleanrooms
Min‐Suk Jo, Jang‐Hoon Shin, Won‐Jun Kim and Jae‐Weon Jeong *
Department of Architectural Engineering, College of Engineering, Hanyang University,
222 Wangsimni‐Ro, Seongdong‐Gu, Seoul 04763, Korea; fiyhix@hanyang.ac.kr (M.‐S.J.);
wkdgnsk1228@gmail.com (J.‐H.S.); wuwtc@naver.com (W.‐J.K.)
* Correspondence: jjwarc@hanyang.ac.kr; Tel.: +82‐2‐2220‐2370
Received: 5 October 2017; Accepted: 1 November 2017; Published: 3 November 2017
Abstract: This paper aimed to evaluate the applicability of adiabatic humidification in the heating,
ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems of semiconductor cleanrooms. Accurate
temperature and humidity control are essential in semiconductor cleanrooms and high energy
consumption steam humidification is commonly used. Therefore, we propose an adiabatic
humidification system employing a pressurized water atomizer to reduce the energy consumption.
The annual energy consumption of three different HVAC systems were analyzed to evaluate the
applicability of adiabatic humidification. The studied cases were as follows: (1) CASE 1: a make‐up
air unit (MAU) with a steam humidifier, a dry cooling coil (DCC), and a fan filter unit (FFU); (2)
CASE 2: a MAU with the pressurized water atomizer, a DCC, and a FFU; and (3) CASE 3: a MAU,
a DCC, and a FFU, and the pressurized water atomizer installed in the return duct. The energy
saving potential of adiabatic humidification over steam humidification has been proved, with
savings of 8% and 23% in CASE 2 and CASE 3 compared to CASE 1, respectively. Furthermore, the
pressurized water atomizer installed in the return duct exhibits greater energy saving effect than
when installed in the MAU.
Keywords: semiconductor cleanroom; make‐up air unit; pressurized water atomizer; adiabatic
humidification; energy conservation
1. Introduction
Cleanrooms are special spaces that maintain the controlled environments required for the
manufacture of certain products [1]. In most cleanrooms, ISO standards for cleanliness are applied
depending, on the size of the particles that affect the products [2]. To maintain a specified cleanliness
level, the concentration of airborne particles and microorganisms in the air are controlled to within a
target set‐point. In addition, cleanrooms require precise control of environmental conditions such as
temperature, humidity, and pressure, depending on the production requirements of the particular
products [3,4].
In large‐scale industrial cleanrooms that have high energy demands, such as semiconductor
fabrication plants, a large amount of outdoor air is introduced into the cleanroom to maintain
cleanliness and a positive pressure [5]. As shown in Figure 1, generally, the energy consumed in the
facility systems (e.g., air conditioning system, nitrogen plant, lighting and water treatment
components) is approximately 60% of the total energy consumption in semiconductor cleanrooms
and the rest is used by the tools for making semiconductor products [6].
Energies 2017, 10, 1774; doi:10.3390/en10111774 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies
Energies 2017, 10, 1774 2 of 23
Figure 1. Average energy consumption allocation of semiconductor cleanrooms [6].
Maintaining a constant environment at 23 °C and 45% relative humidity throughout the year, 24
h a day, is essential in cleanrooms because semiconductors are very sensitive to electrostatic
problems. In addition, due to the high heating load generated by the manufacturing tools and fans,
the energy consumption of HVAC systems such as chilled water systems, make‐up air systems,
exhaust air systems, process cooling water systems and ultra‐pure water systems is very large. As a
result, the cooling capacities of HVAC systems in semiconductor cleanrooms are much larger than
those of common commercial buildings [5]. Therefore, according to the Semiconductor Equipment
and Materials International (SEMI) website [7], the energy conservation of HVAC systems for
semiconductor cleanrooms is one of the top priorities in the semiconductor industry.
Much research on energy savings for HVAC systems applied in semiconductor cleanrooms has
been conducted. Brown [8] confirmed the energy‐saving effects of an energy recovery method
applied in the MAU for five climatic conditions. Hu and Tsao [9] compared the energy performance
of five HVAC systems in semiconductor cleanrooms and found that the HVAC system that consisted
of a FFU, a DCC, and a MAU consumed the least energy as compared to the other HVAC systems.
Tsao and Hu [10] analyzed the energy consumption of systems of various component arrangements
such as cooling coil, heating coil, preheating coil and fan in the MAU. Suzuki et al. [11] improved the
cooling performance of MAUs in high‐tech fabrication plants by increasing the condensation
efficiency of the cooling coil resulting in a 3% energy saving compared with conventional MAUs. Lin
and Hu [12] suggested a Fan Dry Coil Unit (FDCU) system that has a higher particle removal
efficiency and a low energy consumption rate as compared to existing HVAC systems. Hunt et al.
[13] investigated the effects of fan efficiency on the overall operational cost of cleanrooms. Hu et al.
[14] compared the performance and energy consumption of cleanrooms with axial fans and FFUs
using computational fluid dynamics.
Most of the previous studies were conducted with a focus on reducing the energy consumption
of HVAC systems in semiconductor cleanrooms by improving the cooling performance of the MAU
as well as the fan efficiency. When the outdoor air is very dry and cold in the winter, conventional
HVAC systems may use steam as the humidification method to maintain the humidity of the
cleanroom constant. However, using steam is energy intensive due to the large amount of energy
required to generate the steam [15]. In contrast to the conventional humidification method using
steam, adiabatic humidification methods using water are a suitable alternative. In addition, like direct
evaporative coolers, adiabatic humidification methods using water have an additional cooling effect
due to evaporation. A variety of applications of adiabatic humidification have been used to control
the temperature and humidity in the environment [16]. Evaluations of the applicability of adiabatic
Energies 2017, 10, 1774 3 of 23
humidification in greenhouses, indoor poultry farms, and textile‐spinning mills have also been
conducted [17–29]. However, few studies has been conducted on the applicability of adiabatic
humidification in semiconductor cleanrooms. Recent studies on humidification methods for
cleanrooms are as follows: Tsao and Hu [20] compared the pump and fan energy requirements of
four different humidification methods in the MAU, including wet media, direct water atomization,
steam and two‐phase flow. According to the simulation results, direct water atomization was the
most suitable method to be applied in the MAU because the pump energy required was lower than
that of other humidification methods. In addition, this method had a smaller required installation
area. Chen et al. [21] also demonstrated the feasibility and energy saving effects of two adiabatic
humidification methods—one using a high‐pressure water atomizer and the other using two fluids—
through experiment and simulation of adiabatic humidification methods applied in the return duct
and MAU for semiconductor cleanrooms. According to the results, adiabatic humidification systems
exhibited a 75% reduction in energy consumption as compared to conventional humidification
methods using steam. The high‐pressure water atomizer consumed less energy as compared to
humidification systems using two fluids. Also the results of experiment showed that adiabatic
humidification systems using the high‐pressure water atomizer kept the cleanroom at target relative
humidity level within ±5%. Therefore, adiabatic humidification systems maintained the stable
relative humidity level in semiconductor cleanrooms.
However, in the previous studies, only conveyance energy which was consumed for
humidifying the process air was estimated, such as for a fan and pump, instead of the total operating
energy consumption of the air conditioning systems. Furthermore, none of the above studies
presented a theoretical estimation of the annual energy consumption of total HVAC systems and
evaporative cooling effect of adiabatic humidification in semiconductor cleanrooms in terms of the
various humidification methods. Therefore, in this paper, with the aim of reducing the humidification
energy requirements and maintaining stable humidity levels in cleanrooms, an adiabatic
humidification method is proposed as an alternative to conventional steam humidifiers. To evaluate
the applicability of the adiabatic humidification method in HVAC system for semiconductor
cleanrooms, the annual operating energy consumption and processes of three HVAC systems using
different humidification methods were compared and analyzed as case studies.
2. Humidification Methods
There are two typical methods for humidification: isothermal and adiabatic. These methods are
the most commonly used in commercial and industrial humidification for maintaining set‐point
humidity levels in their operating zones [22]. Isothermal humidification, which generates steam
vapor from external energy, injects steam directly into the air. In adiabatic humidification, the air is
in direct contact with water, which is not heated. Table 1, which is an extract from the ASHRAE
(American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air‐Conditioning Engineers) handbook [23], shows
various systems for each humidification method. Isothermal humidification methods can be
classified according to the heat exchanging method and the external energy used to produce the
steam vapor, as shown in Table 1. Adiabatic humidification is divided into atomization and
evaporation methods. In the evaporation method, the air is humidified as it passes through the
wetted media. In the atomization method, the water as the form of mist is physically atomized into
the air. Atomizers are classified into four types: ultrasonic, centrifugal, pressurized‐water, and
compressed air atomizers.
In the case of isothermal humidification using water vapor, the humidification process exhibits
an almost vertical line on the psychrometric diagram. However, in adiabatic humidification, the air
is humidified till the saturation curve along the isenthalpic line or the wet bulb temperature line [15].
In addition, in this process, the air is humidified and cooled simultaneously through evaporative
cooling. A diagram of the psychrometric process for both methods is shown in Figure 2. To humidify
the air to the set‐point condition, the air follows the path from D to C for adiabatic humidification
and from B to C for isothermal humidification. As seen in Figure 2, the air is to be heated by external
Energies 2017, 10, 1774 4 of 23
energy before humidification for both isothermal and adiabatic humidification from A to B and from
A to D, respectively.
Table 1. Humidification methods and systems [23].
Isothermal Humidification Adiabatic Humidification
Steam heat exchanger
Hot‐water heat exchanger Ultrasonic atomizer
Direct‐injection steam Centrifugal atomizer
Atomization
Electrode steam Pressurized‐water atomizer
Electric resistance steam Compressed air atomizer
GAS‐fired steam
Electric infrared steam Evaporation Wetted media
Figure 2. Isothermal and adiabatic humidification processes.
In semiconductor cleanrooms, suitable humidification and dehumidification are necessary to
prevent electrostatic problems for the semiconductor products. Generally, when supplying outdoor
air to the cleanroom for ventilation, a MAU humidifies or dehumidifies the air depending on the
outdoor air to maintain the set‐point humidity of the cleanroom [10]. For humidification of
cleanroom, ultra‐purified water (UWP) would be ideal for avoiding pollution in cleanrooms.
However, electrode‐type steam humidifiers cannot be applied in the cleanroom as isothermal
humidification due to very‐low conductivity of UWP [20]. Instead, in semiconductor cleanrooms,
direct‐injection steam humidifiers that use steam from a boiler are commonly used. Meanwhile, when
applying adiabatic humidification to HVAC systems of semiconductor cleanrooms, the size of the
water droplets (e.g., 5–50 μm) and the ability to meet the humidification demands are essential for
precise humidity control [15,21,24]. However, evaporative adiabatic humidification methods using
wetted media, centrifugal, and ultrasonic humidification methods are not suitable for large spaces
such as semiconductor cleanrooms because either the size of the water droplets sprayed by those
systems is too large or the humidification capacity of the system is not sufficient [20,24]. Therefore,
among the adiabatic humidification methods, the pressurized water and compressed air atomizers
using a nozzle are the most suitable for maintaining the humidity in semiconductor cleanrooms.
According to previous research [20,21], compressed air atomizers are considered to be unsuitable for
cleanroom application because of the large amount of energy consumed for humidification compared
to the pressurized water atomizer. Therefore, in this study, to evaluate the applicability of adiabatic
humidification in cleanroom HVAC systems, the pressurized water atomizer and the direct‐injection
steam humidifier are employed.
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3. Case Description and Overview
3.1. Cleanroom Design
The thermal load of a semiconductor cleanroom is simulated to analyze and compare the total
operating energy consumption of the HVAC system applied depending on the humidification
method employed. A large cooling load is generated over the entire year due to the large amount of
heat generated from the production equipment and fans [25]. The properties of the semiconductor
fab are assumed based on the research of Hu et al. [9] because the cleanroom operating parameters
are different according to manufacturing process. Additionally, the semiconductor fab is assumed to
be located in Seoul, Korea, and is simulated with Seoul weather data of the International Weather for
Energy Calculations (IWEC) files [26] offered by ASHRAE. In this paper, the HVAC system is one
consisting of an MAU, DCC, and FFU, which is known as an energy conservative system [6,12]. A
draw‐through type MAU adjusts the outdoor air conditions to maintain the set‐point conditions of
the fab. Then the supply air coming from the MAU is mixed with the indoor recirculated air in the
return duct. The mixture is cooled by the DCC in order to meet the cooling load demand of the fab.
In addition, the FFU has a high efficiency filter function that keeps the air flowing in a constant
direction to minimize the recirculation of dust particles generated in the indoor. Table 2 lists the
properties of the semiconductor fab simulated in this study.
Table 2. Properties of the semiconductor cleanroom.
Description Value
Cleanroom area 11,182 m2
Ceiling high of cleanroom 3.5 m
23 °C DB (dry bulb),
Indoor air condition
RH = 45% (relative humidity)
Occupancy 500
Product 200 mm DRAM
Process tool power 7367 kW
Make‐up air flow rate 1,000,000 m3/h
Recirculation airflow rate 6,543,000 m3/h
Exhaust airflow rate 9,239,440 m3/h
3.2. Steam Humidification in the HVAC System (CASE 1: Base Reference Case)
Direct‐injection steam humidifiers are the most commonly used method for humidification in
semiconductor cleanrooms. CASE 1, which is considered as a reference case in this research, consists
of an HVAC system with a direct‐injection steam humidifier installed in the MAU. As shown in
Figure 3, the MAU consists of a preheating coil, cooling coil, heating coil and direct‐injection steam
humidifier in series with the DCC and FFU installed in the return duct. Additionally, a boiler and
pump are needed to generate and supply the steam and hot water for each direct‐injection steam
humidifier and preheating coil. Chillers supplying low temperature chilled water (at 6 °C) to the
cooling coil in the MAU and high temperature chilled water (at 14 °C) to the DCC are used in CASE
1. It is assumed that 10 MAUs capable of supplying a 100,000 m3/h airflow and a total of 7270 FFUs
capable of supplying a 900 m3/h airflow are used to maintain the set‐point condition of the
semiconductor cleanroom [9].
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Figure 3. CASE 1: MAU with a direct‐injection steam humidifier, DCC, and FFU.
3.3. Adiabatic Humidification in the HVAC System (CASE 2: Pressurized Water Atomizer in the MAU)
For CASE 2, the direct‐injection steam humidifier in CASE 1 is substituted by a pressurized
water atomizer for the adiabatic humidification method (Figure 4). According to the research of
Chaker et al. [27], pressurized water atomizers are composed of a high‐pressure pump and pin nozzle
for humidification. The water is ejected from the orifice at a high velocity using a high‐pressure pump
that then collides with the pin nozzle resulting in the water being atomized into the air as a thin
conical sheet of water [28]. Also, when used in the MAU, the pressurized water atomizer injects the
water in the form of fine water droplets (of 10 μm diameters) into the air because the droplets must
evaporate before passing through the fan of MAU [9]. The pressurized water atomizer does not need
the boiler for generating the steam vapor when humidifying the air to achieve same humidification
performance of the system used in CASE 1 [21]. Figure 4 shows the configuration of the HVAC system
for CASE 2. The components of the MAU for CASE 2 are arranged in the following order: first is the
preheating coil followed by the cooling coil, heating coil, and pressurized water atomizer. To
humidify the air while simultaneously preventing dehumidification by the cooling coil, the
pressurized water atomizer is placed towards the downstream end in the MAU (i.e., after the cooling
coil). Additionally, an eliminator is required in the MAU to prevent the water from scattering. Like
CASE 1, a boiler for supplying hot water to preheating coil is required for humidification. Low and
high temperature chillers are used to supply chilled water (at 6 °C and 14 °C, respectively) to the
cooling coil and DCC, which are installed in the return duct, for dehumidification and sensible
cooling, respectively. There are 10 MAUs and a set of 7270 FFUs, with each unit having an airflow
capacity of 100,000 m3/h and 900 m3/h, respectively.
Figure 4. CASE 2: MAU with a pressurized water atomizer, DCC, and FFU.
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3.4. Adiabatic Humidification in the HVAC System (CASE 3: Pressurized Water Atomizer in the Return Duct)
In CASE 3, to humidify the air, the pressurized water atomizer is installed in the return duct
(Figure 5). The size of the water droplets and evaporation time (t) are important because complete
evaporation of the water droplets is necessary before entering the FFU. In CASE 2 with the
pressurized water atomizer installed in the MAU, the time required for evaporation is very short
resulting in the water being sprayed as very fine water droplets (i.e., having diameters of 10 μm).
However, CASE 3 allows for larger droplet sizes because of the longer evaporation time available for
humidification. The evaporation time (t) with respect to the diameter of the water droplet ( ) for
complete evaporation is calculated by Equation (1) using the temperature ( ) and vapor pressure ( )
of the airstream [29]. Also, given a diffusion coefficient ( ) of 0.22 m2/s at a water droplet
temperature of 0 °C, the diffusion coefficient of the water droplet required to calculate the
evaporation time is estimated by Equation (2).
(1)
8
.
(2)
when the pressurized water atomizer is installed in the return duct, the required size of sprayed water
droplet is 40 μm, assuming that the distance from the nozzle of the pressurized water atomizer to the
FFU is 6 m and that the air velocity in the return duct is 3 m/s. In addition, it is confirmed that the
pressurized water atomizer has the same performance as in CASE 2 regardless of the DCC position
[21]. Therefore, in CASE 3, the pressurized water atomizer is assumed to be installed before the DCC
in the return duct in order to reduce the load on the DCC by evaporative cooling. An eliminator is
installed before the DCC to prevent water scattering when using a pressurized water atomizer
system.
Figure 5. CASE 3: MAU with DCC and FFU with the water atomizer installed in the return duct.
3.5. Operating Mode of Each Case
The operating mode of the three cleanroom HVAC systems differ from case to case. Each case
has three operating modes depending on the outdoor air conditions (Figures 6–8). Using a
psychrometric chart, the operating modes are divided with respect to the regions requiring
dehumidification (Region A) and humidification (Regions B and C). In Region A, the humidity of the
outdoor air is higher than the set‐point humidity of the supply air (i.e., the set‐point humidity of the
cleanroom). The three cases operate in the same process using the cooling coil and electric heating
coil for dehumidifying and reheating in Region A. On the other hand, when the humidification of the
outdoor air is required for ventilation, each case has a different operating process due to the
Energies 2017, 10, 1774 8 of 23
humidification method and the position of the humidifier (i.e., Regions B and C). Table 3 presents the
supply air conditions in the MAU. The operating processes of each case are as follows:
Region A: In Region A, with hot and humid air, all cases operate identically. Thus, the cooling
and heating coils are used to dehumidify the outdoor air up to a supply humidity set‐point
without operating the humidifier. Therefore, the air after passing through the MAU has a
temperature of 12 °C and a relative humidity of 90%. The supplied air through the MAU and the
indoor recirculated air are mixed in the return duct and then sensibly cooled by the DCC to meet
the cooling load of the cleanroom. Finally, the cooled air after being treated by the DCC is
supplied to the cleanroom by the FFU.
Region B: In Region B, a humidification device is required in order to humidify the outdoor air
up to the set‐point humidity ratio. In CASE 1, the air is cooled or heated by cooling or heating
coils to maintain the set‐point supply air conditions (12 °C DB, 90% RH) because the
humidification process using the steam humidifier is an isothermal process, as shown in the
psychrometric chart in Figure 6a. The air is passed through the MAU and treated using the DCC.
The air is then supplied to the clean room by the FFU similar to as in the Region A operation. As
shown in Figures 7b and 8b, CASE 2 and CASE 3 uses the pressurized water atomizer in the
MAU and return duct, respectively, for humidification instead of a direct‐injection steam
humidifier. In the psychrometric chart, the humidification process is an adiabatic process, the
process through the pressurized water atomizer follows a constant wet‐bulb temperature line.
In CASE 2, the supply air temperature is not constant at the set‐point values due to pressurized
water atomizer being installed downstream of the MAU. Therefore, depending on the amount
of water required for humidification, the cooled air from the evaporative cooling process is
mixed with the recirculated air in the return duct and then sensibly cooled by the DCC in order
to meet the cooling load of the cleanroom. However, in CASE 3, since the MAU does not have a
humidifier, the MAU only controls the air temperature supplied to it from the return duct. The
air supplied from the MAU mixes with the recirculated air in the return duct while the
pressurized water atomizer operates to maintain the set‐point humidity ratio of the cleanroom.
If the cooling effect on the air due to the adiabatic humidification cannot meet the indoor cooling
load, the DCC will activate to maintain the set‐point temperature of the cleanroom (Figure 8b).
Region C: During the winter season, the outdoor air is very dry and cold. Therefore, to humidify
the process air to the set‐point humidity condition, it is necessary to heat the outdoor air using
a preheating coil before passing it through the humidifier. In CASE 1, it is necessary to preheat
the outdoor air with a heating coil up to the dew point temperature (10.3 °C) of the supply air
set‐point. Therefore, the outdoor air is first heated to the dew point temperature of the cleanroom
by the preheating coil and then humidified by the direct‐injection steam humidifier in the MAU.
Then, the air is supplied to the cleanroom through the DCC and FFU in order to maintain the
set‐point environment of the cleanroom. In CASE 2, which uses a pressurized water atomizer
installed in the MAU, the preheating coil activates once the temperature of the outdoor air was
too low. When humidifying using a pressurized water atomizer, more preheating coil load is
generated than in CASE 1 because the air is humidified along the wet bulb temperature line of
the humidifier line in the psychometric chart. The air supplied from the MAU is mixed with the
recirculation air in the return duct and the DCC operates depending on the cooling load of the
cleanroom. Finally, the pressurized water atomizer is installed upstream of the DCC in the
return duct such that only the MAU controls the temperature of the process air in order to meet
the MAU set‐point temperature, just as in CASE 1. As a result, the preheating load is identical
to that in CASE 1 because the recirculation air is mixed with the air supplied from the MAU in
the return duct. Then the pressurized water atomizer installed upstream of the DCC activates to
humidify the air supplied to the cleanroom in order to maintain the set‐point humidity ratio of
the cleanroom. When operating the pressurized water atomizer, the air temperature is decreased
by the cooling effect of the adiabatic humidification. If the resulting evaporative cooled air
cannot meet the cooling load of the cleanroom, the DCC then activates.
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Table 3. Supply air conditions of the MAU according to the proposed cases.
Supply Air Condition
CASE Region
Temperature Humidity Ratio Relative Humidity
A
7.861 g/kg (set‐point
CASE 1 B 12 °C 90%
humidity ratio)
C
A 12 °C 90%
CASE 2 B ‐ 7.861 g/kg ‐
C 10.4 °C 100%
A 7.861 g/kg 90%
CASE 3 B 12 °C Outdoor air ‐
C Outdoor air ‐
(a)
(b)
Figure 6. Operating modes for CASE 1. (a) Operating mode of CASE 1; (b) Operating process of
the HVAC system in CASE 1.
Energies 2017, 10, 1774 10 of 23
(a)
(b)
Figure 7. Operating modes for CASE 2. (a) Operating mode of CASE 2; (b) Operating process of the
HVAC system in CASE 2.
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(a)
(b)
Figure 8. Operating modes for CASE 3. (a) Operating mode of CASE 3; (b) Operating process of the
HVAC system in CASE 3.
4. Simulation Methodology
4.1. Cleanroom Load Calculation
Table 4 shows the detailed operating conditions of an actual semiconductor cleanroom in
operation as well as the calculation method used to determine the cooling load of the cleanroom [9].
Since the latent load of the cleanroom is very small compared to the sensible load, the latent heat
loads are generally not considered in the cooling load of the cleanroom (i.e., SHF 100%, (sensible
heat factor)). As shown in Equation (3), the cooling load of the cleanroom is influenced by lighting,
occupancy, the environment surrounding the cleanroom, the heat generated by the FFU, and the
equipment that are operating 24 h a day. Additionally, the cooling effects of the process cooling water
(PCW) and the polluted exhaust air generated in the semiconductor manufacturing process are
considered as adding to the cooling load. Equation (4) shows the DCC load that is calculated by taking
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into account the cooling load of the cleanroom and cooling effect of the air supplied to the cleanroom
from the MAU:
(3)
(4)
Table 4. Factors affecting the load of the semiconductor cleanroom.
4.2. MAU Load Calculation
The load of the MAU is divided into three parts; the preheating, cooling, and heating coil loads.
The airflow rate ( ) is assumed as a steady‐state condition to estimate coil load. Therefore, the
energy balance of each coil is written as per Equation (5). The load at each coil is calculated according
to ∆ , which is the enthalpy difference between the inlet and outlet sides of the air, as well as the air
flow rate of the MAU. Also, the humidification or dehumidification rate ( ) is calculated as per
Equation (6). These values are determined using the humidity ratio difference (∆ ) between the air
entering the humidifier and the set‐point humidity ratio as well as the airflow rate through the
humidifier.
∆ (5)
∆ (6)
4.3. Humidification System
The humidification methods used in this study are a pressurized water atomizer and a direct‐
injection steam humidifier. These methods control the humidity of the cleanroom by humidifying the
air according to the humidification rate obtained from Equation (6).
The required amount of water ( ) with the direct‐injection steam humidifier is
calculated by dividing amount of humidification estimated with Equation (6) by the humidification
efficiency ( . ), as shown in Equation (7) [22]. The load of the gas‐fired boiler ( )
needed for producing the required steam can be expressed by Equation (8) using the change in
temperature and the latent heat of vaporization of water. Therefore, the energy consumption for
producing steam with the gas‐fired boiler is calculated using Equations (9)–(11) using the part load
ratio (PLR) of the steam boiler and the efficiency ( . ) [31]. To inject the steam generated
from the gas‐fired boiler into the air using the manifold, the feed water (e.g., ultra‐pure water (UPW))
is supplied to the gas‐fired boiler at the proper pressure (i.e., 1.2 MPa) from the feed tank [20].
Therefore, the energy consumption of the feed water pump ( ), which supplies the feed water to
the gas‐fired boiler, is calculated using Equation (8). Table 5 shows the operating scheme of the
humidification method.
(7)
.
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. . . (8)
(9)
. . (10)
(11)
.
∆
(12)
In this study, the pressurized water atomizer uses an impaction pin nozzle with a diameter of
about 0.152 mm and a high‐pressure pump [28]. To calculate the necessary water consumption rate
for humidification in the water atomizer ( ), the amount of water required in CASE 2
and 3 are calculated by dividing Equation (6) by the humidification efficiency of the pressurized
water atomizer ( . ), as shown in Equation (13) [22]. CASE 2, which uses a pressurized water
atomizer installed in the MAU, requires very small water droplets. In this case, the size of the water
droplet to be sprayed with the pressurized water atomizer located inside the MAU is 10 μm in
diameter [20]. To achieve this size, an injection pressure of 21 MPa is set in the high‐pressure pump,
per nozzle, when the air is humidified by using a water atomizer with a pin nozzle [28]. On the other
hand, the size of the water droplet required in CASE 3 where the water atomizer is installed in the
return duct is calculated to be 40 μm using Equations (1) and (2). In addition, an injection pressure of
7 MPa in the high‐pressure pump per nozzle is required for a droplet size of 40 μm [21,28]. To control
the amount of the water required for humidification, the number of nozzles operating in accordance
with the humidification quantity is controlled as on‐off. The operating energy of the high‐pressure
pump in the pressurized water atomizer is estimated using the pressure drop of the circulating water
from the water tank to the pin nozzle (∆ ), the pressure drop required from the pin nozzle (∆ ),
total water flow rate for humidification ( ), and the efficiency of the high‐pressure pump ( ),
as shown in Equations (13)–(15):
(13)
.
∆ ∆
(14)
(15)
Table 5. Scheme of the direct‐injection steam humidifier and pressurized water atomizer.
Direct‐Injection Pressurized
Description
Steam Humidifier Water Atomizer
Inlet water temperature 20 °C 20 °C
Outlet water or steam temperature (coefficient of performance) 120 °C 20 °C
Efficiency of pump 80% 80%
Efficiency of Humidification 90% [32] 75% [24]
Head of the water from the water tank 25 m [9] 25 m [9]
4.4. Analysis of Remaining System Components
A chiller and boiler are used to handle loads of the DCC ( ), cooling coil ( ), and preheating
coil ( ) as per Equation (5). An electric heating coil is used in this simulation to represent the load
Energies 2017, 10, 1774 14 of 23
of the heating coil, ( ). To calculate the chiller energy consumption, a low temperature chiller
model is used for cooling and dehumidifying in the cooling coil and a high temperature chiller model
is used for sensible cooling in the DCC, as per DOE‐2.1 (from the Department Of Energy) provided
by Energy Plus [31]. Equations (16)–(18) describe three performance curves, cooling capacity function
of the temperature curve (CAPFT), energy input to the cooling output ratio function of the
temperature curve (EIRFT), and energy input to the cooling output ratio function of the part load
ratio curve (EIRFPLR), which are used to calculate the energy consumption of chillers. CAPFT
(Equation (16)) and EIRFT (Equation (17)) represent the maximum cooling capacity and the full‐load
efficiency of the chiller with respect to the temperatures of the evaporator and the condenser,
respectively. The part‐load efficiency of the chiller is expressed with EIRFPLR (Equation (18)). The
part load ratio (PLR) and power input of the chiller is calculated with Equations (19) and (20),
respectively. Table 6 shows the low and high temperature chiller operating scheme [9]:
CAPFT 1.052729 0.037507 0.0002294 0.003213844
(16)
0.0001016 0.0005399
PLR (19)
∙ CAPFT
(21)
. . (22)
(23)
.
(24)
The energy consumed by the fans in the MAU and FFU are determined using Equations (25) and
(26) with the constant volume flow rate of the air ( , ), pressure drops (∆ , ∆ ), and
fan efficiencies ( = 0.8, = 0.8). The pump energy needed to supply the chilled and hot water
is determined using Equation (27) with the volume flow rate of the water ( ) and the pressure
drop (∆ ) and the efficiency ( ) of the pump. Table 8 shows the efficiency of fan as well as
the pressure drop for the each component in this simulation:
∆
(25)
Energies 2017, 10, 1774 15 of 23
∆
(26)
∆
(27)
Table 6. The specification for the chiller scheme.
Table 7. The specification for the boiler scheme.
Description Parameter
Type Condensing boiler
Efficiency 90% [33]
Temperature of the hot water supply 55 °C
Temperature of the hot water return 50 °C
Efficiency of the hot water pump 80%
Head of the hot water pump 20 m [9]
Table 8. The specification for the fan and FFU scheme [9].
Component Pressure Drop
Pre‐filter 150 Pa
Medium filter 200 Pa
Final filter (High efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filter) 330 Pa
Coil 250 Pa
Eliminator 80 Pa [34]
Return duct and DCC 80 Pa
5. Simulation Results and Discussion
5.1. Cleanroom Load Simulation
The cooling load of the semiconductor cleanroom is simulated using a transient system
simulation tool (TRNSYS 17) [35] and the energy consumption of different HVAC systems in
operation are evaluated using a commercial engineering equation solver (EES) [36]. Figure 9 shows
the annual cooling load of the cleanroom according to Seoul weather data from IWEC. Due to the
large heating load generated by the equipment and fan, the HVAC system operates for treating the
cooling load all year round to maintain the set‐point air condition in the cleanroom. In Figure 9, the
black lines represent the total cooling load of the cleanroom while the blue lines represent the cooling
load of that considering the cooling effects of the exhaust air and the PCW. According to the results,
and considering the cooling effects of the exhaust air and the PCW, the cooling load of the
semiconductor cleanroom is reduced by about 50%, resulting in a load similar to that expressed by
the blue line.
Energies 2017, 10, 1774 16 of 23
Figure 9. The cooling load of the cleanroom.
5.2. Comparison of the Case Loads
Figures 10 and 11 show the annual operating load in the MAUs and in the overall HVAC system.
The operating load of each MAU is sub‐divided by the loads on the cooling, preheating, electric
heating coils as well as by the steam load for humidification.
The cooling coil operates when the outdoor air needs to be dehumidified and cooled (i.e.,
Regions A and B). When the outdoor air conditions are included in Region A, the cooling coil load
for all three cases is identical. For CASE 2, if the outdoor air conditions are included in Region B, only
the pressurized water atomizer installed downstream of MAU operates in humidification without
operating the cooling coil. Therefore, the cooling coil load in CASE 2 is decreased by 7% as compared
to other cases.
The electric heating coil is used to prevent the overcooling of the air when dehumidifying the
outdoor air with the cooling coil. For that reason, the coil only operates in Region A. Therefore, the
load on the electric heating coil is identical for all cases due to operating processes of the three cases
being equivalent.
On the other hand, the steam humidification load generated in CASE 1 with the direct‐injection
steam humidifier is not present in CASE 2 and 3, which uses a pressurized water atomizer Therefore,
in CASE 1 exhibits the highest steam load of all the cases for humidification.
If the outdoor air conditions are included in Region C, the preheating coil load is equivalent for
CASE 1 and CASE 3 because the MAU operation is identical. However, in CASE 2, the outdoor air is
heated to a higher temperature than that of CASE 1 due to the characteristics of adiabatic
humidification (Figure 7). Therefore, the preheating coil load of CASE 2 is increased by 54% as
compared to the other cases. Among all the loads, with the exception of the cooling coil load, the
steam generation load is the highest in CASE 1 due to the direct‐injection steam humidifier and the
preheating coil load is the highest in CASE 2 where adiabatic humidification is employed.
HVAC system loads according to the different cases are shown in Figure 11. CASE 1 and CASE
3 show the largest and smallest load in the MAU, respectively. In regard to the DCC load, due to the
evaporative cooling effect of adiabatic humidification, CASE 2 and CASE 3 exhibit a decrease of 19%
and 33%, respectively, as compared to CASE 1. In addition, CASE 3 with the pressurized water
atomizer in the return duct results in a DCC load less than that of CASE 2, which employs a
pressurized water atomizer in the MAU. When humidifying by adiabatic humidification method, A
greater evaporative cooling effect of CASE 3 compared to CASE 2 due to the airflow to be evaporative
cooled more than CASE 2. Therefore, CASE 1 shows the largest total load for the overall HVAC
system. CASE 2 and CASE 3, both of which uses a pressurized water atomizer, shows a load reduction
of 13% and 32%, respectively, as compared to CASE 1. As a result, water atomizers in cleanroom
HVAC systems are expected to reduce energy consumption as to conventional steam humidifiers.
On the other hand, when using direct‐injection steam humidifiers and pressured water
atomizers for humidifying the air, the amount of required water according to the humidification
methods is estimated from different humidification efficiency. Therefore, as shown in Figure 12, due
Energies 2017, 10, 1774 17 of 23
to the lower humidification efficiency of the pressurized water atomizer as compared to that of direct‐
injection steam humidifiers, the amount of water required for CASE 2 and CASE 3 using the water
atomizer is increased by 29% as compared to CASE 1 using the steam humidifier.
Figure 10. MAU load in each case.
Figure 11. Total HVAC system load in each case.
Energies 2017, 10, 1774 18 of 23
Figure 12. Water consumption rate for each case.
5.3. Comparison of Annual Operating Energy Consumption
Figure 13 shows the energy consumption for the overall HVAC system to maintain the indoor
environment of the cleanroom for each case. The components of the entire HVAC system are as
follows: a boiler, low temperature chiller, high temperature chiller, fan, FFU, and pump.
Additionally, for comparing the energy consumption of HVAC systems, the primary energy
conversion factors of electricity and gas were adopted as 2.75 and 1.1 respectively [37].
A boiler is used to process the load of the preheating coil and the direct‐injection steam
humidifier. To humidify the process air, a large amount of heating energy is required to generate the
steam required for the steam humidifier. As a result, the energy consumption of the boiler is the
greatest in Case 1. CASE 2 and CASE 3 exhibits a 13% and 56% reduction in of boiler energy
consumption compared to CASE 1, respectively, because there is no need for heat energy in the
humidification process. Additionally, the preheating coil load required for humidification depends
on the location of the pressurized water atomizer (i.e., whether placed in the MAU or in the return
duct). The system in CASE 2 consumes about twice the boiler energy as in CASE 3 due to it having
the greatest preheating coil load of the three cases.
The chiller energy is consumed by the low‐temperature chiller, which supplied low‐temperature
chilled water to the cooling coil of the MAU, and the high‐temperature chiller, which supplied the
DCC with relatively high‐temperature chilled water. Depending on operating mode of the MAU for
each case, the energy consumed by the low‐temperature chiller in both CASE 1 and CASE 3 is
equivalent. However, in CASE 2, only the pressurized water atomizer operates when the outdoor air
condition is included in Region B. Therefore, the low‐temperature chiller energy consumption of
CASE 2 shows a 7% savings in energy consumption as compared to other cases. The operating energy
of the high temperature chiller is the lowest in CASE 3, which employs a pressurized water atomizer
in the return duct, due to the evaporative cooling effect of the adiabatic humidification. The DCC
load is reduced during the humidification process when the pressurized water atomizer is located in
front of the DCC. On the other hand, in CASE 2, when the outdoor air condition is located in Region
B, only the pressurized water atomizer operates in the MAU. The supply air temperature in the MAU
changes depending on the amount of humidification from evaporative cooling. Accordingly, the air
temperature passing through the MAU is higher than the set‐point temperature (i.e., 12 °C).
Therefore, the DCC load is increased when operating in Region B. However, when the outdoor air
condition is in Region C, the air is supplied to the return duct shaft at the dew‐point temperature (i.e.,
10.4 °C), which is lower than the MAU set‐point temperature. The high‐temperature chiller load in
Energies 2017, 10, 1774 19 of 23
CASE 2 is reduced, as compared to CASE 1. CASE 2 and CASE 3 exhibit an 8% and 24% reduction in
the energy consumption of the high‐temperature chiller, respectively, as compared to CASE 1.
Figure 13. Annual operating energy consumption of each component.
The pressurized water atomizer an adiabatic humidification requires the installation of an
eliminator. For CASE 2 and CASE 3, the eliminator is assumed to be installed in the MAU and in the
return duct, respectively, to prevent carry over. As a result, the energy consumption rate of the fan
in the MAU exhibits a 5% increase for CASE 2 as compared to the other cases, whereas the energy
consumption of the FFU in CASE 3 exhibits a 40% increase over the other cases due to the large
amount of air flow supplied to the cleanroom.
In terms of pump energy, CASE 2 and CASE 3 using the pressurized water atomizer exhibits a
23% and 4% increase in energy consumption with respect to CASE 1, respectively. To inject the fine
water droplets from a pressurized water atomizer, a high‐pressure pump is required, resulting in an
increase in energy consumption relative to the pumps used in direct‐injection steam humidifiers. In
addition, the droplet size in CASE 2 differs from that in CASE 3 depending on the location of the
pressurized water atomizer resulting in different pressure drops at the nozzle. CASE 2, which has a
pressurized water atomizer installed in the MAU, has a short evaporation distance than CASE 3
resulting in that spraying finer droplets. On the other hand, in CASE 3, the evaporation distance is
longer than that for CASE 2. This results in a larger droplet size and a smaller pressure drop relative
to CASE 2. As a result, CASE 3 consumes 15% less energy for pumping as compared to CASE 2.
In regard to the total energy consumption, CASE 3 shows the least amount among the three
cases. The energy consumption of CASE 2 and CASE 3 using the pressurized water atomizer exhibits
a reduction of 8% and 23%, respectively, relative to CASE 1. In addition, with respect to CASE 2, the
greater energy savings in CASE 3 is a result of installation position of the pressurized water atomizer.
5.4. Comparison of Monthly Operating Energy Consumption
Figure 14 shows the monthly energy consumption of the overall HVAC system for each case.
The energy consumption of CASE 1, as a reference case, is at the lowest in June, July, and August,
when humidification of the outdoor air is not required, and in September when the humidity of the
outdoor air is relatively high. In CASE 2 and CASE 3, an eliminator is necessary to employ a
pressurized water atomizer in an HVAC system. In addition, since the amount of airflow supplied
from the FFU to the cleanroom is larger than that supplied to the return duct from the MAU, the
pressure drop across the FFU is larger than that across the fan in MAU. Therefore, the energy
consumption rate of the MAU fan and the FFU increases in CASE 2 and CASE 3, respectively
Energies 2017, 10, 1774 20 of 23
compared to CASE 1. Furthermore, in June, July, August, and September, the total energy
consumption rate of the HVAC system is at its highest in CASE 3, whose pressurized water atomizer
is installed in the return duct. On the other hand, during winter and the intermediate seasons that
require humidification, CASE 2 and CASE 3 exhibit a lower amount of total energy consumption
relative to CASE 1. Thus, by replace the steam humidifier with a water atomizer, energy savings can
be expected when humidification is required. However, when humidification is not required, HVAC
systems with a pressurized water atomizer consumes more energy than systems employing
conventional steam humidifiers.
Figure 14. Monthly operating energy consumption of the HVAC system for each case.
6. Conclusions
In this paper, the applicability of an adiabatic humidification method using a pressurized water
atomizer was evaluated. The operating energy consumption and processes of HVAC systems for
semiconductor cleanrooms were compared and analyzed as case studies. Three HVAC system cases
were studied: CASE 1 included a MAU with a direct‐injection steam humidifier, DCC, and FFU.
CASE 2 included a MAU with a pressurized water atomizer, DCC, and FFU. CASE 3 included a
MAU, DCC, FFU, and a pressurized water atomizer installed in the return duct. When a pressurized
water atomizer is employed in an HVAC system, it is necessary to install an eliminator. Because of
the increase in energy consumption for the fan, HVAC systems with a pressurized water atomizer
consume more energy than those employing direct‐injection steam humidifiers when not operating
in humidification mode. Also, pressured water atomizer exhibit greater water usage than direct‐
injection steam humidifiers. However, pressurized water atomizers have an energy‐saving potential
as compared to conventional direct‐injection steam humidifiers because the adiabatic humidification
has an evaporative cooling effect and no heat source is required to generate the steam used in
conventional steam humidification systems. As a result, CASE 2 and CASE 3 consumed 8% and 23%
less total energy relative to CASE 1, respectively. Therefore, pressurized water atomizers for
humidification consume lower energy than conventional steam humidifiers in cleanroom HVAC
systems. Additionally, a pressurized water atomizer installed in the return duct exhibits greater
energy conservation potential than when installed in the MAU.
Acknowledgments: This work was supported by a National Research Foundation (NRF) of Korea (No.
2015R1A2A1A05001726), the Korea Agency for Infrastructure Technology Advancement (KAIA) (grant
17CTAP‐C116268‐02), and the Korea Institute of Energy Technology Evaluation and Planning (KETEP) (No.
20164010200860).
Energies 2017, 10, 1774 21 of 23
Author Contributions: Min‐Suk Jo, Jang‐Hoon Shin, Won‐Jun Kim and Jae‐Weon Jeong performed the
simulation and data analysis, and wrote this paper based on the obtained results.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Glossary
Nomenclature
specific heat (kJ/kg∙°C)
diffusion coefficient (m2/s)
water droplet diameter (μm)
enthalpy (kJ/kg)
water molecular weight (kg/mol)
mass flow rate (kg/s)
pressure drop (kPa)
Load of the component (kW)
gas constant (J/°K∙mol)
temperature (°K)
time (s)
volume flow rate (m3/s)
electrical power consumption (kW)
Abbreviations
CAPFT cooling capacity function of the temperature curve
COP coefficient of performance
DB dry bulb
EIRFT energy input to the cooling output ratio function of the temperature curve
EIRFPLR energy input to the cooling output ratio function of the part load ratio curve
FFU fan filter unit
HVAC heating ventilating and air conditioning
IWEC international weather for energy calculations
MAU make‐up air unit
PCW process cooling water
PLR part load ratio
RH relative humidity
SHF sensible heat factor
UPW ultra‐pure water
WBT Wet bulb temperature
Greek Symbols
∆ difference
efficiency
density (kg/m3)
Subscripts
boiling. w boiling point of water
boiler feed water pump
cooling coil
cleanroom
cooling water supply
droplet
dry cooling coil
exhaust air
fan filter unit
heating coil
humidification
indoor environment
. inlet water
make‐up air unit
Energies 2017, 10, 1774 22 of 23
outdoor air
process cooling water
preheating coil
reference
water supplied to steam boiler
water atomizer
water atomizer pump
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