Digital Electronics: CT 304N

Unit–2(Part-1)
Binary Logic and Boolean
Algebra
Dr. Anand J. Patel
Index

2.1 Basic Binary logic

2.2 Logic Gate
2.3 Universal Gate: (1) NAND gate
(2) NOR gate
2.4 Boolean Functions
2.5 De-Morgan’s theorems
2.6 Examples
2.1 Basic binary Logic
Binary Variables
• The two binary values have different names:
1. True/False
2. On/Off
3. Yes/No
4. 1/0
• We use 1 and 0 to denote the two values.
• Variable identifier examples:
1. A, B, y, z, or X1 for now
2.2 Logic Gates:

Definition of logic gate

All basic logic gates have the ability to accept either one
or two input signals (depending upon the type of gate)
and generate one output signal.

Logic Circuit:
Logic circuit is made up of Various logic gate.
Input and Output signals are binary:

Binary always in one of two possible states;

typically treated as:
On / Off (electrically)
1 / 0
True / False

There are total 7 gate: NOT, AND, OR,NAND , NOR,

EX-OR and EX-NOR Gates.
There are 3 basic logic gate: NOT, AND and OR.
NOT Gate -- Inverter

X Y

X Y 0 1
1 0

Logical Expression : Y = X’
y is only TRUE if x is FALSE
AND Gate

X Y Z
X 0 0 0
Z 0 1 0
Y 1 0 0
1 1 1
Logical Expression: Z = X . Y
z is only TRUE only if x is TRUE and y is
TRUE
OR Gate

X Y Z
X 0 0 0
Z 0 1 1
Y
1 0 1
1 1 1

Logical Expression: Z = X + Y
z is TRUE if x is TRUE or y is TRUE (or both)
NAND Gate

X Y Z
X 0 0 1
Z 0 1 1
Y 1 0 1
1 1 0

Logical Expression: Z=X.Y

• z is TRUE if x is FALSE or y is FALSE (or both)
• z is FALSE only if x is TRUE and y is TRUE
NOR Gate

X Y Z
X 0 0 1
Z 0 1 0
Y
1 0 0
1 1 0

Logical Expression: Z=X+Y

• z is TRUE only if x is FALSE and y is FALSE
• z is FALSE if x is TRUE or y is TRUE (or both)
Exclusive-OR Gate (XOR)

X Y Z
X
Z
Y 0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
Logical Expression: Z = X Y
z is TRUE if x is TRUE or y is TRUE (but not both)
Exclusive-NOR Gate(XNOR)

X
Z X Y Z
Y
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
Logical Expression: Z = X Y 1 1 1
Multiple-input Gates

Z1 Z2

Z3 Z4
BUBBLED GATE

When input to a gate is given through inverter, the

symbol can be made simpler by drawing a small circle
at the input eliminating inverter.
2.3 Universal gate

All other gates can be realized using NAND gate

and NOR gate. So both these are called universal
gate.

NAND gate NOR gate

NAND gate as Universal gate

Not gate

A Y=A’
0 1
1 0

Input is A
Output is Y
Y = A’
AND gate

A B Y1 Y
0 0 1 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1
Y1 = A.B
Y = Y1
= A.B
= A.B
 OR gate

A B Y1 Y2 Y
0 0 1 1 0
0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 1
1 1 0 0 1

Y1 =A’
Y2 = B’
Y = (Y1. Y2)’
= [ (A)’ . (B)’ ]’ { Apply De-Morgan’s theorem }
= [ (A+B)’ ]’
= A+B
NOR gate

A B Y1 Y2 Y3 Y
0 0 1 1 0 1
0 1 1 0 1 0
1 0 0 1 1 0
1 1 0 0 1 0
Y1 =A’
Y2 = B’
Y3 = (Y1. Y2)’
= [ (A)’ . (B)’ ]’ { Apply De-Morgan’s theorem }
= [ (A+B)’ ]’
= A+B
Y = (Y3)’
= (A+B)’
EX-OR gate (Exclusive-OR gate)

=Y1

=Y

=Y2

A B A’ B’ Y1 Y2 Y
0 0 1 1 1 1 0
0 1 1 0 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 1 0 1
1 1 0 0 1 1 0
EX-NOR gate (Exclusive-NOR gate)

=Y1

=Y

=Y2

A B A’ B’ Y1 Y2 Y3 Y
0 0 1 1 1 1 0 1
0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0
1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1
NOR as Universal gate

NOT gate
Y A Y=A’
0 1
1 0
Input is A
Output is Y
Y = A’
OR gate

Y1
A B Y1 Y
A
Y 0 0 1 0
B
0 1 0 1
1 0 0 1
Y1 = A+B 1 1 0 1
Y = Y1
= A+B
= A+B
 AND gate
A B Y1 Y2 Y
Y1 0 0 1 1 0
A
0 1 1 0 0
Y
B 1 0 0 1 0
Y2 1 1 0 0 1

Y1 = A’
Y2 = B’
Y = (Y1+Y2)’
= [ (A)’ + (B)’ ]’{Apply De-Morgan’s theorem}
= [ (A .B)’ ]’
= A.B
NAND gate

Y1
Y3
Y

Y2

A B Y1 Y2 Y3 Y
0 0 1 1 0 1
0 1 1 0 0 1
1 0 0 1 0 1
1 1 0 0 1 0
Y1 = A’
Y2 = B’
Y3 = (Y1+Y2)’
= [ (A)’ + (B)’ ]’ {Apply De-Morgan’s theorem}
= [ (A .B)’ ]’
= A.B
Y = (Y3)’
= (A.B)’
EX-OR gate

A B A’ B’ Y1 Y2 Y3 Y
0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0
0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1
1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0
EX-NOR gate

A B A’ B’ Y1 Y2 Y
0 0 1 1 0 0 1
0 1 1 0 0 1 0
1 0 0 1 1 0 0
1 1 0 0 0 0 1
Logic Function Implementation
Switches in parallel => OR
• Using Switches
• For inputs:
• logic 1 is switch closed
• logic 0 is switch open
• For outputs: Switches in series => AND
• logic 1 is light on
• logic 0 is light off.
• NOT uses a switch such
that: Normally-closed switch => NOT
• logic 1 is switch open
C
• logic 0 is switch closed
Logic Function Implementation (Continued)
• Example: Logic Using Switches
B C
A

• Light is on (L = 1) for
L(A, B, C, D) = A ((B C') + D) = A B C' + A D

and off (L = 0), otherwise.

• Useful model for relay circuits and for CMOS gate
circuits, the foundation of current digital logic
technology
Logic Gate Symbols and Behavior
• Logic gates have special symbols:
X X
Z X ·Y Z X +Y X Z X
Y Y
AND gate OR gate NOT gate
(a) Graphic symbols
• And waveform behavior in time as follows:
X 0 0 1 1

Y 0 1 0 1

(AND) X ·Y 0 0 0 1

(OR) X1 Y 0 1 1 1

(NOT) X 1 1 0 0
(b) Timing diagram
Example : Uses of Simple Logic
• Example – Heating Boiler
– If chimney is not blocked and the house is cold and the pilot light is
lit, then open the main fuel valve to start boiler.
b = chimney blocked
c = house is cold
p = pilot light lit
v = open fuel valve
-So give a logical (Boolean) expression for the statement ??....
Solution : Uses of Simple Logic Example
• Example – Heating Boiler
– If chimney is not blocked and the house is cold and the pilot light is
lit, then open the main fuel valve to start boiler.
b = chimney blocked
c = house is cold
p = pilot light lit
v = open fuel valve
– So in terms of a logical (Boolean) expression
v = (NOT b) AND c AND p
 Boiler Example
• If chimney is not blocked and the house is
cold and the pilot light is lit, then open the
main fuel valve to start boiler.

b = chimney blocked c = house is cold

p = pilot light lit v = open fuel valve

• So in terms of a logical (Boolean) expression

v = (NOT b) AND c AND p
• Now draw the logical circuit for the Boolean
Expression ???....
 Boiler Example: Solution

• If chimney is not blocked and the house is

cold and the pilot light is lit, then open the
main fuel valve to start boiler.
b = chimney blocked c = house is cold
p = pilot light lit v = open fuel valve

b
c v  b.c.p
p
Introduction to Boolean Algebra:
• English mathematician George Boole invented symbolic logic in
1854,which is known as Boolean algebra.
• Boolean logic operations:
There are three basic operations in Boolean algebra:
1) AND
2) OR
3) NOT or INVERSION
Properties of Boolean algebra:
1) Commutative property:
A+B = B+A
A.B = B.A
2)Associative property:
A+(B+C) = (A+B)+C
A.(B.C) = (A.B).C
3) Distributive property:
A+B.C = (A+B) (A+C)
A.(B+C) = A.B + A.C
4) Absorption property:
A+A.B = A
A.(A+B) = A
A+A’. B = A+B
A.(A’+ B) = A.B
Properties of Boolean algebra:
5) Consensus property:

A.B+A’.C+B.C = A.B+A’.C
(A+B)(A’+C)(B+C) = (A+B)(A’+C)
Laws of Boolean Algebra
• Basic Boolean Laws
• Idempotent Law
• A.A=A
• A+A=A
• Identity Law
• A.0=0 ; A.1=A
• A+1=1 ; A+0=A
• Complement Law
• A . A’ = 0
• A + A’ = 1
• Involution Law
• (A’)’ = A
Principle of duality:
• Each law is described by two parts that are duals of each other. The
Principle of duality is:
• Interchanging the + (OR) and * (AND) operations of the expression.
• Interchanging the 0 and 1 elements of the expression.
• Not changing the form of the variables.
• E.g. A+0=A then A.1=A
De-Morgan’s theorems:
1.Complement of the product is equal to the sum of the
complement.
(A.B)’ = A’+B’

2.Complement of sum is equal to the product of the

complement.
(A+B)’=A’.B’
Proof of De-Morgan’s theorems:

1.Complement of the product is equal to the sum of the

complement.
(A.B)’ = A’+B’

A B A.B (A.B)’ A B A’ B’ A’+B’

0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1
0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1
1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0
2. Complement of sum is equal to the product of the
complement.
(A+B)’=A’.B’

A B A+B (A+B)’ A B A’ B’ A’B’

0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1
0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0
1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0
1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0
Boolean Operator Precedence
 The order of evaluation in a Boolean
expression is:
1. Parentheses
2. NOT
3. AND
4. OR
 Consequence: Parentheses appear
around OR expressions
 Example: F = A(B + C)(C + D)
 Boolean Algebra - Examples
Show: a.(a’ b)  a.b
Given: a.(a’ b)
 a.a’  a.b A.A’ =0
 0  a.b
 a.b
Show: a  (a’ .b)  a  b
Given: a  (a’.b)
 (a  a’).(a  b) (Distribution Property)
 1.(a  b) a  a’= 1
 ab
2.6 Example

Statement : Prove that A + A’B + AB’ = A + B

Solution:
LHS = A + A’B + AB’
= A + AB’ + A’B
= A (1+B’) + A’B {1+B’=1}
= A (1) + A’B
= A + A’B
= (A + A’) (A + B) Distributive Property
= (A + B) {(A + A’) =1}
= A+B
= RHS
So, A + A’B + AB’ = A + B
Statement : Simplify A (A’ + C) (A’B + C’)

Solution: A (A’ + C) (A’B + C’)

= ( AA’ + AC) (A’B + C’) Distribution Property
= (0 + AC) (A’B + C’) AA’ = 0
= AC (A’B + C’)
= ACA’B + ACC’ Distribution Property
= AA’BC + ACC’ AA’ = 0, CC’ = 0
= 0+0
= 0
So, A (A’ + C) (A’B + C’) = 0
Statement : Draw logic circuit from Boolean expression

Y = ( A + B )’ .C + ( A + C )’ . B
Statement : Write Boolean expression for the circuit
shown in figure.

Y = ( A + B’ + C ). (A’ B’). (ABC)

Statement : Write Boolean expression for the circuit shown in figure.
Problem:
Minimize the following Boolean expression using Boolean identities:−
F(A,B,C)=(A+B)(A+C)

Solution:

Given, F(A,B,C)=(A+B)(A+C)
Or, F(A,B,C)=A.A+A.C+B.A+B.C [Applying distributive Rule]
Or, F(A,B,C)=A+A.C+B.A+B.C [Applying Idempotent Law: A.A=A]
Or, F(A,B,C)=A(1+C)+B.A+B.C [Applying distributive Law]
Or, F(A,B,C)=A+B.A+B.C [Applying dominance Law]
Or, F(A,B,C)=A+B.C [Applying absorption Law]

So, F(A,B,C) = A+BC is the minimized form.

Problem:
Minimize the following Boolean expression using Boolean identities:−
F(A,B,C)=A′B+BC′+BC+AB′C′
Solution:
Given, F(A,B,C)=A′B+BC′+BC+AB′C′
Or, F(A,B,C)=A′B+(BC′+BC′)+BC+AB′C′ [By idempotent law, BC’ = BC’ + BC’]
Or, F(A,B,C)=A′B+(BC′+BC)+(BC′+AB′C′)
Or, F(A,B,C)=A′B+B(C′+C)+C′(B+AB′) [By distributive laws]
Or, F(A,B,C)=A′B+B.1+C′(B+A) [ (C' + C) = 1 and absorption law (B + AB')= (B + A)]
Or, F(A,B,C)=A′B+B+C′(B+A) [ B.1 = B ]
Or, F(A,B,C)=B(A′+1)+C′(B+A)
Or, F(A,B,C)=B.1+C′(B+A) [ (A' + 1) = 1 ]
Or, F(A,B,C)=B+C′(B+A) [ As, B.1 = B ]
Or, F(A,B,C)=B+BC′+AC′
Or, F(A,B,C)=B(1+C′)+AC′
Or, F(A,B,C)=B.1+AC′ [As, (1 + C') = 1]
Or, F(A,B,C)=B+AC′ [As, B.1 = B]

So, F(A,B,C)=B+AC′ is the minimized form.

Example:
• Simplify: C + (BC)’:
C + (BC)’ Original Expression
=C + (B’ + C’) DeMorgan's Law.
=(C + C’) + B’ Commutative, Associative Laws.
=1 + B’ Complement Law.
=1 Identity law
Example:
• Simplify: (AB)’(A’ + B)(B’ + B):
(AB)’(A’ + B)(B’ + B) Original Expression
=(AB)’(A’ + B) Complement law, Identity law.
=(A’ + B’)(A’ + B) DeMorgan's Law
=A’ + B’B Distributive law.
[A+B.C = (A+B) (A+C)]
(This step uses the fact that or distributes over and. It can look a bit
strange since addition does not distribute over multiplication.)

=A’ Complement, Identity.

Example:
• Simplify: (A + C)(AD + AD’) + AC + C:
(A + C)(AD + AD’) + AC + C Original Expression
=(A + C)A(D + D’) + AC + C Distributive.
=(A + C)A + AC + C Complement, Identity.
=A((A + C) + C) + C Commutative, Distributive.
=A(A + C) + C Associative, Idempotent.
=AA + AC + C Distributive.
=A + (A + 1)C Idempotent, Identity, Distributive.
=A + C Identity, twice.
Example:
Example:
• Simplify: A’(A + B) + (B + AA)(A + B’):
= A’A + A’B + (B + A)A + (B + A)B’ Idempotent (AA to A), then Distributive, used twice. A.(B+C) = A.B + A.C

= A’B + (B + A)A + (B + A)B’ Complement, then Identity. (Strictly speaking, we also used the
Commutative Law for each of these applications.)
= A’B + BA + AA + BB’ + AB’ Distributive, two places.
=A’B + BA + A + AB’ Idempotent (for the A's), then Complement and Identity to
remove BB.
=A’B + AB + AT + AB’ Commutative, Identity; setting up for the next step.
= A’B + A(B + T + B’) Distributive.
= A’B + A Identity, twice (depending how you count it).
= A + A’B Commutative.
=(A + A’)(A + B) Distributive.
=A+B Complement, Identity.
Digital Electronics: CT 304N

Unit–2(Part-2)
Binary Logic and Boolean
Algebra
Dr. Anand J. Patel
Canonical and Standard Forms
• Boolean functions expressed as a sum of minterms (SOM) or product
of maxterms (POM) are said to be in canonical form.
• Boolean functions expressed as a sum of product (SOP) or product of
sum (POS) are said to be in standard form.
• Nonstandard Form: Boolean functions are also sometimes expressed
in nonstandard forms, which is neither a sum of products form nor a
product of sums form.
• E.g. F=(AB + CD)(A’B’ + C’D’)
 Canonical Forms
• Sum term:
It is the logical sum of various terms of a function. The variable may be in the complemented or uncomplemented
form.
E.g. A+B’+C+D, A+B’
• Product term:
It is the logical product of various terms of function. The variables in product term may be in the complemented
or uncomplemented form.
E.g. A’BC, ABCD’

• Sum of Minterm (SOM):

It is the logical sum of two or more logical product term.
E.g. F1 = x’y’z + xy’z’ + xyz
• Product of Maxterm (POM):
It is the logical product of two or more logical sum term.
E.g. F1 = ( X+Y+Z)(X+Y+Z’)
• Note: In SOM and POM all variables are present in each term
Standard Forms
• Sum of Product (SOP):
It is the logical sum of two or more logical product term.
E.g. Y = ABD + AC’D + ABCD’
• SOP: F1= ABC + A’B’C + B
• Product of Sum (POS):
It is the logical product of two or more logical sum term.
E.g. Y = ( A+B’+C)(B+D’)(A’+B+C+D)
• POS: (A+B).(A+B’+C’).C
• Note: In SOP and POS all variables are NOT present in each term
Minterms
• Literal: A variable or its complement is called a literal.
• Minterms are AND terms with every variable present in either true
or complemented form.
• Given that each binary variable may appear normal (e.g., x) or
complemented (e.g., x’ ), there are 2n minterms for n variables.
• Example: Two variables (X and Y) produce 2 x 2 = 4 combinations:
XY (both normal)
XY’ (X normal, Y complemented)
X’Y (X complemented, Y normal)
X’Y’ (both complemented)
• Thus there are four minterms of two variables.
Minterms
• Minterm is shown by m and suffix. Minterms of 2 variable function
are expressed by m0, m1, m2 and m3.
• Suffix shows the decimal number equivalent to the minterm.
• E.g. Equivalent binary number of minterm AB’ is 10 which
represents decimal number 2. So that minterm is shown by m2.
Maxterms
• Maxterms are OR terms with every variable in true or complemented
form.
• Given that each binary variable may appear normal (e.g., x) or
complemented (e.g., x’), there are 2n maxterms for n variables.
• Example: Two variables (X and Y) produce 2 x 2 = 4 combinations:
X+Y (both normal)
X + Y’ (x normal, y complemented)
X’ + Y (x complemented, y normal)
X’ + Y’ (both complemented)
Maxterms
• Maxterm is shown by M and suffix. Maxterms of 2
variable function are expressed by M0, M1,M2 and
M3.
• Suffix shows the decimal number equivalent to the
max term.
• E.g. Equivalent binary number of maxterm A+B’ is 01
which represents decimal number 1. So that
maxterm is shown by M1.
Minterms and Maxterms
• Examples: Two variable minterms and maxterms.
Index Minterm Maxterm
0-00 x’ y’(m0) x + y(M0)
1-01 x’ y(m1) x + y’(M1)
2-10 x y’(m2) x’ + y(M2)
3-11 x y(m3) x’ + y’(M3)
• The index above is important for describing which
variables in the terms are true and which are
complemented.
Minterms and Maxterms
 Minterm and Maxterm Relationship
• Review: DeMorgan's Theorem and Two-three variable
example.
• Thus M2 is the complement of m2 and vice-versa.
• Since DeMorgan's Theorem holds for n variables, the above
holds for terms of n variables
• Thus Mi is the complement of mi.
M i = mi mi = M i
Canonical sum of minterms
• Logical sum of all the minterms for which value of function becomes
1 is called canonical sum of product .
• Suppose three minterms of a logical function Y are A’B’C , A’BC’ ,
ABC.
• Their decimal codes are 1,2 and 7.Then SOM can be shown as
follows:
• Y = ∑m (1,2,7)
= m1 + m2 +m7
= A’B’C + A’BC’ + ABC
Canonical product of maxterms
• Logical product of all the maxterms for which value of function
becomes 0 is called canonical product of maxterms .
• Suppose three maxterms of a logical function Y are A’+B’+C , A’+B+C’ ,
A+B+C.
• Their decimal codes are 6,5 and 0. Then POM can be shown as
follows:
• Y = ∏ (0 ,5, 6 )
= M0 . M5 . M6
= (A’+B’+C) (A’+B+C’) (A+B+C)
Minterm Function Example
• Example: Find F1 = m1 + m4 + m7
• F1 = x’y’z + xy’z’ + xyz
xyz index m1 + m4 + m7 = F1
000 0 0 + 0 + 0 =0
001 1 1 + 0 + 0 =1
010 2 0 + 0 + 0 =0
011 3 0 + 0 + 0 =0
100 4 0 + 1 + 0 =1
101 5 0 + 0 + 0 =0
110 6 0 + 0 + 0 =0
111 7 0 + 0 + 1 =1
Maxterm Function Example
• Example: Implement F1 in maxterms:
F1 = M0 · M2 · M3 · M5 · M6
F 1 = (x + y + z) ·(x + y + z)·(x + y + z )
·( x + y + z )·( x + y + z)
xyz i M0  M2  M3  M5  M6 = F1
000 0 0  1  1  1  1 =0
001 1 1  1  1  1  1 =1
010 2 1  0  1  1  1 =0
011 3 1  1  0  1  1 =0
100 4 1  1  1  1  1 =1
101 5 1  1  1  0  1 =0
110 6 1  1  1  1  0 =0
111 7 1  1  1  1  1 =1
Example:
• For the given truth table express the Function F(A,B,C) in:
(a) sum of minterms (SOM) and
(b) product of maxterms (POM) ?
Row Input Output

Number A B C F
1-Minterm; 0-Maxterm
0 0 0 0 0 (Maxterm)
1 0 0 1 0
2 0 1 0 0
3 0 1 1 1 (Minterm)
4 1 0 0 0
5 1 0 1 1
6 1 1 0 1
7 1 1 1 0
 Solution: Sum of Minterm (SOM)
• Observe that the output is high for the rows labelled 3, 5 and 6.
• The SOM expression for this circuit is thus given by any of the
following:
• F = A’BC + AB’C + ABC’
• F = m3 + m5 +m6
• F = ∑m (3,5,6)
Solution: Product of Maxterm (POM)
• The POM expression is the equation of the logic function as read off the
truth table to specify the input combinations when the output is a logical 0.
• Let us again consider Table.
• Observe that the output is low for the rows labeled 0, 1, 2, 4 and 7.
• The POM expression for this circuit is thus given by any of the following:

• F = (A+B+C) (A+B+C’) (A+B’+C) (A’+B+C) (A’+B’+C’)

= M0 . M1 . M2 . M4 . M7
= ∏ (0 ,1, 2, 4, 7)
 Conversion to Canonical Sum of Minterms
• Any Boolean function can be expressed as a Sum of Minterms.
• For the function table, the minterms used are the terms corresponding to the 1's
• For conversion, expand all terms first to explicitly list all minterms.
• Do this by “ANDing” any term missing a variable v with a term ( v + v’).

• Example: Implement f=x + x’y’ as a sum of minterms (SOM) form:

First expand terms: f = x(y+y’) + x’y’

Then distribute terms: f = xy + xy’ + x’y’

Express as sum of minterms: f = m3 + m2 + m0

 Another SOM Example
• Example: F = A + B’C
• There are three variables, A, B, and C which we take to be the standard order.
• Expanding the terms with missing variables:
• F = A(B + B’)(C + C’) + (A + A’) B’ C
• = ABC + ABC’ + AB’C + AB’C’ + AB’C + A’B’C
• = ABC + ABC’ + AB’C + AB’C’ + A’B’C
• = m7 + m6 + m5 + m4 + m1
• = m1 + m4 + m5 + m6 + m7
Note: Collect terms (removing all but one of duplicate terms) and then express
as SOM.
Shorthand SOM Form
• From the previous example, we started with:
F =A +B C
• We ended up with:
F = m1+m4+m5+m6+m7
• This can be denoted in the formal shorthand:
F( A, B, C) = m(1,4,5,6,7 )
• Note that we explicitly show the standard variables in order and drop
the “m” designators.
Example:
Find SOM for the function Y(A,B) = A + B’

Solution : There are two Variables. There is no B in first term and

there is no A in second term.

A + B’ = A (B + B’) + ( A + A’) B’
= AB + AB’ + AB’ + A’B’
= AB + AB’ +A’B’
= m3 + m2 + m0
= m0 + m2 + m3
= ∑m (0,2,3)
So, AB + AB’ + A’B’ is the SOM for the function Y(A,B) = A+B’
Conversion to Canonical Product of Maxterms
• Any Boolean Function can be expressed as a Product of Maxterms (POM).
• For the function table, the maxterms used are the terms corresponding to the 0's.
• For conversion, expand all terms first to explicitly list all maxterms.
• Do this by first applying the second distributive law ,
• Then “ORing” terms missing variable v with a term equal to (v.v’)
• and then applying the distributive law again.
• Example: Convert to product of maxterms: f ( x, y, z ) = x + x y
Apply the distributive law:
x + x y = (x + x )(x + y ) = 1  (x + y ) = x + y
Add missing variable z:
x + y + z  z = ( x + y + z ) (x + y + z )
Express as POM: f = M2 · M3
 Another POM Example
• Convert to Product of Maxterms:
f(A, B, C) = A C + B C + A B
• Use x + y z = (x+y)·(x+z) with x = (A C + B C), y = A , and z =B to get:

• F = (AC’ + BC + A’)(AC’ + BC + B’ )
• Then use x + x’y = x + y to get:
f = ( C + BC + A )(A C + C + B )
and a second time to get:
f = ( C + B + A )(A + C + B )
• Rearrange to standard order,
f = ( A + B + C )(A + B + C) to give f = M5 · M2
Example:
Obtain POM for the function Y(A, B, C) = ( A+B) (A+B’) (B’+C’)
 Function Complements
• The complement of a function expressed as a sum of minterms is
constructed by selecting the minterms missing in the sum-of-
minterms canonical forms.
• Alternatively, the complement of a function expressed by a Sum of
Minterms form is simply the Product of Maxterms with the same
indices.
• Example: Given F ( x , y , z ) = m ( 1, 3 , 5 , 7 )

F ( x , y , z ) = m( 0, 2,4,6) SOM

F ( x , y , z ) = PM (1, 3,5,7 ) POM
Conversion Between Canonical SOM and POM Forms
• To convert between sum-of-minterms and product-of-maxterms
form (or vice-versa) we follow these steps:
• Find the function complement by swapping terms in the list with terms not in
the list.
• Change from products to sums, or vice versa.
• Example: Given F as before: F( x, y , z ) = m(1, 3,5,7 )
• Form the Complement: F ( x , y , z ) = m( 0, 2,4,6)
• Then use the other form with the same indices. This forms the
complement again, giving the other form of the original function:
F( x, y , z ) = PM( 0, 2,4,6)
 Standard Forms- SOP and POS
• Standard Sum-of-Products (SOP) form: equations are written as an OR
of AND terms
• Standard Product-of-Sums (POS) form: equations are written as an
AND of OR terms
• Examples:
• SOP: ABC + A’B’C + B
• POS: (A+B).(A+B’+C’).C
• These “mixed” forms are neither SOP nor POS
• (A B + C) (A + C)
• A B C + A C (A + B)
 Standard Sum-of-Products (SOP)

• A sum of minterms form for n variables can be written down directly

from a truth table.
• Implementation of this form is a two-level network of gates such that:
• The first level consists of n-input AND gates, and
• The second level is a single OR gate (with fewer than 2n inputs).
• This SOM form often can be simplified to SOP form so that the
corresponding circuit is simpler.
 Standard Sum-of-Products (SOP)
• A Simplification Example:
• F( A, B, C) = m(1,4,5,6,7 )
• Writing the minterm expression:
F = A’ B’ C + A B’ C’ + A B’C + ABC’ + ABC (SOM-15 literals)
• Simplifying:
• F = A’ B’ C + A (B’ C’ + B C’ + B’ C + B C)
• = A’ B’ C + A (B’ + B) (C’ + C)
• = A’ B’ C + A.1.1
• = A’ B’ C + A x + x’y = x + y
• = B’C + A (SOP-3 literals)
• Note: Simplified F contains 3 literals compared to 15 in minterm F
 AND/OR Two-level Implementation of SOP Expression
• The two implementations for F are shown below – it is quite apparent
which is simpler!
A
B
C A
F
A B
B
C
C
A
B F
C
A
B
C
A
B
C
SOP and POS Observations
• The previous examples show that:
• Canonical Forms (Sum-of-minterms, Product-of-Maxterms), or other standard
forms (SOP, POS) differ in complexity
• Boolean algebra can be used to manipulate equations into simpler forms.
• Simpler equations lead to simpler two-level implementations
• Questions:
• How can we attain a “simplest” expression?
• Is there only one minimum cost circuit?
• The next part will deal with these issues.
Need for simplification
• In 1854 English mathematician George Boole developed symbolic
logic which is known as Boolean algebra.

• Logic problem were solved using this algebra.

• Method of Boolean algebra is tedious and not systematic.

• This necessitated some method which is simple and systematic.

Karnaugh-map (K-map) is helpful in this.
Need for simplification
Some points of need for simplification are as under:

1. Complexity reduced
2. Cost less
3. Less wiring (Connection)
4. Fault finding easy
5. Less Components etc.
Karnaugh Map (K-Map)
• Simplification of Boolean functions can be made using Boolean
algebra and De Morgan's theorems. This method is tedious and not
systematic.

• Whereas with help of K-map simplification of Boolean function, it

can be done easily and systematically.

• This method is used to give simplification of two, three or four

variable functions.
Karnaugh Map (K-Map)
• The Karnaugh map provides a systematic method for simplifying a
Boolean expression or a truth table function.
• The K-map can produce the simplest SOP or POS expression possible.
• K-map procedure is actually an application of adjacency and
guarantees a minimal expression.
• It is easy to use, visual, fast and familiarity with Boolean laws is not
required.
• The K-map is a table consisting of N =2 n cells, where n is the number
of input variables.
Karnaugh Map (K-Map)
• A K-map is a collection of squares
• Each square represents a minterm
• The collection of squares is a graphical representation of a Boolean
function
• Adjacent squares differ in the value of one variable (Gray code).
• Alternative algebraic expressions for the same function are derived
by recognizing patterns of squares
• The K-map can be viewed as
• A reorganized version of the truth table
Method of constructing K-map
• K-map consists of cells or squares.

• If there are n variables in the function, the number of cells becomes 2n

• Each cell is represented by binary number or its equivalent decimal

number.
Two Variable K-map
• Assuming the input variable are A and B then the K-map illustrating
the four possible variable combinations is shown.
• Complemented variable is represented by 0 and uncomplemented
variable is represented by 1 in row and column.
Two Variable K-map

Cell = 2n ,where n is a number of variables

For the case of 2 variables, we form a map consisting of 22=4 cells as shown in Figure

A A A
0 1 0 1 0 1
B B B
0 A+ B A + B 0 00 10 0 AB AB
0 2

A+ B A + B 01 11
1 1
1 3
1
A B AB
Maxterm Minterm
Three Variable K-map
Three Variable K-map

Cells = 23=8

AB
C 00 01 11 10
0 2 6 4
0
A B C A BC ABC AB C
1 3 7 5
1 A B C A BC ABC AB C
Four Variable K-map
Four Variable K-map
Cells = 24=16

AB
CD 00 01 11 10
0 4 12 8
00
1 5 13 9
01
3 7 15 11
11

2 6 14 10
10
2-3-4 Variable K-map
Representation of function on K-map
• In order to show the function on K-map, it should be in form of
minterms.
• If it is not in that form it should be brought into the required form
with the help of Boolean algebra.
• Then binary numbers and their equivalent decimal numbers of
function are written .
• 1 is written in those cells in which the product term of the function
is in the decimal form.
• 0 is written in the remaining cells.
Simplification of K-map
• To simplify a SOP of a Boolean expression using a K-map:
• First identify all the input combinations that produce an output of logic
level 1 and place them in their appropriate K-map cell. Consequently, all
other cells must contain zero (0).
• Second, group the adjacent cells that contain 1 in a manner that maximizes
the size of the groups but also minimizes the total number of groups. All 1's
in the output must be included in a group even if the group is only one cell.
• Third, as each SOP term represents an AND expression, each ( AND )
grouping is written with only the input variables that are common to the
group.
• Finally, the simplified expression is formed by ORing each of the ( AND )
groups (SOP).
Simplification of K-map
• For simplification of K-map it is necessary to understand some basic
terms like:
• pair
• quad
• octet
• overlapping of group
• rolling of K-map
• redundant group
The Pair
• In K-map if there are adjacent 1 in the vertical or horizontal
direction, it is called pair.
• This pair is shown by closed loop.
• From the K-map
• Y = ACD’ + A’B’D
The Quad
• If in K-map there are four number of 1 side by side or they form a
square , it is called the quad.
• From the K-map
• Y = BC’ + CD’
The Octet
• In K-map when there are 8 numbers of 1 side by side, it is called octet.
• From the K-map
• Y=C
Over lapping groups(1)
• In K-map when we encircle the group, sometimes 1 comes in more
then one loop. This is allowed. On the contrary it is advisable too.
This is called overlapping group.
• For fig (a)
• Y = ABD + CD
Over lapping groups(2)
• In K-map when we encircle the group, sometimes 1 comes in more
then one loop. This is allowed. On the contrary it is advisable too.
This is called overlapping group.
• For fig (b)
• Y= ABC’D + CD
Rolling the map(1)
• When in the first column and in the last column there are 1 in the
same row, more variables can be eliminated and more simplified
form of switching function is obtained.
• For Fig (a)
• Y = A’B’C’D + AB’C’D
Rolling the map(2)
• When in the first column and in the last column there are 1 in the
same row, more variables can be eliminated and more simplified
form of switching function is obtained.
• For Fig (b)
• Y = B’C’D
Redundant group(1)
• When all the 1 of a group are overlapped by other groups then that
group is called the redundant group.
• For fig (a)
• Y = A’B’C’ + A’C’D + A’BD
Redundant group(2)
• When all the 1 of a group are overlapped by other groups then that
group is called the redundant group.
• For fig (b)
• Y = A’B’C’ + A’BD
Don’t care condition
• Normally for the definite input logic condition (0 or 1), there is
definite output logic condition.
• Some times the logic circuit is such that for any condition of the
input, there is no change in the output condition.
• Such condition is called the don’t care condition.
• In K-map it is shown not by 0 or 1, but it is shown by X.
• X can be taken either 0 or 1 depending upon the requirement.
• If X is beside 1, we can take it equal to 1 so as to make a pair. With
this the expression becomes simple.
• Note: All X need not be used in simplification.
 Example: Don’t care condition
• From the K-map
• Y = A’B’C’ + C’D

Note: All 1’s must be included but all X need not be used in simplification.
Example
2-variable Karnaugh maps are trivial but can be used to introduce
the methods you need to learn. The map for a 2-input OR gate looks
like this:
A
0 1
B
A
Y 0 1
B
A
1 1 1
A B Y
0 0 0
B
0 1 1
1 0 1
A+B
1 1 1
Example
3-variable Karnaugh maps:

AC
AB
A B C Y C 00 01 11 10

0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0 1 1 1
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1
1 0 1 1
B
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 0 B + AC
Example:
• For the given truth table draw the K-map for the Function F and
reduce it.
Input Output

A B C F
0 0 0 1
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 0
1 0 1 X
1 1 0 X
1 1 1 x
 Solution:
• F = C + A’B’

AB
C 00 01 11 10

1 0 2
X 6 4
0

1 1 1 3
X 7
X 5
1

Note: All 1’s must be included but all X need not be used in simplification.
Truth-table to K-map
 Example: Don’t care condition
Note: All 1’s must be included but all X need not be used in simplification.

AB
CD 00 01 11 10

X
00

01
X 1

11 X X

10 X X

AD
Example
For the given truth table express the function F in SOM form and
reduce F using K-map.
Solution
• The above table can be described by
F =  m(0, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 14, 15)
• The function can be written as:
F = A’B’C’D’ + A’B’CD’ + A’B’CD + A’BC’D + A’BCD’ + A’BCD + AB’C’D’ +
AB’CD’ + AB’CD + ABCD’ + ABCD
• Each term on the RHS is a minterm.
• The above function can be simplified by using the K-map.
• Insert 1 in those cells where the function F has a value of 1. Put 0 in
the other cells.
 Solution(contd.):
• F =  m(0, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 14, 15)
• F = B'D' + C + A'BD AB
CD 00 01 11 10

1 0
0 4
0 12 1 8
00

01
0 1
1 5
0 13
0 9

11 1 3
1 7
1 15
1 11

10 1 2
1 6
1 14
1 10

Note: The 4 corner 1’s form a quad.

Alternative Solution in Product of Sum Form:
Using Maxterms
• For the same example,
• F =  m(0, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 14, 15) (SOM)
• F=  M(1,4,9,12,13) (POM)
= (A + B + C+ D’).(A + B’+ C + D).(A’+ B + C +D’).(A’ + B’ + C + D).( A’ + B’ + C +D’)
• Solution: F= (B + C + D')(B' + C + D)(A' + C + D')
• The simplification process is a dual of the process for the SOP form
i.e. the answer will be in POS form for maxterms.
• Insert 0 in those cells where the function F has a value of 0. Put 1 in
the other cells.
 Alternative Solution in Product of Sum Form:
Using Maxterms (contd.)
• F=  M(1,4,9,12,13)
AB
CD 00 01 11 10

1 0
0 4
0 12 1 8
00

01
0 1
1 5
0 13
0 9

11 1 3
1 7
1 15
1 11

10 1 2
1 6
1 14
1 10

F= (B + C + D') (B' + C + D) (A' + C + D')

Nomenclature change
Note: Orientation changes but the final answer remains same:
F = B'D' + C + A'BD

AB
CD 00 01 11 10

0 1 3 2 1 0 4 12 18
00
1 13
4 5 7 6
01 1 5 9

3 7 15 11
12 13 15 14
11 1 1 1 1
8 2 6 14 10
9 11 10
10 1 1 1 1
Example using other nomenclature

F=∑ m(0,2,8,9,10,11,14,15)

F= A.B’+A.C+B’.D’
Example using other nomenclature
Full-adder:
A B C S Carry
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 1 0
0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 0
Carry= A.C+A.B+B.C
1 0 1 0 1
1 1 0 0 1
1 1 1 1 1

S=A.B’.C’ + A’.B’.C+A.B.C+A’.B.C’
Implicants
• Implicants
Implicant is a product/minterm term in Sum of Products (SOP) or sum/maxterm
term in Product of Sums (POS) of a Boolean function.
E.g.For a boolean function, F = AB + ABC + BC. Implicants are AB, ABC and BC.
• Prime Implicants
A group of square or rectangle made up of bunch of adjacent minterms which is
allowed by definition of K-Map are called prime implicants(PI) i.e. all possible
groups formed in K-Map.
• Essential Prime Implicants –
These are those subcubes(groups) which cover atleast one minterm that can’t be
covered by any other prime implicant. Essential prime implicants(EPI) are those
prime implicants which always appear in final solution.
Implicants (contd.)
• Redundant Prime Implicants
The prime implicants for which each of its minterm is covered by
some essential prime implicant are redundant prime implicants(RPI).
This prime implicant never appears in final solution.
Example
• Given F = ∑(3, 4, 5, 7, 9, 13, 14, 15), find number of implicants, PI, EPI,
RPI and SPI.
• F = A’BC’+ A’CD + ABC + AC’D
Minimal Expression
• How the minimum expression of a function is determined using a
Karnaugh Map?
• The concept of prime implicants can be used to determine the
minimum solution.
• The minimum SOP expression for a function consists of some (but not
necessarily all) of the prime implicants of a function.
• In other words, a SOP expression containing a term, which is not an
essential prime implicant (EPI), cannot be the minimum. This is true
because if a non EPI term were present, the expression could be
simplified by combining it with additional minterms.
Minimal Expression(contd.)
• Any set of implicants that encloses (covers) all values (1 for SOP and 0
for POS) is "sufficient"; i.e. the associated logical expression
represents the desired function. For example, all minterms or
maxterms are sufficient.
• However, the smallest set of prime implicants (i.e.EPI) that covers all
values forms a minimal expression for the desired function.
• There may be more than one minimal set.
Example
• F(A,B,C,D) =  m(3, 9, 11, 12, 13,14, 15) +  d (1, 4, 6)
• F(A,B,C,D) = B'D + AB (SOP- WITH DON’T CARE)
AB
CD 00 01 11 10
0
X 4
1 12 8
00

01
X 1 5
1 13
1 9

11 1 3 7
1 15
1 11

10
2
X 6
1 14 10
Example
• m(3, 9, 11, 12, 13,14, 15) +  d (1, 4, 6)
• F(A,B,C,D) = B'CD + AD + AB (SOP- WITHOUT DON’T CARE)

AB
CD 00 01 11 10
0
X 4
1 12 8
00

01
X 1 5
1 13
1 9

11 1 3 7
1 15
1 11

10
2
X 6
1 14 10
NAND/NOR implementation of Boolean function
• Logic circuit is drawn from the function obtained from K-map .
• This function is in form of SOP or POS.
• Logic circuit can be realized making use of A-O-I gates.
• The logic circuit can be realized making use of NAND gate only when
the function is in SOP form.
• It can be realized making use of NOR gate only when the function is
in the POS form.
Example: NAND gate implementation
• Draw the logic circuit for the function Y = AB + A’C’ + B’C making use
of NAND gates only

• To realize the circuit using NAND only, let us make use of property:
f = (f’)’

• Y = [(AB + A’C + B’C )’]’

= [ (A.B)’ . (A’.C)’ . (B’.C)’]’
= AB + A’C + B’C
Example: NOR gate implementation
• Draw the logic circuit for switching function (A’ + B) . (A’ + C’) . (B’ + C)
using NOR gates only.

• To realize the circuit using NOR only , let us make use of property:
f = (f’)’

• Y = [ { (A’ + B) . (A’ + C’) . (B’ + C) }’ ]’

• Y = [ (A’ + B)’ + (A’ + C’)’ + (B’ + C)]’
• Y = (A’ + B) . (A’ + C’) . (B’ + C)
Design of combinational digital circuits
• Steps to design a combinational digital circuit:
• From the problem statement derive the truth table
• From the truth table derive the unsimplified logic expression
• Simplify the logic expression
• From the simplified expression draw the logic circuit
• Example: Design a 3-input (A,B,C) digital circuit that will give at its output (X) a logic 1
only if the binary number formed at the input has more ones than zeros.

Inputs Output
A B C X X =  (3, 5, 6, 7)
0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 0 X
BC
2 0 1 0 0 A 00 01 11 10
3 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0
4 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1
5 1 0 1 1
6 1 1 0 1
7 1 1 1 1 X = AC + AB + BC
A B C
The End
Digital Electronics: CT 304N

Unit–2(Part-3)
Binary Logic and Boolean
Algebra
Dr. Anand J. Patel
Quine-McCluskey Tabulation Method
• Follow these steps for simplifying Boolean functions using Quine-
McClukey tabular method.
• Step 1 − Arrange the given min terms in an ascending order and make
the groups based on the number of ones present in their binary
representations. So, there will be at most ‘n+1’ groups if there are ‘n’
Boolean variables in a Boolean function or ‘n’ bits in the binary
equivalent of min terms.
• Step 2 − Compare the min terms present in successive groups. If
there is a change in only one-bit position, then take the pair of those
two min terms. Place this symbol ‘_’ in the differed bit position and
keep the remaining bits as it is.
Quine-McCluskey Tabulation Method(1)
• Step 3 − Repeat step2 with newly formed terms till we get all prime
implicants.
• Step 4 − Formulate the prime implicant table. It consists of set of
rows and columns. Prime implicants can be placed in row wise and
min terms can be placed in column wise. Place ‘1’ in the cells
corresponding to the min terms that are covered in each prime
implicant.
Quine-McCluskey Tabulation Method(2)
• Step 5 − Find the essential prime implicants by observing each
column. If the minterm is covered only by one prime implicant, then it
is essential prime implicant. Those essential prime implicants will be
part of the simplified Boolean function.
• Step 6 − Reduce the prime implicant table by removing the row of
each essential prime implicant and the columns corresponding to the
min terms that are covered in that essential prime implicant. Repeat
step 5 for Reduced prime implicant table. Stop this process when all
minterms of given Boolean function are over.
Example
• Simplify the following Boolean function:
• F(W,X,Y,Z)=∑m(2,6,8,9,10,11,14,15) using Quine-McClukey tabulation
method.
• Step 1 − The given Boolean function is in sum of min terms form. It is
having 4 variables W, X, Y & Z. The given min terms are 2, 6, 8, 9, 10,
11, 14 and 15. The ascending order of these min terms based on the
number of ones present in their binary equivalent is 2, 8, 6, 9, 10, 11,
14 and 15. The following table shows these minterms and their
equivalent binary representations.
Step 1
• The given min terms are arranged into 4 groups based on the number
of ones present in their binary equivalents. The following table shows
the possible merging of min terms from adjacent groups.

Group Min terms W X Y Z

Name
2 0 0 1 0
GA1
8 1 0 0 0

6 0 1 1 0

GA2 9 1 0 0 1

10 1 0 1 0

11 1 0 1 1
GA3
14 1 1 1 0

GA4 15 1 1 1 1
 Step 2
The min terms, which are differed in only one-bit position from adjacent groups are merged. That differed
bit is represented with this symbol, ‘-‘. In this case, there are three groups and each group contains
combinations of two min terms. The following table shows the possible merging of minterm pairs from
adjacent groups.

Group Minterms W X Y Z
Name
2,6 0 - 1 0

2,10 - 0 1 0
GB1
8,9 1 0 0 -

8,10 1 0 - 0

6,14 - 1 1 0

9,11 1 0 - 1
GB2
10,11 1 0 1 -

10,14 1 - 1 0

11,15 1 - 1 1
GB3
14,15 1 1 1 -
 Step 3
The successive groups of min term pairs, which are differed in only one-bit position are merged. That differed
bit is represented with this symbol, ‘-‘. In this case, there are two groups and each group contains
combinations of four min terms. Here, these combinations of 4 min terms are available in two rows. So, we
can remove the repeated rows. The reduced table after removing the redundant rows is shown below.

Group Minterms W X Y Z
Name
2,6,10,14 - - 1 0

2,10,6,14 - - 1 0
GB1
8,9,10,11 1 0 - -

8,10,9,11 1 0 - -

10,11,14,15 1 - 1 -
GB2
10,14,11,15 1 - 1 -
Step 3
Further merging of the combinations of min terms from adjacent groups is not possible, since they are
differed in more than one-bit position. There are three rows in the above table. So, each row will give one
prime implicant. Therefore, the prime implicants are YZ’, WX’ & WY.

Group Minterms W X Y Z
Name
GC1 2,6,10,14 - - 1 0

8,9,10,11 1 0 - -

GC2 10,11,14,15 1 - 1 -
Step 4
The prime implicants are placed in row wise and min terms are placed in column wise. 1s are placed
in the common cells of prime implicant rows and the corresponding min term columns.

The min terms 2 and 6 are covered only by one prime implicant YZ’. So, it is an essential prime
implicant. This will be part of simplified Boolean function. Now, remove this prime implicant row and
the corresponding min term columns. The reduced prime implicant table is shown below.

Min terms / Prime 2 6 8 9 10 11 14 15

Implicants

YZ’ 1 1 1 1

WX’ 1 1 1 1

WY 1 1 1 1
Step 5-6
• Now, remove this prime implicant YZ’ row and the corresponding min term
columns. The reduced prime implicant table is shown below.
• The min terms 8 and 9 are covered only by one prime implicant WX’. So, it is
an essential prime implicant. This will be part of simplified Boolean function.
Now, remove this prime implicant row and the corresponding min term
columns. The reduced prime implicant table is shown below.

Min terms / Prime 8 9 11 15

Implicants

WX’ 1 1 1

WY 1 1
 Step 5-6
• Now, remove this prime implicant WX’ row and the corresponding minterm
columns. The reduced prime implicant table is shown below.
• The minterm 15 is covered only by one prime implicant WY. So, it is an essential
prime implicant. This will be part of simplified Boolean function.

Min terms / Prime 15

Implicants

WY 1
Answer
• Therefore, the simplified Boolean function is
F(W,X,Y,Z) = YZ’ + WX’ + WY.
Exercise Example 1
• Simplify the following expression to sum of product (SOP) using
Tabulation Method
• F(a,b,c,d)= ∑(0,1,2,3,4,6,7,11,12,15)
Exercise Example 2
• Simplify the following expression to sum of product (SOP) using
Tabulation Method
• F(a,b,c,d)= ∑(0,4,8,10,12,13,15) + d(1,2 )
Exercise Example 3
• Simplify the following expression to product of sum (POS) using
Tabulation Method
• F(a,b,c,d)= ∏(1,3,5,7,13,15)
Exercise Example 4
• Simplify the following expression to product of sum (POS) using
Tabulation Method
• F(a,b,c,d)= ∏(0,8,10,12,13,15).d(1,2,3)
The End