Chapter 6

Climate Change
Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change
lasts for an extended period of time (i.e., decades to millions of years). Climate change may refer
to a change in average weather conditions, or in the time variation of weather around longer-term
average conditions (i.e., more or fewer extreme weather events). Climate change is caused by
factors such as biotic processes, variations in solar radiation received by Earth, plate tectonics,
and volcanic eruptions. Certain human activities have also been identified as significant causes
of recent climate change, often referred to as "global warming".

Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and
theoretical models. A climate record—extending deep into the Earth's past—has been assembled,
and continues to be built up, based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles,
cores removed from deep accumulations of ice, floral and faunal records, glacial and periglacial
processes, stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers, and records of past sea levels.
More recent data are provided by the instrumental record. General circulation models, based on
the physical sciences, are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data, make
future projections, and link causes and effects in climate change.

6.1 Causes and Impacts:

Internal causes:

- Ocean variability
- Life

External forcing mechanisms:

- Orbital variations
- Solar output
- Volcanism
- Plate tectonics
- Human activities

Among these, human activities are considered to be the most responsible one for the current
rapid and unwanted climate change. So we have to define climate change according to this
perspective.

Global warming and climate change are terms for the observed century-scale rise in the
average temperature of the Earth's climate system and its related effects.
Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming. Although the
increase of near-surface atmospheric temperature is the measure of global warming often
reported in the popular press, most of the additional energy stored in the climate system
since 1970 has gone into ocean warming. The remainder has melted ice and warmed the
continents and atmosphere. Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are
unprecedented over decades to millennia.

Earth's climate is changing

The global average temperature has increased by more than 1.5°F since the late 1800s. Climate
change is evident by phenomenon such as;

Changing temperature and precipitation patterns

Increases in ocean temperatures, sea level, and acidity

Melting of glaciers and sea ice

Changes in the frequency, intensity, and duration of extreme weather events

Shifts in ecosystem characteristics, like the length of the growing season, timing of flower
blooms, and migration of birds

These maps show temperatures across the world in the 1880s (left) and the 1980s (right). Blue
colors represent cooler temperatures compared with the average temperatures from 1951 to
1980, and red colors represent warmer temperatures compared to this average. The map on the
left shows that it was colder in the 1880s in most places. The map on the right shows it was
warmer in the 1980s in most places. Earth's average surface temperature has increased by more
than 1.5°F since the 1880s. Two-thirds of the warming has occurred since 1975, at a rate of
roughly 0.3°F-0.4°F per decade.

Source: NASA
Global warming climate change is mainly due to Greenhouse Gases (GHG). Major among them
are mentioned below;

1) CO2
2) Methane
3) Nitrous oxide
4) Water vapor
5) Fluorinated compounds
6) Other synthetic materials

Observed and expected environmental effects of global climate change

- Global mean sea level rise. Sea level rise, has been estimated to be on average 2.6 mm
and 2.9 mm per year ± 0.4 mm since 1993. Widespread coastal flooding would be
expected if several degrees of warming is sustained for millennia.
- Reduction in worldwide glaciers and snow covered areas. Also the reduction of snow
thickness. Some projections suggest that Arctic summers could be ice-free (defined as ice
extent less than 1 million square km) as early as 2025-2030.
- Extreme weather: Changes in regional climate are expected to include greater warming
over land, with most warming at high northern latitudes, and least warming over the
Southern Ocean and parts of the North Atlantic Ocean.
Projections suggest a probable increase in the frequency and severity of some extreme
weather events, such as heat waves.
Changes in precipitation trends: reduced precipitation over subtropical land areas, and
increased precipitation at subpolar latitudes and some equatorial regions. Data analysis of
extreme events from 1960 till 2010 suggests that droughts and heat waves appear
simultaneously with increased frequency. Extremely wet or dry events within the
monsoon period have increased since 1980.

Effects on Ecological systems

In terrestrial ecosystems, the earlier timing of spring events, and poleward and upward shifts in
plant and animal ranges, have been linked with high confidence to recent warming. Future
climate change is expected to particularly affect certain ecosystems, including tundra,
mangroves, and coral reefs. It is expected that most ecosystems will be affected by higher
atmospheric CO2 levels, combined with higher global temperatures. Overall, it is expected that
climate change will result in the extinction of many species and reduced diversity of ecosystems.

Increases in atmospheric CO2 concentrations have led to an increase in ocean acidity. Future
ocean acidification could threaten coral reefs, fisheries, protected species, and other natural
resources of value to society.
Long-term effects

Long-term effects also include a response from the Earth's crust, due to ice melting and
deglaciation, in a process called post-glacial rebound, when land masses are no longer depressed
by the weight of ice. This could lead to landslides and increased seismic and volcanic activities.
Tsunamis could be generated by submarine landslides caused by warmer ocean water thawing
ocean-floor permafrost or releasing gas hydrates. Some world regions, such as the French Alps,
already show signs of an increase in landslide frequency.

Observed and expected effects on social systems

The future social impacts of climate change will be uneven. Many risks are expected to increase
with higher magnitudes of global warming. All regions are at risk of experiencing negative
impacts. Low-latitude, less developed areas face the greatest risk. A study from 2015 concluded
that economic growth (Gross domestic product) of poorer countries is much more impaired with
projected future climate warming, than previously thought.

Examples of impacts include:

Food: Crop production will probably be negatively affected in low latitude countries, while
effects at northern latitudes may be positive or negative. Global warming of around 4.6 °C
relative to pre-industrial levels could pose a large risk to global and regional food security.

Health: Generally impacts will be more negative than positive. Impacts include: the effects of
extreme weather, leading to injury and loss of life; and indirect effects, such as under-nutrition
brought on by crop failures.

Habitat inundation: In small islands and mega deltas, inundation as a result of sea level rise is
expected to threaten vital infrastructure and human settlements. This could lead to issues of
homelessness in countries with low-lying areas such as Bangladesh, as well as statelessness for
populations in countries such as the Maldives and Tuvalu.

Economy: Estimates based on the IPCC A1B emission scenario from additional CO2 and CH4
greenhouse gases released from permafrost, estimate associated impact damages by US$43
trillion.

Infrastructure: Continued permafrost degradation will likely result in unstable infrastructure in

Arctic regions, or Alaska before 2100. Thus, impacting roads, pipelines and buildings, as well as
water distribution, and cause slope failures.

Increase in violence: A meta-analysis of 56 studies concluded in 2014 that each degree of

temperature rise will increase violence by up to 20%, which includes fist fights, violent crimes,
civil unrest or wars.
 6.2 Mitigation Measures
Climate change mitigation consists of actions to limit the magnitude or rate of long-
term climate change Climate change mitigation generally involves reductions in human
(anthropogenic) emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs). Mitigation may also be achieved by
increasing the capacity of carbon sinks, e.g., through reforestation. Mitigation policies can
substantially reduce the risks associated with human-induced global warming.

If mitigation efforts are delayed, it would be more difficult to limit global warming to 2°C and
the range of options would be more limited. Infrastructure development and long-lived products
can lock a society into a pathway of high greenhouse gas emissions, something that can be
difficult and costly to change. This reinforces the importance of early action for ambitious
mitigation.

Since most greenhouse gases accumulate over time and mix globally, climate change can only be
effectively mitigated if collective actions are taken at the global scale. International cooperation
is needed to help developing and spreading environmentally sound technologies.
In order to accurately estimate the benefits of mitigation, the full range of possible impacts
of climate change need to be taken into account by social, economic and ethical analyses.

Possible mitigation measures

Major options needed to reach the maximum concentration objective of 450 ppm CO2eq include:
1. Replacing coal‐fired power plants with modern, highly efficient natural gas power plants,
provided that natural gas is available and that gas leaks are kept low during extraction and
distribution;
2. More efficient energy use, as well as tripling to nearly quadrupling the share of zero‐ and
low‐carbon energy sources by the year 2050; this includes renewables, nuclear energy, fossil
energy with CO2 capture and storage (CCS), and bioenergy with CCS (BECCS).
3. Reducing CO2 emissions in all transport modes, through technical improvements, behavioural
changes, as well as new infrastructure and urban redevelopment investments.
4. Reforestation: Forests are an important part of the global carbon cycle because trees and plants
absorb carbon dioxide through photosynthesis. By removing this greenhouse gas from the air,
forests function as terrestrial carbon sinks, meaning they store large amounts of carbon. At any
time, forests account for as much as double the amount of carbon in the atmosphere.
5.
How can individuals contribute to the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions?
Individuals could substantially lower emissions by changing their diet (meat dominant to veg
dominant), reducing food waste, and modifying consumption patterns such as mobility demand
and modes, energy use in households, choice of longer‐lasting products. Such changes in
behaviour may improve energy efficiency by 20 to 30 % in 2030.
In developed countries, lifestyle and behavioural changes could reduce energy demand in
buildings by up to 20% in the short term and by up to 50% by mid‐century.
6.3 International Efforts to Mitigate Climate Change
International efforts to mitigate climate changed are getting ramped up currently. As climate
change poses the danger of extinction of not only other species but human itself, it is generating
a lot of discussions and ideas now.

In 1992, countries joined an international treaty, the United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change, as a framework for international cooperation to combat climate change by
limiting average global temperature increases and the resulting climate change, and coping with
impacts that were, by then, inevitable.

By 1995, countries launched negotiations to strengthen the global response to climate change,
and, two years later, adopted the Kyoto Protocol. The Kyoto Protocol legally binds developed
country Parties to emission reduction targets. The Protocol’s first commitment period started in
2008 and ended in 2012. The second commitment period began on 1 January 2013 and will end
in 2020.

There are now 196 Parties to the Convention and 192 Parties to the Kyoto Protocol.

The 2015 Paris Agreement, adopted in Paris on 12 December 2015, marks the latest step in the
evolution of the UN climate change regime and builds on the work undertaken under the
Convention. The Paris Agreement charts a new course in the global effort to combat climate
change.

The Paris Agreement seeks to accelerate and intensify the actions and investment needed for a
sustainable low carbon future. Its central aim is to strengthen the global response to the threat of
climate change by keeping a global temperature rise this century well below 2 degrees Celsius
above pre-industrial levels and to pursue efforts to limit the temperature increase even further to
1.5 degrees Celsius. The Agreement also aims to strengthen the ability of countries to deal with
the impacts of climate change.

To reach these ambitious goals, appropriate financial flows, including by, before 2025, setting a
new goal on the provision of finance from the USD 100 billion floor, and an enhanced capacity
building framework, including an Initiative for Capacity Building, will be put in place: thus
supporting action by developing countries and the most vulnerable countries, in line with their
own national objectives. The Agreement will also enhance transparency of action and support
through a more robust transparency framework.

The UNFCCC secretariat supports all institutions involved in the international climate change
negotiations, particularly the Conference of the Parties (COP), the Conference of the Parties
serving as the meeting of the Parties (CMP), the subsidiary bodies (which advise the COP/CMP),
and the COP/CMP Bureau (which deals mainly with procedural and organizational issues arising
from the COP/CMP and also has technical functions).
UNEP: The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) is the leading global
environmental authority that sets the global environmental agenda, promotes the coherent
implementation of the environmental dimension of sustainable development within the
United Nations system and serves as an authoritative advocate for the global
environment.

UNEP work encompasses:

 Assessing global, regional and national environmental conditions and trends

 Developing international and national environmental instruments
 Strengthening institutions for the wise management of the environment

IPCC: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is the leading international body
for the assessment of climate change. It was established by the United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP) and the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) in 1988 to provide the
world with a clear scientific view on the current state of knowledge in climate change and its
potential environmental and socio-economic impacts. In the same year, the UN General
Assembly endorsed the action by WMO and UNEP in jointly establishing the IPCC.

The IPCC reviews and assesses the most recent scientific, technical and socio-economic
information produced worldwide relevant to the understanding of climate change. It does not
conduct any research nor does it monitor climate related data or parameters.

As an intergovernmental body, membership of the IPCC is open to all member countries of the
United Nations (UN) and WMO. Currently 195 countries are Members of the IPCC.
Governments participate in the review process and the plenary Sessions, where main decisions
about the IPCC work programme are taken and reports are accepted, adopted and approved. The
IPCC Bureau Members, including the Chair, are also elected during the plenary Sessions.

Thousands of scientists from all over the world contribute to the work of the IPCC. Review is an
essential part of the IPCC process, to ensure an objective and complete assessment of current
information. IPCC aims to reflect a range of views and expertise. TheSecretariat coordinates all
the IPCC work and liaises with Governments. It is established by WMO and UNEP and located
at WMO headquarters in Geneva.

Because of its scientific and intergovernmental nature, the IPCC embodies a unique opportunity
to provide rigorous and balanced scientific information to decision makers. By endorsing the
IPCC reports, governments acknowledge the authority of their scientific content. The work of the
organization is therefore policy-relevant and yet policy-neutral, never policy-prescriptive.

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Besides these UN bodies, there are many multilateral and bilateral treaties and cooperation
among nations to work on environment and climate change issues. European Commission has
its own body for energy policies. EU countries are much ahead in formulating environment
friendly sustainable energy policies and implementing them. Almost all the countries of world
have their own environmental agencies. International organizations like JICA are also active in
this field. Non-governmental organizations like Greenpeace are also working in the field of
environmental conservation and mitigation of climate change.

The role of many artists and celebrities like Leonardo Di Caprio has been very crucial in
increasing awareness regarding climate change.

6.4 Biogas, Organic Farming

Biogas:

Biogas is considered a very good alternative energy source for the purpose of reducing GHG.
Biogas typically refers to a mixture of different gases produced by the breakdown of organic
matter in the absence of oxygen. Biogas can be produced from raw materials such as agricultural
waste, manure, municipal waste, plant material, sewage, green waste or food waste. It is a
renewable energy source and in many cases exerts a very small carbon footprint.
Biogas can be produced by anaerobic digestion with anaerobic organisms, which digest material
inside a closed system, or fermentation of biodegradable materials.
Biogas is primarily methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide (CO2) and may have small amounts
of hydrogen sulfide (H2S), moisture and siloxanes. The gases methane, hydrogen, and carbon
monoxide (CO) can be combusted or oxidized with oxygen. This energy release allows biogas to
be used as a fuel; it can be used for any heating purpose, such as cooking. It can also be used in a
gas engine to convert the energy in the gas into electricity and heat.
Biogas can be compressed, the same way natural gas is compressed to CNG, and used to
power motor vehicles. In the UK, for example, biogas is estimated to have the potential to
replace around 17% of vehicle fuel. It qualifies for renewable energy subsidies in some parts of
the world. Biogas can be cleaned and upgraded to natural gas standards, when it becomes bio
methane.
In North America, use of biogas would generate enough electricity to meet up to 3% of the
continent's electricity expenditure. In addition, biogas could potentially help reduce global
climate change. High levels of methane are produced when manure is stored under anaerobic
conditions. During storage and when manure has been applied to the land, nitrous oxide is also
produced as a byproduct of the denitrification process. Nitrous oxide (N2O) is 320 times more
aggressive as a greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide and methane 25 times more than carbon
dioxide.
By converting cow manure into methane biogas via anaerobic digestion, the millions of cattle in
the United States would be able to produce 100 billion kilowatt hours of electricity, enough to
power millions of homes across the United States. In fact, one cow can produce enough manure
in one day to generate 3 kilowatt hours of electricity; only 2.4 kilowatt hours of electricity are
needed to power a single 100-watt light bulb for one day. Furthermore, by converting cattle
manure into methane biogas instead of letting it decompose, global warming gases could be
reduced by 99 million metric tons or 4%.
Biogas can be used for electricity production on sewage works, in a CHP gas engine, where the
waste heat from the engine is conveniently used for heating the digester; cooking; space
heating; water heating; and process heating. If compressed, it can replace compressed natural
gas for use in vehicles, where it can fuel an internal combustion engine or fuel cells and is a
much more effective displacer of carbon dioxide than the normal use in on-site CHP plants.
Organic Farming:
Organic farming is a form of agriculture that relies on sustainable techniques to enhance the
natural fertility of a farm, including crop rotation, companion planting, biological pest control,
and naturally-sourced fertilizers such as compost, manure, green manure, and bone meal. Pest-
control measures such as mixed crops and fostering natural insect predators, as well as naturally-
sourced pesticides such as pyrethrin, are employed, while it excludes or strictly limits the use of
synthetic petrochemical fertilizers and pesticides, plant growth regulators such
as hormones, antibiotic use in livestock, genetically modified organisms; human sewage sludge,
and nanomaterials.)
The agricultural approach emphasizes sustainability, openness, independence, health, and safety.

Organic production is a holistic system designed to optimize the productivity and fitness of
diverse communities within the agro-ecosystem, including soil organisms, plants, livestock
and people. The principal goal of organic production is to develop enterprises that are
sustainable and harmonious with the environment.

The general principles of organic production, include the following:

 protect the environment, minimize soil degradation and erosion, decrease pollution,
optimize biological productivity and promote a sound state of health
 maintain long-term soil fertility by optimizing conditions for biological activity
within the soil
 maintain biological diversity within the system
 recycle materials and resources to the greatest extent possible within the enterprise
 provide attentive care that promotes the health and meets the behavioural needs of
livestock
  prepare organic products, emphasizing careful processing, and handling methods in
order to maintain the organic integrity and vital qualities of the products at all
stages of production
 rely on renewable resources in locally organized agricultural systems

Organic farming promotes the use of crop rotations and cover crops, and encourages
balanced host/predator relationships. Organic residues and nutrients produced on the farm
are recycled back to the soil. Cover crops and composted manure are used to maintain soil
organic matter and fertility. Preventative insect and disease control methods are practiced,
including crop rotation, improved genetics and resistant varieties. Integrated pest and weed
management, and soil conservation systems are valuable tools on an organic farm.
Organically approved pesticides include “natural” or other pest management products
included in the Permitted Substances List (PSL) of the organic standards. The Permitted
Substances List identifies substances permitted for use as a pesticide in organic agriculture.
All grains, forages and protein supplements fed to livestock must be organically grown.

The organic standards generally prohibit products of genetic engineering and animal
cloning, synthetic pesticides, synthetic fertilizers, sewage sludge, synthetic drugs, synthetic
food processing aids and ingredients, and ionizing radiation. Prohibited products and
practices must not be used on certified organic farms for at least three years prior to harvest
of the certified organic products. Livestock must be raised organically and fed 100 per cent
organic feed ingredients.

Organic farming presents many challenges. Some crops are more challenging than others to
grow organically; however, nearly every commodity can be produced organically.

Since 1990 the market for organic food and other products has grown rapidly, reaching $63
billion worldwide in 2012. This demand has driven a similar increase in organically
managed farmland that grew from 2001 to 2011 at a compounding rate of 8.9% per
annum. As of 2011, approximately 37,000,000 hectares (91,000,000 acres) worldwide were
farmed organically, representing approximately 0.9 percent of total world farmland.

6.5 Deforestation and Its Consequences

Deforestation in simple term means the felling and clearing of forest cover or tree plantations in order to
accommodate agricultural, industrial or urban use. It involves permanent end of forest cover to make that
land available for residential, commercial or industrial purpose. Deforestation can also be seen as removal
of forests leading to several imbalances ecologically and environmentally. What makes deforestation
alarming is the immediate and long term effects it is bound to inflict if continued at the current pace.
Some predictions state that the rainforests of the world will be destroyed completely if deforestation
continues at its current pace.
Causes of Deforestation
1. Agricultural Activities: As earlier mentioned in the overview, agricultural activities are one
of the major factors affecting deforestation. Due to overgrowing demand for food products, huge
amount of tress is fell down to grow crops and for cattle grazing.
2. Logging: Apart from this, wood based industries like paper, match-sticks, furniture etc also
need a substantial amount of wood supply. Wood is used as fuel both directly and indirectly,
therefore trees are chopped for supplies. Firewood and charcoal are examples of wood being
used as fuel. Some of these industries thrive on illegal wood cutting and felling of trees.
3. Urbanization: Further on order to gain access to these forests, the construction of roads are
undertaken; here again trees are chopped to create roads. Overpopulation too directly affects
forest covers, as with the expansion of cities more land is needed to establish housing and
settlements. Therefore, forest land is reclaimed.
4. Desertification of land: Some of the other factors that lead to deforestation are also part
natural and part anthropogenic like Desertification of land. It occurs due to land abuse making it
unfit for growth of trees. Many industries in petrochemicals release their waste into rivers
which results in soil erosion and make it unfit to grow plants and trees.
5. Mining: Oil and coal mining require considerable amount of forest land. Apart from this,
roads and highways have to be built to make way for trucks and other equipment. The waste that
comes out from mining pollutes the environment and affects the nearby species.
6. Forest Fires: Another example would be forest blazes; Hundreds of trees are lost each year
due to forest fires in various portions of the world. This happens due to extreme warm summers
and milder winters. Fires, whether causes by man or nature results in huge loss of forest cover.

Effects of Deforestation
1. Climate Imbalance: Deforestation also affects the climate in more than one ways. Trees
release water vapor in the air, which is compromised on with the lack of trees. Trees also provide
the required shade that keeps the soil moist. This leads to the imbalance in the atmospheric
temperature further making conditions for the ecology difficult. Flora and fauna across the world
are accustomed to their habitat. This haphazard clearance of forests have forced several of these
animals to shift from their native environment. Due to this several species are finding it difficult
to survive or adapt to new habitats.
2. Increase in Global Warming: Trees play a major role in controlling global warming. The
trees utilize the green house gases, restoring the balance in the atmosphere. With constant
deforestation the ratio of green house gases in the atmosphere has increased, adding to our global
warming woes.
3. Soil Erosion: Also due to the shade of trees the soil remains moist. With the clearance of tree
cover, the soil is directly exposed to the sun, making it dry.
4. Floods: When it rains, trees absorb and store large amount of water with the help of their
roots. When they are cut down, the flow of water is disrupted and leads to floods in some areas
and droughts in other.
5. Wildlife Extinction: Due to massive felling down of trees, various species of animals are lost.
They lose their habitat and forced to move to new location. Some of them are even pushed to
extinction. Our world has lost so many species of plants and animals in last couple of decades.
Solutions to Deforestation
1. The best solution to deforestation is to curb the felling of trees, by employing a series of
rules and laws to govern it. Deforestation in the current scenario may have reduced however it
would be too early to assume. The money-churner that forest resources can be, is tempting
enough for deforestation to continue.
2. Clear cutting of forests must be banned. This will curb total depletion of the forest cover. It
is a practical solution and is very feasible.
3. Land skinned of its tree cover for urban settlements should be urged to plant trees in the
vicinity and replace the cut trees. Also the cutting must be replaced by planting young trees
to replace the older ones that were cut. Trees are being planted under several initiatives every
year, but they still don’t match the numbers of the ones we’ve already lost.
6.6 Importance of National Parks, Conservation Areas and Reforestation
Programs in Nepal
National parks and conservation area protect the best of our natural heritage: stunning
landscapes, extraordinary wildlife and majestic forests. Together with other protected areas they
form the basis of our economic and social wellbeing, attract millions of visitors annually, and
help to protect Australia's unique wildlife by acting as a refuge for threatened species. Although
their primary purpose is the protection of biodiversity, National Parks also deliver other
invaluable economic, social, cultural and health benefits. Future generations deserve the right to
see these natural values intact and protected as we do today.

Natural Values

Our national parks form the cornerstone of biodiversity conservation in Nepal, containing vital
habitat that provides safe havens in which animals and plants can survive and thrive. Together
with other protected areas, they provide a 'backbone' of core conservation areas that can be
linked by conservation efforts across different tenures, supporting a diverse, healthy and resilient
environment. A well-connected landscape is essential for saving threatened species. In addition,
our protected areas provide life-sustaining services vital for the wellbeing of our environment
and society, such as protection of urban water catchments and climate amelioration.

Economic Value

National Parks provide a major boost to Nepal's economy, with nature-based tourism bringing
billions into the country every year. Regional communities in particular benefit from the people
who visit national parks and conservation areas each year, through job creation and money spent
on accommodation, fuel and food. Intact natural areas also provide a variety of resources and
processes vital for human life and the economy. For example, protected areas provide a water
catchment and filtration service, improving the quality of the water we use for drinking,
agriculture and industry.

Social and cultural values

National parks are alive with history and culture. They serve as a natural history book dating
back thousands of years. Today our protected areas are still used by ethnic people in a number of
ways, such as a source of food, tools, medicine and trade, as well as in ceremonial and spiritual
activities. In this way national parks provide an opportunity in for people to establish and
continue their connections with the land and to share their irreplaceable cultural knowledge with
the wider community.

Health and Wellbeing

Natural areas have a profound effect on our physical and emotional health and wellbeing. In our
increasingly frenetic world, our national parks are important sanctuaries where people can take
time out, enjoy nature, get fit, relax and revitalize, whilst nature's inherent beauty serves as a
source of artistic, creative and spiritual inspiration. Research on the benefits of contact with the
natural environment show that it is likely to have a significant positive psychological effect,
serving to reduce stress, anger, frustration and aggression, providing an opportunity for social
bonding, and serving as a place for learning and mental stimulation. Children in particular
display long-term benefits of playing outdoors. In addition to the obvious health and wellbeing
benefits our national parks bring, they also assist us in less obvious ways, such as acting as
natural buffers against extreme weather events, helping to control our climate, providing us with
clean water, improving food security and serving as an important resource for the pharmaceutical
industry.

Assignment: Why is reforestation important for a country like Nepal?