oi tt i l ; nt MO Hirth j a att UA CE Hi eT ttt en & Me ent h=c hich ea ey. rele sucti (eats Melee cola +: the design, installation, and Re *. ‘maintenance of a water well & om Le ax e OE ;Groundwater and Wells Third Edition Edited by Robert J. Sterrett, PhD, RG JONNSONs:rsens “New Brighton, MNLibrary of Congress Cataloging-In-Publication Data Groundwater and wells / edited by Robert J. Sterrett: -- 3rd ed. pecm, Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN-13: 978-0-9787793-0.-6 (hardcover : alk. paper) ISBN-10: 0-9787793-0-4 (hardcover : alk. paper) 1. Wells, 2. Groundwater. I. Sterrett, Robert J ‘TD40S.S74 2007 628.1'14de22 2007036773 © 2007 Johnson Screens, a Weatherford Company All Rights Reserved Third Edition Disclaimer ‘The information and recommendations contained inthis book have been compiled rom sources believed to be reliable and that represent the best opinion om the subject as of 2007. No warranty, guarantee. oF seprescatation, expres or implies made by Johnson Screens, a Weatherford Company. however, as tothe correctness or sufficiency of his formation orto the results to be obtained from the use thereof Ht eannot be wssomed that ll necessary warnings, safety suggestions and precautionary measures ure conned in this book, or that any additional information or measares might not he required or desinsble becaus of particular cconiitions or cirumstances, ot because of any applicable U.S. federal, stale, or local law, or any applicable foreign law or any insurance requirements or codes. The warnings, safety suggestions, and precautionary measures contained herein do nol supplement or modify any U.S. federal, state oF loval law.oran applicable foreign law, or any insurance requirements or codes Printed in the United States of America This volume is printed on acid-free paper by Litho Tech, Bloomington, MNTable of Contents Chapter 1. Introduction and Acknowledgments Chapter 2. Occurrence of Groundwater and Aquifer Types ‘Types of Subsurface Water Aquifers Energy Contained in Groundwater Unconfined Aquifers Confined Aquifers ‘Aquifer Properties Storage Porosity Specific Yield Specific Retention Storage Coefficient Example Hydraulic Conductivity Groundwater Flow Transmissivity Grain-Size and Hydraulic Conductivity Sediment-Size Classification Other Ways to Describe Sediment Size Slope and Shape of Curve Permeameters Laboratory Permeameters Field Permeameters Groundwater Flow Velocities ‘Measuring Groundwater Flow Velocities Summary Acknowledgments ul 13 15 16 18, 18, 18 19 20 32 34 36 38 42 42 43 45 47 47 47vi Groundwater and Wells, Third Edition Chapter 3. Subsurface Exploration and Hydrogeologic Logging Drilling to Obtain Formation Samples Rotary-Drilling Methods Casing-Advancement Drilling Dual-Wall Drilling with Air or Water Geolograph Air Rotary Drilling Method Used to Evaluate Aquifer Production Cable-Tool Drilling Method Exploration Drilling Methods Dual-Wall Percussion Hammer Drilling Hollow-Stem Auger Drilling Direct-Push Drilling Wireline-Core Drilling Hydrogeologie Logging of Boreholes Sample Collection Sample Description Depth Aquifer or Formation Unconsolidated Materials and Bedrock Hardness Color Water Content Other Water-Level Data Well-Log Software Summary Acknowledgments Chapter 4. Borehole Geophysics The Borehole Environment Electrical Logs Spontaneous Potential Log Resistance Log Resistivity Log Induction Log Natural-Gamma Ray Log 49 49 52 54 54 55 56 37 57 57 ol 63 66 68 70 72 74 15 76 16 80 80 81 82 82 83 83 84 85 89. 93 95 97 o7 101 102Table of Contents vil Porosity Logs 104 ‘Neutron Log 105 Gamma-Density Log 107 Sonic Log 108, Borehole Imaging Logs rn Downhole Televising Log i Acoustic Televiewer 112 Optical Televiewer 113 Caliper Log 115 Alignment Logs 17 Flow Meters 118 ‘Temperature Log 119 Borehole-Fluid Conductivity Log 121 Spinner Log 121 Heat-Pulse Flow Meter 123 Fluid Displacement Log 124 Well-Construction Evaluation Logs 125 Cement-Bond Log 125 Magnetic Flux Density Log 127 Geochemical Logs 127 Designing a Logging Program 128 Log Interpretation: The Standard E-Log Suite 128 Acknowledgment 133, Chapter 5. Groundwater Chemistry 135 Introduction 135 Chemical Properties of Groundwater 136 Units of Measurement in Analyses 137 Classes of Compounds and Analysis 138 Physical Properties of Groundwater 139 Conservative Elements 143 Dissolved Gases 148, Radionuclides 149 Reactive Major Elements 150 Redox-Sensitive Elements and Compounds 159 Trace Elements 166 Organic Compounds 168 Groundwater Sampling Methods and Handling 169 Data Analysis 172 Table 172 Bar Graph 173vill Groundwater and Wells, Third Edition Pie Chart Trilinear Diagram Pattern Analysis Chemical Modeling Summary Acknowledgments Chapter 6. Aquifer-Test Data Collection and Analysis Overview Conducting an Aquifer Test Maintaining Discharge Measuring Drawdown in Wells Observation Wells and Piezometers Recovery Data Aquifer-Test Analysis Steady-State Flow in Confined and Unconfined Aquifers Transient Flow in Confined Aquifers Distance-Drawdown Analysis Hydrogeologic Boundaries and Images Recharge Image Wells Vertical Infiltration (Vertical Recharge) Slow Drainage Vertical Leakage Wellbore Storage Casing and Filter-Pack Storage Partial Penetration Well Efficiency and Well Loss Analysis of Recovery Data Variable-Rate Tests Diagnostic Flow Plots Step-Drawdown Tests Analysis of Aquifer Tests Using Numerical Codes ‘Summary Acknowledgments Chapter 7. Well-Drilling Methods Direct Circulation Methods Air and Mud Rotary Drilling Underbalanced Rotary Drilling 173 174 176 176 77 77 179 179 182 184 190, 190 197 198, 198, 202 2u1 215 215 220 224 224 226 227 231 231 233 236 243 245 246 248 249 251 253 254 254 263Table of Contents Downhole Hammer Drilling Casing Advancement Drilling Methods Reverse Circulation Methods Dual-Wall Air Rotary Drilling Noneirculation Methods Cable-Tool Drilling Bucket Auger Drilling Summary ‘Acknowledgments Chapter 8. Drilling Fluids ‘Types of Drilling Fluids Water-Based Fluid Natural Mud (Native Mud) Air-Based Fluid Underbalanced Drilling Aerated-Mud Underbalanced Drilling Selecting a Drilling-Fluid System Drilling Fluid Functions Clean the Bit and the Borehole Bottom Stabilize the Borehole Cool and Lubricate the Drill Bit Control Fluid Loss Drop Cuttings into a Settling Pit Provide Information About the Wellbore Suspend Cuttings in the Borehole Control the Formation Maximize Productivity Properties of Water-Based Drilling Fluids Drilling-Fluid Density Rheological Properties Filtration ‘Treatment of Mix Water for Drilling Fluids Sand Content Design of Mud Pits Mixing Additives into Water-Based Systems Solids Control Lost Circulation Underbalanced Drilling Air Drilling Dry-Air Systems Air-Mist Systems 264 266 270 273 274 274 277 282 285 287 288 289 289 290 290 290 291 291 292 293 293 293 294 294 294 294 295 295 301 Bil 316 317 318 320 324 325 326 330 335x ‘Groundwater and Wells, Third Edition Air-Foam Systems 335 Aerated Drilling Fluids 338 Drilling-Fluid Additives 349 Summary 352 Chapter 9. Production Water-Well Design 353 Introduction 353 General Considerations in Casing and Sereen Design 354 Chemical- , Electrochemical- , and Microbial-Induced Corrosion 335 Well Design and Bacteria Management 362 ‘The Well Casing 364 Pipe-Size Nomenclature 365 Casing Diameter 368 Telescope Casings and Well Depth 369 Selection of Casing Materials 370 Casing Strength Requirements 378 Joining Casing 387 Cementing 392 The Well Intake 392 ‘Types of Well Screens 304. Continuous-Slot Screen Design 406 Sediment-Size Analysis 406 Screen Slot Size 406 Artificial Filter Pack 409 Steps in Designing a Filter Pack 411 Thickness of Filter Pack 414 Formation Stabilizer 416 Screen Strength 420 Screen Length 428 Screen Diameter 431 Screen Open Area 432 Special Considerations 436 Pump Placement 436 Pressure-Relief Screens 436 Summary 437 Acknowledgments 438Table of Contents Chapter 10. Water-Well Construction and Abandonment Overview of Well Construction Installing Casing Casing and Joint Types Joining Steel Casing Joining Plastic Casing Joining Fiberglass Casing Grouting and Sealing a Well Casing ‘Cementing Tools and Products Proportioning Cement Grout Mixing Grout Slurry Placement Methods Casing Method Installing Bentonite Grout Grouting Failures Testing the Grout Seal Installing Well Screen Setting Screen in Rotary-Drilled Wells Packer Use in Screen Installation Liner Hanger Installing Prepack Screens—Muni-Pak™ Installing Polyvinyl Chloride Screens Wash-Down Installation Methods Installing Well Points Pull-Back Installation Method Filter Packing Wells Tremie Pipe Telltale Screen Reverse Circulation Direct Circulation Filter-Pack Procedure for Telescoping Well Completion Filter-Pack Procedure for Single-String Well Completion Removing Well Screen Well Plumbness and Alignment Underground “Pitless” Discharge Summary Acknowledgments xi 439 439 440, 441 443 443 445 445 448 451 453 454 461 463 466 466 467 467 472 473 475 476 478 481 483 486 486 487 487 487 489 491 492 495 498 500 500xii Groundwater and Wells, Third Edition Chapter 11. Development of Water Wells Aquifer Damage and Development Objectives ‘Aquifer Damage Development Objectives Factors that Affect Development Well-Completion Methods Natural Development Filter Packing Open Area and Slot Configuration Drilling Fluid Type Filter-Pack Thickness Well-Development Process Break Down and Remove Drilling Fluids Mechanical Surging Jetting with Water High-Velocity Water Jetting ‘Water Jetting Combined withSimultaneous Pumping Jetting with Air Developing by Surging and Pumping with Air Double Surge Block with Air Lift Double Surge Block with High-Pressure Jetting Overpumping Development of Open-Borehole Wells Allowable Sediment Concentration inWell Water Aquifer-Stimulation Techniques Hydrofracturing of Open-Hole Wells to Increase Production Use of Acid for Aquifer Stimulation Use of Explosives for Aquifer Stimulation Summary ‘Acknowledgments Chapter 12. Groundwater Pumps Introduction Centrifugal Pump Basic Components Centrifugal Pump Operation Centrifugal Pump Impeller Types Overview Impeller Types 501 502 502 503 504 504 505 505 507 509 509 509 Sil 512 516 519 520 520 522 527 529 530 532 533 537 538, 548. 549 550 550 551 551 552 553 554 554 557Table of Contents Centrifugal Pump Impeller Configurations Open Impeller ‘Semi-Open Impeller Enclosed Impeller Basic Centrifugal Pump Types Volute Pump Diffusion Vane or Turbine Pump Multi-Stage Pump Pump Performance Curves Pump Selection Head Capacity Pump Efficiency Pump Brake Horsepower Net Positive Suction Head Required Other Groundwater-Well Pump-Selection Considerations Pump Construction Materials Corrosion Resistance Abrasion Resistance Mechanical Strength Pump Driver Characteristics Total Dynamic Head Centrifugal Pump Suction Lift TDH Sample Calculation Submersible Well Pump TDH Sample Calculation ‘Common Groundwater Well Pumps Jet Pump Vertical Lineshaft Turbine Pump Submersible Pump Pump Selection and Application Summary Acknowledgment Chapter 13. Well Blockage and Rehabilitation Theory of Well Blockage Analysis of Groundwater Overview of Laboratory Analysis Heterotrophic Plate Count Adenosine Triphosphate Determination Types of Blockage Causes of Blockage Effects of Temperature, Pressure, and Velocity Change xii 559 560 560 562 563 563 563 564 565 567 567 568 568 569 573 578 578 578 579 581 581 582 584 585 589 501 593 594 595 597 598 599 599 601 602 603 603 604xiv Groundwater and Wells, Third Edition Chemical Blockage Carbonate Calcium Sulfate (Gypsum) Oxides Physical Incrustation Biological Incrustation Biofilm Bacteria Growth Characteristics of Iron Deposits Oxidation Biofilm Tron Sulfide Field Testing of Incrustations Timely Maintenance Cleaning Treatment Fluids Acid Treatment Hydrochloric Acid Sulfumie Acid Phosphoric Acid Determining the Quantity of Acid to Use Chlorine Treatment Chlorine Gas and pH Control Chlorine Levels Pretreatment Chlorination Procedure Alternative to Polyphosphate Treatment Sonar-Iet™ Method of Well Rehabilitation Summary Chapter 14. Groundwater Monitoring and Remediation Wells Chemical Movement Advection Hydrodynamic Dispersion Density Chemical and Biochemical Reactions Assessing Plumes of Chemicals in Groundwater Locating Monitoring Wells, Designing Monitoring Wells Material Criteria for Monitoring Wells Filter Pack Design and Well-Slot Selection 605 605 605 606 607 607 608 609 611 oll 612 613 613 614 614 616 617 618 619 619 620 621 622 624 624 625 626 627 627 629 630 630 631 632 633 634 635 636 637 644Table of Contents Monitoring-Well Installation Procedures Direct-Push Monitoring and Remediation Wells Aquifer Remediation Overview Containment In Situ Remediation Biosparging and Air-Sparging Wells Horizontal Wells Soil Vapor Extraction Wells Summary Acknowledgments Chapter 15. Alternative Uses for Wells and Well Screens ‘Aquifer Storage Recovery Wells ASR-Well Construction Materials ASR-Well Water-Level Measurement and Casing Diameter Mechanical Integrity Testing Selection of ASR Storage Intervals ASR-Well Screen Design Target Storage Volume and Recovery Efficiency ASR Wellhead and Wellfield Design and Operation Horizontal Collector Wells Collector-Well Design Collector-Well Construction Collector-Well Maintenance Riverbank Filtration Other Collector-Well Applications Infiltration Galleries Dewatering Factors in Selecting a Dewatering System Well-Point Dewatering Systems Deep-Well Dewatering Systems Summary Injection Wells Pressure-Relief Wells Wells for Heat Pumps Surface-Water Withdrawal Seawater Intakes Passive Screeningxvi Groundwater and Wells, Third Edition Appendix 5.A. Common Water Quality Issues Appendix 9.C, Dimensions and Strengths of Steel Pipe Appendix 9.E. Collapse Pressures for Thermoplastic Water-Well Casing Appendix 9.H. Recommended Minimum Thickness for Carbon Steel Well Casing Abbreviations and Symbols Glossary Reference List Index 725 733 741 745 747 753 775 795CHAPTER 1 Introduction and Acknowledgments Robert J. Sterrett, PhD, RG Engineering Management Support, Inc. At the start of the twenty-first century, the demand for clean potable water is increasing at a greater rate due in part to a growing population. Additionally, societies are being forced to evaluate impacts on current and future water supplies as a result of energy and mineral development and climate changes. These evaluations include a determination of the quantity and quality of the groundwater resource. Johnson Screens, a Weatherford company, for more than 100 years has been at the forefront in providing the water-well industry with well screens, well supplies, and—most importantly—application expertise for the evaluation, protection, and extractions of groundwater resources. In 1936, a patent was issued to Edward E. Johnson, Inc. for a wire-wrapped screen (Figure 1.1). Since then, Johnson Screens has expanded to supply a wide variety of screens, drilling fluids, and well-treatment products that are used. worldwide. In 1929, Johnson Screens began publishing the Drillers Journal, ‘The journal became the “official” trade journal for water-well professionals. This was the beginning of a long tradition of Johnson Screens being a leader in providing educational and reference materials to the groundwater community. ‘A copy of each issue of the Drillers Journal can be found in Appendix 1 on this book's companion DVD.2 Groundwater and Weils, Third Edition In 1947, Ground Water, Its Development, Uses and Conservation, was pub- lished by Edward E. Johnson, Inc. In 1966, Johnson Screens published the first edition of Ground Water and Wells—one of the first comprehensive references on the state of the practice for the evaluation and installation of groundwater production wells. The first edition was translated into Spanish, and its release found worldwide use—because it truly was a handbook that could be taken into the field. July 25, 1836 = sommes 2039206, TE )) \ —S= Edvard E Jehneon Lamcattshproet Figure 1.1. Diagram of Wire-Wrapped Screen Used for 1936 Patent. Twenty years later, in response to the need for updated information, Fletcher Driscoll (PhD) —with the assistance of groundwater professionals from. both within and outside of Johnson Screens—authored the 1986 second editionChapter 1, Introduction and Acknowledgments 3 of Groundwater and Wells. The second edition soon was considered the com- prehensive reference manual for the evaluation of groundwater resources and the design of water wells. More than 150,000 copies of the second edition have been sold worldwide. Since the publication of the 1986 edition, the use of computers and digital technology has exploded within the groundwater industry, and our basic under- standing of the groundwater environment has expanded greatly. Seeing this increase in the use of technology, Johnson Screens—as part of its 100th anniversary celebration—decided to revise and update the second edition to reflect the significant changes in the groundwater industry. Discussions with a wide variety of groundwater professionals soon made apparent the need for a handbook on the subject of water-well technology. The industry needed a book that users could take into the field but which still would provide the necessary background and reference materials. This new third edition is designed to fulfill both requirements. ‘The approach of this third edition of Groundwater and Welly is pragmatic rather than theoretical. The material is presented so the interested reader— regardless. of background—can gain a good understanding of the physics, chemistry, and hydraulics of groundwater and the various technologies used to develop this resource. In cach subject area presented, a significant effort is directed toward explaining the practical elements; theoretical aspects are discussed wherever they serve to directly strengthen practical knowledge. This edition focuses on the borehole and well, and the book contains no discussions on the hydrologic cycle, the hydrogeology of North America, surface geophysics. contracting, or water rights. Importantly, instead of a single author revising the entire text, recognized experts and practitioners from various areas of the groundwater industry contributed and reviewed chapters, based upon their areas of expertise. Groundwater and Wells, third edition, borrows from the second edition in those areas that have not changed significantly, The many updates to this classic reference, however, include addition of information about a hydrogeologic classification system for logging water-well boreholes, borehole geophysics, well design, treatment for mineral and biological plugging of wells, and artificial storage and recharge. Advances such as horizontal drilling and wells along with direct-push technologies for exploration also are addressed, ‘This book is written for several groups of water-well professionals—water- well contractors, water-well design consultants, government officials, and4 Groundwater and Wells, Third Edition educators and students interested in the practical elements of the water-well industry. To be of maximum value to the diverse reader groups, highly technical words from geology, hydrogeology, chemistry, physics, engineering, and hydraulics have been used sparingly. Use of some technical words is necessary, and these generally are defined where they are first used in the text. A signifi- cant number of technical terms also are defined in the Glossary. A Reference List is provided following the end of the text. This list is not comprehensive. but serves to indicate representative articles or texts that examine a particular subject in more detail. Specific technical information manuals, and reports are provided as appendices on the DVD found at the back of the book. To facilitate use of this book in countries that use Standard International units (the International System of Units is abbreviated “ST” in this text), most of the basic equations are presented in U.S. customary units of measure fol- lowed by the ST equivalent. Numerical values are given in both U.S. customary and SI units in most cases. Chapter 12, Groundwater Pumps, primarily uses U.S. customary units. ‘The driving forces behind the creation of the third edition have been Mr. Mike Mehmert and Mr. Thomas Hanna of Johnson Screens. Mr. William Rouse, President, Johnson Screens, also has fully supported the production of this edition. Ms. Lisa Leroux, Weatherford Corporation (project management), and Ms. Gloria Hanson, Johnson Screens (document coordination and synthesis), have contributed significantly to the successful completion of this book. Ms. Amber Moran, a student at the Colorado School of Mines (Golden, CO), pro- vided unit conversion and evaluations of equations. The individuals who provided input or review of specific chapters are identified at the end of each chapter. The following individuals from within Johnson Screens provided technical review of the entire book Mr. Don Baron Mr. Edd Schofield Mr. Al Smith Mr. Mike Mehmert Mr. Thomas Hanna seerChapter 1. Introduction and Acknowledgments. 5 Particular recognition goes to Mr. Raymond Schreurs (Johnson Screens, retired); he provided invaluable review and comment of the book based upon his more than 50 years of experience in the water-well industry. A special recognition goes to Ms. Lisa Joanis Teman, of All the Right Words (Morrison, CO), who provided copyediting, design, and production management services for the book. Her experience and professional insights were invaluable. CADD Services (Arvada, CO) provided exceptional services with respect to providing graphics. also would like to thank my partners at Engineering Management Support. Inc, (EMSI for their support and encouragement. especially thank and wish to dedicate this edition to David A. Stephenson (PhD), President, Geological Society of America Foundation, who is both a mentor and a friend, His introductory course in hydrogeology—as welll as the career opportunities he afforded me—were the impetuses for my interest in the field of groundwater Lastly, 1 want to recognize and acknowledge the patience, advice, und support provided by my wife, Renate Sterrett, throughout this projectCHAPTER 2 Occurrence of Groundwater and Aquifer Types Robert J. Sterrett, PhD, PG Engineering Management Support, Inc. Thomas M. Hanna, PG Johnson Screens ‘This chapter emphasizes aquifer types, the occurrence of groundwater within the geologic media, and the movement of water. This book, however, does not discuss the hydrologic cycle and the distributions of precipitation, as there are several excellent texts that cover the subject in more detail (e.g., Fetter 2001). To insure the successful production of groundwater. industry professionals must have a basic understanding of how groundwater occurs and moves, coupled with a rudimentary understanding of geology and chemistry. This chapter describes the flow of groundwater by using figures and several simple algebraic equations. The chemical properties of groundwater are provided in Chapter 5.8 Groundwater and Wells, Third Edition TYPES OF SUBSURFACE WATER ‘This chapter discusses the types of subsurface water, but it first provides a set of brief definitions. “Regolith” is a geologic term used to describe the loose and dis- continuous blanket of fragmented and unconsolidated rock material overlying bedrock (Bates & Jackson 1984). Within the groundwater industry, the terms “soil” and “unconsolidated sediments” have been used synonymously. In the strictest definition, however, the term soil is used to describe the uppermost part of the regolith, where both chemical and physical weathering are most active. Soil is the geologic material that supports rooted plants. In engineering geology and geotechnical engineering, the term soil is equivalent to regolith and generally is applied to any non-cemented geologic material. To the geotechnical engineer, the term “consolidated” has a specific implication regarding the level of stress that the soil has experienced. Additionally, “consolidated” connotes that the geologic material is rock, This book uses the term “unconsolidated” or “soil” in place of “regolith. The column of unconsolidated sediment might be only a few feet (meters) thick in mountainous terrain, and hundreds of feet (meters) in valley-fill deposits, Unconsolidated sediments can act as a storage medium for water and they can transmit water vertically and horizontally, Water is introduced to the soil column by precipitation, stream flow, and other surface-water bodies, such as ponds. Once in the unconsolidated sedi- ments, water exists in several different environments (Figure 2.1). This classification, proposed by Davis and DeWiest (1966), suggests that water occurs in two types of environments in the unconsolidated sediments: a zone of vadose water and a zone of phreatic water (saturated zone), This, however, does not mean that a vadose zone cannot exist in rock. Variations of this classification system have been proposed by Heath (1982) and Assaad et al. (2003). The major difference is whether the capillary fringe is considered to be part of the saturated zone or the unsaturated zone. The pores within the capillary fringes can be completely filled with water and thus saturated, but (as discussed below) the water pressure is negative within the pores. Assigning the capillary fringe to the vadose zone therefore generally is acceptable. In the vadose zone, three separate types of water exist: soil water, intermediate yadose water, and capillary water.Chapter 2. Occurrence of Groundwater and Aquifer Types 9 et ae Vadose intr Vacose waste zone | vadose water | =: table

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