Over the years, historians have begun to re-think the history of medieval Indian architecture, which till

now has been understood as reflecting the cultural glorification of the centres of power. In most of the
earlier works, like those of Fergusson and Percy Brown, the ideological commitment to colonial rule is
more than evident. The legacy of Fergusson, which was systemised by Percy Brown in the colonial
period, appended architectural styles to the character traits or predilections of either “Hindu’ or Islamic
personalities and communities. They were written probably with the motion of promoting less pride and
more prejudice. Later, in the writings of the Aligarh school of historians like Irfan Habib. Athar Ali, Iqtidar
Alam Khan. Etc., the understanding of culture and architecture was presented as a peaceful synthesis of
the traditions of Hinduism and Islam Medieval architecture was then termed as “Indo-Islamic’in an
attempt to counter the more communal approaches to the study of Indian history Such a representation
sounds logical given the backdrop of fundamentatie communalism, but lacks an understanding of
architectural forms and techniques. And therefore, it is important for us to understand the purpose or
the context forms and techniques of the medieval architecture counter the more communal approaches
to the study of Indian history Such a representation sounds logical given the backdrop of fundamentatie
communalism, but lacks an understanding of architectural forms and techniques. And therefore, it is
important for us to understand the purpose or the context forms and techniques of the medieval
architecture.

Architecture as Symbol of Power

The most important source for the study of architecture are the surviving remains of the buildings
themselves, also referred to as monuments. These enable us to grasp architectural techniques and style
peculiar to the period. Monuments provide an insight into construction technologies Of these, mosques
are the most representative forms of architecture, as they are primarily a fusion of the Indian and Seljuk
traditions, often termed as Indo-Islamic”, They are beautifully constructed since they are places of
worship. At the same time they were also meant to demonstrate the power, wealth and devotion of the
patron. Monica Juneja argues that the construction of the public mosque should be seen as part of a
pattern of the conquest and symbolic appropriation’ of an alien territory. She says that territorial victory
was expressed through immediate visual acts and forms Therefore, during the early years of Turkish
invasion not only were the centres of power attacked but even the most sacred sites of the indigenous
populace were completely destroyed, Many a times victory was celebrated by constructing a mosque to
the effect where the Sultan. Along with his followers, could offer prayers to the Almighty Early Sultans
like Qutubuddin Aibak concerned the existing temples into Quwwat ul-Islam mosques or masjid-i jumas
in 1192. However, Oleg Graber suggests that in other regions, outside India, 'the destruction of extant
building in order to construct a mosque was generally avoided"." It is pertinent to note that contrary to
Prophet Muhammad's idea on architecture - The most unprofitable thing which eats up the wealth of a
believer is building- Islamic architecture sprang up in various comers of the world. Probably the Prophet
had not been able to foresee man's inner urge to express himself through architecture The early
examples of mosque architecture had certain basic features, To take an example, the entrance gates
stood on the north west and eastem walls and the mosque ideally had a rectangular courtyard with a
hypostyle hall on the Qibla side Qibla is the direction in which Muslims offer their prayers i.e.. Mecca
(See Fig 9.2). In the early thirteenth century a new genre of buildings arose which had larger rooms with
an elaborate superstructure. This required sophisticated skills. Earlier, between the seventh and tenth
centuries, architects had started adding more rooms, doors and windows to buildings. But the roofs,
doors and windows were still made by placing a horizontal beam across two vertical columns, a style of
architecture called ‘trabeate or ‘corbelled (See Fig. 9.2). Between the eighth and thirteenth centuries
the trabeate style was used in the construction of temples, mosques, tombs and in buildings attached to
large stepped-wells or baolis Two technological and stylistic developments can well be seen from the
thirteenth century onwards. First, the weight of the superstructure above the doors and windows was
sometimes carried by arches, This architectural form was called 'arcuate'. Secondly, limestone cement
was increasingly used in construction. This was very high-quality cement, which, when mixed with stone
chips, hardened into concrete. This made the construction of large structures easier and faster. (See
Figure 9.3 True Arch Technique used in Alai Darwaza al Quwwat ul-Islam mosque, Delhi.)

Arches formed one of the most prominent features of medieval architectural buildings. The building of a
true arch required stones or bricks, to be laid in the shape of a curve and bound together firmly by a
good binding material. This binding material was lime-mortar. The Turks introduced new techniques in
the construction of true arches. The result was that the pre-Turkish forms of lintel and beam and
corbelling, were replaced by true arches and vaults and the spired roofs (shikhar) by domes. Arches are
made in a variety of shapes, but in India the pointed form of the Islamic world was directly inherited.
And sometimes in the second quarter of the fourteenth century, another variant of the pointed form,
the four-centred arch, was introduced by the Tughluqs. It remained in vogue till the end of the
Sultanate.

The pointed arch was adopted in the Islamic world quite early due to its durability and the ease of
construction The usual method of raising a pointed arch was to erect a light centering and place one
layer of bricks over it. This layer supported another thin layer of flat bricks over which the radiating
Voussoir of the arch was fixed in mortar. These two bottom layers of brick-work would, if needed, act as
permanent shuttering for the arch. It may be noted here that the use of bricks instead of an all-wood
centering was a feature typical of regions like west Asia and India that had scanty reserves of wood. The
Persian and Central Asian influence on early medieval Indian architecture is more than self-evident. We
find that the concept and design of the Qutb Minar (originally called the Mazana) was considerably
influenced by the jaam and siah posh minarets in Afghanistan. The Qutb Minar forms a part of the inrger
Quwat ul-Islam masjid complex. Its construction was started by Qutubuddin Aibak, but was completed
finally by Iltutmish in 1215. Qutubuddin is said to have constructed the first storey, while Iltutmish
added three more storeys to the Minar. The present fourth and fifth storeys were constructed by
Firuzshah Tughlug, who used white marble in place of the red sandstone used in the lower storeys.
Lightning struck the Qutb Minar in 1368 and therefore, Firuzshah, while repairing the fourth storey,
added a fifth storey to the already stupendous building. It was originally called the mazana or the place
from where the muezzin gave the call to prayer. It became known as Qutb Minar much later to honour
Qutubuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki, the patron Sufi saint of Iltutmish. The earliest evidence of the arch in India is
found in the Quwwat ul Islam mosque and later in the tomb of iltutmish. But the true Islamic arch made
its first appearance in Balban’s tomb. In fact, the culmination of the architectural style of the early phase
was the mausoleum of Balban built around 1287-88. It is now in ruins but still occupies an important
place in the development of Indo-Islamic architecture, as it is here that we notice the earliest true arch.
The Khalji architecture, as revealed in Alai Darwaza (built 1305) at the Qutb complex and the Jamat
Khana Masjid (1325) at Nizamuddin. Underwent a marked change in style. This phase occupies a key
position in Indo-Islamic architecture as it is deeply influenced by the Selje architectural traditions. The
characteristic features of the Khalji phase include the employment of a true arch, the emergence of a
true dome with recessed arches under the squinch and the emergence of new masonry consisting of a
narrow course of headers alterating with a much wider course of stretchers, In addition. The decorative
features characterised by calligraphy, geometry and arabesque now became much bolder and profuse.

Percy Brown has noted that in the buildings of the Khalji period a new method of stone masonry was
used. This consisted of laying stones in two different courses of the headers and the stretchers. This
system was retained in subsequent buildings and became a characteristic feature of the late medieval
period buildings. The material commonly used for plastering buildings was gypsum. Apparently lime-
paste was reserved for places like the roof, the indigo-vats and the canals and drains – that needed to be
secured against the leakage of water. In the later period, ie, around the fifteenth century or so when
highly finished stucco work became common, gypsum mortar was preferred to plaster work on the wall
and the celling.

Decorative art in the Islamic buildings served the purpose of concealing the structure behind motifs
rather than revealing it. Since the depiction of a living being was generally frowned upon, the elements
of decoration were, in most cases, limited to calligraphy, geometry, and foliage. But characteristically
enough no one type of decoration was reserved for a particular tupe of buildings on the contrary, these
pan Islamic decorative principles were used for all kinds of buildings in the Delhi Sultanunte

Calligraphy is an important element of decorative art in the buildings of this period The Koranic sayings
are inscribed on buildings in an angular, sober and monumental script, known as Kufi. They may be
found in any part of the building including - door frames, ceilings, wall panels, niches etc., and also in a
variety of materials like stone, stucco and painting. Geometric shapes were used in these buildings in a
variety of combinations: The dominant form of decoration employed in Sultanate buildings is the
arabesque form. It is characterised by a continuous stem which splits regularly, producing it series of
leafy secondary stems which can in tum split again or can be re-integrated into the main stream:
Blending of Indian and Seljuk Tradition The Turkish conquerors of the twelfth century not only brought
with the an infusion of new blood. but also innovations gained from other lands fresh principles and
practices which had stood the test of time. This innovation is attested more in the field of art and
architecture. At the same time, because of the interaction between the indigenous and the Seljuk
traditions, a ground common to both wus gradually formed. Architecture was deeply influenced by the
visual arts as well. The appearance of the arch may well be traced to the influence of the early Muslim
invaders and the architectural developments of the post-Roman period. The Mohammedans soon
realised that this new system was more scientific in approach and would lend their architecture greater
durability Therefore, they decided to adopt this version in their own buildings. However, it is also very
significant to note that while adopting this new style, the Turks made some changes in it to suit their
own requirements.

Other equally important factors contributed to the growth of this new style Storie is abundantly
available in India and this geological factor has conditioned the growth and development of this cont.
With the increased use of stone, the transition towards the arcade principle was made possible. Another
reason, which might have contributed to the growth of this art, was the expertise of the artisans.
However, the transition to heavy dependence on arch was not very smooth in India as the existing
construction materials could not have possibly allowed scope to this style. Therefore, the displacement
of the beam by the arch was made possible only by the introduction of a new construction material
hitherto little known to the indigenous builders. This new cementing agent was mortar. The Turkish
brought into use certain scientific and mechanical formule derived from either their own experiences or
those of other civilizations. The most important consequence of it was that when put into practice it
could be used to counteract the effects an ohlique lateral thrust, and to resist the forces of stress and
strain. The end result. was that greater strength and stability was given to the building Also, the new
material used was more cost-effective and it provided a wider range and flexibility to the builder's art.
The period saw some further innovations in this field like the use of dressed stone slabs. The fact that
the Turks, the Khaljis and the Tughluqs put these techniques to use only provide us with further
evidence of the blending of local elements with Islamic traditions Islamic buildings in other countries,
with some exceptions in the matter, were largely constructed of brick, plaster and rubble. The difference
in the use of construction material is very significant. The use of less permanent materials was resorted
to because of the fact that several Central Asian rulers were in too much of a hurry to realise their plans.
In India. Turkish rules were able to take advantage of the skills and expertise of the indigenous workers
while the master čraftmen vere brought in from new material used was more cost-effective and it
provided a wider range and flexibility to the builder's art. The period saw some further innovations in
this field like the use of dressed stone slabs. The fact that the Turks, the Khaljis and the Tughluqs put
these techniques to use only provide us with further evidence of the blending of local elements with
Islamic traditions Islamic buildings in other countries, with some exceptions in the matter, were largely
constructed of brick, plaster and rubble. The difference in the use of construction material is very
significant. The use of less permanent materials was resorted to because of the fact that several Central
Asian rulers were in too much of a hurry to realise their plans. In India. Turkish rules were able to take
advantage of the skills and expertise of the indigenous workers while the master čraftmen vere brought
in from Central As Central Asia.

Another factor might have been the geological one. Most of the construction work was carried out in
the area where stone was abundantly available. Pillars supported the lintels and beams then spanned
the space below either by corbelling or by the use of the lantern method. Brackets and bracket-capitals
gradually evolved. Hindu artisans made these features even more assertively decorative than they
already were:

Evolution of the True Dome

In due course of time the arch technique developed into that of a true dome Various methods were
adopted at different points of time, but the particular form employed in Hutmish tomb was that of a
squinch. The dome was as much a symbol of Islam as was the arch, and the gradual eventually found
expression in the tomb of Iltutmish for the first time But the construction of the dome demanded special
techniques. The problem was to find a suitable method for converting the square part of the rectangular
top of the room walls mo a circular base in order that a spherical dome could be raised. The best way to
overcome this problem was to convert the square plan into a polygon by the use of squinches across the
comers Domes began to be constructed as a ceremonical superstructure which not only covered the
monument but also crowned it imposingly. The squinch has been built on the traditional horizontal
method. The squnich system consists of projecting a small arch. or similar contrivances, across the upper
part of the angle of the square hall. This has an effect of converting its square shape into an octagon,
which, again if necessary may be transformed in the same manner into a sixteen-sided figure. The end
result was that it formed a convenient base on which the lower circular rim of the dome could rest
without leaving any part unsupported. We find a similar kind of dome in another contemporary building
also built by Iltutmish Sultan Ghar or Soltan of the Care', so named because the cenotaph is an
underground chamber. Gradually the dome home more bulbous and elaborate and visible even from
miles away Proliferation of Construction: Tughluq Architecture The Tughluq period saw an upsurge in
the building activity. A new architectural style came into vogue in the Tughluq buildings. Judging from
the remains of these buildings, it can be seen that only the first three rulers of this house appear to have
been interested in the art of building However, the architecture of this period can be divided into two
main groups. The first group is comprised of the buildings of Ghiyasuddin and Muhammad bin Tughluq.
The second group is that of Feroz Tughlaq buildings. In the Tughluq Stone rubble is the principal building
material in Tughlaq architecture and the walls are, in most cases, plastered The walls and bastions are
invariably battered, the effect being most marked at the corners. A hesitant and possibly experimental
use was that of a four-centred arch that cancelled the use of a supporting beam This arch heam
combination is the hallmark of the Tugbog style The printed horse-shoe arch of the preceding style was
abandoned because of its compass and its inability to span wider spaces. The energence of pointed
dome with clearly visible neck stood contrasted with the rather diled dome of the preceding table. The
Tughluqs also introduced tiles as element t or decoration to the tombs of this period we find the
Emerence of an octagonal plan which came to be copied and perfected by the Mughalk in the sixteenth
and seventeenth centuries An additional feature was the clement of reduced omament, confined mostly
to inscribe benders and medallion in sparidrets exec used a plaster or stucco.

After the death of Firuz Shah Tughluq in 1388, the Sultanate became politically unstable, and in 1398
sacked and plundered by Timur However the two succeeding dynasties of the Saiyyids and Lodis
managed to attain a semblance of power, though they ruled over a greatly shrunken Delhi Sultanate in
1414—1526. A large number of tombs were built in and around Delhi, so much so that over a period of
time the area around Delhi looked like a sprawling qabristan. Yet some of these structures are important
from the architectural point of view and can be considered as heralding a distinct style. The
mausoleums, designed on an octagonal plane, are comprised of a main tomb-chamber surrounded by a
one-storey gh arched verandah with projecting caves supported on brackets. The other types of
mausoleums were built on a square paluno. These were characterised by the absence of a verandah
around the main tomb-chamber and the exterior comprised of two types of stories. There is an original
treatment of coloured tile decorations in these buildings. It is set sparingly in friezes. In addition, there
are the intricately incised plaster surfaces. The Delhi Sultanate came to an end in 1526 with the defeat
of the last of the Lodi Sultans at the hands of Babur. This also signaled the end of the Sultanate style of
architecture, which, in any case had begun showing signs of stagnation in the fifteenth century. Painting
The history of painting in the Sultanate period is obscure compared with that of architecture. This is
primarily due to the non-availability of any surviving specimens of at least the first hundred years of the
establishment of the Delhi Sultanate. Equally surprising is the absence of illuminated books, an art that
had reached the zenith of success in the Islamic world by 1200. However, researchers in the last twenty-
five years of so have unearthed new evidence, forcing scholars to re-valuate their perception of history.
We now know that not only book illuminatin but murals too were executed during the Sultanate period.
The art of painting may thus be divided into the following three categories, each one of which will be
discussed separately The closest view that one has of the murals, as a flourishing art form during the
rule of the Delhi Sultans, is through a large number of literary references found in the chronicles of this
period. These have been compiled and analysed by Simon Digby. The carliest reference to corals the
Sultanate period, is in a qasida (Tabaqat-i Nasiri) in praise of Titmuss, on the occasion of a gift from the
Caliph in 1228. The venes in his composition make it clear that human or animal figures were depicted
upon the spandrels of the main arch raised to welcome the envoy of the Caliph. The most important
single reference to painting in the Delhi Sultanate can be found in the un-islamic observances of carlier
rulers inviting a ban by Firuz Tughluq Tarihin by Afi, indicates the existence of a continuous tradition of
figural paintings on the walls of the Delhi palaces, which Firuz Tughluq sought to impose a ban upon This
tradition of painting is not confined to the murals alone. In a reference, relating to the entertainment
parties thrown by Qutbuddin Mubarak Khalji (1316-20), mention is made of a profusely painted open-
sided lent. The decorations would therefore appear to be on painted cloth (Nuh Siphr by Amir
Khusrau).Calligraphy was a revered art in the Islamic world and was used as a decorative feature both on
one and on paper. In the hierarchy of craftsmen, the calligrapher was placed that much higher than
either the illuminator or the painter. However, the caligraphy of the Koran became of the foremost
forms of book art where copies of the Koran were produced on a majestic and expansive scale. The
earliest known copy of the Koran dates back to 1399. It was calligraphed at Gwalior, and has a variety of
ornamental motifs, derived both from Iranian and Indian Sources. Hamzanama (Berlin) dates back to
about 1450 and depicts the legendry exploits of Amir Hamza, one of the companions of the prophet.
Chandayan (Berlin) can be located anywhere between 1450-70 and illustrates the love story of Laur and
Chanda. Maulana Daud of Dalmau composed it in the Awadhi dialect of Hindi in 1389.