HRM 6131- HYGIENE SANITATION AND ENVIRONMENT

1
Introduction to Hygiene Sanitation and Environment

Module 001: Introduction to Hygiene Sanitation

and Environment

Course Learning Outcomes:

1. Know the historical perspective on hygiene and sanitation
2. Define hygiene and sanitation
3. Enumerate components of environmental health

Historical Perspective on Hygiene and Environmental Health

Hygiene and sanitation have a long history at various levels of human civilization.
We can roughly divide the historical events into two periods: the ancient and the modern.
Prehistoric and Ancient Civilization
Religious laws, such as Moses’ Law, writings in the Old and New Testaments and
laws in the Koran, played major roles in the lives of ancient peoples. These laws mainly
concentrated on the provision of personal hygiene. Dead bodies and contaminated surfaces
were known to be unclean or unhygienic to touch. The importance of burying human faeces
was also strongly indicated. The importance of body cleanliness before praying was a
motive for maintaining the integrity of hygiene with a religious practice.
The importance of hygiene and sanitation flourished at the times of Greek, Roman
and Egyptian civilization. The use of private and public baths and latrines, cleaning of the
body, shaving the head for protection from lice infestation, and the construction of water
pipelines and sewage ditches were widely observed. The transmission of schistosomiasis
(bilharzia) was linked to bathing and swimming in the Nile River. In these civilizations, the
focus was on personal hygiene (hygiene) and human waste management (sanitation).
Modern Times

At this stage, it is important to

realise that there are two types of
travellers: There are those

Course Module
who travel for reasons of business.
Others may travel for personal
motives, including visits to
friends and relatives (VFR travel);
study; religious pilgrimages; sport;
health, et cetera. For the
first group, the decision to travel, and
where to go, is largely beyond their
control. The business
travellers will have little discretion
in the choice of their prospective
destination, or on the
timing of their trip. Generally, the
purpose of their trip is not to
enjoy the destinations’
 HRM 6131- HYGIENE SANITATION AND ENVIRONMENT
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Introduction to Hygiene Sanitation and Environment

attractions and facilities. Business

travel is usually arranged at short
notice and for specific and
brief periods of time; the duration of
their itinerary may often be as short
as a day (Swarbrooke
& Horner, 2001). In this case, there
could be a substantial journey time
involved. For these
reasons, business travellers need the
convenience of frequent, regular
transportation facilities,
efficient, reliable services and good
accommodation facilities (in terms of
accommodation and
Course Module
catering) of a high standard, at their
destination (Jafari, 2002). Very
often, business travellers
will be less concerned about the cost
of travel, as their employer could be
paying for their travel
arrangements (Gustafson, 2012).
Higher prices will not deter them
from travelling, nor will
lower prices encourage them to
travel more often. Therefore, there
seems to be inelastic
demand for business travel
(Gillen, Morrison & Stewart,
2003; Brons, Pels, Nijkamp &
 HRM 6131- HYGIENE SANITATION AND ENVIRONMENT
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Introduction to Hygiene Sanitation and Environment

Rietveld, 2002; Arnott, De Palma &

Lindsey,
1993). On the other hand, leisure
travel is highly
elastic for those travellers who are
price-sensitive. The lower prices for
holidays to particular
destinations will usually lead to an
increase in the aggregate numbers of
travellers (Hall, 2008).
Frugal tourists will usually shop
around for affordable holidays
(Xiang, 2013). Therefore, they

Course Module
may be prepared to delay their travel,
or to book well in advance of their
travel dates, if this
would translate to a significant
reduction in their travel costs (Russo,
2002).
At this stage, it is important to
realise that there are two types of
travellers: There are those
who travel for reasons of business.
Others may travel for personal
motives, including visits to
friends and relatives (VFR travel);
study; religious pilgrimages; sport;
health, et cetera. For the
 HRM 6131- HYGIENE SANITATION AND ENVIRONMENT
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Introduction to Hygiene Sanitation and Environment

first group, the decision to travel, and

where to go, is largely beyond their
control. The business
travellers will have little discretion
in the choice of their prospective
destination, or on the
timing of their trip. Generally, the
purpose of their trip is not to
enjoy the destinations’
attractions and facilities. Business
travel is usually arranged at short
notice and for specific and
brief periods of time; the duration of
their itinerary may often be as short
as a day (Swarbrooke
Course Module
& Horner, 2001). In this case, there
could be a substantial journey time
involved. For these
reasons, business travellers need the
convenience of frequent, regular
transportation facilities,
efficient, reliable services and good
accommodation facilities (in terms of
accommodation and
catering) of a high standard, at their
destination (Jafari, 2002). Very
often, business travellers
will be less concerned about the cost
of travel, as their employer could be
paying for their travel
 HRM 6131- HYGIENE SANITATION AND ENVIRONMENT
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Introduction to Hygiene Sanitation and Environment

arrangements (Gustafson, 2012).

Higher prices will not deter them
from travelling, nor will
lower prices encourage them to
travel more often. Therefore, there
seems to be inelastic
demand for business travel
(Gillen, Morrison & Stewart,
2003; Brons, Pels, Nijkamp &
Rietveld, 2002; Arnott, De Palma &
Lindsey,
1993). On the other hand, leisure
travel is highly

Course Module
elastic for those travellers who are
price-sensitive. The lower prices for
holidays to particular
destinations will usually lead to an
increase in the aggregate numbers of
travellers (Hall, 2008).
Frugal tourists will usually shop
around for affordable holidays
(Xiang, 2013). Therefore, they
may be prepared to delay their travel,
or to book well in advance of their
travel dates, if this
would translate to a significant
reduction in their travel costs (Russo,
2002).
 HRM 6131- HYGIENE SANITATION AND ENVIRONMENT
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Introduction to Hygiene Sanitation and Environment

At this stage, it is important to

realise that there are two types of
travellers: There are those
who travel for reasons of business.
Others may travel for personal
motives, including visits to
friends and relatives (VFR travel);
study; religious pilgrimages; sport;
health, et cetera. For the
first group, the decision to travel, and
where to go, is largely beyond their
control. The business
travellers will have little discretion
in the choice of their prospective
destination, or on the
Course Module
timing of their trip. Generally, the
purpose of their trip is not to
enjoy the destinations’
attractions and facilities. Business
travel is usually arranged at short
notice and for specific and
brief periods of time; the duration of
their itinerary may often be as short
as a day (Swarbrooke
& Horner, 2001). In this case, there
could be a substantial journey time
involved. For these
reasons, business travellers need the
convenience of frequent, regular
transportation facilities,
 HRM 6131- HYGIENE SANITATION AND ENVIRONMENT
13
Introduction to Hygiene Sanitation and Environment

efficient, reliable services and good

accommodation facilities (in terms of
accommodation and
catering) of a high standard, at their
destination (Jafari, 2002). Very
often, business travellers
will be less concerned about the cost
of travel, as their employer could be
paying for their travel
arrangements (Gustafson, 2012).
Higher prices will not deter them
from travelling, nor will
lower prices encourage them to
travel more often. Therefore, there
seems to be inelastic
Course Module
demand for business travel
(Gillen, Morrison & Stewart,
2003; Brons, Pels, Nijkamp &
Rietveld, 2002; Arnott, De Palma &
Lindsey,
1993). On the other hand, leisure
travel is highly
elastic for those travellers who are
price-sensitive. The lower prices for
holidays to particular
destinations will usually lead to an
increase in the aggregate numbers of
travellers (Hall, 2008).
Frugal tourists will usually shop
around for affordable holidays
(Xiang, 2013). Therefore, they
 HRM 6131- HYGIENE SANITATION AND ENVIRONMENT
15
Introduction to Hygiene Sanitation and Environment

may be prepared to delay their travel,

or to book well in advance of their
travel dates, if this
would translate to a significant
reduction in their travel costs (Russo,
2002).
At this stage, it is important to
realise that there are two types of
travellers: There are those
who travel for reasons of business.
Others may travel for personal
motives, including visits to
friends and relatives (VFR travel);
study; religious pilgrimages; sport;
health, et cetera. For the
Course Module
first group, the decision to travel, and
where to go, is largely beyond their
control. The business
travellers will have little discretion
in the choice of their prospective
destination, or on the
timing of their trip. Generally, the
purpose of their trip is not to
enjoy the destinations’
attractions and facilities. Business
travel is usually arranged at short
notice and for specific and
brief periods of time; the duration of
their itinerary may often be as short
as a day (Swarbrooke
 HRM 6131- HYGIENE SANITATION AND ENVIRONMENT
17
Introduction to Hygiene Sanitation and Environment

& Horner, 2001). In this case, there

could be a substantial journey time
involved. For these
reasons, business travellers need the
convenience of frequent, regular
transportation facilities,
efficient, reliable services and good
accommodation facilities (in terms of
accommodation and
catering) of a high standard, at their
destination (Jafari, 2002). Very
often, business travellers
will be less concerned about the cost
of travel, as their employer could be
paying for their travel
Course Module
arrangements (Gustafson, 2012).
Higher prices will not deter them
from travelling, nor will
lower prices encourage them to
travel more often. Therefore, there
seems to be inelastic
demand for business travel
(Gillen, Morrison & Stewart,
2003; Brons, Pels, Nijkamp &
Rietveld, 2002; Arnott, De Palma &
Lindsey,
1993). On the other hand, leisure
travel is highly
elastic for those travellers who are
price-sensitive. The lower prices for
holidays to particular
 HRM 6131- HYGIENE SANITATION AND ENVIRONMENT
19
Introduction to Hygiene Sanitation and Environment

destinations will usually lead to an

increase in the aggregate numbers of
travellers (Hall, 2008).
Frugal tourists will usually shop
around for affordable holidays
(Xiang, 2013). Therefore, they
may be prepared to delay their travel,
or to book well in advance of their
travel dates, if this
would translate to a significant
reduction in their travel costs (Russo,
2002).
3

Course Module
between domestic and international
tourism (Yuksel, 2004). The former
refers to travel that is
exclusively undertaken within the
national boundaries of the
traveller’s home country. The
latter refers to travel within the
borders of one’s home country.
Domestic travel will have an
impact on the balance of payments
and will reduce the outflow of
money from the tourists’
home country (Mathieson & Wall,
1982).
1.2.1 The Nature of Tourism
 HRM 6131- HYGIENE SANITATION AND ENVIRONMENT
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Introduction to Hygiene Sanitation and Environment

At this stage, it is important to

realise that there are two types of
travellers: There are those
who travel for reasons of business.
Others may travel for personal
motives, including visits to
friends and relatives (VFR travel);
study; religious pilgrimages; sport;
health, et cetera. For the
first group, the decision to travel, and
where to go, is largely beyond their
control. The business
travellers will have little discretion
in the choice of their prospective
destination, or on the
Course Module
timing of their trip. Generally, the
purpose of their trip is not to
enjoy the destinations’
attractions and facilities. Business
travel is usually arranged at short
notice and for specific and
brief periods of time; the duration of
their itinerary may often be as short
as a day (Swarbrooke
& Horner, 2001). In this case, there
could be a substantial journey time
involved. For these
reasons, business travellers need the
convenience of frequent, regular
transportation facilities,
 HRM 6131- HYGIENE SANITATION AND ENVIRONMENT
23
Introduction to Hygiene Sanitation and Environment

efficient, reliable services and good

accommodation facilities (in terms of
accommodation and
catering) of a high standard, at their
destination (Jafari, 2002). Very
often, business travellers
will be less concerned about the cost
of travel, as their employer could be
paying for their travel
arrangements (Gustafson, 2012).
Higher prices will not deter them
from travelling, nor will
lower prices encourage them to
travel more often. Therefore, there
seems to be inelastic
Course Module
demand for business travel
(Gillen, Morrison & Stewart,
2003; Brons, Pels, Nijkamp &
Rietveld, 2002; Arnott, De Palma &
Lindsey,
1993). On the other hand, leisure
travel is highly
elastic for those travellers who are
price-sensitive. The lower prices for
holidays to particular
destinations will usually lead to an
increase in the aggregate numbers of
travellers (Hall, 2008).
Frugal tourists will usually shop
around for affordable holidays
(Xiang, 2013). Therefore, they
 HRM 6131- HYGIENE SANITATION AND ENVIRONMENT
25
Introduction to Hygiene Sanitation and Environment

may be prepared to delay their travel,

or to book well in advance of their
travel dates, if this
would translate to a significant
reduction in their travel costs (Russo,
2002)
At this stage, it is important to
realise that there are two types of
travellers: There are those
who travel for reasons of business
At this stage, it is important to
realise that there are two types of
travellers: There are those
who travel for reasons of business

Course Module
At this stage, it is important to
realise that there are two types of
travellers: There are those
who travel for reasons of business
At this stage, it is important to
realise that there are two types of
travellers: There are those
who travel for reasons of business.
The growing disposable income
among many populations from
developed and developing
countries is having an effect of
reducing price elasticity for many
holiday makers, as upmarket
 HRM 6131- HYGIENE SANITATION AND ENVIRONMENT
27
Introduction to Hygiene Sanitation and Environment

winter sports holidays, cruises,

special interest and long-haul travel
continue to attract a greater
proportion of travellers (UNWTO,
2017

Course Module
 A number of discoveries in the 19th century were important events for the
understanding of communicable diseases. For example, the link between contaminated
water and cholera was discovered by John Snow in 1854; the importance of hygienic hand
washing before attending delivery of a baby was noted by Dr. Semmelweis in 1845; and the
discovery that microorganisms (very small organisms only visible under a microscope)
cause disease was made by Louis Pasteur around this time.
The period following the industrial revolution in Europe in the 19th century showed
that improvements in sanitation, water supply and housing significantly reduced the
occurrence of communicable diseases. The term ‘environmental health’ is used to describe
human health in relation to environmental factors such as these. Environmental
health can be defined as the control of all the factors in a person’s physical environment
that have, or can have, a damaging effect on their physical, mental or social wellbeing. The
issue of environmental health is now a global matter under the guidance of the United
Nations (UN) through the World Health Organization.
Although hygiene and infection are vital factors in environmental health, it is also
good to be aware of emerging issues such as global warming and the links between medical
conditions such as cardio-vascular disease and our environment and lifestyles.
Our environment is everything that surrounds us. It includes all the external influences
and conditions that can affect our health, life and growth. These influences are constantly
changing and the effects on our health may not be easily foreseen.
Hygiene and Environmental Health Development in Ethiopia
Historical information about hygiene practice among the Ethiopian population is
sparse. We will note only the organizational aspects, as follows.
 A formal health service was organized in the Ministry of the Interior in 1908.
Hygiene and sanitation in public health was a single service.
 The Ministry of Public Health was created in 1947. It organized Municipal and
Provincial Public Health services to run both curative and public health. Hygiene and
sanitation were focus of these organizations.
 Late in the 1970’s, safe water supply and sanitation became components of primary
healthcare.
 In the 1990’s, the new constitution in 1995 and a new Health Policy in 1993 were
designed to reflect the social and health needs of the Ethiopian population. Hygiene,
sanitation and environmental matters are stated aims.
 In early 2000 the Health Extension Programme was designed and integrated into the
Health Sector Development Programme as a tool to enhance hygiene and sanitation
in rural and urban areas.
Definitions
Hygiene
- Refers to the set of practices associated with the preservation of health and healthy
living.
- A science of the establishment and maintenance of health.
- Conditions or practices (as of cleanliness) conducive to health.
Improvements in personal knowledge, skill and practice that modify an individual’s
behaviour towards healthy practice are the focus of hygiene promotion. Safe hygiene
 HRM 6131- HYGIENE SANITATION AND ENVIRONMENT
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Introduction to Hygiene Sanitation and Environment

practice includes a broad range of healthy behaviours, such as hand washing before eating
and after cleaning a child’s bottom, and safe faeces disposal. When you carry out hygiene
education and promotion the aim is to transfer knowledge and understanding of hygiene
and associated health risks in order to help people change their behaviour to use better
hygiene practices.

Sanitation
- Means the prevention of human contact with wastes, for hygienic purposes.
- It also means promoting health through the prevention of human contact with the
hazards associated with the lack of healthy food, clean water and healthful housing, the
control of vectors (living organisms that transmit diseases), and a clean environment.
- The act or process of making sanitary.
- The promotion of hygiene and prevention of disease by maintenance of sanitary
conditions (as by removal of sewage and trash) —often used attributively.

There are different types of sanitation relating to particular situations, such as:
 Basic Sanitation
- Refers to the management of human faeces at the household level. It means
access to a toilet or latrine.
- Described as having access to facilities for the safe disposal of human waste
(feces and urine), as well as having the ability to maintain hygienic conditions,
through services such as garbage collection, industrial/hazardous waste
management, and wastewater treatment and disposal.
 Onsite Sanitation
- The collection and treatment of waste at the place where it is deposited.
 Food Sanitation
- It refers to the hygienic measures for ensuring food safety. Food hygiene is
similar to food sanitation.
- A three-word definition of Food Sanitation is protection from contamination.
 Environmental Sanitation
- The control of environmental factors that form links in disease transmission.
This category includes solid waste management, water and wastewater
treatment, industrial waste treatment and noise and pollution control.
 Ecological Sanitation
- The concept of recycling the nutrients from human and animal wastes to the
environment.

Course Module
 Environmental Health
Environmental health is broader than hygiene and sanitation; it encompasses hygiene,
sanitation and many other aspects of the environment. It also involves studying the
environmental factors that affect health.
Components of environmental health
 Personal hygiene
 Water supply
 Human waste disposal
 Solid waste management
 Vector control
 Food hygiene
 Water solution
 Healthful housing
 Institutional hygiene
 Water pollution
 Occupational hygiene

References and Supplementary Materials

Online Supplementary Reading Materials
1. Hygiene and Environmental Health Module 1: Introduction to the Principles and
Concepts of Hygiene and Environmental Health;
https://www.open.edu/openlearncreate/mod/oucontent/view.php?
id=187&printable=1#:~:text=Sanitation%20means%20the%20prevention
%20of,with%20wastes%2C%20for%20hygienic%20purposes.&text=Basic
%20sanitation%3A%20refers%20to%20the,place%20where%20it%20is
%20deposited.; November 25, 2020
2. Definition of hygiene; https://www.merriam-
webster.com/dictionary/hygiene#:~:text=Definition%20of%20hygiene-,1%20%3A
%20a%20science%20of%20the%20establishment%20and%20maintenance%20of
%20health,of%20hygiene%20for%20Spanish%20Speakers; November 25, 2020
3. Definition of Sanitation; https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/sanitation;
November 25, 2020
4. Global Water, Sanitation & Hygiene (WASH);
https://www.cdc.gov/healthywater/global/sanitation/index.html#:~:text=Basic
%20sanitation%20is%20described%20as,and%20wastewater%20treatment
%20and%20disposal.; November 25, 2020
5. Basic Elements of Sanitation Program for Food Processing and Food Handling;
https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/fs076#:~:text=A%20three%2Dword%20definition%20of
%20Food%20Sanitation%20is%20protection%20from%20contamination.&text=All
%20food%20products%20must%20be,%2C%20once%20a%20week%2C%20etc.;
November 25, 2020