MWEEMBA

RENSON
CHAPTER ONE: MUSIC

UNIT 1: PHILOSOPHY OF EXPRESSIVE ARTS

INTRODUCTION

This topic introduces you to Music, Art and Physical Education and the underlying philosophy
for the integration of these subjects

A philosophy is a set of ideas and beliefs that govern a person, society, nation etc. These ideas
determine the way people look at what happens around them and also the way they organize
themselves in politics, economy , culturally , and other social structures available in the society.
In simple terms we can say that a philosophy gives reasons why people do whatever they do.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

 Develop aesthetic awareness and experiences and enjoyment of visual, aural, tactile and
spatial environments.

 Clarify and express ideas, feelings and experiences through a range of Arts activities.

PHILOSOPHY OF EXPRESSIVE ARTS

Expressive Arts has three contributory subjects namely Physical Education, Art and design and
Music. Music also embraces Drama and Dance. Psychology has shown that the contributory

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subjects of Expressive Arts are vital in a person‟s personality development. The philosophy of
Expressive Arts draws its meaning from various theories. One such theory is that of the
measuring of the intelligent quotient of an individual. A psychologist by the name of Howard
Gardner uses a different model from other educationists to measure the intelligence of a person.
His views are very useful in understanding the philosophy of Expressive Arts.

GARDNER‟S THEORY

Gardner drew up his thoughts by looking at different cultures and trying to identify in each the
abilities which are highly prized and important for survival. His process of measuring
intelligence is different from I.Q testing. He criticized other methods of measuring intelligence
as overlooking certain abilities and leaving out very intelligent people. Gardner thought about
people like religious leaders, shamans, seers, mothers, fathers, surgeons, sculptors, footballers,
dancers, businessmen, hunters and many other people. Strong et al (2000; 7) compare the old
view of measuring intelligence with the new view (Gardner‟s).

OLD VIEW NEW VIEW

Intelligence was fixed. Intelligence can be developed.

Intelligence was measured by a number. Intelligence is not numerically quantifiable and

is exhibited during a performance or problem
solving process.
Intelligence was unitary. Intelligence can be exhibited in many ways –
multiple intelligences.
Intelligence was measured in isolation. Intelligence is measured in context/ real life
situations.
Intelligence was used to sort students and Intelligence is used to understand human
predict their success. capacities and the many and varied ways
students can achieve.

Gardner sampled a range of cognitive end-states taking into consideration that there were
different kinds of minds. According to Strong et al (2000; 7) he defines intelligence as;

 The ability to solve problems that one encounters in real life.

 The ability to generate new problems to solve

 The ability to make something or offer a service that is valued within one‟s
culture.
Gardner further went on to identify eight intelligences as follows;

1. VERBAL- LINGUISTIC INTELLIGENCE

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 This deals with the ability to use words for purposes such as debate, persuasion,
storytelling, poetry, prose writing, journalism, instruction etc. Think of some people in
Zambia who can fall under this category.

2. LOGICAL- MATHEMATICAL INTELLIGENCE

Such people are good at Mathematics and sciences. They are good at finding patterns and
establishing cause and effect relationships, conducting experiments etc.

3. SPATIAL INTELLIGENCE

This type of intelligence is very important in Expressive Arts. It involves creating and
recreating. Spatially intelligent people think in images. Artists fall under this category.

4. MUSICAL INTELLIGENCE

This is another important intelligence in Expressive Arts which is the ability to create
melody and rhythm, understand, appreciate and form opinions about music. Musically
intelligent people are sensitive to all types of non- verbal sound and rhythms.

5. BODILY KINESTHETIC INTELLIGENCE

Of course Physical Education falls under this category. It involves physical self and the
manipulation of our own body. Kinesthetically intelligent people can make precise body
movements or handle objects. They have a tactile sense which is well developed and
learn best by doing.

6. INTERPERSONAL INTELLIGENCE

People with this kind of intelligence are naturally social and work well with others. They
are often friendly and sensitive to the attitudes, moods and desires of other people.

7. INTRAPERSONAL INTELLIGENCE

Such people usually work on their own. They have the ability to gain access to their own
feelings and emotional states. The goals which they set for themselves are quite realistic.

8. NATURALISTIC INTELLIGENCE

This is exhibited in people who are sensitive to features and patterns of the natural world.
For example, Galileo, Newton, Darwin etc. They have the ability to discriminate between
natural objects and to classify them.

Howard Gardner‟s model does not end on the eight intelligences that we have discussed
so far. Other intelligences have been added to the model but our major interest as

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 expressive arts teachers is that it gives us a basis on why subjects like music, physical
education and art should be taught in schools.

PHILOSOPHY OF MUSIC EDUCATION

In terms of music education, the philosophy of music education refers to a set of principles that
guide music education and it determines why music should be taught in schools like any other
subject.

It is important for music teachers to have a strong belief in music education. There are two
important reasons to this:

Resistance by school authorities and other people to have music in schools: some school
authorities have been resisting the introduction of music as a subject in their schools. They give
excuses of too many subjects on the curriculum. Without a sound philosophy of music education,
a music teacher intending to introduce music in a school will find it very difficult to convince
people to have music on the timetable. Many teachers teach other subjects where music should
be. The reason to this sad state of affairs is the music teachers themselves lack the necessary
confidence to effectively teach the subject.

THE SECOND REASON HINGES ON THE ARTS OF FOLLOWING ECONOMIC

DEVELOPMENT OF A COUNTRY

When music is seen to mean singing and dancing, one is bound to have problems in an event of
an economic recession. This arises because many people will only be more interested in
surviving than singing and dancing which is always associated with celebrating and festivals. It
is important that music should be seen beyond its general output. There are hidden qualities of
music that can only be revealed through the knowledge of the philosophy behind music
education. Therefore music can only survive such tribulation if it is well organized and
structured.

AESTHETICS

This topic is important to student teachers because the Expressive Arts have to be appreciated in
a special way. The Arts are organized ideas, feelings and experiences which may be encountered
in Music, images, movement, gesture and in language. Scholars define aesthetics as critical
reflection on Art, culture and nature. It is a sub- discipline of axiology, a branch of philosophy,
and is closely associated with the philosophy of art. It studies new ways of seeing and perceiving
the world.

AESTHETICS OF MUSIC

This is a speculation of the nature of music excluding the purely physical attributes of sound.
Aesthetics has been defined in many different ways:

 A theory of sensuous perception

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  A study of taste
 A theory of beauty in nature and art
 The philosophical investigation of the theory of art

Questions like „what is music” are traditionally understood as determining the field of aesthetics
of music.

AESTHETIC ATTITUDES

 Things are not to be classified or judged or studied

 They are in themselves pleasant or exciting to look at.
 Give the object a chance to show how it can be interesting to perception (don‟t judge it
according to your feelings, belief e.tc.)
 We focus our attention on the object (piece of music) and key up our capacities of
imagination and emotion to respond to it. Experience is only aesthetic when it holds our
attention.

Activity accompanies aesthetic attention e.g walking round a sculpture, touching it, e.t.c.
everybody knows how easy it is to start thinking of other things when the music starts playing, so
that we are really aware of it only now and then.

Although there have been some attempts to constitute aesthetics as a discipline independent of
philosophy, basic issues raised by the aestheticians lead into metaphysics, logic and moral
philosophy since it is within the scope of aesthetics to ask questions about musical potentials,
modes of existence, relationship of composition

VALUE OF MUSIC

There are two positions with regard to the value of music:

 Some consider music (among the other arts) essential to a person‟s education.
 Others believe music to be part a part time „innocent luxury‟.
For the view that music is essential for a person‟s education music:
 Helps to develop general intellectual and social accomplishments.
 Improves attention and concentration.
 Advances reading and writing
 Improves numerical ability

INTRINSIC VALUES

Music has intrinsic values. Something that is valuable without strings attached has intrinsic
values. Intrinsic value can also be described as the ethical or philosophical value that an object
has in itself or for its own sake. Intrinsic value is a direct function of expression. It deals with
social messages, historical, personal and cultural significance inherent in the music. The more
music has to say about the culture it originates from, the greater its intrinsic value. Musical
activities are linked with ceremonies, ritual, dance, storytelling, magic etc. Plato said that the

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importance of music lies in its moral effect and that the influence of music on the moral
character of people can be ascertained, even down to the level of which particular scale structure
underlies particular melodies.

EXTRINSIC VALUES

The opposite of intrinsic value is extrinsic value. Under extrinsic value, the value of the item is
determined by external forces. In short, extrinsic value is determined by the audience. The
greater the number of people who find meaning and value in a piece of music, the greater its
extrinsic value. Popular or pop music has extrinsic value. The extrinsic value of popular music
will be determined by the following standards:

 The culture of the audience

 Ideological standards
 A discernible melody
 Uniform time signature
 Key changes limited to one
 Recorded music must have a high sound quality and no mistakes. Vocals loud
enough to be heard and understood

ACTIVITY

AESTHETICS OF MUSIC
ACTIVITY 1

Interview some people in your community and fill in this questionnaire.

The question you should ask them is “Why should Music be taught in schools?”

NAME ANSWER NAME ANSWER NAME ANSWER

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ACTIVITY 2

Study the list of famous people bellow and write down the type of intelligence which they
exhibit under Gardner‟s theory:

a) Mahatma Ghandhi
b) Oprah Winfrey
c) Collins Mbesuma
d) Albert Einstein

SUMMARY

Every person is unique and we do not know what he or she intends to be in life. Imagine how
many people feel that they are in the wrong career and they are just doing it to earn a living.
Some people find themselves in the wrong careers simply because society has made it difficult
for them by bringing in structures which disqualify them as intelligent people. Have you ever
heard of a person whose level of education is not very high but is able to rule a country very
well? Why should a good boxer who has never been in school be deemed as less intelligent than
an accountant?

Expressive Arts has musicians, artists, athletes, footballers, dancers and many other people who
are intelligent in their own way. These people have made significant changes to the world and
most of their contributions are for promoting peace unlike a scientist who invents a bomb. And
yet some models of measuring intelligence overlook such people.

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Unit 2: INDEGENOUS EXPRESSIVE ARTS

HISTORY OF MUSIC EDUCATION

INTRODUCTION

This topic will help you to understand the development of music from ancient times to today. It
will also help you follow closely the developments and changes which music education has
undergone and the protagonists of the theories leading to change.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

 Identify the historical trends of music

 Explain the national aims of music education

ANCIENT GREEK ATTITUDES TO MUSIC

Music was seen as an earthly reflection of a higher cosmic order, and a link was established
between it and morality through theory of ethos. The practice of music was in two forms:

 Used in the education of young men

 A pleasurable activity to indulge in as a listener

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PLATO

He asserted that music when properly applied is an ethical force in education and suitably
combined with gymnastics produces a well balanced character. According to Plato, music has a
definite content which can be transmitted to listeners.

ARISTOTLE

He recognized the various uses of music:

 From a pleasurable activity to a powerful force producing a certain effect on the

moral character of the soul.

ARISTOXEMUS OF TARENTUM

He was the first among the Greek philosophers to voice some doubt over the theory of ethos and
advocated the concept of music as an autonomous system of sounds and their relationships.

PHILODEMUS OF GADARA

He improved upon Aristoxemus‟ theory. Music as such has no power to arouse emotions and any
content attributed to music is impressed upon it from the outside in the first instance.

EDUCATION AND MUSIC

Education and music are closely related. To attempt to change people by leading them towards
some knowledge or skill or by extending their understanding is what is meant by education.
In the ancient days music embraced literature, drama and the visual arts. The person who is
educated in music would be able to discriminate between the ugly and the beautiful in art and
nature, and rhythm and harmony are thought to enter the soul, bearing grace with them.

EARLY CHRISTIAN EUROPE

Education came in the hands of the church. Music was taught from the point of view of the
church. The curriculum for university was modeled in two;

1. TRIVIUM; Grammar, Rhetoric (law and composition in prose and verse)

2. QUADRIVIUM; Geometry, Geography and history, Arithmetic, Music, Astronomy.
Candidates for degrees were expected to be thoroughly educated in these 7 arts and
every educated person possessed theory of music.

FEUDALISM; under this era secular music education was given to the upper classes. Young
people learnt singing of verses and playing the lute.

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REFORMATION; this encouraged the use of music. Luther himself was a singer and lute
player and in Germany, music was encouraged in schools. Fredrick the Great (1740-1786) made
a rule that 3 singing lessons should be taught in schools each week.

JEAN JACQUES ROUSSEAU; He was a music teacher in his early days. He demanded that
songs should be simple. These should be taught first and reading of music later. When the love
of music has been awakened, every child should be exercised in the composition of melodies.

PESTALOZZI (1746-1827) He stressed that schools should use national songs which would
bring about a harmonizing influence on the pupil‟s characters.

FROEBEL (1782-1852) He was the initiator of the Kindergarten movement and advocated for
the cultivation of singing with painting and modeling

MARIA MONTESSORI

She recommended music for use in teaching small children in 1912 in her book but music
educators criticized it saying it was of low quality

KODALY (1882-1967)

He was born in Hungary and at 24 joined as teacher of composition. He was instrumental in

developing a school music curriculum which ensured that every child should learn to sing at
sight. He wrote an enormous amount of music and exercises for children. He promoted the
initiation of pupils in folk music.

EMILE JAQUES-DALCROSE-(1865-1950)

He developed „eurhythmics‟. He observed that musical performance depends on movement. He

also observed that when students move with music they performed better. He wanted his pupils
to FEEL music through movement. He valued expression, feeling and involvement.

CARL ORFF (1895)

He had similar ideas to Dalcroze. He wanted music to be taught using musical instruments,
voice, aural training, movement and improvisation. His approach was direct and immediate
involvement with music from the first encounter. He asserted that by gradually extending the
performing skills and developing musical imagination, one would develop improvisation. He
promoted the use of folk songs

ECLECTIC METHOD

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The Orff method, Kodaly method, Dalcrose method and Suzuki method are some of the methods
used to teach music today. Teachers are free to use any of these methods in their classes.
However, the eclectic method is the best one for you as it will strengthen your teaching skills.

THE HISTORY OF ZAMBIAN MUSIC

Hundreds of years ago, before missionaries and Europeans came to Africa Zambia was made up
of many small, self-governing chiefdoms. Each chiefdom had its own royal musicians, who
played tribal ceremonies. The musicians used traditional instruments, such as a drum called the
ngoma and hand piano called the kalimba. They also played reeds, horns and flutes. People often
sung with the instruments. One person would sing the first line of the song and the other would
copy him in a chorus. In the 1900s the British people came to Zambia and formed one
government to rule over all of Zambia. The British government built villages and cities around
the mines and people came from all over Zambia to work on the mines. This affected Zambia‟s
music as musical styles from the different chiefdoms came together. The British people brought
new instruments, such as the accordions and the guitar. They also brought their own musical
styles. Zambian musicians began to use the new instrument and rhythms of British music in their
songs.

In the 1940s and 1950s, the mining towns played an important role in the development of
Zambian music. Travelling musicians, called troubadours traveled between the mining camps
and entertained the exhausted mine workers with music and stories. At the same time, people
became interested in collecting and preserving Zambian traditional music. In 1964, Zambia
became independent and formed its own government. At this time, the Zambia broadcasting
service (ZBS) was formed. ZBS collected and played traditional and modern music from all over
the country. Now, for the first time ordinary people could listen to Zambian music on the radio.

ZAMROCK ‘N ROLL

In the late 1960s and the early 1970s Zambians developed a new kind of music. This music was
called zamrock. The words to the songs were a mixture of English and local languages. The
music was extremely popular with young people. At this time, the zamrock band called musi-o-
Tunya made Zambia‟s first ever LP record. Another famous band of the time was called the great
witch. In the 1970s, the president of Zambia, Kenneth Kaunda, said that 95% (that is almost all)
of music on the radio should be Zambian. This was supposed to encourage more people to play
Zambian music. But things didn‟t work out exact the way he planned. Rather than playing their
own music, young Zambian wanted to become pop stars by copying the music from other
countries.

In the 1990‟s, things became difficult for Zambian musicians. A lot of music from overseas came
in the country. Reggae, Ragga, rhythm „n blues(R&B), Hip hop and gospel music were very
popular. At the same time, people started copying music illegally and selling it at very low
prices. This meant that musicians stopped being paid for the music they were making. Some of
the greatest musicians died of old age.

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Today, the music industry in Zambia is improving. Many new musicians are becoming popular.
They use the overseas music they grew up with, such as R&B, Ragga and Rap, and change it to
suit their Zambian people.

Music is also becoming cheaper to buy, so that ordinary people can enjoy listening to their
favorite Zambian musicians at home. All in all, it looks like there are good times ahead for
Zambian music.

HISTORICAL TRENDS OF ZAMBIAN MUSIC

Long before the 19th century the coming of the Christian missionaries changed the structure of
Zambian music. The kings had their own royal musicians and each kingdom had its own music.
Music was played at traditional ceremonies and other special occasions. (Write the occasions)
In the 20th century the kingdoms were replaced by centralized rule and political economic and
social change took over the country. New types of dances and music emerged and musical styles
influenced each other. Beginning from the 1920s when the mines were opened on the Copper
belt foreign instruments such as the accordion and the guitar enhanced the Zambian music. Folk
music joined traditional African rhythms and became very popular in the mining towns.
Troubadours traveled between mining towns entertaining people with folk music. As we can see
western music had a lot of influence on traditional music. Also the margin of cultures gave birth
to new dances.

AFRICAN MUSIC

Europeans have long experienced an easy affinity with African art and music and they have
found them very appealing and accessible. Many explorers such as Mungo Park recorded
observation in their diaries about native song and dances.

Traditional African music is usually a community affair. Many African societies base their music
on collective activities such as house building, hunting, work, welfare, ceremonies etc. music
making is collective and there are few instruments that are left to specialists such as xylophones,
harps, lamella phones etc. generally speaking, more Africans take part in music making than
Europeans. In most African societies, musicians are of low social status.

Despite collaboration in music making one should not expect to hear music in an African
community every hour of the day of the week. African communities differ in the kinds of
activities for which they provide the music. For example, some communities celebrate weddings
with a great deal of music while others don‟t. In short, there is social control in music making on
the following:

 The time when the ceremony should be performed.

 The use of musical instruments may be regulated
 The type of performance allowed for different occasions or situations may be
controlled.
 The use of a full ensemble and a smaller one depending on the occasion.

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  Response to changes of the moon, seasons, weather.
 Beliefs of the community.

CHARACTERISTICS OF AFRICAN MUSIC

African music is music associated with the African society of the pre- colonial era. This is music
which has survived the impact of music of the other parts of the world

CHARACTERISTIC OF AFRICAN MUSIC

1. Rhythm – its rhythm is complicated. It has a regular recurrence of strong and weak points
in a pattern of sound.
2. Call and response- the musical idea is introduced which is incomplete to be followed by
another idea which is the form of a response i.e. like a question and answer.
3. Variation and repetition – a) variation – an idea is presented and later altered, but
maintains some of its original elements so that it is still recognizable. It‟s usually on a
higher sound compared to the first one.
b) repetition- a pattern is repeated over and over. Other patterns may be super imposed
over the main idea (theme), thus confirming the two characteristics of variation and
repetition.

4. Harmony- harmonizing is at cadencial points. Singing is done in parallel thirds, fourths,

fifths, sixths and octaves i.e. in two parts.
5. There is a lot of room for improvisation in African music
6. Tonal inflections: There is a strong correlation between the tune and the spoken words.
7. African music comprises different modes (i.e. the tonic solfa has no semitones). These
modes have tampered majors and minors which depend on the ethnic groups.
8. African music is sung in situational or context form e.g. working, hunting e.t.c

AFRICAN MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS

AFRICAN MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS

African musical instruments can be grouped into four types namely:

MEMBRANOPHONES

These are the most common instruments which are found in every community. In Zambia at
least all tribes use membranophones. Membranophones are instruments that have skins stretched
across them and sound is produced by striking the skin membranes which vibrate and produce
sound.

ACTIVITIES

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Membranophones can be open- ended or closed ended. What do you understand by this
assertion?

IDIOPHONES

These produce sounds when their surfaces are struck. They have no strings or skins stretched
across them. They are also very common among African communities.

ACTIVITIES

1: Name some idiophones that are used in your community.

AEROPHONES

These produce sounds when they are blown. In short, these are wind instruments.
What materials are used to make aerophones in indigenous African society?

CHORDOPHONES

These have strings stretched across them which produce sound when they are struck, plucked or
rubbed. In some communities these are imitations of Western musical instruments. However,
some communities have their own makes of chordophones which were there before colonization.

ACTIVITY

What are the aims of music education in Zambia? Write them down and find out if your school
has achieved these aims.

SUMMARY

Indigenous African music is performed on occasions unlike modern western music which is
played at any time. Zambian traditional music is slowly being taken over by western music
because of this reason. However, annual traditional ceremonies which are held in almost every
province in Zambia have attracted a lot of people from within and outside the country. These

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ceremonies have helped to preserve our music. As a music teacher, you are advised to learn
something about at least one ceremony in each province in Zambia.

Instrument making and playing should also be encouraged. Traditional dances should not be
reserved for days of celebration such as Independence Day. These should be taught in music
lessons as one of the aims of music education is to preserve our cultural heritage.

UNIT 3: BASIC TECHNIQUES IN MUSIC

INTRODUCTION TO PULSE, SOUND AND RHYTHM

INTRODUCTION

This topic will help you to teach music using the basic techniques in Expressive Arts. It will
guide you on how you should teach the topics under the three activities which people engage in
while learning music. It will also state the activities which you can use in some topics and the
types of songs which you can use in your lessons. As you are studying this topic, please try out
the practical activities so that you have adequate practice before residential school.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

 Exhibit understanding of pulse, sound and rhythm

 Identify singing techniques
 Apply relevant knowledge to movement and dance

BASIC TECHNIQUES FOR TEACHING MUSIC

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The Music curriculum is divided into three areas namely:

i. Listening and responding

ii. Performing
iii. Composing

Most people end with listening and responding only. They only listen to music and respond to it
by dancing or simply applauding. Others go a little bit further into performing. This is done by
singing or playing some musical instruments. The most difficult area is that of composing. Few
people are able to compose music simply because they lack interest or they have little knowledge
about how it should be done. A person will enjoy music better if he or she is competent in all the
three areas.

LISTENING AND RESPONDING

Have you ever listened to a piece of music critically? Listening to music is like trying to unroll a
length of intricately patterned wallpaper which as you unroll one end, rolls up at the other‟s so
that at any one time only a small area is visible, ( winters 1986;4)

You have to recall in your mind what has just gone and you do not know what is coming unless
you remember the pattern. In simple terms you have to think of the past, present and future.
When teaching music, teachers should always remember that listening to music is a very
important area and should emphasize the importance of purposeful, active listening in order to
elicit physical, verbal, emotional and cognitive responses.

WHAT SHOULD A CHILD LISTEN TO?

A child should be given the opportunity to listen to a wide variety of music pieces. Songs are the
largest sources of music. Voices and instruments are the media of music. Voices may be used
alone in a piece of music. This is called ACAPPELLA. Alternatively instruments may be used
alone, this is called instrumental music. Usually voices and instruments are used together.

CLASSIFICATION OF SONGS

Songs can be classified into two categories as:

a) Religious

These are songs sung for worship or praise. They include hymns, carols and psalms.

b) Secular songs

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 These are songs that are not religious. They may be further classified as follows;-

i. Occupational songs
These are songs sang while working. They include hunting songs, pounding
songs, harvesting songs, fishing songs and farming songs.

ii. Occasional songs

These are songs sang at special occasions such as funerals, weddings, initiation,
war, patriotic events and when receiving therapy (therapeutic songs)

iii. Game / play songs

These are songs sang when playing games. Action songs, counting songs,
lullabies and cradle songs fall under this category

iv. Traditional songs

These are the indigenous songs which may also be classified as folk songs. They e
area to another and it is important that children learn the songs within their
community first before learning songs from other communities.

RESPONDING

When we listen to music or participate in a musical performance, we feel compelled to move our
bodies according to the forward movement of the music. We may respond in this way by tapping
our fingers on our thighs or our feet on the floor. We may nod our heads, click our fingers or
move our shoulders and backbones. The musical force which makes us respond to music in this
way is called PULSE.

PULSE

Pulse is the basic beat in a piece of music. It is not heard but it is felt.

CHARACTERISTICS OF PULSE

i. It is constant
ii. It is consistent and recurrent
iii. It follows organized time units such as the ticking of a wall clock.

Pulse determines the speed of a piece of music. It is the beat that gives music movement and
direction, and music makes us dance. As we explore pulse further, it will eventually lead us into
the concept of rhythm.

PERFORMING

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This is a very important aspect of music which should be taught to pupils. Performing can be in
the form of singing, dancing, playing instruments and reading and writing music (music literacy)

I. SINGING TECHNIQUES

SINGING

Song singing is a vital aspect of the child‟s early musical development. Children learn first to
perform simple songs through listening to and imitating others. Singing lessons involve a lot of
activities which fall under the concept of melody.

VOICES
There are many kinds of voices. Every voice has its own register and tone quality (or timbre). No
two voices can sound exactly the same. Register describes the range of the voice and is termed as
high or low. When you identify someone by their speaking voice, your decision is based on
timbre or tone colour. The tone colour of a voice can be described as follows:

Heavy- Light
Nasal- Clear
Dark- Bright

Thick- Thin

The voice is a special musical instrument that a musician moves with wherever he or she goes.
The voice can be used to express feelings unlike other musical instruments. Sometimes a musical
composition comprises of voices only. The term used for such a composition is acappella. At
other times voices may not be used in a composition. The term used for such compositions is
instrumental music.

TERMS USED TO DESCRIBE NUMBER OF VOICES/PARTICIPANTS IN A

PERFORMANCE

One voice- Solo

Two voices- Duet
Three voices- Trio
Four voices- Quartet
Five voices- Quintet
Six voices- Sextet
Seven voices- Septet
Eight voices- Octet
Nine voices- Nonet

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 Many voices- Chorus

EXERCISING THE VOICE

BREATHING EXERCISES

Breathing well is very important when singing. Good habits of breathing should be practiced
from an early age. It is therefore important for a teacher to teach pupils how to breathe well.
Before a teacher guides his or her pupils in breathing exercises, he or she must first practice
them. It should be noted that breathing exercises must be practiced in a standing position with
the body loose and relaxed.

The teacher should ensure that pupils do not make sniffing noises as they breathe and they
should not raise and lower their shoulders. The teacher should see that the children:

a) Use their lungs and not their shoulders

b) Breathe deeply before doing any exercise
c) Use the nose and not the mouth when breathing in
d) Use the mouth when breathing out
e) Breathe in slowly, deeply and silently and out slowly and silently

N.B: The teacher should give clear instructions and demonstrations. Children in the lower grades
should be taught using games so that they don‟t lose interest. Some breathing games are as
follows:

a) Pretending to smell delicious food

b) Smelling pleasant flowers
c) Pretending to blow a fire
d) Imitating a buzzing bee

VOICE EXERCISES

Voice exercises help pupils to:

a) Produce sounds of good tone which are pleasant to listen to.

b) Produce sustained singing which can be controlled so that there are no unnecessary
pauses due to shortage of breath.
c) Shape vowel and consonant sounds well so that there is no blur of sounds
d) Produce good, clear singing
e) Sharpen their listening skills

Your exercises will be imitative and your aim is to help pupils to listen carefully (aural training)
and then sing softly after you. The best sound to begin with is „oo‟. Some examples of activities
that you can do with your class are as follows:

a) Sing one sustained note until the breath is finished

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 b) Sing a note from loud to soft or from soft to loud
c) Take a slow deep breath and as you breathe out sing a sing a sequence of numbers
e.g. one, two three etc
d) Breathe in and sing up or down the tonic solfa scale

STEPS ON HOW TO TEACH A NEW SONG

The pattern of your lesson when teaching a new song will be as follows:

1. Breathing exercises
2. Voice exercises
3. The teaching of the new song

We have already gone through the process of teaching breathing exercises and voice exercises.
The steps for teaching a new song are as follows:

1. If the pupils are able to read write the song on the board or on paper. Remember, a
long song should be written outside the lesson. If it is a short song there is no need to
write it.
2. Read the words of the song, pronouncing them clearly.
3. Ask pupils to read through the words of the song.
4. Explain the meaning of the song.
5. Sing the whole song while pupils listen. You can ask the pupils to clap along as you
sing. This helps them to keep the correct speed and time.
6. Sing the song again but ask pupils who have become accustomed to the tune to sing
along.
7. Ask pupils to sing on their own.
8. Introduce other activities to the singing e.g. singing in groups.9

SINGING TECHNIQUES

The human voice is a musical instrument on its own and it has more advantages than other
musical instruments in the following ways:

 The musician moves with it wherever he or she goes

 It can express emotions
 It can imitate other musical instruments
 It can be exercised upon to improve its quality
 It is cheap
 It conveys messages

A person can be identified by his or her voice. The two factors which make this possible are
voice range and timbre (tone colour). Voice range is how high or low one‟s voice can go while
timbre or tone colour is the quality of the voice

MALE AND FEMALE VOICES

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When boys and girls are young, their voices are almost the same. These voices are called
UNCHANGED VOICES. As they grow up and mature, between the ages of 12 and 16, girls‟
voices become fuller while boys‟ voices become lower. These are called CHANGED VOICES.
When singing, girls or women may sing alone and boys or men may sing alone. But sometimes
the two sexes may sing together. This is called a mixed sex choir. The arrangement and
definition of voice parts are as follows:

SOPRANO:

This is the highest voice part and is sung by females.

MEZZO SOPRANO:

This is a voice part for females and is between soprano and alto. It has a rich quality and a bright
tone.
CONTRALTO:

This voice is lower than the mezzo- soprano. It is also shortened to ALTO in pronunciation and
has a rich quality and it is full. It is sung by women or girls.

TENOR:

This is the highest male voice. It has a rich and dramatic quality. It is taken by boys or men.

BARITONE:

This voice part is lower than tenor and richer in sound. It is sung by boys or men.

BASS:

This is the lowest voice and is sung by men or boys. It has a deep and full sound

II. DANCING

Dance cannot fall independently without the subject of music. This is where the integration
between physical education and music occurs. Some topics such as aerobics are integrated with
P.E some action and game songs are also integrated with physical education

MOVEMENT AND DANCE

DANCE

DEFINITION:
The impulse to express one‟s feelings or to recreate oneself in the dance is instinctive and
universal. Dancing can be either solo or in a group performance.

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HISTORY OF DANCE

There is no human society that has denied itself the pleasure and excitement of dancing. g, the
first purpose of dance was probably ritual. Dance does not leave behind clearly identifiable
artifacts such as stone tools or cave paintings. Archeology traces dance from prehistoric times
through the Bhimbetka rock paintings in India and Egyptian tomb paintings depicting dancing
figures around 3300BC.

ANCIENT USES OF DANCE

DANCE AS RITUAL

This is one of the earliest structured uses of dance. Rituals ranged from religious, sacred,
therapeutic, magical etc. In most ancient civilizations dancing before a god was an important
element in temple rituals. Healing rituals are still used today in most cultures.
DANCE AS ECSTASY

This was done for the mood of release and excitement. An example are the Dionysiac dances of
ancient Greece which were done after harvesting the grapes.

DANCE FOR ENTERTAINMENT

Egyptian paintings show scantily clad girls dancing and these are as old as 1400BC on tomb
walls. This shows that dance was used for entertainment. In the 16 th century a dance called ballet
became the favorite entertainment in renaissance France and Italy. Dancing institutions were
created and one institution called the Paris Opera is still in existence today.

DANCE AS COMMUNICATION
Dance was also used to transmit stories from one generation to another. Before written language
was invented, dance was used for telling myths and stories

ANCIENT DANCE

EGYPT: Dancing was for the lower orders or lower class and professionals. Women were the
majority.

GREECE: Dancing was part of their religious rites. They had a variety of dances; some wild
and obscene in honor of the good Dionysus. The dances were of the following forms:-

A) Gymnastic B) Mimetic B) Social D) drama

The pyrrhic dance resembled today‟s ballet. Youths and maidens danced together but adults
danced separately.

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ROME: The Romans gave dancing a lower place. The peasants danced on festival on festive
days but the upper class felt it lowered their dignity. Priests danced during public worship

THE ORIENT: Dancing is held in high esteem. Girls are set aside for professional dancing (e.g.
Geishas of Japan and nautch girls of India). Indian dancing is very fluid. There is little movement
of the feet but the body and arms are moved beautifully. The sexes do not dance together.

AMERICAN INDIANS: Dancing is very important dance is used for social entertainment and
dances can last for up to 12 hours or more. Dancing ceremonies are used when a death occurs.

ENGLISH FOLK DANCES: These are in 3 categories

i. SWORD DANCES: These are for men who carry wooden or blunt swords. The
performers jump over the swords or pass under them. The dance originated as a
religious ritual.
ii. MORRIS DANCES: Sticks or handkerchiefs are used instead of swords. Bells
are tied to the legs. One of the dancers is blackened on the face. These are for
men.
iii. COUNTRY DANCES: These are for men and women. In the 19th century the
waltz, quadrilles, the polka, the schottische and mazurka were widely used. In
the 20th century there was a dance mania after the 1st world war.

DANCE AND RELIGION

Due to abuses of dancing religious people have constantly denounced it. The Christian church
has not been against it as such. In the Old Testament there is a lot of dancing. (Miriam and her
maidens, Jephtha‟s daughter, David etc) Christ mentions dancing without rebuke in the new
testament (the prodigal son)

POPE ZACHARIAS 744 A.D Prohibited dancing but it continued in some parts.

ZAMBIAN DANCES

Zambian dances can be classified into two types

(a) Traditional dances

(b) Contemporary dances

TRADITIONAL DANCES

These are the indigenous dances performed by the Zambian people. They can further be
classified as:-

i. Spiritual dances
ii. Religious dances
iii. Entertainment dances

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 iv. War dances
v. Ceremonial dances

CONTEMPORARY DANCES

These are the dances which are not indigenous. The above traditional dances can be
contemporary.

III. INTRODUCTION TO INSTRUMENTATION

INSTRUMENT PLAYING

Children should first learn how to play unturned instruments and later progress to playing tuned
instruments. The first instruments to be played should be percussion instruments. Homemade
musical instruments such as drums, shakers, rattles, tins, wooden pieces, rattles, dried wild fruits
and many others which the teacher can improvise should be used. Kitchenware can make very
good musical instruments. Percussion instruments can be very effective for teaching pulse and
rhythmic concepts.

Later on tuned melody instruments such as bongos, flutes, guitars, xylophones, pianos etc can be
introduced. As usual homemade instruments should be used before introducing modern ones.
The use of ICT can be introduced in schools where the facilities are available. Instrument playing
can be useful for teaching music concepts such as rhythm, melody, timbre, form, harmony etc

CLASSIFICATION OF MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS

There are five major groups of musical instruments. Musical instruments are classified according
to the material which vibrates when they are played. This system was invented by Curt Sachs, a
musicologist. It is now called the Sachs-Hombostel system.

IDIOPHONES:

These are made of naturally sonorous material and produce sound when struck, shaken, rubbed
or plucked. Examples are as follows:

SHAKEN IDIOPHONES; Rattles, shakers, maracas, sleigh bells, tambourines etc

STRUCK IDIOPHONES; Bells, cymbals, litho phones, triangles, glockenspiel etc

PLUCKED IDIOPHONES; Harps

SCRAPED IDIOPHONES; Guiro

RUBBED IDIOPHONES; Harmonicas, musical saws

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MEMBRANOPHONES:

These have a stretched skin or membrane. Examples are kettledrums, snare drums, tambourines,
friction drums etc

AEROPHONES:

These are musical instruments that produce sound by movement and vibration of air. Aero
phones may further be classified as;
a) Horns and trumpets; they produce sound by the players‟ pressed lips setting
the air in motion. They include trumpets, trombones, French horns, tubas,
sousaphones etc.
b) Reed instruments; a reed which may be single or double is inserted in the tube
which sets the air in motion. Examples are saxophones, clarinets, recorders,
oboes etc
c) Flutes; the sharp edge of a hole against which the player‟s breath is directed
sets the air in motion. Examples are flutes themselves and the piccolo.

CHORDOPHONES:

These have strings stretched across them which vibrate when plucked or bowed. There are some
sub classes of chordophones;

ZITHERS; These have no necks with strings stretched from end to end of the sound board. They
are struck or plucked.

LUTES; these have necks. Examples are violins, cellos, guitars, banjos etc

HARPS; these have strings at an angle to the soundboard.

ELECTROPHONES:

These are instruments that use an electric circuit. Examples are electric guitars, keyboards,
synthesizers etc

METHOD OF TEACHING INSTRUMENT PLAYING

There are three steps in teaching instrumentation to pupils. However, there is a pre- requisite to
teaching playing which is that learners should know the instrument thoroughly well. The learners
should know the parts of the instrument before a teacher follows the three steps:

STEP 1: INTRODUCTION

The teacher may revise the last lesson or find out how well the pupils have mastered the skills
which they learned in the previous lesson.

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STEP 2: DEMONSTRATION

This is a very important aspect of teaching instrument playing. The teacher should however
desist from playing with expertise which is too high for the level of the pupils as this may
discourage them. Pupils may feel that the teacher is a „magician‟ and they cannot compete with
him or her. The teacher should also show interest in the pupils‟ music even though it is not up to
his or her standard.

STEP 3: PRACTICE

Ensure that pupils are given some practice time in the lesson. Group work can also be very useful
when practicing to play musical instruments. Depending on the type of musical instruments
being used, it is better to take the class outdoors for such lessons.

COMPOSING

Composing is to do with organizing sounds so that they are good to play and to hear. Sometimes
sounds are pleasant and entertaining while at times the music moves us deeply. Music may be in
free time or strict time. In free time, the kind of music is like talking. The sounds are grouped
together to make sense and there are pauses and silences which keep us in suspense as we listen
for the next sounds. In free time, music is often gripping and expressive.

However, most music is in strict time. This type of music has a regular beat and a vital pulse
which can be quick or slow. This type of music often makes us to dance.

Composing is very important in music teaching as it seeks to develop the child‟s creativity and
uniqueness. It creates an avenue for self expression. Sound is a good media for expression and
the child must be given the opportunity to explore it and use it to create new ideas.

ACTIVITIES

1. Do some body percussion activities with your class?

2. Teach your class a drumming pattern for a famous traditional dance in your area.

SUMMARY

So far we have looked at the three strand units which govern music education namely listening
and responding, performing and composing. If a teacher wants to teach a traditional dance under
the three strand units he or she may use the following activities:

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 a. LISTENING AND RESPONDING

1. Letting pupils listen to a recording of a song and asking them to

respond to the music in any way they feel like.

b. PERFORMING

1. The teacher teaches them how to dance to the song and the pupils
perform the dance.

c. COMPOSING

1. The pupils extend their knowledge by creating new styles of dances.

UNIT 4 CONCEPTS IN MUSIC

ELEMENTS OF MUSIC

INTRODUCTION

This topic looks at the musical elements which are the building blocks of music and are
interrelated in any musical activity. Our bodies are made up of bones, flesh, blood and tissue. In
the same way music is made of distinct elements which we unfortunately cannot see but can only
hear. These elements are present in a piece of music and it is important to isolate them for
teaching purposes. The elements of music are pulse, duration, tempo, pitch, dynamics, structure
(form, style), timbre (tone colour) and texture. Pulse and duration give rise to the element of
Rhythm while pitch leads to melody.

Rhythm in this section will be treated as a major theme dealing with topics such as duration,
pulse and time signature. As you read this module you are expected to do practical work for
better understanding of the concepts. Reading and writing of music begins from here and
requires a lot of practice. The topic will deal with content background as well as methodology
and so it is advisable to try out the methods with your class.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

 Identify the elements of music

 Listen to musical notes and identify their characteristics
 Perform musical activities to bring out the elements of music
 Create activities for pupils in grades 1-7 using the music elements

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  Listen to and imitate patterns of sound
 Identify notes by their duration.
 Perform notated musical notes rhythmically.
 Read and write music.
 Create activities for pupils in the area of rhythm.

PITCH:

This is the height and depth of sound. In other ways it can be defined as the highness or lowness
of sound. It is difficult to tell the highest or lowest source of sound in the world.

DYNAMICS

Dynamics is concerned with the level of sound. It is the loudness or softness of sound and is
determined by:

 The number of players or singers involved

 The degree of energy used

TEMPO:

This is the speed or pace of sound. It is determined by

 The nature of music

 The dexterity of the player
 The complexity of the instrument

Tempo can create impressions of fear, excitement or calm.

MELODY:

A melody is a group of pitches, heard one after another. It is difficult to talk about melody
without rhythm. A melody also has rhythm. Each tone in a melody has pitch and duration.

RHYTHM:

A rhythm is a combination of long and short sounds. It is sounds of various duration grouped
together.

HARMONY

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When you play or sing two or more pitches at the same time, you create harmony. But the
pitches must „agree‟ or blend. When they blend, the result is called consonance. When they
„disagree‟, the result is called dissonance.

Harmony leads us to chords and a chord which „agrees‟ is known as a concord while a chord
that has certain notes „disagreeing‟ or clashing producing tension or restlessness is called a
discord.

TIMBRE (TONE COLOUR)

Timbre is also called tone colour. It refers to the quality and variability of sound. Instruments and
voices do not sound identical. The way the voice or instrument is used affects its characteristic
tone and produces differing responses to the listener. Tone colour is important when composing
or performing music because it determines the choice of instruments to be used.

FORM

This is also known as style or structure. Music has got shape even if we cannot see it but are able
to tell that one is listening to Rhumba, Gospel, or Reggae etc. All the other elements of music put
together will determine the form of the music.

TEXTURE

Texture in music is the way the layers of sound are combined. There are three types of texture
namely:

MONOPHONIC TEXTURE:

This consists of a single melodic line. The single melodic line can be sung by a solo voice or
many voices. When many voices sing a single melodic line this is known as singing in unison.
Monophonic means one sound. Examples of songs in monophonic texture are plainchants,
medieval songs, Zambian traditional music, and music from countries such as India, middle East,
Japan and China.

POLYPHONIC TEXTURE:

Polyphonic texture is achieved by several voices singing separate melodies. Polyphony means
many voices sounding together. Many voiced music is also called contrapuntal music. There
are several examples of songs in polyphonic texture:

a) Canons: A canon is a musical composition with two or more voice parts. A

musical phrase is started by one voice and repeated exactly by successive voices,
which begin before the first voice has ended. The combination of voices produces
harmony.

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 b) Rounds: This is a simple type of infinite canon in unison in which the melody
comes round and round again. In other words, the song is repeated over and over
again. Examples of rounds that children in the lower grades can use are „three
blind mice‟, „London is burning‟, „Are you sleeping‟.
c) Organum: These are the earliest forms of composing in polyphony. Plainchants
and plainsongs were arranged and sung in this style. Organum were composed
between the 9th and 12th centuries.

HOMOPHONIC TEXTURE:

This is the type of texture where the melody takes a prominent role while other parts assume a
supportive role. „Homo” means „Same‟ and what is same in homophonic texture is the rhythm.
The melodies are different. An example of this arrangement is where soprano sings the main
melody while alto, tenor and bass sing supporting melodies. Choirs usually use four part singing
which is an example of homophonic texture.

PULSE:
In medical circles, pulse refers to the heartbeat of a person. Some of the ways of taking
someone‟s pulse may be as follows:

 touching the left side of the chest with the hand or a stethoscope
 pressing on the wrist of the hand to feel the pulse
 using modern technology

However, music has pulse just like a human being. Pulse cannot be seen or heard but is felt.
There are several definitions of pulse in music.

 The underlying throb in music which may be felt throughout any music with a strong
beat.
 The musical force which makes us respond to music
 A term used as a synonym for beat

DURATION

Duration is used to name musical notes according to how long they last or are sustained. The
length of a tone or note is measured by counting the pulses or beats that one creates through
one‟s musical instincts. However there are some mechanisms that have been invented to measure
pulses accurately. Despite this conductors prefer to use their own natural ways of counting pulses
as it adds pleasure to the musical experience. Accurate counting of pulse is used in recorded
music. Musical notes are named as follows according to their duration:

DURATION:

Duration is how long a musical note lasts. A musical note may be long or short depending on its
sustainability. Some authors have defined duration as follows:

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  The speed of tones or syllables in a melody
 The length of a sound

Breve; This note can be made by singing „Aaagh‟ and counting up to eight. Try singing any
vowel sound continuously and counting silently up to 8. The intervals between the counts should
be those of your normal heart beat. The note that you are singing is called a breve but it is no
longer used in modern music. The American name for a breve is „double whole note.‟ The
syllable used to say a breve is „Taa aa aa aa aa aa aa aa‟ Periods of silence are also notated in
music. These are called rests. A rest which lasts up to 8 counts is called a “breve rest”. (See
illustrations)

Semibreve; Sing any vowel sound and sustain it up to 4 counts. The note that you have sung is a
semibreve. A semibreve is half the value of a breve and the American name is “whole note”.
Two semibreves make one breve. The syllable used to say a semibreve is „Taa aa aa aa‟. A
semibreve rest also lasts for 4 counts.

Minim; Sing any vowel sound and sustain it up to 2 counts. The note that you have sung is a
minim. A minim is half the value of a semibreve and the American name is “half note”. Two
minims make one semibreve. The syllable used to say a semibreve is „Taa aa‟. A minim rest also
lasts for 2 counts.

Crotchet; Sing any vowel sound and sustain it up to 1 count. The note that you have sung is a
crotchet. A crotchet is half the value of a minim and the American name is “quarter note”. Two
crotchets make one minim. The syllable used to say a crotchet is „Taa‟. A crotchet rest also lasts
for 1 count.

Quaver; Sing any vowel sound and sustain it up to half count. The note that you have sung is a
quaver. A quaver is half the value of a crotchet and the American name is “eighth note”. Two
quavers make one crotchet. The syllable used to say a quaver is „Ta or te‟. A quaver rest also
lasts for half count.

You may have found it difficult to sing a half count. Instead of singing, clapping may help you to
get the concept of a quaver. Since a clap cannot be sustained it may be helpful to clap in half
counts continuously. This can be done by saying “one” and clapping twice each time. E.g.

ONE ONE ONE ONE

Clap-clap Clap-clap Clap-clap Clap- clap

Semiquaver; Sing any vowel sound and sustain it up to a quarter count. The note that you have
sung is a semiquaver. A semiquaver is half the value of a quaver and the American name is
“sixteenth note”. Two semiquavers make one quaver. The syllables used to say four semiquavers
is „Ta-fe-te-fe‟. A semiquaver rest also lasts a quarter count.

You may have found it difficult to sing a quarter count. Instead of singing, clapping may help
you to get the concept of a quaver. Since a clap cannot be sustained it may be helpful to clap in

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quarter counts continuously. This can be done by saying “one” and clapping four times at each
count. E.g.

ONE ONE
Clap-clap-clap-clap Clap-clap-clap-clap

Demisemiquaver; Sing any vowel sound and sustain it up to an eighth count. The note that you
have sung is a demisemiquaver. A demisemiquaver is half the value of a semiquaver and the
American name is “thirty second note”. Two demisemiquavers make one semiquaver. A
demisemiquaver rest also lasts an eighth of a count.

You may have found it difficult to sing an eighth of a count. Instead of singing, clapping may
help you to get the concept of a demisemiquaver. Since a clap cannot be sustained it may be
helpful to clap in eighth counts continuously. This can be done by saying “one” and clapping 8
times at each count. E.g.

ONE ONE
Clap-clap-clap-clap-clap-clap-clap-clap Clap-clap-clap-clap-clap-clap-clap-clap

Hemi demisemiquaver; Sing any vowel sound and sustain it up to a sixteenth count. The note
that you have sung is a hemi demisemiquaver. A hemi demisemiquaver is half the value of a
demisemiquaver and the American name is “sixty forth note”. Two hemi demisemiquavers make
one demisemiquaver. A hemi demisemiquaver rest also lasts a sixteenth of a count.

You may have found it difficult to sing a sixteenth of a count. Instead of singing, clapping may
help you to get the concept of a hemi demisemiquaver. Since a clap cannot be sustained it may
be helpful to clap in sixteenth counts continuously. This can be done by saying “one” and
clapping 16 times at each count. E.g.

ONE
Clap-clap-clap-clap-clap-clap-clap-clap clap-clap-clap-clap-clap-clap-clap-clap

If you find clapping to be difficult as it is too fast, you could use stick or two to drum on a desk
or any surface.

Semi hemi demisemiquaver; this is the shortest note in music but it also has the longest name.
Sing any vowel sound and sustain it up to a thirty secondth of a count. The note that you have
sung is a semihemidemisemiquaver. A semi hemi demisemiquaver is half the value of a hemi
demisemiquaver and the American name is “hundred and twenty eighth note”. Two semi hemi
demisemiquavers make one hemi demisemiquaver. A semi hemi demisemiquaver rest also lasts a
thirty secondth of a count.

You may have found it difficult to sing a thirty secondth of a count. Instead of singing, clapping
may help you to get the concept of a hemi demisemiquaver. Since a clap cannot be sustained it

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may be helpful to clap in sixteenth counts continuously. This can be done by saying “one” and
clapping 32 times at each count! E.g.

ONE
Clap-clap-clap-clap-clap-clap-clap-clap clap-clap-clap-clap-clap-clap-clap-clap- clap-clap-clap-
clap-clap-clap-clap-clap clap-clap-clap-clap-clap-clap-clap-clap

If you find clapping to be difficult as it is too fast, you could use a stick or two to drum on a desk
or any surface.

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Expressive Arts Module - 34 -
DOTTED NOTES

A dot placed in front of a note adds half the value of the note to the note.
For example, a dotted minim is equivalent to a minim and a crotchet. If the minim is divided to
make two crotchets, then a dotted minim is equivalent to three crotchets.

TIME

This is also known as metre. It is the number of beats in a bar and their value. Beats are
organized in twos, threes, fours and of recently five. This is indicated by bar lines drawn down
through the staff. The time or metre of the music may be duple, triple, quadruple or quintuple.

TIME SIGNATURE

Time signature is a sign, often consisting of two figures written one above the other, placed after
the clef and the key signature of at the beginning of a composition. It signifies the time or metre
of a piece of music. The bottom digit indicates what kind of note value is the basic unit of
measurement while the top digit indicates the number of units to a bar.

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Expressive Arts Module - 36 -
BAR

A bar is the amount of music contained or measured between two bar lines.

BAR LINES

The vertical lines drawn down the through the staff to demarcate a bar.

ACCENT

The first beat in a bar is stressed or emphasized. This is known as accent. An accent mark is
written as >

TYPES OF TIME SIGNATURE

There are two types of time signature. These are simple time signature and compound time
signature. In simple time signature, each note is treated as a simple, plain note which is divisible
into halves. In compound time each beat is a dotted note which can be divided into thirds.

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Expressive Arts Module - 38 -
 ACTIVITIES

1. Sing the song „Are you sleeping?‟ with your pupils as a round.

2. Sing the song „Are you sleeping?‟ as a canon with your class.

3. Sing the three songs „Are you sleeping?‟, „three blind mice‟ and „London is burning‟
in polyphonic texture with your class.

4. Write the following as one note:

a) 2crotchets b) 3 minims c) 6 semiquavers d) 8 demisemiquavers e) 4 minim rests

5. Prepare a lesson plan for a grade 6 class on duration. Refer to the CTS tutors guide by
Mubiana Wakumelo on page 55 and activity 3 on page 117 in the pupils‟ book.

1.
2. question SUMMARY
3.

So far we have looked at the building blocks of music and you will find out that it is not easy to
teach all these elements to children at once. The easiest way to teach them would be to teach
them one at a time and later combine them. In this unit, the elements of music have simply been
defined but they are units on their own.

The concept of duration is very important in music as it is the starting point to music literacy.
Musical notes are notated rhythmically using the concept of duration. Musical note are notated in
several languages namely British, American, French, German and Italian. The British and
American names are the ones which are mostly used.

The concept of duration leads to the concept of rhythm which is the organization of the short and
long notes or sounds which give us a meaningful combination pleasant to the ear. The sounds
should be arranged into equal measures or bars for the music to be meaningful otherwise we will
be creating „noise‟.

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UNIT 5

CROSS CUTTING THEMES

INTRODUCTION

The cross cutting themes are HIV/AIDS, gender, environmental education, human rights and
health education. Music can be used to teach about these themes and it has always been
successful. The pupils would get the message more clearly from songs than from the traditional
method of teaching. Think of some songs you have heard from the community, radio or recorded
music that talks about the cross cutting themes above. If the content is suitable for the class then
teach the song to the class.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

 Identify activities that can be used to teach cross cutting issues

 Plan for teaching cross cutting issues
 Use music to teach cross cutting issues

ACTIVITIES THAT CAN BE DONE

1. Composing songs

- The class discuss a cross cutting issue

- The pupils write the main ideas e.g how the environment is destroyed
- A melody is chosen- make sure it is not a familiar one
- Words are selected in line with the melody
- Pupils practice singing the song

2. Performing dances

The pupils sing a familiar song about a cross cutting issue and dance while making
actions such as cutting down trees e.t.c depending on the issue they are singing about.

3. Drama

Pupils discuss a cross cutting issue and then dramatize it. Dance drama can also be used.
This is a type of drama where the dancers act a scene in line with the music.

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 4. Music games

There are many types of music games that can be used to teach cross cutting issues. One
such game is where the teacher plays music on a radio and when he or she turns it off, all
the pupils must sit down. The number of chairs must be less than the participants. The
pupil or pupils who have no chairs are eliminated. If the cross cutting issue being taught
is on HIV/AIDS then the pupils are said to have caught the virus.

ACTIVITY

Write a summary of a play that you are going to let your pupils act on one of the cross cutting
themes. The work must not be more than 2 pages. This should be handed in when you come for
residential school. Remember to indicate the grade of the pupils who are going to act it.

SUMMARY

The ministry of education recognizes the need to prepare young people for life focusing on
development of Knowledge, behaviour, competences and attitudes as the purpose for learning.
All these areas lead to development of skills. Some of the skills are academic, practical, social or
emotional in nature.

Music can be used to teach cross cutting issues. Most traditional songs have cross cutting themes
which they try to communicate to the people. The teacher should try to get a collection of such
songs and teach them to the pupils.

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UNIT 6

FORMS, STYLES AND PATTERNS

MELODIC AND HARMONIC STRUCTURES

INTRODUCTION

In this section, we shall deal with the following topics: pitch, music notation, scales and
intervals. Activities and methodologies to be used when teaching these topics are also included
in the module. You are encouraged to try out these methodologies and activities with your
pupils. This will help you to understand the topics better.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

 Identify high and low sounds

 Read and write music
 Describe, label and create simple melodies
 Name intervals
 Create activities for pupils in grades 1-7
 Teach music with competence

MELODY

There are several definitions of melody but they basically mean the same thing. What is
important is to understand the meaning of melody. Melody as already discussed is one of the
elements of music. The definitions are as follows:-

 A group of pitches heard one after the other

 A succession of musical sounds of varying pitches presented one after another
 A succession of sounds organized in such a way as to achieve a distinctive shape or
contour

Melody goes with rhythm. A complete melody is also known as a tune. Melody is born from the
concept of pitch. Normally, in a tune there is no vocal music. Instruments or humming are used.

A tune is the arrangement of musical notes in a particular way so as to sound good. For example,
if you hear the national anthem sang in a language that you do not understand you would
definitely identify the tune.

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Melody is born from the concept of pitch. Pitch is the highness or loudness of sound. Music
deals with sounds and the characteristics of sounds are as follows:-

High or low - pitch

Long or short - duration
Loud or soft - dynamics
Quality/mood - tone colour
Fast or slow - tempo

PITCH

Pitch has already been defined in this module. Think of the lowest and highest sounds in the
world and imagine what could produce such sounds. Have you imagined that there are only 12
musical sounds? Here is an explanation for this

1. Arrange as many bottles as possible in a row

2. Get a small cup (about 50ml) and fill it with water and pour it in the first bottle. In the
second bottle pour two cups and in the third bottle pour three cups. Continue doing this
with the rest of the bottles
3. Blow across the mouth of each bottle from the first in the row to the last one
An illustration has been given in the diagram below:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

4. The difference in sound between any two bottles next to each other is known as a
semitone
5. If you pick out bottles 1,3,5,6,8,10,12 and 1 and play them, then you will get the tonic
sol-fa

PITCH NAMES OF MUSICAL NOTES

In unit 4 we looked at the names of musical notes by duration. In this unit we shall look at names
of musical notes by pitch. Musical notes can be named by pitch as follows

1. By the first 7 letters of the alphabet A B C D E F G

2. By technical names of the scale - tonic, supertonic, median, sub-dominant, dominant, sub
median and leading note or tonic

C D E F G A B C
Tonic supertonic mediant sub dominant dominant sub mediant leading tone tonic

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 3. Syllables doh, re, mi , fah, soh, la, ti, doh

MODES OR SCALES

During the medieval period, the church used modes for its music. A mode is a group of eight
notes. On the keyboard, the white notes only (8) are played.

c d e f g a b c
Keyboard

A mode is also called a scale. The word „scale‟ comes from a Latin word scale which means
ladder or stair case or flight of steps. Bennet (1990; 287) describes a mode as a succession of
single notes, lying within an octave, the notes arranged in order of pitch, moving upwards or
down wards. The simplest definition of a scale is that it is a family of notes.

THE CHURCH MODES

Until 1600, eight church modes were recognized. You can play a mode on a piano by starting on
white note and ending on the white note. Modes are played on white notes only. The church used
6 church modes as illustrated in the following examples.

1. Aelonian mode A-A

ABCDEFGA
This mode can be obtained by playing the white notes from A to A

2. Ionian mode –c-c

CDEFGABC
This mode can be obtained by playing the white notes from C to C

3. Dormain Mode D-D

DEFGABCD
This mode can be obtained by playing the white notes D to D

4. Phrygian mode E-E

E FGABCDE

5. Lydian mode F-F

FGABCDEF

6. Mixolydian mode G-G

GABCDEFG

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 SCALES
As already defined, a scale is a family of tones. It starts with a musical note which is called the
tonic or key note or home note or doh. Each tonic is like a magnet, attracting towards itself a
number of sounds, which give it support. When these sounds are arranged alphabetically from
the tonic they form a scale.

TONES AND SEMITONES

If musical notes are arranged systematically from the lowest pitch to the highest pitch the same
distance apart (like in the example of bottles) they form a scale called the chromatic scale. The
distance between any two notes next to each other is called a semitone. Two semitones make a
tone as illustrated in the diagram

TYPES OF SCALES

There are hundreds of scales in the world but the two most important ones are the major and
minor scales. A scale is the alphabetical succession of sounds ascending or descending from a
starting note. We shall look at a few common scales that are used today in different parts of the
world.

1. WHOLE TONE SCALE: This scale is formed from 6 notes which are a tone apart.
Example: At Bt C

2. CHROMATIC SCALE: A complete chromatic scale is formed from 12 different notes. Each
step between one note and the next is a semitone. It is made up entirely of semitones and the
idea of naming musical notes came from this scale
Example

3. PENTATONIC SCALE: The pentatonic scale has only five different notes. It is mostly
associated with cultural music or traditional music in countries like Scotland, Zambia, China,
Japan, Indonesia and parts of Africa.

4. DIATONIC SCALES

DIATONIC: This is a word describing any note belonging to the major or minor key.
Diatonic scales are major or minor scales. The major scale comes from the lonian mode

The minor scale comes from the aelonian mode

The diatonic scales are the only two scales which survived the church modes and are widely used
in modern music (western music)

MUSIC SCALES

There are many major scales. These are major scales with sharps and major scales with flats.
Major scales have tones and semitones in the same places as those in the Ionian mode c-c

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 C T D T E S F T G T A T B S C

In a major scale, the semitones must be between EF and BC which are between the third and
fourth note and the seventh and eighth note. To make the scale of G major, write the letters of the
mixolydian mode as shown
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
G T A T B S C T D T E S F T G

The semitones are between the third and the fourth note which is correct but the semitones
between the sixth and seventh note are wrong. Therefore, F should be sharpened to get a
semitone between the seventh and eighth note like in the ionian mode.

Therefore, the scale of G major has got one sharp which is on F. Here is a diagram to show the
major scales with sharps.

SCALE Number of Sharps SHARPS

G major 1 F
D major 2 FC
A major 3 FCG
E major 4 FCGD
B major 5 FCGDA
F# major 6 FCGDAE
C# major 7 FCGDAEB

The sharps are written like this on the staff.

MAJOR SCALES WITH FLATS

There are also some major scales which have got flats. A flat lowers a note by a semitone. Here
is an example.

The semitones for F-F are on the fourth and the fifth note and the seventh and eighth note. The
semitone for F-F on the seventh and eighth note is the same as for C-C, but the semitone for F-F
on the fourth and fifth note should be on the third and fourth note like in C-C. Therefore, to
create a semitone in F-F on the third and fourth note B will have to move as illustrated

This movement will be downwards towards A so it is called flattening. By moving B downwards

(to the left) we will be also creating a wider space between B and C. Therefore, the scale of F
major has got one flat. Here is a diagram showing all the major scales with flats

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 SCALE Number of flats FLATS
F 1 B
B 2 BE
E 3 BEA
A 4 BEAD
D 5 BEADG
G 6 BEADGC

MINOR SCALES

Minor scales are derived from the Aelonian mode A-A. The semitones are between the second
and third note and the fifth and sixth notes.

If you have to construct the scale of C minor then the semitones should be between 2 and 3 and 5
and 6

In this diagram the semitones for C-C do not correspond with A-A so we have to move them to 2
and 3, and 5 and 6

Three notes will have to be moved down (to the left) which is called flattening. E moves by a
semitone to create a semitone between D and E. By doing this the space between EF widens
giving us a tone which we need. Then A moves to create a semitone between 5 and 6. By doing
the space between A and B becomes wider creating a tone. But we need a tone between A and B
so B moves by a semitone. By doing this it creates a tone between B and C

COMPOSITION AND ANALYSIS

MUSIC NOTATION

MUSIC LITERACY: Music literacy is the ability to read and write music. There are several
ways of writing music. We shall deal with two ways in this unit which are syllabic notation and
staff notation

SYLLABIC NOTATION
There are a number of rules to be followed when dealing with syllabic notation. These are some
of the major rules:

1. The syllables used are d r m f s l t d’

2. Other syllables indicating sharps and flats are de fe se le ta la ma ra

3. There are no time signatures

4. Rests have no symbols. They are indicated by spaces

5. A prolonged note is shown by a dash. E.g : d : - : This denotes a minim or two counts.

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6. A dot between two syllables divides a beat into half beats e.g : r . m: This denotes two
quavers or two half beats.

7. A comma between two syllables divides a half beat into quarter beats e.g : r,m. r,m: This
shows four quarter beats or semi quavers.

8. An apostrophe below a note means a lower note of a lower octave e.g : d :

An apostrophe above a note means a higher note of the next octave e.g : d’

STAFF NOTATION

THE STAFF

The staff is a series of five parallel lines and spaces on which music is written. The lines as well
as spaces are both used for writing musical notes on. The higher the pitch of the note

CLEF

The staff is useless if it has no clef. Clef is a French word meaning “key”. For example, when
reading a map, you need a key to guide you on some objects such as an airport or bridge. In the
same way in music the clef guides you by naming one line on the staff. There are several types of
clefs but we will be mainly concerned with two types; the c1 clef or treble clef and the F clef or
bass clef

G CLEF (Treble clef)

This one mames the second line from the bottom as G. if you examine the clef closely you will
find that it was originally the letter G

The other lines and spaces automatically get their names as shown in the diagram

THE F CLEF (Bass Clef)

The F Clef names the second line from the top as F. The other lines and spaces get their names
automatically from this line. If you examine the clef closely, you will notice that it was originally
the letter F

LEGER LINES

These are additional lines written above or below the staff to indicate notes that are higher or
lower than the staff. Leger lines are only written when there is a need to write a note which is
lower or above the staff

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BAR LINES

These are vertical lines written across the staff to indicate bars. A bar is a group of notes

DOUBLE BAR LINE

A double bar line is a special type of bar line which indicates the end of a song or piece of music.

REPEAT MARKS

These indicate a section of a piece of music to be repeated. They are shown in the following
illustration

READING ON THE STAFF

To read on the staff, you must first of all identify the key signature in which the song is. You
must also pay attention to the clef that is being used. Here is an example

Example 1

1. The clef used is a treble clef

2. The key signature is C major or A minor
3. The note is G
EXAMPLE 2

1. The clef used is a bass clef

2. The key signature is C major or A minor
3. The note is D

EXAMPLE 3

1. The clef used is the G (treble) clef

2. The key signature is G major or
3. The note is F sharp

EXAMPLE 4

1. The clef used is the Bass clef (F clef)

2. The key signature is B flat major or
3. The note is B flat (Bb)THE TONIC SOLFA

HISTORY OF THE TONIC SOLFA

Solfege has been used for hundreds of years. Solfege is a method of ear training which uses the
assignment of syllables to degrees of the scale to assist a singer‟s memory of pitch. This idea was
first generated by an Italian monk, Guido d‟ Arrezzo (990-1055). He codified the European
hexachord system. The hexachord system used six notes ut, Re, fa, sol, la. Guido took these

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notes from the „hymn to saint john‟ or „ ut, Queant laxis Resonare fibris‟ in the eleventh
centaury.

The hexachord system was used for hundreds of years after that. Sarah Glover of Norwich
(1785-1867) designed a system for reading music in 1835. The scheme for rendering psalmody
congregational by Glover was an attempt to „sight singing‟.

John Curwen (1816-1880) finally developed the tonic sol-fa method in the 1840‟s. Curwen was
a church minister who taught himself to read music using Sarah Glover‟s book which he
developed a new system called tonic sol-fa. In 1864, he resigned his ministry to concentrate on
music education. Curwen‟s tonic sol-fa system is also known as functional solemnization.

THE TONIC SOLFA TODAY

The eight degrees of the major scale are called by the syllables doh, reh, me, fah , soh, lah, te,
doh‟. This is in relation to the major scale. In the minor scale we begin from lah. The eight
degrees of the minor scale are lah, te, doh, ray, me, fah, soh, lah. Illustrations of the tonic sol-fa
in the major and minor scales are shown below

MAJOR SCALE

C D E F G A B C
Doh ray me fah soh lah te doh‟
There are other ways of writing the tonic solfa syllables

 Doh, ray, me, fah ,soh, lah, te, doh‟

 Do, re, mi, fa, so, la, ti, do
 D, r, m, f, s, l, t, d‟

THE MINOR SCALE

The minor scale begins from A. in the major scale you will notice that A is lah

C D E F G A B C
Doh ray me fah soh lah te doh‟

So the minor scale is sang as follows:-

A B C D E F G A
Lah te doh ray me fah soh lah

THE CHROMATIC SCALE

The chromatic scale is a scale which involves all the 12 musical notes. The tonic sol-fa syllables
are sang differently when ascending or descending

Expressive Arts Module - 50 -

 ASCENDING DESCENDING
Do Ti
Ti ti
Li te
La la
Si le
So so
Fi se
Fa fa
Mi mi
Ri me
Re re
Di ra
Do do

TONIC SOLFA IN STAFF NOTATION

Sight singing depends on three aspects

 Reading of the note on the staff using the letter name

 Identify the key in which the song is
 Matching the letter names to the tonic sol-fa syllables
RELATIVE MINORS SCALES

Major scales have their relative minor scales while minor scales have their relative major scales.
The sharps or flats at the beginning of the staff (key signature) indicate the main tone (diatonic)
to which other tones are related. Note that there are 15 major scales and 15 minor scales

ACTIVITY

Find the relative minors to all the major scales.

Expressive Arts Module - 51 -

 SUMMARY

While a lot of teachers may find reading and writing music difficult, it is worthwhile for a
teacher to read music because he or she will find more meaning in music. A teacher who can
read and write music will have more songs to teach the pupils.
A question may arise as to why a child should be taught composing skills. The answers are:

 To develop the child‟s creative skills

 To give the child opportunities to recognize the purpose of recording music
 To develop the child‟s ability to read and write music
 To store sound patterns for future use by the child or other people

Composing activities should vary according to the age and ability of the child. Below is a list of
some of the activities:

1. Song writing
2. Improvising rhythmic or melodic answers to given questions
3. Selecting appropriate instruments to create specific sound effects

Expressive Arts Module - 52 -

UNIT 7

PLANNING FOR TEACHING MUSIC

INTRODUCTION

Music has been integrated with P.E, Art, Home Economics and Industrial Arts in a subject called
Creative and Technology Studies. All these subjects are allocated a limited number of periods
and it is up to the teacher to decide which subject to teach in a particular week. Music needs
constant practice and should be planned in such a way that the teacher can integrate it in other
subjects as well. Music is a tool for teaching other subjects so the excuse that it does not appear
on the time table cannot be accepted. This unit will look at the sample music lesson plan. Please
plan using this format and teach the lesson to the pupils.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

 Plan music lessons using the proposed format

 Create activities for pupils in specific grades

THE LESSON PLAN

School: Charles Lwanga Basic

Grade: 5

Class description: 14 boys, 16 girls

Subject: Music

Topic: Form and rhythm in music Sub Topic: Crotchets and quavers

Date: 01/ 03/ 11

Outcomes:

Duration: 40 mins

 Describe form and style of Zambian music

 Clap duration of crotchets and quavers
 Sing a new song
 Perform pulse and rhythmic activities while singing

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Materials:

 Flip chart
 Work cards
 Mortar and pestle

References:

 teachers‟ guide page 57

 pupils‟ book page 113- 124

New song

Mazela, Mazela- iyaya Mazela

Mazela, Mazela- iyaya Mazela nizyamikeni kawende
Kawende nitwilemo vitonga
Vitonga vinilima muciolya
Muciolya yandetela maliza
Maliza nasalaneka nulilaMama mwe- Iyaya Mazela

STEPS TIME TEACHER ACTIVITY PUPILS’ ACTIVITY EVALUATION

1. 15 Introduction/ starting
minutes together a) Sing the new song a) Pupils are able
a) Teach the new song to sing after
„Mazela, Mazela b) Identify the crotchet the teacher
b) Introduce the crotchet and the quaver b) Pupils must
note and the grouped identify the
quaver c) Clap in crotchets crotchets and
c) Demonstrate clapping and quavers quaver notes
in crotchets and c) pupils must
quavers clap the notes
2. 10 Guided Practice Activities
minutes Pair Work a) Pupils observe, a) The pupils
a) Teacher demonstrates listen to the teacher should only
how to clap in and answer clap, don‟t
crotchets and quavers questions name the notes.
with a pupil b) Pupils get in pairs b) Pupils should
b) Teacher shows a c) Pupils practice the clap for
pattern and pupils clapping patterns as crotchets and
practice in pairs shown on the work hit each others‟
c) Teacher goes round cards palms for
helping and quavers
encouraging the pupils c) The pupils
should clap
according to

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 the patterns on
the work cards
3. 10 Independent Practice
minutes Activities a) pupils clap the a) Each group
Group Work patterns as a group should clap 4
a) Teacher asks pupils to b) pupils demonstrate different
go to respective groups to other groups patterns
b) Teacher gives a work b) Each
card to each group successful
c) Teacher goes round group to
assisting the groups. demonstrate to
other groups
4. 5 Conclusion
minutes Sharing together
a) Pupils clap one of a) the clapping
a) Teacher calls the the patterns should be in
groups to order and all b) Pupils sing the rhythm with
pupils come to the learned song while the song
teaching station clapping the pattern b) The pounding
b) Teacher gives one c) Pupils take turns to should follow
pupil the mortar and pound as they are the pulse of the
pestle singing the action/ song
c) Teacher asks pupils to work song
sing the song „Mazela‟
while clapping one of
the patterns which they
were practicing

OVERALL EVALUATION:

Pupils:

Pupils got the concept of pulse and rhythm. They were also able to identify and play the crotchet
and quaver shapes.

The lesson went on smoothly and pupils were very cooperative. Participation was high.
Teacher:

Calling pupils to the teaching station through a song took a bit of my lesson time. I hope to try
another strategy next time. The teaching of the song had to be done quickly so as to allow time
for clapping the patterns. This song will have to be consolidated in the next lesson. The only
challenge I met in this lesson was in teaching the new song to the learners. Otherwise I feel that I
achieved my outcomes.

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 ACTIVITY

Plan a music lesson for your class and have it checked by the administration before you teach it.
Invite the head teacher/ deputy head teacher or a standards officer to observe you teaching the
lesson. Submit the lesson plan and observation instruments to the music lecturer during the next
residential school. N:B This work is for those going on teaching practice.

SUMMARY

A music lesson can only be successful if it is well planned. There is a fear that a teacher could
escape from the aim of teaching music to an activity that can be used to fill up time. For
example, a teacher who tells his or her class to sing while he or she is looking for teaching
materials is not teaching music. Music lessons should at least bring out one or more elements of
music which the teacher is trying to teach about. Asking pupils to sing is meaningless if there is
no focus. It is just like an English teacher asking pupils to speak to each other during an English
lesson without a topic. Therefore, music lessons must be well planned.

The sample lesson plan that has been used in this unit must not be taken to be the best. It is only
a guide and it is applicable for this type of lesson only.

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CHAPTER TWO: ART AND DESIGN

UNIT 1: THE PHILOSOPHY OF ART

INTRODUCTION

The philosophy of art and design so stated in this unit will appear broader than expected. The
purpose is to make it easier for the teacher to read, analyze and understand some detail.

The teacher should be sufficiently familiar with these out comes before attempting to teach this
subject. It will help the teacher learn about and understand what he/ she is expected to achieve
through the teaching of the subject. This unit will attempt to discuss the philosophy of art and
design, Art education that appears, perhaps, to be revolutionary in some respects. It appears
revolutionary only when it is viewed against narrow concepts of art entertained by so many
people and teachers today. Normally art and art education are separate studies. For the practicing
teacher, however, they are related; as one cannot teach nature study successfully without
knowing something of that subject. The teacher must have a philosophy of art if he/she is teach
with purpose, with sincerity, and for the benefit of children in his charge. It is proposed in the
final part of this module, therefore, to briefly examine a number of controversial aspects of art in
the hope that such examination, by stimulating thought, will assist the teacher in his formation of
a helpful philosophy.

Intended Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, you are expected to:

 Define art, craft and design

 Outline different components that make up art, craft and design

 Describe art and design, society and man

 Demonstrate understanding of concepts of art through tasks

THE NATURE OF ART AND DESIGN

One of the prevalent invalid beliefs affecting an understanding of art is the confusion between art
and the nature. Nature is no art. Art is essentially man made; it does not occur accidentally but as
the exercise of intellect, imagination, technical skills, an understanding of materials or media and
physical effort. Those things in nature which we consider beautiful and admire, but can never be

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works of art – and what we may consider beautiful in nature does not necessarily lead to beauty
in art, nor does the mere imitation of such beauty produce a work of art. Nature becomes
material for art only when the artists extract from it and uses those aspects of it that seem to him
significant, important or interesting. This confusion between art and nature reveal itself clearly
when a group of people is confronted with a painting of, for example, a vase of Rose flowers.
The majority thinks immediately in terms of nature instead of in terms of art; they fail to
distinguish between natures, in this case the Rose flower, and art, which concerns things like
composition, disposition of parts, colour relationships, texture, brushworks, the artists‟
sensitivity and style, and so on. They admire such a painting because they simply adore ‟roses‟.
In other words they are assessing nature or subject matter; they ignore completely the ways and
means by which the artist achieved his representation. Yet, it is significantly and salutary to note
that great arts in all ages have been judged on ways and means and rarely, if ever, on subject
matter.

Having drawn a distinction between art and nature, it becomes possible to examine art more
closely. To do this, it is necessary to define art. This, of course, has been attempted hundreds of
times. Most people generally agree, even if somewhat tentatively, that art regardless of medium
is more a form of expression of concepts or ideas.

DEVELOPING A PERSONAL PHILOSOPHY

It would appear that the formation of a satisfying and sustaining art philosophy is dependant on
four basic requirements, and the first of these can be discharged with little elaboration for it is
assumed that the individual has a bit of interest and knowledge. The brief discharge of this
requirement by no means minimizes its importance, however.

A second vital requirement is the cultivation of an influenced, tolerant attitude towards art.

Art is the application of skill as in painting, drawing, sculpture, design, poetry, music, dancing,
drama, literary composition and the like to communicate ideas, concerns, emotions and many
other things that affect the artists. Art and Design therefore is a means by which humans express
their views about the world around them in a systematic way.

CATEGORIES OF ART AND DESIGN

Art can be divided into four main categories, namely:

 Fine art

 Functional art

 Performing art

 Commercial art

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Fine art: this is the study of art that is taught in schools for the acquisition of knowledge. It is
the kind of art done on the flat surface and is two dimensional in nature because it has length and
breadth. These include drawings, paintings and mosaics.

Functional art: is the art of making beautiful items for use in every day life. These art works
perform functional roles. These objects have weight and occupy space, thus have volume.
Functional art objects are three dimensional in nature. These include; sculptures and most of the
tactile objects.

Performing arts: this expresses inner feelings, thoughts or ideas through a medium of
communication. All activities that are carried on the stage fall under this art. These arts also
require an audience as they are performed. Examples include drama, traditional dances, choirs,
musical artists or singers, etc. However, there is no dimension in this kind of art.

Commercial art: This kind of art deals with the making or producing of art pieces on a large
scale to be consumed by many people.

ART AND DESIGN AND SOCIETY

It is of paramount importance to discuss art and the society so as to make you aware of your
efforts made in teaching art and design as a subject in the curriculum and how much those efforts
contribute towards the well being of the society as a whole. Education through art and design
should be seen as playing an important role in the betterment of the society as whole.

Apart from the need for good clothing, good health, good shelter and good food, society requires
other values to make life complete.

In art and design you are expected to instill in the learners the sense of appreciation of good
colour, good form, and good structure. Development of the sense of appreciation of things within
our own environment in one child is in fact, educating the entire society. We see society
benefiting from this kind of education.

ART AND DESIGN AND MAN

There is even much more need for the art teacher to interpret the outcomes of art education in
terms of human needs, i.e. what achievements are made through this kind of education and of
what purpose are such achievements in terms of human requirements. In other words, after an
individual has acquired this type of education, how does it make that individual improve on his/
her life?

If, for example, we agree that after an individual has acquired this kind of education, the
individual is most likely to find a job or may be self employed; do we have to consider this as the
only benefit that the individual must get out of the education required?

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Society becomes aware of and admires an individual who through education gets a job and ends
up with a lot of money. But again society still expects that such an individual has other values
that are held by a person who went to school.

ACTIVITY

1. Why is art taught in schools?

2. What are some problems facing art teaching in schools?

3. Discuss the categories of art and design.

4. How do other categories of art and design present themselves as performing arts?

SUMMARY

In this unit art and design was defined, branches of art were introduced and dealt with, art and
design and society and man were discussed. It is important to note here that an individual
acquires knowledge in different ways

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UNIT 2: INDIGENOUS EXPRESSIVE ARTS

INTRODUCTION

Art is a unique way of knowing and understanding the world. Purposeful visual arts activities
expand children„s ways of exploring, expressing and coming to terms with the world they inhabit
in a structured and enjoyable way. Children first learn to respond aesthetically to their
environment through touch, taste, sound, sight and smell and thus their natural curiosity suggest
a need for sensory experience. Therefore, Visual Arts education helps to develop sensory
awareness.

It should, however, be noted that history is much more than merely looking into the past but
includes looking into the present and future. It is impossible to understand the complex issues of
our world without an appreciation of how today‟s way of life has evolved through time. There
are many periods of history worth including in the investigation into the history of art and
design. This unit will discuss the history of art and design as well as how the historical art has
lived on to the present times through the categories of Art and design.

Intended Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit you should be able to:

 Discuss the history and development of art and design

 State the activities done in historic and pre historic times
 State the type of drawings or paintings and their uses in those times
 Name the provinces and places these paintings or drawings were found in Zambia

THE HISTORY OF ART AND DESIGN

Art has been with mankind since time immemorial. The two can not be entirely separated
because art is a human activity. What ever man does, involves one form of art or the other. Take,
for instance, the Bushman, Pygmies, and Hottentots of Africa, they were famous because of their
rock paintings.

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PRE HISTORIC ART

The techniques of drawing and painting in Pre-historic art consisted of simple forms or simple
outlines and detailed shading or modeling. These paintings or drawings of animals were drawn in
profile and were of different sizes. The compositions represent scenes of hunting or fighting. In
such scenes cattle, men and women are scattered about in confusion across the rock on which
they were painted, which shows a state of confusion. There are other scenes, however, which
show examples of orderly arrangements of animals and people. This shows a state of
peacefulness in their community. One distinctive feature about the pre-historic art compositions
was that their drawings did not show landscapes, which were physical features like mountains or
hills, rivers, trees, lakes, vegetation, etc.

Pre - historic art form

The Pre-historic paintings were done deep in the caves with the aid of small lamps, torches of
wood or small fires. The artists may have had platforms to paint pictures high up in the caves.
Different earth colours were mixed with animal fat and used as paint or crayons. The colours
used included red, yellow brown, orange as well as black. Black was obtained from charcoal or
manganese oxide and white kaolin. Blue and green were not commonly used.

Pre-historic sculpture is represented in low relief and also in the round small forms (miniatures).
It includes animal and human figures curved in stones, bones and modeled in clay. The clay
figures remained unfired. These sculptures included more female figures than male ones.

Female figures were thought to be symbols of fertility because they have large breasts and
buttocks. In Western Europe such figures were called “Venuses” by scholars, because they
believe that the figures were sexual objects for the pre historic men. A typical example is a
Venus man of Willendorf. This Venus has a knob – like without facial features. The breasts are
big and heavy. The stomach, buttocks thighs, and hips are also massive. The hands and legs are
short and they look unimportant. However, animal sculptures were also used for fertility rites.

HISTORIC ART

The term historic is used for the era when oral traditions and writings started, in about 5000 BC,
and has continued to the present day. Pre historic art is a term referring to paintings, engravings
and sculptures done in the earliest stage of culture development when there were no writings. It
is the beginning of art and shows how art served human kind in their effort to survive and
develop.

Rock Painting

Rock painting is the application of colour on a solid surface that makes up the earth. The groups
that were involved in painting were the Bushmen, the aborigines of Australia, etc. These people
were nomads who moved from one place to the other in search for food. They had no permanent

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houses and lived in caves. In their spare time, they painted different types of animals they killed
or hunted and things they saw during their hunting and food gathering expeditions.

The different styles and techniques used by prehistoric artists and the quality of their works
suggest that they were experienced, imaginative and creative. There is no evidence of how the
artists acquired their skill of painting, drawing, engraving and sculpturing. It is believed that that
they got the ideas of picture making from the rough and lumpy surfaces of the caves and rocks
on which they made their pictures, thus - Century Gothic.

Painting

Art of painting is one way in which the inner imagination of human beings may be expressed.
The way it is designed may give meaning in our everyday life. The combinations of different
colours of the paint used bring about a relation between what is expressed on a piece of painting
and every day objects that we come across. Gwinn, R.P et al. (1993:318), states that, “art of
painting expresses real life objects in form of pictures by displaying their characteristics such as
shape, colour, tone and texture.”

The art of rock painting started a long time ago. In Africa, it can be traced back to the period of
the Saan people commonly known as the Bushmen. These were short people who lived in caves
in Kalahari Desert of Namibia. They were hunters and collectors of wild fruits. During their free
times they did painting on the rocks in their caves hence the term „rock painting‟. They did
different styles of painting which showed different pictures and situations during their stay and
their style or way of life.

Among the types of paintings of the Bushmen were the Naturalistic paintings. These paintings
depicted the pictures of men with weapons chasing animals. The animals shown were among
those that had great importance to the Busmen life. The Busmen new dangerous reptiles like
lizards and snakes which used to interfere with their hunting and food gathering expeditions. The
best way to remind them of such dangerous creatures was by making paintings of them. ‘Crude
white paintings’ was the name given to the type of painting that showed these dangerous lizards.

The other type of paintings done by the Bushmen was Schematic paintings. This was the type
of painting where they showed different routes or trucks that they were using during hunting and
food gathering expeditions. These people also did engravings which were pictures done on rocks
by striking on the rocks to come up with a recognizable figure or picture. ( Haantobolo, G. et-al,
1997:8, 9).

The materials Bushmen used for their paintings were a variety of them. They could use blood as
a solvent for mixing different colour pigments. Ostrich eggs shells were used as containers. They
used charcoal to come up with black paint. Bird‟s feathers and also bundles of fur with primitive
handles were used as brushes for painting. They also sometimes used fingers to paint.

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The paintings done by the Bushmen were not for pleasure but served different purposes. Some of
the reasons for these paintings were:

 A one way of recording important events such as memorable hunt, a battle scene or a
ritual dance.

 Some of the animals they painted were believed to have special symbolic importance to
them.

 Showed different routes or trucks used during hunting and food gathering.

 Showed their way of life.

THE FAMOUS ART OF THE RENAISSANCE

You can not be a serious art student without knowing something about the art of the renaissance.
The word “Renaissance” is generally used by all arts, a term which means - ”rebirth”. The
renaissance was applied to an intellectual and realistic movement that began in Italy in the 14 th
century and influenced other parts of Europe. The notion of rebirth refers to a revival of the
values of the classical world.

The concept of the renaissance was used by Italians who thought they were living at a time when
the qualities of ancient art and literature were blossoming anew after centuries of barbarism. A
man by the name of Vasri gave the idea of such a revival as systematically developed form. He
thought that art had declined in the Middle Ages, and had set once again on its true path by
Giotto and had raised the greatest heights in the work of his friend and hero - Michelangelo.

LEONARDO DA VINCI

Many scholars regarded Leonardo da Vinci as the greatest artist of the renaissance, which even
people of his time recognized. Frequently, Leonardo, Raphael and Michelangelo are grouped
together. Leonardo has always been famous because of the fantastic range of his genius works.
He was not only one of the greatest artists, but he was the greatest anatomist in the world.

WAYS BY WHICH ART IS BEING PRESERVED TO THE PRESENT TIMES

What are some of the different ways in which Art has been preserved to the present time? These
are some of the ways it is being preserved; through

- Crafts - Culture - Songs - Dances - Costumes/attire - Traditions

- Norms - Artifacts - Customs etc

Crafts: these are mainly three dimensional artifacts that people have continued to make from
time immemorial. These include baskets, mats, carvings, pottery, etc

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Culture: this is a practice that is routinely done by a particular tribe. An example can be given on
the Lozi people of Western Province – who always clap in a special way when doing the
greetings. Many other tribes of Zambia have their own cultures that have stood a taste of time
and have been passed on from one generation to the other. In line with culture, songs and dances
are distinct to a particular tribe.

Costume/Attire: the dressing of a particular tribe is so distinct and differs from one tribe to the
other. In Zambia, the Lozi people are well known for their Musisi skirts/dress, the ivory bracelets
and the red barrettes, and this distinguish them from other ethnic groups. In addition to this, the
Lozi people also wear Ivory bracelets. The number of bracelets on their wrists shows how rich
their family is.

Traditions: this is evident in traditional ceremonies that each ethnic group holds each and every
year that passes. This art is passed on to the young ones in this way. Certain norms and customs
are surely preserved in this way. For example, the Lwiindi ceremony of the Tonga people of
Southern Province, the Likumbi lyamize of the Luvale people of North-western Province, the
Ncwala ceremony of the Chewa people of Eastern Province, and many other traditional
ceremonies that are celebrated in Zambia.

Artifacts: various artifacts that artists make are not new. They were made by the artists of the
past and will still be made by the present and future artists. Many of them that are made by
various ethnic groups have helped preserve their specific ways of life, thus their art.

Songs and Dances: certain types of songs and dances are so unique to a particular ethnic group.
The Lozi people use their shoulders in dancing and this is the only tribal group that dances in this
way. The Ngoni of Eastern Province uses much of their legs to do their dances. Some songs are
sung in order to instill cultural values and norms in the young generations, which help them,
become responsible members of a particular community. Songs and dances have been passed on
from one generation to the other and will still be practiced by the future generations.

CARVING

This is the removal or cutting out of unwanted material from the given piece of material in order
to come up with the intended artifact or object.

Carving can be divided into two kinds:

1. Those articles we cut out of wood to use as utensils (e.g. mortars, bowls, pestles); and
2. Those we cut for decorative purposes, such as masks and patterns.

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Before learners embark on carving, remember the following points on their Composition:

a. Carving done by your pupils should show such African characteristics as a strong sense
of pattern, direct expression, form and originality. They should not be just mere copies of
what others have done.
b. Objects representing deities or spirits should be carved to look aloof so as to give the
feeling that they are not concerned with our worldly cares. This can be achieved by
making the figures look straight ahead as if they are seeing far beyond this human world.
c. In carving masks, get your pupils to express the temperament of the people. A mask for
dancing must look cheerful and evoke happy feelings. One for a burial ceremony must
look grave. Masks have always been a central point in the dress for a ritual dance or
ceremony among the people. You know that as soon as you put on a mask you cease for
the time being to bear your name. Nobody should call you by real name, because your
person and your identity are accepted as concealed and you are enabled to play the part of
the god, goddess or ancestors that the mask represents. In our Zambian tribes, masks are
used in many ways. Let your pupils discover these ways.

NOTES ON CARVING:

Before giving your learners any carving activity, pay attention to the following:

i. Tools for Carving: tools meant for carving must be sharp and must be kept in a safe
place. Teach your pupils to put tools down in a safe place where nobody can be hurt by
them. Show the best way of sharpening tools and the best way of using them. Always
sharpen tools away from your body so that if they slip there will be no injury.
ii. Practice: before pupils start the actual work, they should practice. Let them cut grooves in
different widths, depths and directions. This allows them to get used to the tools and to
the behaviour of the materials. They can do criss-cross cutting, cutting broad and narrow
lines alternately, cutting straight and carved lines, clearing rough surfaces, and so forth.
iii. Relief Carving: pupils can learn to develop patterns from squares and rectangles.
iv. Making things for Home Use: pupils can make objects of utility such as hoe handles,
pestles, canoe paddles, mortars and stools. You will find other ideas from observing the
community.
v. Carving Patterns: expose your class to the techniques of making panel or border patterns
and all over carved patterns.
vi. Carving Objects in the round: this is a more challenging exercise in wood carving. It
gives your learners freedom of self-expression.

THINGS TO CONSIDER WHEN CARVING

1. A learner should have a clear image of his/her finished work.

2. A pleasing pattern must appear to grow from its background.

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 3. In relief carving, the balance of light and shade is important. The background should be
dark and the patterns worked on in light and shade. Learners have to be taught to arrange
their patterns so that while some parts catch the light, others remain in the shade. They
must learn to place convex surfaces against hollow ones, sharp edges against flat
surfaces.
4. Monotonous patterns kill the variety of any carving. It is necessary to use a variety of
patterns.
5. As far as possible, cut with the grain. Follow the way the grain lies in the wood and cut
along it, not against it. If you cut against it, the surface won‟t be smooth. Make trial cuts
to find out the line of the grain when in doubt.
6. Use hard wood as often as you can for carving. If you have to use soft wood, use it when
it is green, not when it is dry and has lost most of its sap.

Things you can make with your Pupils:

- Hoe Handles
- Stools
- Cooking sticks
- Pestles
- Mortars

ACTIVITY

1. Identify some of the traditions or customs in your community and state how they have been
preserved.

2. Discuss various ways by which Art and Design has been preserved to the present times.

3. Explain the significance of the Bushmen paintings to their way of life.

4. Produce a carving of either a cooking stick or a stool. Add some decorations to it.

SUMMARY

The history of art and design can never be exhaustive if is not seen in the present art forms.
Therefore, as teachers, there is a need to make sure that some historic art forms are taught
through crafts and artifacts that children make in school. By so doing, ancient art is well
understood and appreciated by the learners, hence the preservation of art and design.

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UNIT 3: BASIC TECHNIQUES IN EXPRESSIVE ARTS

VISUAL VOCABULARY: Visual Elements of Art and Design

INTRODUCTION

Visual vocabulary is language that is used in describing various processes in art. Just as the poet
uses words to communicate ideas an artist uses visual vocabulary to communicate views about
an art work. It is also a means by which an artist analyses pieces of artwork. As a teacher you
will find these terms to be helpful in teaching and assessing art activities

Intended learning Outcomes

At the end of this unit you should

 Discuss what is meant by visual vocabulary

 Identify and name the elements of Art and Design
 Identify the characteristics of elements of art and design
 Identify various elements of Art and Design from the objects in the environment
 Discuss pottery and state the ways of treating the clay for durability and decorations

PICTORIAL ART
Art elements are parts that combine to make an artwork in Pictorial Art. In most cases drawings
begin with a line which makes a shape followed by tone, texture, and colour. It can therefore be
said that different artists use a number of methods and techniques to arrive at a finished piece of
work. At the end of the process, different elements play an important role in art work.

ELEMENTS OF ART AND DESIGN

(a) LINE: is one important element of art and design. You may ask, but what is a line? We can
say a line is a continuation of dots that are very close to each other. In other words, it is a path
that a point has followed.

Characteristics of a line

Like everything that exists, lines have certain characteristics. Can you think of some of the
characteristics? Some of them are:

Long, Short, Coiled, Thin, Diagonal, Straight, Zig zag, Parallel, Curved, spiral,

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Horizontal, Criss – cross, Vertical, Thick, Wavy, Irregular, etc.

Meanings of lines

Horizontal lines: rest, response.

Vertical lines: alertness, life, dignity, nobility

Diagonal lines: movement, action

Zig – zag lines: suggests movement

Curved lines: delicacy, tranquility, free flow.

Round lines: smoothness, restfulness or completion

(b) SHAPE:

The word shape originated from the old English “saucepan” meaning to form or to mark. Shape
refers to the outward appearance of an object rather than its structure. A line is therefore used as
in drawing to make a shape. Shape is therefore an area enclosed by a line. When a line is drawn
so that it comes back to where it was, what is formed is a shape.

Types of shapes:

i. Natural shapes: (free form or organic shapes). These are shapes that are observed from
natural objects such as trees, animals‟ figures, stones, leaves, and they are often
irregular in appearance. Therefore, they cannot be measured easily.

Figure 1: Irregular shapes

ii. Artificial (Geometrical) shapes: These are shapes that are used in mathematics such as
circles, square, triangles and rectangles, and are regular in appearance. Hence they
can be measured easily.

Triangle rectangle

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Uses of shapes

1. Shapes can be overlapped: that is one appearing in front of the other. When different
shapes are overlapped new shapes are often produced.
2. When using a shape, it is necessary to take into account the areas around as well as
inside.

(c) SPACE

This is the area around and inside the shape. The inside is called positive space while the
outside is called negative space. This is always important to remember when one is arranging
shapes or objects for drawing or painting.

Figure 2: Positive and Negative Space

Space can also be distance between and among objects in a given arrangement. However, space
suggested by the interior of an object is called depth. Space can be qualified by shading where
the deepest is normally the darkest and the shallowest. The lightest space in drawing or painting
is very important as it helps to suggest solidarity and importance of an object.

(d)FORM

Is a composition of many shapes giving it a three dimensional quality. We can make artworks
that have form and are three dimensional, such as wire cars, baskets, clay pots, etc. On the other
hand, we can also make artworks that appear to have form. This illusion is arrived at by applying
shading on a two dimensional artwork to qualify it to have a three dimensional quality.

Figure 3: illusion of two dimensions as three dimensions

(e) TONE/VALUE

This is the lightness or darkness of a surface. In artworks, tone can be applied in colour and
shading with a medium .This element therefore is integral to the study and practice of colour and
form. Varying the concentration of shading gives rise to tone. A lighter tone has lesser

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concentration of shading while a darker tone has a higher concentration. Where the edge of a
surface is sharp, such as the edge of a box, the tonal change is immediate. If the object is curved
the tone changes more gradually.

A three dimensional object usually has highlights. By shading or showing these progressively,
we can make drawings and paintings appear real. A sum total of shading or painting should give
variety of tone that is carefully fused from darkest to lightest. The three tonal varieties are
darkest, medium and lightest areas.

Shading has been used to produce tone on five different forms. The first two forms have been
shaded using cross-hatching and hatching, the third has been done with pointillism, the fourth
with doodling, the fifth with smudging, and the last one with grading.

(f) TEXTURE

This is a feeling of a surface. It is the smoothness or roughness of a surface. It is also the way
surfaces appear. A surface can be soft, rough, smooth, hard or a combination of these. Texture
quality of a surface is important to consider in visual arts as it enhances the appearance of the
objects and distinguishes them easily.

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Types of textures:

i. Visual Texture: this is the types of texture that is appreciated through the sense of sight,
such as in paintings, drawings and photographs.

ii. Tactile texture: is a kind of texture that is appreciated by sense of touch. This type of
texture is applicable on all three-dimensional works of art such as sculpture, wood
carvings, baskets, clay works, etc.. This is why it is called actual texture.

iii. Ephemeral Texture: This particular texture can also be referred to as temporal texture as
it disappears while looking at it, such as observed on surface of water when an object
is dropped into it, when one is stirring a cup of tea, when looking at or drawing fire
flames as well as moving clouds.

POTTERY

Pottery is one of the oldest and most widespread of the decorative arts, consisting of objects made of clay
and hardened with heat. The objects made are commonly useful ones, such as vessels for holding liquids
or plates or bowls from which food can be served.

CLAY – the basic material of pottery, and has two (2) distinctive characteristics:

i. It is plastic, that is, it can be molded and will retain the shape imposed upon it; and it hardens to
form a brittle but otherwise almost durable material that is not attacked by any of the agents
that corrode metals or organic materials. Firing also protects the clay body against the effects
of water. If a sun-dried clay vessel is filled with water, it will eventually absorb the water and
collapse, but, if it is heated, chemical changes that begin to take place at about 900 0F (5000C)
prevent a return to the plastic state no matter how much water is later in contact with it.
ii. Clay is a refractory substance; it will vitrify only at temperatures of about 2, 9000F (1, 6000C). If
it is mixed with a substance that will vitrify at a lower temperature (about 2, 200 0F, or 1,
2000C) and the mixture is subjected to heat of this order, the clay will hold the object in shape
while the other substance vitrifies. This forms a non-porous, opaque body known as
stoneware. When feldspar or soapstone (steatite) is added to the clay and exposed to a
temperature of 2, 000 to 2, 6500F (1, 100 to 1, 4500C), the product becomes translucent and is
known as Porcelain.

Earthenware is used to denote all pottery substances that are not vitrified and are therefore slightly porous
and coarser than vitrified materials.

In the western world, Porcelain is usually defined as a translucent substance – when held to the light most
porcelain does have this property – and stoneware is regarded as partially vitrified material that is not
translucent.

The Chinese, on the other hand, define Porcelain as any ceramic material that will give a ringing tone
when tapped.

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KINDS OF POTTERY

1). Earthenware: is the first kind of pottery made about 9000 years ago and is still being used. It varies
in colour, that is, from beige to dark red and from gray to black. The body can be covered with slip – a
mixture of clay and water in a creamlike consistency, used for adhesive and casting as well as for
decoration – with a clear glaze or with an opaque tin glaze. If the clear-glazed earthenware body is a
cream colour and is known as creamware. However, much of the commercial earthenware produced in
recent times is heat-and-cold proof. This means earthenware can be used for cooking and freezing as well
as for sieving.

2). Stoneware: is very hard and, sometimes translucent, but usually opaque. Stoneware colours vary and
can be red, brown, gray, white, or black. It was widely or mostly used by artist-potters in the 20th century.

3). Porcelain: this was first made in a primitive form in china. Also known as Kaolin, that is, (white –
china clay). During the medieval times, some Chinese porcelain was exported to Europe, where they were
much prized, because of their translucency. Hard and soft porcelain is obtained by hard firing (1, 450 0C)
and soft firing (1, 2000C), respectively. On the other hand, hard and soft porcelain can be identified by
their physical properties, that is, soft porcelain can be cut with a file while hard porcelain cannot. This is
sometimes used as a test for the nature of the body.

Forming Processes and Techniques

- Raw clay consists primarily of true clay particles and undecomposed feldspar mixed with other
components of the igneous rocks from which it was derived, usually appreciable quantities of
quartz and small quantities of mica, iron oxides, and other substances.
- The composition and thus the behaviour and plasticity of clays from different sources are
therefore slightly different.
- Pottery is made from special clays plus other materials mixed to achieve the desired results. The
mixture is called the clay body, or batch.
- To prepare the batch, the ingredients are combined with water and reduced to he desired degree
of fitness. The surplus water is then removed.
- Potters‟ Wheel: an important potter‟s tool. The potter throws the clay onto a rapidly rotating disc.

Drying, Turning, and Firing

Turning: is the process of finishing the greenware (unfired ware) after it has dried to leather hardness. The
technique is used to smooth and finish foot-rings on wheel – thrown wares or undercut places.

-The earliest vessels, which were sun-dried but not fired, could be used only for storing cereals and
similar dry materials. If a sun-dried clay vessel is filled with water it absorbs the liquid, becomes very
soft, and eventually collapses; but if it is heated, chemical changes that begin to take place at about 500 0C
preclude a return to the plastic state.

-After thorough drying, the pottery is fired in a Kiln. In primitive pottery making, the objects were simply
stacked in a shallow depression or hole in the ground, and a pyre/pile of wood was built over them.

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-The atmosphere in the kiln at the time of firing, as well as the composition of the clay body, determines
the colour of the fired earthenware pot. Iron is ubiquitous in earthenware clay, and under the usual firing
conditions it oxidizes, giving a colour ranging from buff to dark red according to the amount present.

Decorating Techniques

a). Impressing and Stamping – one of the earliest methods of decoration was impressing the raw clay.
Finger marks were sometimes used, as well as impressions from rope or from a beater bound with straw.
Basketwork patterns are found in pots molded over baskets and is sometimes imitated on pots made by
other methods.

b). Incising, Sgraffito, Carving, and Piercing – the most primitive kind of decoration is that which is
incised into the raw clay with a pointed stick or with he thumbnail, chevrons (inverted V‟s) being a
particularly common motif. Incised designs on a dark body are sometimes filled with lime, which
effectively accents the decorations.

-Originally, defects of body colour suggested the use of slip, either white or coloured, as a wash over the
vessel before firing. A common mode of decoration is to incise a pattern through the slip, revealing the
differently coloured body beneath, a technique called sgraffito (“scratched”).

-Related to sgraffito technique is slip carving: the clay body is covered with a thick coating of slip, which
is carved out with a knife, leaving a raised design in slip.

-Some work was executed by piercing the thrown pot before firing.

Decorative Glazing

- Earthenware vessels are porous, and so could not be used for storing wine, water or milk. To
overcome the porosity, primitive peoples often applied varnishes of one kind or another.
- However, the more advanced technique is glazing.
- The art of glazing earthenware for decorative as well as practical purposes followed speedily
upon its introduction.
- On stoneware, hard porcelain, and some soft porcelain, which is fired to the point of vitrification
and is therefore non-porous, glazing is used solely for decoration.

ACTIVITY

1. Draw and label the different types of a line (You might also choose to make a simple drawing
such as a human figure, and see how many of the above types of lines you used on your sketch).
Or,

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2. Produce a drawing and discuss the elements and principles of art and design that have been
combined to come up with the drawing.

3. Produce vessels or clay pots, treat them for hardening by firing them and applying some
decorations to them, using the traditional ways.

PROJECT

In nature, texture exists everywhere in various shapes. Go out, observe and draw as many
different textures as you can see in your sketch book. Use either a pencil, chalk, or charcoal.

SUMMARY

It is very important as a teacher to observe the basics of art and design in order to teach learners
how to come up with good compositions. An artwork, which has well balanced elements of art,
will surely be aesthetically appreciated by the viewers. This also shows how careful one uses
his/her visual sense, thus, visual vocabulary which helps us to come up with Unity in our
compositions. The beauty of an artifact shows the creativeness of an artist and his/her
understanding in the use of the basics of art and design.

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UNIT 4: CONCEPTS OF EXPRESSIVE ARTS

PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN

INTRODUCTION

Principles of art and design are guidelines that enable us create a picture or a design that is
pleasant to look at. They guide us in the selection and use of the elements in order to create a
composition that is beautiful and interesting to look at. These principles are: emphasis,
balancing, unity/harmony, space, proportion, dominance, etc.

Intended Learning Outcomes

By the end the end of this unit you should be able to:

 Identify principles of art and design

 Design and make an article using visual elements and principles of art and design
 State the importance of visual vocabulary
 Make various illustrations

DESIGN

Design is the active planning, inventing, making and relating parts of a whole in either two- or
three-dimensional media. Close observation of things around children enriches their visual
awareness and the vocabulary on which to draw for expression and design. Their sensitivity to
good designs is enhanced by looking at beautiful objects around them. Many types of design
activities provide valuable experiences at all levels of Primary school years when they promote
observation, invention, expression and creativity.

Design, therefore, is an artistic activity which depends on the imagination, creativity or

inventiveness of the learner. Pictures and sculptures fall under fine arts. On the other hand, the
process of designing is called applied arts or design and may result in the making of items such
as pottery.

ILLUSTRATION

There are many types of illustrations. Some include highly specialized areas such as Technical
illustrations while other areas include technical drawing and general illustrations which include

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book and magazine illustrations. You are expected to study and practice making simple
illustrative design.

Book Cover Design and Illustrations

a). Book Cover Design

In this exercise, pupils could make book cover designs for various subjects in the school
curriculum. This gives you the greatest opportunity for integration of different subject areas.
When making a book cover, consider the following:

i. For whom has the book been targeted? If the book is meant for children, the cover will
be simple and very colourful. Children must be able to interpret what the design is
depicting. This is also true for the books which are meant for elderly people.
ii. What is the purpose of the book? This simply means that a cover for a book on Art or any
other subject should bring out the aspects of that book. For instance, the cover of an
Art and Design Book could include a drawing or painting, drawing or painting tools,
or any other artifact.

b). Illustrations

Illustrations are put inside the book to depict aspects of a particular chapter. This simply means
that if the writer has written about exercises, for example, the illustration should depict a person
doing some form of exercise.

c). Book Making

You can give pupils an exercise on „Book Making‟. This type of exercise may be restricted to
very simple practical exercises, such as “My Picture Book”, which pupils will use for drawing in
various art works.

Materials: paper for pages, Manila paper (strong brown wrapping paper) for the cover, string,
cotton, glue, crayons, and pencils, felt – tipped pens, etc.

TEXTILE DESIGN

1). TIE AND DYE: this is the way of creating pattern with fabric dyes. Parts of the fabric are
dyed, knotted, pegged or clipped so that the colour does not penetrate them when placed in the
dyes. The tightness of the ties is very crucial, as the pattern that emerges is a combination of
dyed and un-dyed areas. The simplest way of tie-dyeing is to gather up the piece of fabric to be
dyed and to tie it with a piece of string. You can add further ties for more complex effects, as

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many effects can be created depending on how it is planned. Ornamental stitchery can be added
around the shapes created for added interest. However, tie and dye activities can be further
developed through batik.

Fabric can be dyed in one (or a combination) of the following ways:

a). by tying knots to the fabric tightly.

b). by using pegs or clips on the fabric.

c). by bunching the fabric together and tying it in various places with string, cotton, rope or
rubber bands.

d). by rolling the fabric and tying it at different intervals.

e). by fan-folding the fabric and tightly tying it at various intervals.

The fabric is wholly dipped in dye, rinsed and hung to dry before removing the ties. It is then
ironed and can be re – dyed for further effect.

2). BATIK: is a pattern or picture dyed into a piece of cloth. Batik is a method of producing
coloured designs on textiles by applying wax to the parts to be left uncoloured. Fabric is
sometimes crumpled to make cracks in the dried wax. The cold dye will penetrate these exposed
areas and create the textured effects for which the technique is noted. Tools and implements can
be designed as stamp motifs to create new and unusual textural effects. It originated in Java, and
is based on the ability of wax to resist cold water. “Batik” is also the name of a cloth that has
been treated in this way.

Method:

- Heat batik wax in a fry pan until it flows freely and is warm enough to be absorbed into
the fabric.
- Paint, drip or stump the wax onto the fabric and allow it to dry.
- Immerse the fabric into a cold-water dye and allow drying.

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 - Remove the wax by placing the fabrics sheets of absorbent paper, wrapping paper or old
newspapers and ironing with a moderate iron. Keep replacing the paper until the wax is
removed.

Illustrations on making batik

1). Get a white fabric and sketch a design 2). Make sure you stretch the

on it with soft pencil. fabric tightly over the frame

White fabric with heart design

3). Then, apply hot wax to areas NOT to 4). Dye the fabric in first colour,

be dyed. E.g. Yellow.

white
Apply
wax yellow

5). Apply wax to areas to remain yellow 6). Dye a second colour, such as Blue

as you sketch new design on remaining part, giving us Green.

white green

yellow

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DESIGN PRINCIPLES

Composition: This the term that refer to how the works of art and design are arranged.

Balance: is the term that refers to the state of being in art and design. There is a need to make
sure that that there is a sense of stability in any artworks composition.

Proportion: In art and design proportion is used to describe a harmonious relationship of the
parts of a designed work to each other or of the parts to the whole.

Emphasis: It is also known as the focal point. It is where the focus is concentrated through
designing principles or meaning. It is an element of design which makes part of the designed
object to stand out.

Rhythm: is referred to as the intervals at which related elements occur throughout a

composition. It is a movement in which some elements reoccur regularly.

Variety: is the way of creating objects by combining elements using different kinds and ways in
order to come up with objects that have very fine details and interesting relationships.

Harmony: elements or parts that are to make an object should be arranged so that they are
agreeing to one another when fitted into an object. This shows a good outward appearance which
attracts the eyes of the viewer.

ACTIVITY

1. Produce an art book cover entitled “Art and Design”.

2. Produce either „batik‟ or a „tie and dye‟ piece of fabric.
3. Outline the similarities and differences between batik and tie and dye.
4. Produce an imaginary painting or drawing bearing in mind the proper use of the
principles of art and design.
5. Identify elements and principles of art used in an already made artifact. List them and
explain briefly how they have best been combined.

SUMMARY

Design is can be done at any stage of child development but each stage would have its own
suitable activities, which would allow the learners to be as practical as possible. Learners are
expected to apply both the elements and principles of design in order to come up with a desirable
artifact. This will also show how imaginative, creative, expressive and inventive the learner is
through the combination of elements and principles of art and design.

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UNIT 5: THE CROSS CUTTING THEMES IN ART AND DESIGN

INTRODUCTION

Cross cutting issues have become part of the school curriculum not by accident but because they
affect each and everyone in the world. These are: HIV and AIDS, Environmental Education,
Gender, Human Rights, and Health Education. These are issues that Art and Design can help
solve together with other areas of Expressive Arts. It is true that Art overlap and reinforce
learning in other areas of the curriculum. Art can bring unity to disparate curricular areas and can
explore relationships across disciplines, encourage a cohesive, integrated understanding of the
breadth of knowledge being learned. Art has an integrative capacity to bring the curriculum
together, to enable learners to gain insight and achieve a coherent and meaningful understanding
of their world. Thus, the role of Art and Design in the fight of the cross cutting issues cannot be
over-emphasized as right attitudes and morals need to be imparted in the learner at an early age.
Therefore, the Primary School teachers stand better placed to disseminate the right values
through Art and Design.

Intended Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 Share information of the various cross - cutting themes.

 Identify and name the cross - cutting themes that affect humankind.
 Apply artistic ways of addressing these cross - cutting themes.
 Design and make articles on various cross - cutting themes.

1. HIV AND AIDS

The HIV infection can be prevented through investing in information and life skills development
for young people. It is therefore important to talk about HIV/AIDS so as to stop it spreading
rapidly. In silence, people are afraid to be tested for HIV, afraid to admit that they are infected
and reluctant to discuss the factors that lead to the spread of disease. Open dialogue or
discussions between sexual partners, community members and young generations would help
reduce the risks. However, many barriers exist to the open discussion of sexuality and
HIV/AIDS.

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Art teachers, therefore, can play a role in reaching out to community members as well as pupils
and colleagues, encouraging everyone to discuss and address the factors that leave them
vulnerable to infection artistically. You can help to prevent infections by talking openly with
pupils about HIV/AIDS. This means not just the basic facts about transmission and prevention,
which most people in Zambia know, but helping them to develop skills to protect themselves and
turn this knowledge into action through works of art.

Most people in Zambia already know how HIV is spread and how to protect themselves. In fact,
this is, putting their knowledge into practice than becoming infected. They also need Life Skills
and a protective physical and social environment. But, when working with young people, the
emphasis is on abstinence and delaying first sexual intercourse.

2. GENDER

The Ministry of Education (Educating our Future, 1996: 65) highlights the gender strategies that,
“Gender issues and the development of gender-sensitive teaching methodologies will be integral
to the pre-service and in-service training of teachers”. This means that art education would not be
complete without the emphasis on gender and its relationship with Art and Design. Every society
has its own ideas about what is masculine and what is feminine, this is called gender. Ideas of
gender roles – how girls and boys, men and women should behave – affect all our relationships,
including our sexual relationships. But most young people and older people are not aware of the
effect of gender on their lives, or, that because gender roles are created by society, they can be
changed.

WHAT IS GENDER?

 Sex: describes whether someone is male or female according to biological differences. It

is determined before we are born.
 Gender: is the state of being male or female (masculine or feminine), according to
behavioural differences, for example, how they dress, their work and their status in
society. These characteristics are defined by each culture so they can be different in
different cultures and they can change.
 Gender roles: ideas about how men and women should behave – are created by society,
culture and traditions. As they grow up, girls and boys learn about how women and men
should behave from their parents, community, religious institutions, schools, and the
media. Gender roles are also different for people of different ages – for example, young
girls may be given very different tasks and levels of responsibility from their
grandmothers. Gender roles vary from one society to another and change as society
changes. Because gender roles are created by society, it is possible to change them.

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 3. ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION

What is an environment?

There are not only different definitions but also different categories of environment:

 The surrounding of an organism, physical and other organisms, e.g. where we stay, i.e.
residential, built-up, social environment.
 Natural environment constitute all the natural things around us, e.g. air, water, land, etc.
However, this natural environment is no longer the same as it was long time ago.
Nevertheless, natural environment is living, e.g. if pollutants added into a river after river
flow for some distance should clean or purify itself, naturally.

Under normal circumstance the natural environment is supposed to keep itself at a certain
condition, e.g. when a river is polluted its supposed to clean itself and get off the pollutants by
the time the water get to the 10km mark, the amount of carbon dioxide is supposed to be 0.03%
by volume and oxygen 21 or 20% by volume. But, however, this is no longer the situation
because the quality of the environment has continued to decline. In the recent years Scientists
have become increasingly concerned about the long term effects of the deteriorating
environmental condition on the health, not only of humans but also of nature itself. For instance,
the Eco-system that determines food production and such global systems as the Hydrological
Cycle in which water evaporates from bodies of water and returns after falling as precipitation
and the Stratospheric Ozone Shield. The ozone layer is very important because it prevents the
violet ultra rays from reaching us. Ultra rays are very harmful causing skin cancer. Ozone layer
is very important as it protects us against excessive solar ultra violet radiation from reaching the
Earth. Since environment changes have a variety of negative effects on human health, this
condition of environment has been termed by Environmental Ecologists as Environmental
Distress Syndrome (EDS).

USES OF THE ENVIRONMENT

i. We use the natural environment as a source of food supply (fruit and vegetables)
ii. We use it as an energy source, e.g. firewood and charcoal from forests
iii. As a source for recreation, enjoyment and beauty, e.g. leisure parks with plants, flowers,
animals
iv. As a major source of medicines, both crude and processed medicines
v. As a natural source for industrial products, like timber, copper for electrical wires, etc.
vi. As a source of art and design materials, such as fibers, paints, soils, leaves, etc.

In this respect, the diversity of nature not only offers man a vast power of choice for his current
needs and desires but also enhances the role of nature as a source of solutions for the future
needs and challenges of mankind. In the past human interactions with nature, although often had

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disruptive effect on nature, often also enriched the quality and variety of the living world and its
habitats.

4. HUMAN RIGHTS

Human rights are basic rights and freedoms to which all human beings are entitled. The doctrine
of human rights aims to identify the necessary positive and negative pre-requisites for a
Universal minimal standard of justice, tolerance and human dignity that can be considered, the
public moral norms owned by and to individuals by the mere virtue of their humanity. Such pre-
requisites can exist as shared norms of actual human moralities, as justified moral norms of
moral rights supported by strong reasons, legal rights at a national level or as a legal right within
international law.

Human rights advocates seek the strong protection of human rights through their effective
realization in each of these ways. The claim of human rights is therefore that they are Universal
in that they are possessed by all by virtue of the fact that they are human and independent
because they exist as moral standards of justification and criticism is independent, whether or not
they are recognized by a particular national or international local government systems.

The general ideas of Human rights has widespread acceptance and the Charter of the United
Nations (UN), which has been signed by virtually all sovereign states recognizes the existence of
Human Rights. It has also been argued that the doctrine of human rights has become the
dominant moral doctrine for regulating and evaluating the moral status of the contemporary geo-
political order. However, debate and disagreements over which rights are human rights and about
the precise nature, content, justification and appropriate legal status of those rights continues.

RIGHTS OF A CHILD

Children are the most vulnerable than adults. The UN Rights Commission came up with the
Convention on the rights of a child. This was due to the rampant cases of abuse of the child‟s
rights. It is called the UN Convention of Human Rights. It was adopted in 1989. The abuse is
usually done in homes, schools, etc.

5. HEALTH EDUCATION

The Ministry of Education recognizes that school going children experience poor health in their
homes due to:

 Inadequate and unsafe drinking water leading to parasitic infections

 Inadequate or lack of health and nutrition services
 Malnutrition
 Recurrent experiences of malaria
 Inadequate or lack of life skills-based health education (Educating Our Future, 1996).

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In order to improve the health status of children in schools, the Ministry of education has put in
place measures which will improve the quality of education, thus, improved learners‟ enrolment,
retention and achievement will increase.

TEACHING STRATEGIES

As Art and design teachers, we should help enlighten the learners as well as the community in
incorporating the cross cutting themes in our teaching. HIV/AIDS, Environmental Education,
Gender, Human Rights, and Health Education can be better taught in Primary Schools through
works of art, and these are: Drawings, Paintings, Sculptures, Collages, Montage, Mosaics, Crafts,
etc. Through these art medias, the learner is made to understand and comprehend what is meant
by the cross cutting themes. By imparting this knowledge of the emerging issues in learners,
Zambia is likely to fight these vices with ease, as the saying goes „teach a child the right ways
while he is still young, when he grows up he will not depart from those ways‟. Many sensitive
issues are better explained and appreciated through songs, drama, poetry, and many other works
of Art and design. For instance, life skills needed for HIV prevention cannot be taught through
lecturing, but learners need to be actively involved in developing and practicing the skills,
discuss the emerging issue and think of how best to solve it. This can be done through
participatory methodologies such as paintings, drawings, sculptures, crafts and many other forms
of art, e.g. a puppet will be of good use in teaching serious issues that affect mankind especially
to the lower grades in the Primary Schools. As for Gender, the works of Art are done by both
girls and boys and there is no division as to which artifact is for boys or just for girls. Through
such works, gender is well taught and understood. Emphasis should be made on the need to share
ideas regardless of the gender. Activities should be done in groups and that the groups should be
composed of both boys and girls.

The environment must be protected as it gives us the materials that we need in the learning of Art
and Design. If the environment is destroyed, it is very clear that Art and Design may also vanish
and thus no material to be used in the teaching of Art and Design. As the environment also gives
us food, there is a need to take care of it so that it continues to provide us with the required food
nutrients. Just as humans have the right to live, the environment equally has the right to remain
intact so that it continues to provide the necessary art materials.

ACTIVITY

1. Produce a poster warning young ones on the dangers of HIV/AIDS.

2. Produce a painting showing the effects of global warming on flora and fauna.
3. Produce a photo-montage or picture-montage showing gender roles at work.
4. A picture showing the abuse of children‟s rights.

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 SUMMARY

Art and design, in general, has been found to stimulate and strengthen basic skills learning. It is
believed that the symbols of Art are natural to childhood learning whereas much of what schools
teach is unnatural to students. Introducing and integrating Art concepts, ideas and strategies into
cross cutting themes reinforce and illuminate subject matter. Likewise, material from cross
cutting issues serves the same purpose as in art and design. Content for artistic expression comes
from those disciplines which deal with the human condition as well as the natural and theoretical
understandings. The art exist at many points of connection among the cross cutting themes.

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UNIT 6: FORM, STYLE AND PATTERNS

INTRODUCTION

Works of Art produced must be aesthetically appreciated by the users as they are mostly fine and
functional in nature. A well made artifact must have the right form, produced by the artist‟s own
style, thus their own pattern at the end of it all. As teachers of Art and design, therefore, you will
allow learners to be as original as possible so as to produce artworks with their own style and
pattern, bearing in mind the need to have the right form. This Unit, therefore, will discuss
Drawing and Lettering considering the need for the right form, own styles and patterns.

Intended Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit you should be able to:

 Discuss form, style and patterns

 Draw using different medias considering the form, style and pattern used
 Make different letters using different styles and patterns

DRAWING

The drawing of lines in three-dimensional forms goes back to prehistoric times when cave
dwellers, such as the Bushmen, using coloured soils and charcoal sticks from their fires, drew
pictures of their life-style and dangerous animals they hunted with unbelievable accuracy and
energy. People have done simple drawings of places and objects they have seen ever since,
improving and perfecting their skills and constantly looking for new media and ways of passing
on what they see to others.

Drawing is a curious process, which would be difficult without the use of eyes, thus the two
cannot be separated. Ability to draw depends on ability to see the way an artist sees. In many
ways, teaching drawing is somewhat like teaching someone to ride a bicycle. It is very difficult
to explain in words. In teaching someone to ride a bicycle, you may say, “Well, you just get on,
push the pedals, balance yourself, and off you‟ll go.” Of course that doesn‟t explain it at all, and
you are likely finally to say, “I‟ll get on and show you how. Watch and see how I do it.”
(Edwards, 1979: 2)

And so it is with drawing. Most Art teachers, therefore, encourage learners or beginners to learn
how to see and change their ways of looking at things. The problem is that this different way of
seeing is as hard to explain as how to balance a bicycle and the teacher often ends encouraging

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learners to just keep trying and practice a lot so that children will eventually be able to get it
right. Therefore, drawing is a teachable and learnable skill which can make one learn a basic skill
of the visual arts and also how to put down on paper what you see in front of your eyes.

LETTERING

Lettering is a means of communication. It is silent and permanent as it needs no form of power to

make it work and is not expensive to produce. It can be used to instruct, warn, advise, control,
inform, direct, identify, persuade, announce, decorate, remind, advertise, commemorate and
command. Good work can easily be spoilt by poor titles, so it is an advantage if the teacher
learns how to letter his efforts. Imagine streets not named or lettered, houses not lettered even
institutions and shops with no letterings on them. How difficult will it be for the people to locate
those areas without letters or numbers on them?

THE DEVELOPMENT OF LETTERING

Picture Writing – Pictograms

This is the most primitive form of writing. The information the writer wishes to pass on takes the
form of a simple picture or diagram representing an object, or group of objects. It is a very
powerful kind of communication as the signs can be read in any language. However, only the
simplest information can be passed on.

Pictograms are used today for conveying information which needs to be instantly understood. A
good example is road signs. Pictograms are used for instructions and messages of a straight
forward kind. For example, a Red Cross on a box indicates that there is first-aid equipment
inside; a drawing of a man or woman on a building indicates a toilet or bathroom.

Turn right Turn right & back

Symbols – Ideograms

Ideograms are a more sophisticated form of picture writing. The images do not simply indicate
the objects drawn but the ideas or meanings associated with them. The drawing of the Sun could
mean warmth, heat, light, daytime, holidays, summer, energy, happiness, good cheer or sunshine.
The drawing of the moon could mean night, coldness, mystery, romance, darkness, eeriness or
purity. It is sometimes impossible to distinguish between a pictogram and an ideogram as they
are such basic conceptions of visual communication.

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Letters – Phonograms

These enable us to produce a graphic record of the word, and are consequently more specific
than pictograms or ideograms. An alphabet consists of a set of letters which can be used to
represent a particular sound, or sounds. Letters are combined to produce words which can be
read and understood. Parts of the alphabet we use can be traced back to the 6 th Century BC. It
had been influenced by the Greeks, Etruscans and Romans. Today it is still referred to as the
Roman or Latin alphabet; although several more letters have been added since Roman times to
make the twenty-six letters used today.

PARTS OF A LETTER

There are six basic parts from which a letter can be constructed. However, some letters may have
more than one part used in their formation/writing. It does not really matter what you call them
as long as you realize they exist. The six parts are: stem, arm, bar, curve, bowl and serif.

i. Stem – this is a stroke running from top to bottom of a letter.

ii. Arm – these are horizontal or diagonal limbs that join the upper or vertical arms.
iii. Bar – an arm which joins two vertical parts together.
iv. Curve – these are curved shapes forming curved letters.
v. Bowl – is a continuous curve.
vi. Serif – the shape which is added to finish off the ends of stems, bars, arms and curves. If
a letter has no serifs, it is called a „sans serif‟.

Small letters are composed of the same parts as capitals but with the addition of ascenders and
descenders while some are of the same height. However, Capitals are all the same height as they
do not have ascenders and descenders. On the other hand, Numerals are usually all the same
height like Capitals, although „4‟ and „7‟ may have descenders in some styles.

TEACHING STRATEGIES

DRAWING

Many people always think that one needs to have a special talent in order to draw. But it must be
understood that drawing is something that one can learn just like any other skill that can be learnt
like in reading, writing, cooking, or driving a car. The only things you need are something to
draw with and something to draw on.

Most teachers of art and design understand the importance of drawing and painting and usually
emphasize it to their pupils or students by making it the starting point of what are done in art.
Drawing and painting is considered a key part of art and design, a basic skill without which the
visual development of ideas is limited.

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Teachers must teach learners how to draw because drawing, in itself, is a source of much
enjoyment and fulfillment. Just the act of drawing and sketching is better than taking
photographs as a means of recording special events and information. Drawing also sharpens our
visual vocabulary as we are able to not just look at things but see them with a critical eye. The
more you draw on a daily basis the better you also understand the media which is best for a
particular drawing.

Encourage the learners to use their eyes to see what they are to draw. A critical eye is needed so
as to pick up important elements. Lines, texture, tone and all other elements of art are to be
observed with a keen eye if one has to draw well. Emphasize on centering the drawings on a
piece of paper that is given, so as to balance the artwork. Having observed all the necessary steps
and keeping trying, the learners will be in a position to produce admirable drawings of any kind.
Encourage creativity and originality as the learners draw mainly from imagination, from still-life
as well as from nature.

OBJECT DRAWING

Object drawing is a beginning to good picture making as drawing is not an end in itself, except in
special cases where the expected outcome is to record something with complete accuracy, such
as an analytical drawing.

Object drawing is best taught gradually as a natural development to picture making. When
teaching this subject to pupils at the lower level, such as Grade 1, it is advisable to let your pupils
make pictures from imagination. In this case, pupils will not study particular objects but rather
draw from pictures in their mind. The more the pupils are encouraged to produce pictures and
notice things of interest around them, the more their memory is increased. As pupils grow older,
they learn to observe objects more carefully; as a teacher, you can encourage your pupils to see
things for themselves. It is not until the child enters the schematic stage of development that you
can train them to draw from observation. This is because very young pupils have not developed
enough to understand the concepts involved in object drawing. The concept of proportion is very
difficult for lower primary school pupils though it is always the best starting point to introduce
object drawing.

PROPORTION

In object drawing, children are trained to be aware of things they see and look at them with a
critical eye so as to record them in their picture work and/or modeling. At the same time, they
will come to understand the construction of objects and thus learn to appreciate good design,
suitable materials and good craftsmanship.

Plants are a good subject for object drawing as lessons can be turned to practical advantage by
linking them with, for example, science lessons. The integration of art and design with other
Expressive Arts subjects is very much possible. Proportion, therefore, is in simple terms the

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relative size of things. In order to maintain proportion, objects must be drawn to scale. When
several objects are drawn together, they must all be drawn to the same scale. If it is necessary to
reduce one object for it to fit into a given space, then all the objects in the group must be reduced
to the same scale. Similarly, if one is enlarged, then all must be enlarged. On the other hand,
perspective also comes into play as objects sometimes may not be at the same place, may not be
of the same size, and may need to overlap.

MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT

1). PENCILS: The pencil is the most familiar drawing tool of all and is usually graded by the H
and B system, according to the relative hardness or softness of the graphite core. 9H is the
hardest while 8B is the softest with HB lying in the middle between hard and soft. A very soft
pencil is used to make broad, soft lines, while hard pencils can be sharpened to the finest of
points and are good for fine lines and precise details. A medium grade such as 2B or 3B is
probably the most popular for drawing. Colour pencils, however, are as good in quality as
graphite pencils but have an added advantage of colour. The lead or central part of the colour
pencils are made of clay, coloured pigment and wax.

2). CHARCOAL: is the oldest drawing medium. Prehistoric man used sticks of charred wood
from the fire as a tool to draw the outlines of animals on the walls of caves. Charcoal is simple to
use as it allows one to do expressive quick work. It also smudges easily, so you must draw with
your hand raised off the paper in order to protect the finished drawings. Charcoal may come in
form of stick charcoal, compressed charcoal or charcoal pencil.

3). PASTELS: Pastels are made from finely ground pigments bound together with gum to form a
stiff paste, which is then shaped into round or square sticks and allowed to harden. The four
types of pastels are: Soft Pastels, Hard Pastels, Pastel Pencils and Oil Pastels.

i. Soft Pastels: are the most widely used of the various types because they produce the
wonderful velvety texture, which is one of the main attractions of pastel art. They are
easy to apply, requiring little pressure to make a mark, and can be blended and
smudged with a finger, wrinkled tissue or paper stump.
ii. Hard Pastels: the colours are less brilliant but have a firmer texture. Hard Pastels can be
sharpened to a point with a blade and used for crisp lines and details. They do not
crumble and break easily, like the soft pastels. So they are often used in the early
stages of a drawing to outline the composition, or for adding details at the end.
iii. Pastel Pencils: Is thin pastel sticks enclosed in wood, like ordinary pencils. They are
clean to use, do not break or crumble as traditional pastels do, and give greater
control of handling. Pastel pencils are perfect for line sketches and detailed small-
scale work, and can be used in combination with stick pastels.

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 iv. Oil Pastels: are different in character from traditional pastels. The pigment and chalk are
combined with an oil binder instead of gum, making the sticks stronger and harder.
Oil pastels make thick strokes and their colours are clear and brilliant. Though not as
controllable as soft pastels, they have a strong quality that makes them ideal for
direct, unplanned working.

Pastel Tints and Shades

Pastel colours cannot be mixed before use as paints can, so each individual pastel colour comes
in a wide range of tints (light colours) and shades (dark colours). The lighter tints are achieved
by adding progressively more white pigment to the full-strength colour, and the darker shades by
adding black.

4). PENS AND INKS

There is a variety of pens and inks available, allowing us to produce anything from a simple to a
detailed artwork which can even be of beautiful colours.

Drawing Inks: there are two types of drawing ink, and these are: water – soluble and
waterproof. Both types come in a wide range of colours as well as the traditional black. With
water – soluble inks the drawn lines remain intact and will not dissolve once dry, so that a wash
or tint on top of the drawing may be added without spoiling the line work. Waterproof inks
should never be used with reservoir pens as they contain shellac, which will clog the pen as it
dries.

Coloured inks come in a range of brilliant colours. However, they are made from dyes rather
than pigments and are therefore not light-fast. To minimize fading, protect finished drawings
from prolonged exposure to bright daylight. (Painting and Drawing Pocket Encyclopedia, 1998)

Pens: pens, such as quills, reeds and bamboos are made from natural material and have been
used for centuries. They are light, flexible and responsive and produce lively, dynamic
calligraphic marks.

- Three main types of pens are: simple dip pens, fountain pens and fibre-tipped pens and/or
marker pens.

5). PAPERS FOR DRAWING

Drawing paper is available in a wide range of weights, textures and colours. The character of the
paper can influence a drawing quite dramatically, so it is important to choose carefully. It is
worth exploring the effects of a single medium on different papers as they can vary a great deal.

- The two common types of drawing paper are: Textured paper and Smooth paper.

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6). DRAWING ACCESSORIES

These are: Erasers, Paper stumps, Knives and sharpeners, Drawing boards and Fixatives.

LETTERING: the simplest way to do good lettering is to write down the title first of all and
calculate where the centre will come. Work on the basis of 5 High and 4 Wide – though certain
letters need more space. „M‟ and „W‟ need 5 Wide and „I‟ only needs 1 space.

Using a meter rule and a set square it is possible to work from the middle letter of the title to the
right and then work from the middle back to the beginning. Drawing grid lines can be very
helpful in lettering. Most of the letters are made up from straight lines and can be drawn with a
ruler and set square. However, you will need to practice the curves for a, b, c, d, e, and f in order
to do letters like „S‟ and „R‟. It should be noted, however, that by using additional set of lines on
the Right and Bottom of the letter, or vice-versa, you can make the letter appear to stand out.

Bold letters may be condensed if the work space is not enough, that is, they may be reduced to 3
spaces instead of 4. Perhaps the quickest way to do effective lettering is using a Flat Paintbrush.
The lines are the same width as the brush itself. Always remember to hold the brush at an angle.

Using Letter Stencils, Profiles and Letter Blocks

Stencils: if you have spent a long time drawing out a good set of letters, then you may want to
turn them into a stencil by pasting them on good card and cutting the letters out with a sharp
knife.

Hints on using a stencil:

 Make sure the stencil is clean before you use it on your drawing otherwise you may ruin
your work
 Try to find a brush or felt-tipped pen that fits the stencil. If the felt-tipped pen is the
wrong size you will have difficulty with letters like „D‟, „O‟, „P‟ and „R‟.

Learning to space out your letters correctly takes time and practice. No piece of work is ever
faultless, but with care your results will be attractive and easily read.

Profiles: letter profiles are large letters cut from card, wood or plastic and used to copy round.
The outline of the letter obtained is then filled in with ink or colour. They are certainly easier to

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make than a stencil because you do not have problems with letters like; „A‟, „B‟, „D‟, „O‟, „P‟,
„Q‟, „R‟, and „a‟, „b‟, „d‟, „e‟, „g‟, ‟o‟, „p‟, and „q‟.

Letter Blocks: the simplest method of making a letter block is to incise (cut into) a block of
wood or root vegetable. This will give you a white image on a black or coloured background.
Incised letters can easily be made on firm roots such as cassava or carrot, etc. If you cut away the
block from the image, you get a black image of the letter. This is much more difficult to do.
Raised letter blocks are best cut in an easily worked wood such as Mukusi, Mungongo, Mulela,
Muyombo, which is a whitish wood and very soft. These woods are commonly used for making
masks and drums. Use the end grain of the timber for the best results.

ACTIVITY

1. Draw various objects using the elements, medias and techniques of Art.
2. Using pictograms, ideograms and phonograms, produce letterings of your own choice to
either warn, caution or advice the public.
3. Produce stencil and profiles that could be used for various purposes.

SUMMARY

It is therefore true that everyone can draw. It is just the attitude and commitment
that we need to possess and nurture. Drawing and lettering are important in that they make life
easy for the general population. The deaf too, can benefit as most of the work can be presented
through drawings and letterings, without which there would be confusion as people would not
know where to go and what to do. With the skill of drawing and lettering, communication is
enhanced, thus peace and order. It is therefore the duty of Primary School Teachers to make sure
that learners are imparted with the skill of drawing and lettering so as to ease communication.

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UNIT 7: PLANNING FOR TEACHING IN ART AND DESIGN

INTRODUCTION

The successful implementation of the curriculum will depend on careful planning. It should be
planned for as an independent, balanced and cohesive programme within a broad arts education
curriculum and as a vital component of the overall school plan. Planning for the visual arts is a
consultative and collaborative process involving the principal and the teachers and, where
appropriate, parents and the learners. Material production as well as teaching strategies should
serve as the core of planning to teach art and design. The teacher should have some
understanding of children‟s visual imagery, the stages of child art development, and some
practical experience of the processes of making art with the materials the children will use.

Intended Learning Outcomes

By the end of this Unit, you should be able to:

 Produce materials to be used in teaching of Art and Design

 Discuss the teaching strategies that are effective in the teaching of Art and Design
 State the stages of child development and how they determine what is to be taught

WHY TEACH ART IN PRIMARY SCHOOLS?

We should plan to teach Art and Design as it is not a subject that one has to just begin teaching
from nowhere and anywhere but somewhere. Art taught to children help children develop their
creative and imaginative skills. Children, who may not be so good in most of the cognitive kind
of subjects, like Mathematics, Science or English, might find this emotional, social, intellectual
and aesthetic kind of the subject interesting and easier to comprehend. As children work
together, Art improves children‟s co-operation even as they are able to learn vicariously through
socializing and finding out more from friends. They also learn new creative ideas from each
other.

Children develop most of their hidden and untapped talents even as they release their feelings
through artistic works, which come in different media, such as Clay, Paper, Paint, Pencil, and
many other forms. Children‟s thoughts are also easily expressed through Artworks thus
developing future survival skills too!

Art is also applied in other subjects since writing skills are also part of Art. The models made in
Art can be used also in other subjects thus creating cohesiveness in children‟s understanding of

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the interrelated curriculum in schools. It also reveals the children‟s culture thus giving a practical
and concrete history of their origin through various artifacts children are able to make.

In order to teach effectively, the teacher has to plan the learning and teaching aids and device
teaching strategies that suit the age of the learners. Children develop at different rates and so an
average plan to cater for all is inevitable.

Quality educational provision requires the supply of books, writing materials and educational
items in sufficient quantity to meet the needs of all students. The availability and use of these
have a positive effect on student learning. In their absence, learning occurs only with difficulty.
The situation in schools is that the supplies of educational materials are generally inadequate for
needs.

1. MATERIAL PRODUCTION

It is advisable to make a list of the lesson requirements and to check in advance that supplies are
adequate and attractive to use. These should be organized before class begins. The children will
play their part in conserving supplies once they understand how and why they should be cared
for. Clean-up procedures should also be planned in advance.

It should also be born in the teachers‟ minds that areas of arts education share a basis that forges
natural links between them. Thematic material may be shared with music, for example. The
visual concepts of shape and space are made „real‟ through dance, and themes explored through
dance may be developed further through a variety of visual arts media. Working with drama can
be especially fruitful. Children can design their own sets, costumes and masks, for example.
Expression through colour, form and construction can be furthered in this way and the tasks set
can be tailored to the children‟s age and ability: for example, making costumes can be as simple
as transforming an Old T-shirt and trousers into a wonderfully imaginative outfit just by pinning
on carefully chosen off cuts, leftovers and various fabric and other scraps. The teacher‟s input
will be stimulate the children‟s inventiveness, rather than in designing the attire him or herself.
Art images and objects can be an excellent motivation for dance, and dance and games can be
exciting subjects for children‟s art.

A). WEAVING

Weaving is a method of making fabric by intertwining one set of threads (the weft), across
another set of threads, (the warp), which are held rigidly on a frame or loom.

Simple Looms: may be made from squares or rectangles of card prepared at the top and bottom to
hold the warp threads tight.

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 - Lace, ribbon, fleece, grasses, leaves, paper, or any strip of flexible material may be
woven.
- The bands of weave may be broken up by using colours and textures to represent the
features to be illustrated in the work.

Other materials that can be used for weaving would include some local materials, such as reeds
and fibres, strings or threads.

B). CLAY WORK

Clay work is a wonderful material to use. It is cheap, easy to manage, good to touch, easily
shaped, and when water is added to it can be used forever. The main purpose of clay is manual
manipulation.

It can also be poked, pinched, modeled, cut, rolled, scraped, slabbed, bent, planed, coiled,
hollowed, poured, painted and glazed. When it is fired it can be made almost indestructible.

PREPARING CLAY FOR USE:

- This takes little effort and saves time later.

- Clay should be mixed to an even consistency, and should neither be sticky to touch nor so
hard that it cracks when bent or modeled.
- Air bubbles need to be removed. Mixing clay and removing air bubbles can be done by
kneading or wedging.
- Pieces that have been rejected or have gone hard, but not fired, can be reconstituted.
METHOD: soak in water for 2 days;

Spread resulting buttery mixture onto a plaster slab;

When moisture has been absorbed, prepare clay for use.

- Save all excess clay in an airtight container to prevent it drying out. If storing for more
than a few days, press a thumb into each clay ball and fill hole with water.

With all preparations the teacher makes for the lesson, material preparation is inevitable for them
to be effective in class. Without teaching Aids, the lesson is usually a flop! Therefore, there will
be no need for you to go out teaching without making yourself fully prepared for the class in
terms of preparing materials for learning and teaching.

Planning to teach is not an easy thing. It requires devoting one‟s time and energy, which is not
that easy. However, Art and Design is a subject that one may not say there are no materials, for
the materials are readily found in the environment. It will be unacceptable to hear a teacher

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talking of lack of materials when the environment is endowed with such vast materials. Local
materials are what an Art teacher must be able to get even in the immediate environment.

2. TEACHING STRATEGIES IN ART AND DESIGN

CLASSROOM PLANNING FOR TEACHING ART AND DESIGN

Effective planning is crucial to the success of the art class. Advance preparation is therefore
essential for

 The teacher‟s planning

 Classroom organization
 Planning a unit/scheme of work

THE TEACHER‟S PLANNING

This involves giving significance to children‟s everyday experiences and developing

imagination, and organizing ways of meeting their learning needs through art. The teacher
should have some understanding of children‟s visual imagery and some practical experience of
the processes of making art with the materials the children will use. An understanding of the
stages of development in art will enable the teacher to plan ways of meeting individual learning
needs in accordance with the agreed objectives of the school plan. Practical experience in
handling materials and tools is essential to understanding their expressive possibilities and the
challenges they pose for children at the different stages of development.

When the teacher is planning tasks for the children, this should include opportunities to choose
materials and tools for different tasks, to help develop awareness of their creative potential.
Work procedures should be organized so that changes in children‟s understanding and expression
can be observed and recorded in simple form, both during and on completion of work, as an aid
to future planning.

Areas of children‟s experience would include

 The world they know and live in

 People and other creatures
 The fantastic and the mysterious.

This approach enables children to „live‟ the experience, real or imagined, and to make a response
that is unique to them.

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Practical Starting Point

One of the most challenging tasks facing the teacher is to know how to introduce a particular art
activity. Purposeful art activities begin with a stimulus that fires the children‟s interest and
imagination and makes them want to get started. Any one of the activities that underpins guided
discovery methods, or a combination of them, is a possible starting point. These include

 Working from the children‟s experience and imagination.

 Using materials and tools as motivation
 Working from observation and inquisitiveness
 Using the work of artists and craftspeople as stimulus

A particular starting point may be more appropriate for work in some media than in others: for
example, using materials and tools is the most appropriate starting point for print. Ideas for
working in other media may be triggered by one or more of the suggested starting points and the
teacher may choose between them. To maintain the integrated nature of the units, the work of
artists and craftspeople could be used as a motivation in conjunction with the other suggested
starting points.

i) Working from children’s experience and imagination: this brings about satisfaction in
the learners as they deal with things that they use, touch and are ordinary to them and
affect their everyday lives.
ii) Using materials and tools as motivation: the concentration on the material that children
are able to see and touch can be an exciting starting point for an art activity. By using
the tools and materials, children develop their self confidence. They should also be
encouraged to talk about the media they like best to work with or those they think
most suitable for a particular task, and why.

iii) Working from observation and interest: children like exploring the physical world by
seeing and touching things from nature. They also try to find out how objects are
related to each other and to man. This interest grows from childhood as they observe
and manipulate, and increases as they grow older, thus answering their natural
curiosity.
iv) Using the work of artists and craftspeople as motivation: Children‟s immediate and
keen responses to art objects and images can be an important starting point for art
activities. As they admire what other people have produced, such as artists and
craftspeople, a teacher can take advantage of this situation and give learners a
practical activity of a similar kind as one they see. This enhances their looking and
responding to art, thus seeing themselves as part of the worldwide art community.

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 3. CHILD ART DEVELOPMENT

THE STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT IN CHILDREN’S ART

Patterns of development are evident in children‟s art up to the end of Primary Schooling. They
are most evident in children‟s imagery and they provide a broad outline of typical progress. They
begin with mark-making or scribble pictures and may develop to where realistic representation is
the main concern. A personal set of symbols, that is, their own visual interpretation, will in
general develop for familiar objects and figures, such as a person, a tree or a house. The
development of a plan (schema) for expressing ideas may result and may be used in their story-
telling. As they grow, it is important to help them develop beyond symbols which are used with
little variation. They should also be encouraged to use drawing to plan their art activities, for
example if the theme is to be carried out in another medium. An understanding of the stages or
patterns of development in children‟s art is crucial to the objective assessment of children‟s
visual expression, and to planning.

The curriculum provides opportunities for activities that incorporate art, craft and design in two-
and three- dimensional media, both in making activities and in responding to works of art, craft
and design. The two - dimensional media are drawing, painting and print, and they include
collage. The three - dimensional media are clay, construction and work in fabric and fibre, some
of which have traditionally been referred to as craft activities and are now further developed as
creative process. It is important to maintain a balance between activities in two- and three-
dimensional media to give children a real sense of the three- dimensional nature of the world
they live in as well as an imaginative capacity for expressing it on a flat surface.

Drawing has primary importance in the learner. It is through drawing that children‟s
development in art is most evident. Because it is something most young children do naturally, it
is particularly important in promoting visual awareness and the ability to record what is seen, felt
or imagined. Drawing activities also help to develop a confident and expressive use of materials
and tools.

1). SCRIBBLING/PRIMITIVE STAGE (2 – 5 years)

This is the first stage for growth in children‟s art. Mostly the scribbles are not organized as
children experiment and discover with various materials, such as pencils, crayons, brushes, etc.
Children also try to discover how these media feel and so are not nervous or embarrassed to use
them. They are also not embarrassed with the work they produce. The results, however, are just a
reflection of their imagination and mental pictures, which are drawn with spontaneity.

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2). SYMBOLISM STAGE (5 – 7 years)

This is usually some form of controlled scribbling. The organization of the shapes is evident
though not for the sake of expressing anything specific. This time, children begin to identify a
particular symbol or sign in their artwork. Children usually combine in and outdoor activities in
one composition. However, they are not concerned with perspective and proportion. Art
symbolism in children exaggerates certain parts of the body as they are seen to be the most
important parts of the body. Children at this stage are egocentric, that is, they take or see things
from their own point of view.

3). SCHEMATIC STAGE (7 – 9 years)

The children at this stage usually tell stories through pictures. The pictures are usually in X – ray
form and are transparent. However, the symbols in this age-group are more elaborate and are
well planned works. The difference in work interests is seen between boys and girls. For
instance, boys do activities like that of soldiers, police, mechanics, etc, while girls do much of
drawings which are well decorated. Children‟s work at this stage is mainly based on what they
know, and not what they see. The pictures drawn are flat and diagrammatic though there is a
clear development to techniques and composition.

4). REALISM/REPRESENTATIONAL/NATURALISTIC STAGE (9 – 12 years)

Children at this stage put more thought to composition or design. There is more mature works
displayed in terms of techniques used. For instance, shading is done according to what they see
and attempt to copy what they see in nature. At this stage, most children are able to deal with
simple as well as complex tasks and develop aesthetic awareness in their artworks.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

LESSON PLAN LAYOUT

ACTIVITY BASED LESSON PLAN

School: Charles Lwanga Basic Grade: 4 C

Class Description: Girls 20 and Girls 22 Subject: CTS (Art

and Design)

Topic: Colour Duration: 30 minutes

Sub-topic: Colour Wheel (Mixing of Colours)

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Outcomes: by the end of the lesson, PSBAT:

- State primary, secondary and tertiary colours with less difficulties

- Mix primary colours to come up with secondary colours correctly
- Produce tertiary colours by mixing primary and secondary colours correctly

Materials: Primary colours, water, brushes, paper, palettes

Reference: Visual Arts Education Teacher‟s Guide, Primary School Curriculum, Pages 72 – 82.

DEVELOPMENT

Step Time Teacher Activity Pupil Activity Indicators/Evaluation

1 5min Introduction - Pupils to answer - Children

the asked actively
- Teacher to ask the questions by participating
following raising up hands, during the
questions: that is, blue, green, question
i. What is your red, etc. answer session.
favourite - Give correct
colour? answers
ii. What colour is
your house/car?
2 7min Guided Practice Activities - Pupils to say out - Naming of the
Primary colours resulting
- Show Primary they see: Red, secondary
colours: Red, Blue and Yellow. colours
Yellow and Blue to - Suggest what correctly.
the class. Explain colours are - Careful
that these cannot be produced if, for observation on
obtained by mixing instance, Red and how colours
with any other Yellow are mixed, are mixed.
colour. that is, Orange.
- Ask pupils what - Observe as teacher
would happen if mixes Primary
any two of the colours and name
primary colours are the resulting
mixed? colours.
- Mix two primary
colours and explain
that the result is a
Secondary colour.
- Mix a primary and
a secondary colour
to come up with a
tertiary colour.

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3 13min Independent Practice - Pupils to try out - Taking
Activities colour mixing as maximum care
individuals in in the amount
- Give out palettes, order to come up of colour
paper, primary with the colour mixed with the
colours, and wheel. other in order
brushes to the - First mix two to come up
learners. primary colours at with the
- Emphasize on a time to come up intended
careful mixing in with a secondary colour.
order to get correct colour. - Doing the work
secondary and - Mix one primary by themselves
tertiary colours. with one - Knowing by
secondary colour naming the
to come up with a colours
tertiary colour produced.
- Paint the newly
made colours on a
piece of paper
given, beginning
with Primary,
Secondary and
lastly tertiary
colours.
4 5min Conclusion - Comment on their - Giving positive
works in relation comments on
- Display the to their friends what they have
children‟s work works, by being done well or
and give some able to say the not done well.
comments on how colours friends - Working
well the work has produced. together
been done. - Clean up their ensuring tables
- Ask learners to tables and wash and materials
clean up the tables brushes and are clean and
and wash the palettes. kept in the
brushes they have right place.
been using.

OVERALL EVALUATION: (How the lesson has been taught, generally, and whether
objectives/outcomes have been achieved or not)

Pupils: (whether pupils made connections of new skill or knowledge to information they already
posses)

Teacher: (whether teacher used concepts or skills to daily living).

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………………………………………………………………………………………………………

MAKING ART AND RESPONDING TO ART

The curriculum places much emphasis on attentive looking, both in making art and in responding
to art. Art activities are structured to help children develop sensitivity to their visual
surroundings and to art works and to make connections between what they observe and their own
work. Children‟s developing ability to observe closely and to interpret what they see is the basis
for expression and design. They need opportunities for close observation of the natural and living
environments as well as opportunities to see how artists, craftspeople and designers interpret
them. They should have access to a variety of art styles from different times and cultures as
motivation for their own art activities, as a way of making comparisons between different
interpretations of an idea or theme, or simply for the pleasure they give. The emphasis should
always be on art as inspiration, and not as something to copy.

Children are constantly bombarded with aggressive advertising images which are designed to
deliver their message in the shortest possible time. The deeper and more meaningful values that
can be appreciated in art, however, take more time. The teacher‟s task is to help them to look at
art works for a longer period and with a more open attitude than they might otherwise have done.
Openness to art enables children to evaluate art works in a critical and personally meaningful
way. Their attention span and powers of concentration expand and deepen with continued
exposure to a wide variety of art works.

It is important that children are enabled to make connections between the work of artists and
their own work. They should be encouraged to discover and talk about variety in visual
expression from different times and cultures and how it differs perhaps from todays. As they
progress they should also have opportunities to analyze and discuss the visual images that have
such a strong influence on their ways of seeing the world, for example images projected by
television, posters, advertising, magazines and street fashion. This would be helpful in
developing a feeling for graphics and design.

ACTIVITY

1. Produce various materials that can be used for teaching.

2. Prepare material that can be used for making learning and teaching aids.
3. Discuss the best practices and strategies of teaching art and design to the children.
4. Discuss the important of child art development in relation to mental development.

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 SUMMARY

Effective teaching in Art and Design can best be achieved when the teachers
take keen interest in the production of materials, consider their teaching
strategies and the development of the child in relation to what he or she does in Art. The
combination of the three would yield the intended result, that is, the holistic teaching of the
learner. It is far more natural, however, for children to learn through experiences with art
materials in an environment that encourages experimentation and where their responses are not
just judged as „right‟ or „wrong‟. With the abundance of teaching materials, good teaching
strategies and a closer follow-up on child development, a teacher will score success in his/her
teaching and will have been well prepared to teach the subject successfully.

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UNIT 8: ORGANISING ART AND DESIGN EXHIBITIONS

INTRODUCTION

The various artists have different talents and skills. Because of the differences in skill, even the
artifacts produced tend to differ from one artist to the other, one nation to the other, one locality
to the other, and so forth. However, artists need to learn from others what they do not know and
thus the cause to come together to showcase their artifacts, and of course their talents and skills.
This is the similar situation for the learners in various classes that a teacher is in charge of. What
learners do in class need to be displayed so that others can learn from their products, thus Art
exhibition.

Intended Learning Outcomes

By the end of this Unit, you should be able to:

 Sort the artifacts according to materials used for display

 Sort the artifacts according to their functions
 Organize an Art and Design exhibition
 Display the artifacts for Art exhibition

ORGANISING DISPLAY AREAS

The display area should be inspiring and the whole school environment should be a positive
influence in refining children‟s sensibilities. Principles of good display apply equally throughout
the school building, as they do to art exhibits within the classroom. Good display in school helps
to create an aesthetically pleasing environment. It provides a focal point for learning by arousing
curiosity, promoting discussion and stimulating ideas. It also encourages participation.

Displaying work helps both children and the teacher to evaluate progress and to see how
problems of expression are overcome in individual pieces of work. It is important to display
pictures in their entirety and not just the „finished‟ parts. Children should also have a choice in
what is displayed, for example for an open day.

PLANNING AN ART EXHIBITION

Most of us have to plan our shows and there is a lot of work involved if you want to get the most
out of your art exhibition. After you have planned an exhibition of your work, you will see that it
is well and worth the effort you put in.

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You must have gathered and developed a body of work before one is ready to exhibit. So the
assumption is that you have a descent collection of work to show. With this in mind, develop an
art exhibition plan which will list all the things which are needed to be done prior to the opening.

The first thing to do is to establish the dates, allowing time to have some promotion through
advertising. It is useful also to give your art exhibition a name. This can be done by first picking
out a painting and working the promotion materials around that.

It is also important to make an exhibition plan to give you an idea of how you are going to hang
your work, and the number of art pieces you will require. Changes can always be made when
you are hanging, but having a plan takes away the worries about not having enough work
available for exhibition. Try to do all you can in planning the exhibition before time.

Walls, hangers and mobiles, boards, tables and floors can be used to exhibit artworks. Each item
will need to have a title or price card or a small clip frame beside each work. In short one has to
make a mini exhibition guide.

Fine and Functional arts are in many forms. Because of this, they should be displayed or
exhibited according to the media used when making them. Paintings and drawings can be
grouped or displayed in one area as they are similar and are two-dimensional. Mosaics and
collages can also be displayed side by side with paintings and drawings. Functional arts are
mainly three-dimensional and should also be displayed in their own space. This is because most
of them are heavier as compared to most fine arts. However, fine arts can also be in many forms
as they would serve various artistic purposes. Jeweler can be on its own, carvings and sculptures
on their own, clay works and ceramics also on their own, as well as crafts items. This will give a
good chance to the viewers to see clearly and appreciate the exhibited artifacts.

PLANNING AN ART EXHIBITION AS A TEACHER

Children‟ work can as well be exhibited in a classroom for just the class to see or the whole
school to see what the class has been doing in their class. Many times children would like to go
home with their work so as to show their parents. But it is also important that their work is
displayed in class so that other learners, teachers and parents can see their works. The children‟s
work can be classified as imaginative work and drawing from observation, pencil work and paint
work, and crafts and designs. By so doing, other people will be able to differentiate children‟s
talent, skill and abilities and thus appreciate their work.

A teacher can be giving work to the learners as well as allowing them to do work at their own
time outside class and at their homes. Children will be expected to have portfolios in which they
would be storing their artworks. The children are also expected to make various crafts which can
be kept in class until they accumulate to a reasonable number. When artworks are many, the

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teacher, together with the learners can plan and have an art exhibition. The teacher can
successfully hold an art exhibition by fully involving learners in planning and displaying the
artifacts.

EFFECTIVE DISPLAY

The key to arranging a successful display is simplicity. Elaborate and overcrowded arrangements
containing too many different objects, colours or textures may very well confuse rather than
enhance. Therefore, having decided which items to display, consider how best to highlight them.
Try not to diminish their impact by being too choosy. The viewer‟s eyes should immediately be
drawn to the objects or pictures central to the display and not distracted by a tasteless backing
paper or brightly patterned cloth. Always decide beforehand what the main purpose of the
display is. For example, if you intend to focus the children‟s attention on the foliage of a
selection of plants, place them against a neutral background which will not distract the viewer.
All teachers need to be aware of a few basic display techniques.

ACTIVITY

With the artifacts produced so far, prepare a class art exhibition and invite other people to come
to the show.

SUMMARY

It is indeed one thing to exhibit artifacts but another to plan an art exhibition. As
teachers of art, we should make sure that everything else that goes along with art
exhibition organization is observed and done in time. The success of good show or art exhibition
begins with a good preparation and the amount of artifacts to be displayed or exhibited. The
arrangement of the artifacts also plays an important role in making the art exhibition attractive to
the viewers and even buyers of the artifacts.

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CHAPTER THREE: PHYSICAL EDUCATION

UNIT: 1 PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION

INTRODUCTION

A philosophy is a set of ideas and beliefs that govern a person, society, nation etc. These ideas
determine the way people look at what happens around them and also the way they organize
themselves in politics, Economy , culturally , and other social structures available in the society.
In simple terms we can say that a philosophy gives reasons why people do whatever they do. In
terms of physical education, the philosophy of physical education refers to a set of principles
that guide physical education and it determines why physical should be taught in schools like
any other subject.

Learning Outcomes

 Describe the philosophy of physical education

 Define Physical education

 State the role of Physical education in society

 Discuss the main difference between physical education and other subjects

 Explain why it‟s important to learn the philosophy of physical education

Physical education is that aspect of the educational process which utilizes physical activity to contribute
to an individual’s fitness, psychomotor, cognitive, and affective areas of development .It is concerned
with the teaching of skills ,acquisition of knowledge and development of attitudes through movement
.Its uniqueness lies in the contribution made to the physiological and psychomotor development of an
individual.

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It provides each student with multiple opportunities to asses fitness levels to engage in activities that
will strengthen already developed skills and to help develop new skills

It also helps develop life time skills which will enable the student to lead a full and productive, life both
in and out of college

Physical education and sport although closely linked are not synonymous. Sport is formalized
physical activity involving competition or challenges against oneself, others or the environment,
with an emphasis on winning. It begins in play and develops through games and challenges .The
focus in the physical education curriculum is on the child‟s holistic development. Goal –setting ,
within the curriculum , focuses on individual improvement and not on winning or being the best.

Physical education provides children with learning opportunities through the medium of
movement and contributes to their overall development by helping them to lead full active and
healthy lives. Physical education is distinguished from other curricular areas by its primary focus
on the body and on physical experience and is an integral part of the educational process, without
which the education of the child is incomplete. Through a diverse range of experiences providing
regular challenging physical activity the balanced and harmonious development and general
well-being of the child is fostered.

Physical education meets the physical needs of the child and the need for movement experiences
challenges and play .It develops a desire for daily physical activity and encourages constructive
use of free time and participation in physical activities in adult life .To fulfill these needs ,
physical education is built on the principles of variety and diversity , not of specialization . It
provides a wide variety of movement activities appropriate to the level of development of the
child. Through physical education the child can experience the joy of physical exertion and the
satisfaction of achievement while developing skills and positive attitudes that enhance self-
esteem.

Physical education provides opportunities to develop desirable personal and social attributes: the
concept of fair play, the acceptance of success and failure, and the ability to co-operate in group
situations. These opportunities contribute to the understanding and promotion of a healthy life-
style .Physical education, as an integral part of the total curriculum, provides vital opportunities
for the physical, social, emotional and intellectual development of the child.

In the planning of the physical education curriculum consideration should be given on equitable
basis, to the needs and interests of both girls and boys, helping to build positive attitudes towards
all activities

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 Activity

Analyse the physical education programmes offered in your school today and state weather they
are really meeting the needs of the learners.

Suggest the best ways of ensuring that the physical education offered today really addresses the
needs of learners.

Summary

In this unit, we have explored on what is involved under the philosophy of physical education.
We have also learnt that a philosophy is a set of ideas and beliefs that govern a person, society,
nation etc. The philosophy of physical education helps us understand why and how this subject
should be taught in schools. Physical education provides each student with multiple opportunities
to asses fitness levels to engage in activities that will strengthen already developed skills and to
help develop new skills. Through physical education the child can experience the joy of physical
exertion and the satisfaction of achievement while developing skills and positive attitudes that
enhance self-esteem.

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UNIT: 2 INDIGENOUS EXPRESSIVE ARTS

EDUCATION AND SPORT IN ANCIENT GREECE

Prehistoric man kept no written records of his progress, but left fragmentary clues from which a
partial panorama of his society can be projected. In studying the evidence produced, the
historians observed that early man passed through many levels of development during ancient
Greece, people had to be fit to survive and this was achieved in various ways .An important
physical activity was dance, which was practiced at religious ceremonies, and used for
entertainment and teaching. Greece was divided into several city-states, the most famous of
which were Athens and Sparta.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

 Identify physical activities that primitive man did.

 Compare the physical activities of the Sparta and that of Athens.
 .state the main aims of doing physical activities by ancient man.
 State the relationship between sport, health and physical
 Trace the history of physical education


PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT

Physical education and sport although closely linked are not synonymous. Sport is any form of
play or any formalized physical activity involving competition or challenges against oneself,
others or the environment with an emphasis on winning. It begins in play and develops through
games and challenges. The focus in the physical education curriculum is on the child‟s holistic
development , stressing personal and social development. Goal setting with -in the curriculum
focuses on individual improvement and not on winning or being the best.

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 Physical education and sport

How have physical education and sports changed throughout History?

To understand physical education and sports as social phenomena in today’s world, we should have a
sense of what those activities were like in past times and different places.

When we think about history of physical education and sports, most of us think about chronological
sequences of events that build on each other and gradually lead to a better or more modern society. In
other words, history is frequently presented as linear and progressive – always following a straight line
and moving forward. But this perspective does not lead to an accurate analysis. For example, in the case
of sports there are literally thousands of histories related to the development and organization of
physical activities among a lot of people in different places around the world.

Historical evidence suggests that physical activities of one sort or another have existed in all cultures.
But the forms of these activities and the meanings people gave to them were the results of people
interacting with one another and determining what sports should be like, who should play them, and
how various sport activities should be integrated into their lives. So to say that sport activities over the
years have evolved to fit a pattern of progress or modernization is to distort the life experiences of
people all over the world, argues Gruneau, 1988.

People in all cultures have engaged in playful physical activities and used human movement as a part of
their ritual life. It is also important to note that few cultures have had physical activities that were
characterized by organization, competition and record keeping. This shows that even people’s
definitions of sports and the meanings people attach to physical activities are influenced by social and
cultural factors.

History is much more than merely looking into the past but includes looking into the present and future.
It is impossible to understand the complex issues of our world without an appreciation of how today’s
way of life has evolved through time. There are many periods of history worth including in the
investigation into the history of sports, development of physical education and health. There are also
numerous issues in the past and current history of sport and physical education which deserve
consideration.

This unit will investigate the development of sport and physical education during ancient times,
outlining the major activities, aims, objectives and some of the challenges faced in the learning and
teaching of sport and physical education at the time.

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Physical education and sport although closely linked are not synonymous. Sport is any form of
play or any formalized physical activity involving competition or challenges against oneself,
others or the environment with an emphasis on winning. It begins in play and develops through
games and challenges. The focus in the physical education curriculum is on the child‟s holistic
development , stressing personal and social development. Goal setting with -in the curriculum
focuses on individual improvement and not on winning or being the best.

Education and sport in Ancient Greece

During the stone-age, people had to be fit to survive and this was achieved in various ways .An
important physical activity at the time was dance, which was practiced at religious ceremonies, and used
for entertainment and teaching. Greece was divided into several city-states, the most famous of which
were Athens and Sparta.

Athens

In ancient Greece, especially in Athens formal education was mainly for boys. Girls stayed at
home and learned domestic skills from their mothers. Athenian parents had a legal obligation to
send their children to primary school and learnt three main subjects namely letters, music and
gymnastics. Education in Athens stressed the development of the whole person, both the body
and the mind. Thus, besides citizenship, public speaking, history ,mathematics ,science poetry
and music. Greek boys learned physical activities such as running, boxing, wrestling, jumping,
throwing the javelin and discus .These activities kept them fit, healthy and useful for basic
military training.

Sparta

In Sparta, boys left home at an early age of about seven and they were brought up by the state
this is what is called “Spartan education”. Almost all their education was physical education
directed towards military training and girls were encouraged to take part in formal education. In
Greece, however dance continued to be an important part of their life .Greeks are remembered
most as the people who began the Olympic Games. The games were set up as a religious festival
to honor the gods of mount Olympus called Zeus .The first recorded Olympics date back to
776.B.C in Olympia ,Greece .The games were celebrated until 393 AD when an earthquake
destroyed Olympia .The games were usually held every four years ,or Olympiad ,as the unit of
time came to be known .During a celebration of the Games ,an Olympic Truce or ekecheiriam
was enacted to enabled athletes to travel from their countries to Olympia in safety . Three
runners , known as spondophoroim were sent from Elis to the participant cities at each set of
games to announce the beginning of the truce. During this period , armies were forbidden from
entering Olympia, wars were suspended ,and legal disputes and the use of the death penalty were
forbidden. The prizes for the victors were laurel wreaths, palm branches ,sometimes even food
for life. The ancient Olympics were rather different from the modern Games .There were fewer
events ,and only free men who spoke Greek could compete (even though a woman is also
mentioned as a winner ). Athletes from any country or city (famous athletes from as far as Rome
and Armenia are mentioned ) were allowed to participate .The Games were always held at

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Olympia instead of moving around to different places for each separate Olympic festival as in
modern Olympics. The games introduced three important developments
Spectators:

 Big crowds of spectators came for games but only men were allowed to watch and
compete.
Full-time athletes:
 As the competition became more serious, it forced athletes to try for higher
standards and this meant that athletes had to spend much of their time training
that‟s how the idea of full-time athlete began to develop.
Sporting hero:
 Due to competitions the idea of the sporting hero was born and successful
 athletes won great glory.

Wrestling

In Ancient Greece wrestling was taught in order to develop both mental and physical powers.
Greek boys wrestled in mud and dust , which made grasping and balancing very difficult. The
aim of Greek wrestling was to lay out one‟s opponent so that his shoulders touched the ground
and doing this three times led to a victory. Striking was not allowed.

There were two types of wrestling:

Standing:

The wrestler had to fell his opponent without losing his own balance.

Running

This is another traditional exercise ,which the Ancient Greeks valued for strength and developing
the lungs .Athens ran in sand and the main races were:

The stadium (approximately 200 meters)

The double (approximately 400 meters)
The dolic, a long distance race of up 5kilometres

Jumping

Greek children leaped over pits of varying width, according to their age. While jumping , they
swung a lead weight in each hand.

Discus and javelin

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The Ancient Greeks taught throwing of the discus to develop upper body strength, and throwing
the javelin to increase visual acuity. The discus was a bronze discus that could be thrown in two
ways:

 For distance
 For height.

The javelin was also used in two ways:

 For throwing at a target

 For distance.

Other activities

Apart from the above learnt subjects , students in Ancient Greek learned ball games ,games with
the hoop ,military skills and riding .Teachers supervised all activities ,coaching and
demonstrating where require
The Olympic Games

These games were held regularly as part of religious festivals and where held in different
locations but the major one took place at Olympia. The Olympic Games, which brought together
athletes from all over the world , were seen as an opportunity to demonstrate.

Greek supremacy and as a means of promoting peace and co-operation among nations. These
games operated under strict rules, which included a calling of a truce between warning nation .
No weapons were allowed near Olympia, and fines were imposed for violations of the truce. The
athletes were expected to follow the following code:

 The outlawing of slaves ,barbarians and law-breakers

 The taking of an oat
 A prohibition against killing opponents
 A ban on unfair tactic
 A ban on bribery
 A ban against arguing with officials

The athletes were also expected to observe a strict training routine when preparing for the games.
Games were played in the stadium which a capacity of 40 000 men and no women were allowed
.The games opened and closed with great ceremonies.

Events of the ancient Olympics

On the first day of the events in the ancient Olympic games were the track events and
competitors were announced by name and nationality, and the crowd was asked if anyone
challenged the athletes‟ status as citizens or honest men .The athletes took off their clothes and
rubbed themselves down with oil. Lots were drawn from the urn of Zeus for positions in each
event

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 ACTIVITY

1. Compare and contrast the education systems of Athens and Sparta.

2. Discuss the place of physical education in Ancient Greek society, with special reference
to any possible influence on modern physical education
3. Describe how the Olympic Games were organized.
4. Why did the ancient Olympics die out?
5. What was the full significance of the Festival of Olympia to Ancient Greeks?
6. One of the aims of both the ancient and the modern Olympics is to bring about peace and
co-operation among nations. To what extent has this been achieved?

SUMMARY

Physical education is an existing yet challenging subject. This unit has enabled us to discover
how our bodies work and how we get and stay fit just like ancient man lived. Health and fitness
are closely linked .The more easily we can meet the demands on us ,the less likely we are to
suffer , or fall ill, or injure ourselves .Schools provide opportunities within the physical
education programme for children to participate in sport . we need to encourage our children to
play local games so that we can also preserve our culture ,customs and traditions. Extracurricular
activity, organized and/or implemented .Health and Physical education , in one form or another ,
has been an important part of people‟s lives throughout the ages. In ancient Greece , especially in
Athens, education stressed the development of the whole person , both the body and the mind .
Thus, besides citizenship, public speaking, history, mathematics, science, poetry and music.
Greek boys learned physical activities such as jumping ,running ,boxing, wrestling, and throwing
the javelin and discus. As well as keeping them fit and healthy ,the Greeks saw these as useful
for basic military training. Originally ,the games were set up as a religious festival to honor the
gods of mount Olympus.

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UNIT: 3 BASIC TECHNIQUES IN EXPRESSIVE ARTS

MINOR AND CONVERSIONAL GAMES

INTRODUCTION

This unit will help you explore a variety of minor and conversional games played by children
and adults in most Zambian schools and the community. The games unit is concerned with the
development of skills , the creation and playing of games and the understanding of games. In
addition , developing an understanding of games should enable students to appreciate and enjoy
games as participants and spectators.

LEARNING OUTCOME

 Plan a selection of warm-up and cool-down activities to include general running,

turning, dodging and stopping activities.
 Design traditional games played by children in our communities
 Play simple playground games
 Develop problem –solving and decision-making strategies
 Identify some skills used in games activities
 Demonstrate safety measures for sports skills and activities
 Construct the play fields for games activities
 State rules applied in games

A game is a structured activity usually undertaken for enjoyment and sometimes used as an
educational tool. Key components of games are goals, rules, challenge, and interaction. Games
generally involve mental or physical stimulation, and often both. Many games help develop
practical skills, serve as a form of exercise, or otherwise perform an educational, situational or
psychological role.

Minor games are those mainly played by young children and are modified to suit the
developmental stages of the children; rules should be adapted and size of the playing area and
equipment to meet their needs. In addition, emphasis is placed on skills such as the effective use
space and decision- making, team-work, problem solving and creativity, thus encouraging the
understanding of how games are played

Conversional games normally may involve five or more players in one team .There are a number
of skills and rules to be learnt in a conversional game. These games help the child to move
effectively and to interact with others. This unit will only cover one major game which is
football and the other games will be covered in the next module

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 FOOTBALL

This is a team sport played between two teams of eleven players using a spherical ball . It is
widely considered to be the most popular sport in the world. The objective of the game is to
score by driving the ball into the opposing goal . In general play, the goal keepers are the only
players allowed to use their hands or arms to propel the ball ;the rest of the team usually use their
feet to kick the ball into position ,occasionally using their torso or head to intercept a ball in
midair. The emphasis must be on performing the basic skills accurately, this can only be done by
constant practice and drills. The basic skills which we will cover in this game are; kicking
passing and intercepting , shooting , trapping, heading, dribbling, and goal keeping.

Kicking

The technique of kicking involves a number of important aspects such as :

 Volleying- that is kicking the ball as it comes down out of the air to land .
 Half volleying – is kicking the ball just as it bounces.
 Chipping-to rise the ball into the air it is necessary to get the foot under it.
 Kicking a „dead‟ or „set‟ ball. Leg curvature angle of descent vital.
 Kicking a moving ball. Player moving at an angle to ball otherwise toe-drive.
 Do the above practices using the right foot only
 Repeat the practices using the left foot only
 Combine using the right and left foot

Passing and intercepting

 Passing accurately is the key to the game of football .This involves understanding
between the two people. Other major skills include inside of the foot pass and outside
of the foot pass:
 Non kicking foot placed alongside the ball
 Use the inside of the foot
 Ankle locked and toe up
 Stroke through the centre of the ball
 Swing and follow through in the direction you want the ball to go

Outside of the foot pass

 Non kicking foot placed alongside the ball

 Use the outside of the foot
 Ankle locked and toe down
 Stroke through the centre of the ball
 Swing and follow through in the direction you want the ball to go

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Trapping

 This is a means of bringing the ball under control using :

- Sole of the foot – stopping the ball with the foot as it bounces and then ready to kick
Chest – slowing the ball and letting it drop onto feet ready to be kicked and chest
must be hollowed.

Receiving

 On your toes ready for the ball

 Move into line with the ball quickly
 strolling surface on contact

Shooting

 Approach the from a slight angle

 Non kicking foot placed alongside the ball
 Head down
 Arms out to the side for balance
 Strike the centre of the ball with the lace part of the boot
 Keep the ankle firm and point the toes towards the ground
 Follow through in the direction of the target

Heading

 Keep eyes open

 Mouth closed
 Make contact with the forehead- head the ball, don‟t let it hit you
 Feet –one in front of the other
 Arch the back slightly

Dribbling

 Use inside and outside of the feet

 Change pace
 Keep the head up and look for others
 Body over the ball

Chest

 Face the ball with shoulders square

 Arch upper body backwards
 Receive the ball on upper chest
 With chest to cushion impact

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Thigh

 Position body under moving ball

 Raise the receiving leg
 Arms out to the side for balance
 Take the ball on mid thigh
 Withdraw thigh downward, as the ball makes contact

The Laws of the Game

Football is played in accordance with a set of rules known as the Laws of the Game. The primary
law is that players other than goalkeepers may not deliberately handle the ball with their hands or
arms during play , though they do use their hands during a throw-in restart.
There are seventeen laws in the official Laws of the Game. The same laws are designed to apply
to all levels of football although certain modifications for groups such as juniors , seniors,
women and physically challenged are permitted .The laws are often framed in broad terms ,
which allow flexibility in their application on the nature of the game. In this unit not all the Laws
will be discussed but only those few that may deemed more important but you are advised to
know all the laws of the game as a student.

Law 1-The field of play

The length of the pitch for international adult matches is in the range 100-110m (110-120yd)
and the width is in the range 64-75m (70-80yd). n
Fields for non-international matches may be 91-120m (100-130yd) length and 45-91m(50-
101yd) in width, provided that the pitch does not become square. The field of play must be
rectangular i.e. the length of the touchline must be greater than the length of the goal line . In
2008 , the IFAB set a fixed size of 105m long and 68m wide as a standard pitch dimension for A
international matches. There is a good deal of flexibility in the outer dimensions of the field of
play. This is to enable football to be played wherever is a reasonable sized playing area.

Law 3 –The number of players

A match is played by two teams , each consisting of not more than eleven players . Each team
must have a goalkeeper who is clearly identifiable from the players and the referee.

Law 7- The duration of the match

A match lasts for 90 minutes split into two equal periods of 45minutes. Between the two halves
there is an interval which must not be greater than 15 minutes .The referee can add time to the to
the end of each half for time lost during the half e.g. substitutes ,assessments of injuries ,removal
of injured players, wasting time.

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Law 8- The start and restart of play

A coin tossing ceremony is used to decide which goal each team attacks and which team gets
first kick off. The team that wins the toss decides which goal it will attack in the first half of the
match, the other team takes the kick off to start the match. In the second half of the match the
teams change ends and attack the opposite goals and the team that wins the toss takes the kick off
to start the second half of the match.

A kick off is a way of starting or restarting play. It is used:

 At the start of the match or by the team loosing the toss

 After a goal has been scored –by the team losing the goal
 At the start of each period of extra time ,where applicable and a goal may be
scored directly from the kick off.

Kick off

For any of the infringements listed below the kick off is retaken:

 All players must be in their own half of the field of play

 The opponents of the team taking the kick off must be at least 9.15m (10yd) from the
ball until it is in play
 The ball must be stationary on the centre mark
 The ball is in play when it is kicked and moves forward. The kicker cannot touch the
ball a second time until it has touched another player; if he/she does an indirect to the
opposition is awarded.

Drop ball

The dropped ball is used if the game has been interrupted with a temporary stoppage , for
example , a head injury to a player where the referee decides that to wait for a stoppage would be
dangerous. The referee drops the ball at the place where it was located when play was stopped.
The ball must touch the ground before it is in play. Therefore ,no player can touch the ball before
it touches the ground. If a player touches the ball before it makes contact with the ball or leaves
the field of play after it makes contact with the ground, without a player touching it the ball is
dropped again.

Law 11- offside

There are more frequent arguments over offside than any other law. The law is relatively simple,
but applying it correctly takes good skill, logical thought and good observation.

The offside position

The referee firstly has to decide if the player is in an offside position. Players are in an offside
position if:

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  They are nearer to their opponent‟s goal than both the ball and the last opponent
Players are NOT in an offside position if :
 They are in their own half of the field of play
Or
 They are level with the second last opponent
 They are level with the last two opponents

The referee has to judge whether there two opponents either level with them or nearer to their
own goal. Don‟t forget to count the goalkeeper.

Offside offence

A player in an offside position is only penalized if at the moment the ball touches or is played by
one of their team (note the law does not state when they receive the ball). They are involved in
active play by:

 Interfering with an opponent e.g. standing in the goalkeeper‟s line of vision

Or
 Gaining an advantage by being in the position e.g. the ball rebounds to this player
from the goalpost and scores a goal.

There is No offside offence if a player receives the ball directly from:

A goal kick
Or
A throw in
Or

A corner kick

For any offside offence, the referee awards an indirect free kick to the opposing team to be taken
from the place where the infringement occurred.

LAW 12-FOULS and misconduct.

Direct free kick

There are a series of offences that are considered more serious than other and are penalized by a
direct free kick or a penalty kick (depending where they are committed on the field of play).
A direct free kick is awarded to the opposing team if a player commits any of the following
seven offences in a manner considered by the referee to be careless, reckless, or using excessive
force: Kicks or attempts to kick an opponent.

 Trips or attempts to trip an opponent.

 Jumps at an opponent.
 Charges an opponent
 Strikes or attempts to strike an opponent.

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  Pushes an opponent
 Tackles an opponent

The next four offences also result in the award of a direct free or a penalty kick. In these cases
the referee has to decide whether or not they were committed- they do not have to consider
whether they were careless, reckless or committed with excessive force.

Tackling an opponent to gain possession of the ball, making contact with the opponent before
touching the ball.

 Holds an opponent.
 Spits at an opponent.
 Handles the ball deliberately (except for goalkeepers within their own penalty
area).

Indirect free kick

In addition to the serious offences discussed above there are also some offences which are more
of a technical nature. These are against the law but are less serious in their potential for putting
opponents in danger. They are penalized with an indirect free kick that cannot result in a goal to
either team directly from the kick.

An indirect free kick is awarded to the opposing tram if a goalkeeper ,inside their own penalty
area ,commits any of the following offences:

 Takes more than six seconds while controlling the ball with his/her hands, before
releasing it from their possession.
 Touches the ball with his /her hands after it has been deliberately kicked to them by a
mate.
 Touches the ball with his/her hands after they have received it directly from a throw-in
taken by a team mate.

An indirect free kick is also awarded to the opposing team if a player, in the opinion of the
referee:

 Plays in a dangerous manner e.g an overhead kick in a crowded goal mouth.

 Impedes the progress of an opponent.
 Prevents the goal-keeper from releasing the ball from his/her hands.
Commits any other offence for which play is stopped to caution or dismiss a player e.g
dissent

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 Activity

1. Compare and contrast between minor and conversional games.

2. Draw the football field to the standard measurements showing clearly all areas of
play.
3. Identify ten traditional games played by children in your community and explain how
each game is played. your community and explain how each game is played
4. Explain how you would restart the game if a player strikes an opponent who is about
to take a throw in.
5. During the 2010 FIFA world cup in the preliminaries one goal -keeper was given a
red card. Identify the team name of the goal -keeper, the group of the team , the
stadium , the time the game was being played and against which team.

SUMMARY

The games unit has fostered on the child‟s natural tendency to play through informal and formal
play activities. It enhances the development of basic skills, and many opportunities are provided
for social interaction. As skills develop in accordance with the stage of development of the child
, the desire to apply them in informal activities in competition with others increases. Playground
games. Co-operative games and games traditional to the school or locality should be considered
when planning a programme for the school. Invasion games net games, striking and fielding
games, target games and shared court games provide a range of opportunities for the
development of skills and understanding . A balanced programme of such games ensures that the
child experiences a wide variety of activities that provide enjoyment and challenge and that
foster a lifelong interest.

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UNIT: 4 EDUCATIONAL GYMNASTICS AND PERCEPTUAL MOTOR
LEARNING SKILLS.

INTRODUCTION

The Educational Gymnastics unit outlines the movement activities for each class level and
indicates how movement can be developed sequentially. Educational gymnastics is concerned
with the use of movement in a creative way in response to set tasks, both individually and with
others .The activities are designed to promote skillful body management, an essential aspect of
the overall movement education of the child. The focus is on body actions such as jumping
,turning ,swinging and balancing and with the control and management of body movements in
increasingly challenging situations.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

 Select and link a range of gymnastic actions to travel on the floor and on apparatus.
 Practice and perform a range of skills forward and backward rolls, headstand,
cartwheel and handstand
 Develop the ability to lift ,carry, set up, dismantle and store apparatus correctly and
safely
 Demonstrate return activities in sports and games activities
 Employ correct sporting techniques
 Relate tumbling safety measures to particular sport and games activities
 Identify safety measures for stunts and tumbling

EDUCATIONAL GYMNASTICS

Educational gymnastics are meant for enjoyment .They help individuals increase body strength
and mobility. They also develop balance, increased-coordination and body awareness.
Educational gymnastics involve tumbling and stunts.

Tumbling activities

These to be done correctly you need speed, agility and flexibility. Some examples could be
forward roll and Astride vault.

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Stunts activities

These are covered under isometric conditioning activities such as exercises that emphasize on
muscular tension. They produce static contractions for example side stretch, back stretch and toe
touching.

During Educational gymnastics children explore movement on the floor and when negotiating a
variety of equipment .The gymnastics encourages children to participate in movement
experiences that are open to personal interpretation providing every child with the opportunity to
experience success at a personal level ,by engaging in challenging but realistically achievable
tasks. As the children progress through a sequential programme they are encouraged to strive for
more control over their movements and to respond to more complex tasks.

Perceptual motor learning skill

There are basically four skills involved under perceptual motor learning skills namely ;
Locomotor skills, Non – Locomotor skills, Manipulative skills and Balancing skills. These skills
are taught at all levels of learning but what is different are the types of activities the teacher may
select.

Locomotor skills- are skills used to move the body from one place to another, e.g. running
,jumping ,leaping etc.

Non- Locomotor skills-are skills that involve the movement of parts of the body, e.g. .bending
,stretching, press ups etc.

Manipulative skills – are skills that involve the handling of play objects for better hand-eye and
foot-eye coordination, e.g. throwing and catching.

Balancing skills – are skills that develop coordination ,agility ,strength and endurance e.g , little
frog, headstand and handstand.

ACTIVITY

What is the main aim of teaching educational gymnastics to children?

Project : You are expected to design five educational gymnastics activities and five perceptual
motor learning skills that you would use during your teaching

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 SUMMARY

Educational gymnastics and perceptual motor learning skills as seen from above are both
concerned with the use of movement in a creative way in response to set tasks, both individually
and with others. Therefore as teachers of physical education we need to be creative, imaginative,
resourceful and innovative. Children explore movement on the floor and when negotiating a
variety of equipment. This unit encourages children to participate in movement experiences that
are open to personal interpretation, providing every child with the opportunity to experience
success at a personal level, by engaging in challenging, but realistically achievable.

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UNIT 5: CONCEPTS OF EXPRESSIVE ARTS
MOVEMENTS

INTRODUCTION

Movement tasks should provide all children with opportunities for achievement, with tasks set to
match their stages of development. As the gain in competence , the teacher should apply
appropriate questioning to seek to increase the child‟s understanding of movement. Once you
have found out how your body actually moves, it is possible to work out scientifically how your
body should move in order to perform a given task more efficiently. In this way, you can work
out the various techniques needed to participate successfully in particular physical activities.

Learning outcomes

 Develop an understanding and general knowledge of movement activities and derive benefit
as a participant and a spectator.
 Be inventive, make decisions; solve problems and develop autonomy through movement
activities.
 Develop artistic and aesthetic understanding within and through movement.
 Identify factors that can affect movement
 Explore different kinds of movements.
 Observe, record and interpret information on achievement in movement activities.

THE BODY IN MOVEMENT

The human body has often been described as a machine for doing work . to make sure that the
“body machine” works most efficiently , it is helpful to understand not only the operation of the
body but also the laws of physics during activity. When you move , many body systems are
involved such as:

 Bones form the framework and provide the basis of a lever system.
 Joints enable the framework to bend.
 The nervous system transmits messages to the muscles so that they can act.
 The circulatory system brings nutrients to the muscles, so that the muscles have energy to
work.
 The respiratory system provides oxygen.

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  Other systems can also be involved : for example , the endocrine system can assist by
secreting adrenalin; the skin system can increase the perspiration rate.

Today, many athletics take videos of themselves to see how they perform , and then apply the
principles of physics to improve their movement. The best way to improve your own
performance is to be as fit as possible and to practice your skills to find the methods that suit you
best.

The action of muscles

Muscles can be used for many types of movement .movement occurs when a muscle contracts to
pull on a bone and another muscle relaxes to allow that bone to move . For example when you
bend your elbow , your biceps are the prime movers which contract to pull on the bone , and
your triceps are the antagonists which relax to allow movement to take place .When you
straighten your arm again ,the triceps contract and the biceps relax.

Joints

Muscles could not cause movement if the joints did not allow skeletal framework to bend the
freely moveable joints are the most important in movement.

Naming movement

The anatomical position

To be able to name types of movement, you must have a reference position of the body. The
reference position is called the anatomical position. It exists when a person stands without
moving, head to the front, feet shoulder- width apart and arms held slightly away from the sides
with palms facing forwards. All movements can be described from this position .When a person
moves from the anatomical position , muscles and joints work together to allow twisting ,
turning, bending, straightening and rotating. These movements are given special names.

Types of movement

There are six types of movements that are caused by muscle action.

Flexion- is a movement which bends thereby decreasing the angle at ween bones . The prime
movers in flexion are the flexors.

Extension – is a movement which straightens, thereby increasing the angle at the joint between
bones. It is the opposite of flexion.

Abduction – is a movement of a bone away from the centre line of the body. The prime movers
in abduction are abductors.

Rotation – is a movement where the bone is moved around a central axis.

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Circumduction - is a movement where the end of the bone makes a circle and a cone shape is
formed

Adduction – is a movement towards the centre line of the body. It is the opposite of abduction.

Motion

Motion is subject to the laws of the universe. If you understand the laws , you can improve the
efficiency of your movement. Motion is defined as the continued change
of position of an object in space. Motion involves a change of position of an object. Changes
occur when force is applied. In sport there are two types of motion:

 Linear motion – This occurs when a person or object moves in a straight line. For
example runners, swimmers, skiers and divers move in linear motion; so do tennis and
golf balls.
 Rotary motion – This occurs when a person or an object moves about a fixed point called
the pivot. Examples of rotary motion are a gymnast performing a giant swing on the high
bar, a person doing sit-ups, or the discus thrower turning before releasing the discus. Most
movement in sport is a combination of both linear and rotary motion. The discus thrower
moves in rotary motion, but the discus itself moves in both linear and rotary motion; the
footballer uses rotary motion to kick the ball and the ball moves in linear motion and often
in rotary motion as well.

Factors affecting motion

There are many things that affect your ability to move in the direction in which you want to go
and at the speed at which you want to travel. Gravity, air and water resistance are the most
important factors affecting motion in sport.

Air resistance

Air resistance causes a projectile to fall to the ground before it has completed its parabolic path.
For many activities, air resistance is of little consequence, but it is obvious that in some sporting
activities, its force plays an important part.

 The lighter an object and the larger its surface area, the more it is affected by air
resistance-for example; a shuttlecock is affected more than a tennis ball.
 Air resistance also increases with speed so that, for instance, golf ball drive is more
affected than a golf ball lifted gently onto the green.
 Air resistance is also increased by any motion in a direction other than the direction of
flight- for example; a spinning football or quivering arrow.
 Since airs resistance act on the horizontal component, lowering the angle of release in
order to compensate for effect of air resistance. The greater the air resistance, the lower
the angle of release should be.
 The surface covering of a projectile influence the degree of air resistance. For instance, a
cyclist should wear a smooth outfit to reduce frontal and surface drag.

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Water resistance also causes friction on an object or personal passing through it. Water
resistance is stronger than air resistance; this is one reason that runners can go faster than
swimmers. The effect of water resistance can be decreased if a person is more buoyant. Buoyant
is the ability to float. A swimmer with high buoyancy is able to swim more on the surface of
water than one who has low buoyancy. Women are slightly more buoyant than men, and plump
people are more buoyant than thin people. Of course, this does not make thinner people
necessarily slower swimmers. Fitness, strength and technique are all important in achieving
speed. You should remember that, when you are swimming, you actually use water resistance to
pull yourself through the water. If the water provides no resistance, you merely flap your arms
and get nowhere

Newton’s laws of motion

Sir Isaac Newton was a scientist who described motion in the three laws. These laws were
applied to all sport and can be used to make your techniques more efficient.

THE FIRST LAW OF MOTION

“A body remains in state of rest (inertia) or uniform motion in a straight line unless acted upon
by external force to change its state.”

The law means that any change in motion of an object is caused by force.

 A golf ball must be hit into the air to make it move. Slows and drop to the ground
because the force of gravity and air resistance work on it.
 High jumpers use internal force to propel themselves upwards. Gravity and air resistance
return them to the ground.
 Runners waiting in a crouch start are preparing to use force to propel themselves forward.
THE SECOND LAW OF MOTION

“The acceleration of the body is proportional to the force acting upon it.”
This law provides us with two important relationships in sport:

 Force is equal to mass by acceleration (F = ma).

 The greater the mass, the more force is needed to provide the same acceleration. You
need more muscle power to put a shot as fast as you can throw tennis ball.
 Power to put a shot as fast as you can throw tennis ball.
 Every moving body has momentum. It is measured by multiplying the mass of the
moving body by it velocity (M = mV).Thus the momentum of a moving object on its
mass and speed. The heavier a moving object, the greater its momentum; the faster a
body moves, the greater its momentum. In order to change momentum, a force has to be
applied to the moving body.
 If you weigh 50 kg and are running at 10 m/s, then you momentum is 500 kg m/s.
 A light object will have to move with a greater speed than a heavy object if the
momentum is 500 kg m/s.

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  A heavy footballer running at the same speed as a lighter footballer can knock him over
in a collision .However, a lighter footballer running very fast can knock over a heavy,
slower player because the faster runner develops more momentum. Players in contact
sports should be aware of the part momentum can play in causing injury; it is possible for
a faster, lighter player to cause more damage than a heavy, slow player.

THE THIRD LAW OF MOTION

“For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.”

 When a sprinter pushes against the starting the starting blocks, the blocks in turn exert the
same force back to the sprinter.
 For a swimmer to move forward more quickly through the water, the arms must push the
water backwards. If , in freestyle , you use too much force on downward part of your
stroke as the arm enters the water, the rest of your body will move upwards; and if you
see too much force at the end of the stroke as the arm leaves the water, the rest of the
water will move down. These two actions will create up-and-down bobbing effect, which
will cause you to swim more slowly and waste a lot of effort.

In physical activity, there are two types of air resistance important to you:

 The natural air resistance which works against all moving objects. This resistance
causes a drag which helps slow down objects in the air. The larger and more upright the
object, the grater the resistance. Thus cyclists lean low over the cycle to streamline
themselves to minimize drag. However, air resistance can also aid objects in flight by
providing lift.
 The wind factor - when it is windy, athletes must take the force of the wind into
account. For example, a person running into the wind is slowed; a runner is helped by a
tail wind. In team sport, such as football or hockey, the captain who wins the toss often
chooses to run into the wind in the early part of the game when players are fresh and to
have the wind behind the team in the later stages of the game when the players are tired.
However , sometimes captains choose to use the wind factor early in case the wind
drops.

Water resistance – also causes friction on an object or person passing through it. Water
resistance is stronger than air resistance; this is one reason that runners can go faster than
swimmers.

The effect of water resistance can be decreased if a person is more buoyant. Buoyancy is the
ability to float. A swimmer with high

LEVERS AND THE BODY

Levers are simple machines. “They are rigid bars which can rotate or turn about a fixed point
when force or effort is applied to overcome some resistance.”*

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Levers must have:

 An effort point (e) –the place where force is applied.

 A pivot point (p)-the place about which the rigid bar can turn. (This is called a
fulcrum.)
 A resistance point (R) –the place where the force being applied is resisted.

Levers can be used:

 To maintain balance
 To use less effort to overcome heavy lifting
 To give wider range of movement
 To give greater speed to an object.

One way of regarding the human body is to see it as consisting of levers which can perform
work. Your arms, fingers, toes, jaws, back and hips can all be used as levers.

Levers come in three types – Class 1, Class 2 and Class 3.

Class 1 levers

In Class 1 levers , the pivot lies between the effort point and the resistance point. Depending on
the position of the pivot , the resistance point will be given either greater speed or greater force.

Class 2 of levers

In class 2 of levers, the pivot is at one end, the effort point is at the other end, and the resistance
point lies between. Class 2 levers favour force rather than speed because the effort arm is longer
than the resistance arm.
Class 3 of levers

In class 3 of levers, the pivot is at one end, the resistance point is at the other end, and the effort
point is in between. Class 3 levers favour speed rather than force because the resistance arm is
longer effort arm.

Most body levers are used to increase speed or distance rather than force. They have the effort
(muscle) between the pivot (joint) and the resistance (extremity)

Force and body levers

Force can said to be a “push or a pull” or the effect that one body has upon another. Force can:

 Cause a body at rest to move.

 Cause a moving body to slow down , stop, increase its speed or change its
direction

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Force can produce three types of movement, either separately or together:

 Deformative movement: a force that changes the shape of the body.

 Translational movement: a force that moves the body from one place to
another.
 Rotational movement: a force that causes the body to rotate.

In order to analyse motion accurately, you need to describe the position of a body, and the time
between its successive positions. Some concepts used when describing motion include, speed,
velocity, and acceleration.

ACTIVITY
Activity

1. Define Newton‟s first Law and give one illustration of how the law is demonstrated in
athletes.
2. Identify at least three kinds of movements caused by muscle action.
3. State two factors that affect movement.
4. Force is a push or rather the effect that one body has upon one another. Mention three
types of movements that force can produce.

Summary
SUMMARY

The human body is made up of many different systems and each system depends one another to
effectively perform any given activity. In order to improve our performance in physical
education and sport, it is important for us to know; how movement occurs , how to make a
particular movement and how to control that movement. We also need to understand the factors
that can affect that movement.

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Unit : 6 PLANNING TO TEACH PHYSICAL EDUCATION

INTRODUCTION

Education and learning involves change of behavior. A change in the behavior of the learner is
evidence that learning has occurred Effective teaching and learning can only be possible if there
is good preparation on the part of the teacher.

In Zambia planning to teach is done at various levels. At national level, planning is reflected in
the statement of the aims of the educational system both in the curriculum and the physical
education syllabus. These two documents are prepared by the government through the ministry
of education (MoE) at the curriculum development centre. Aims formulated at national level
affect all schools and colleges and are general goal. At classroom level, planned education take
place through the preparation of schemes of work, weekly forecast and lesson plan by heads of
departments and individual physical education teachers who formulate specific teaching-learning
objectives based on the topic from the syllabus.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

 State the importance of a syllabus, schemes of work, weekly forecast and a lesson plan.
 Describe the stages of a lesson plan in physical education
 Identify traditional games used for teaching core life skills.
 Describe some of the strategies used in the teaching of physical education

THE CURRICULUM

The meaning of the word curriculum

Some people narrowly define curriculum as all the school subjects presented by a school or a
phase of schooling or to a specific subject taught over a number of year (lemmer and Baden horst
1997:259). Other people see it as at a much wider concept including all the subjects taught at the
school in a country and the extra curriculum activities such as school sports. Wario et al
(1989:170). Suggest that curriculum includes all the subjects taught in the school and activities
like games, clubs and educational tours.

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This can be presented schematically as in fig 1 below

1. at National Level Curriculum Lists Subjects

Literacy and Language
Integrated Science
Creative and Technology
Studies
Mathematics
List of Topics Syllabus Social and Development
Studies
-Safety Creative Technology Guidelines for School on
-Health Community Schools
-Perceptual motor skill Study (Physical
-Gymnastic Education).
-Games
-Movement

2. at School Level Scheme of Work Division of topics into units suitable for
teaching in a term.

Division of topics Weekly Forecast

into weekly units.

Lesson Plan Division of weekly units into a topic

suitable for one lesson.

SYLLABUS

A syllabus can be defined as a series of statement about what is to be taught to pupils or students
over a period of time or years, and usually concerns a particular subject. It is an outline of what
is to be taught. It is a program of subject matter that should be learnt over a period of time. Each
subject taught in primary school has its own syllabus.

The syllabus is drawn from the curriculum. This is done by a group of professionals who are
expert in the field of Physical Education. The group may include teachers, lecturers, education
standards officers, or ESOs subject specialist from CDC, examiners from the examination
council of Zambia (ECZ) and policy makers from the ministry of education (MoE).

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IMPORTANCE OF A SYLLABUS

1. A syllabus unifies content

2. It limits the scope of the examination.
3. It ensures standardization of learning and teaching in line with a given course of instruction.
4. A syllabus is a sore determinant of the kind of work that a given class goes through.
Without a syllabus there will be no limit in teaching and learning.

SCHEMES OF WORK

After the curriculum and syllabus have been formulated at national level, they are handed down
to schools for implementation. At school level it is divided into smaller units called schemes of
work.

WHAT IS A SCHEME OF WORK?

A scheme of work is a list of topics to be covered over a period of time. It breaks down the broad
topics given in the syllabus into narrow, teachable units (wario et al 1989:18). Therefore a
scheme of work is a plan of work which the teacher expects to cover with the class in a term. It
translates the syllabus into specific topics.

IMPORTANCE OF SCHEMES OF WORK

i. It guides newly qualified teachers who have little or no experience.

ii. It helps the teacher to plan his work in advance.
iii. It helps pupils to study if a copy of schemes is given to each pupil.
iv. The teacher is able to know in advance the kind of concept and teaching aids required for
the content and prepare that in advance.
v. It helps the pupil or student to study if a copy of schemes is given to each.
vi. It saves as a guide and minimizes teaching irrelevant content.
vii. Having Prior knowledge of what is to be taught for the whole term ensures that work is
completed because it is the target to work towards
viii. It makes teaching easier, enjoyable and more efficient.

A SCHEME OF WORK FORMAT

Weeks Topic activities Methods Apparatus Reference

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HOW DOES ONE MAKE A SCHEMES OF WORK

To make a scheme of work the following preparation may be followed.

i. Study the syllabus very carefully.

ii. Make a list of topic to be covered.

iii. Work out the sequence of the topic following the principle that it is best to proceed from
the known to the unknown, the particular to the general, the simple to the complex, the real
to the abstract. For instance in physical education it is vital to start with simple apparatus
such as the use of small ball skipping ropes and bean bags in lower grades.

iv. Incorporate teaching learning methods that would promote the leaning of skills.

v. Take not of public holidays; avoid them when drawing up the scheme.

WEEKLY FORECAST

This is planned work to be covered in a week. It is derived from the schemes of work. The
teacher usually makes comments on whether the topic was covered or not and give reasons.

WEEKLY FORECAST FORMATE

Week Date Period Topic Specific Methods T/L Aids Reference Remarks
Outcome

LESSON PLANNING

A Lesson is the last stage in the planning process. It gives the teacher a guideline for a particular
lesson and it‟s meant for a particular lesson.

SAMPLE OF
PHYSICAL EDUCATION ACTIVITY BASED LESSON PLAN.

NAME: Sr. Chileshe. DATE: 2/02/2011

SCHOOL: Charles Lwanga Basic. TIME: 07:00hrs
SUBJECT: Physical Education. DURATION: 30mins
CLASS DESCRIPTION: 20 girls and 15 boys GRADE: 3A
TOPIC: perceptual motor learning skills.
SUB-TOPIC: loco motor skills
TEACHING AIDS: mats, whistle.
REFERENCE: Inyambo M. (1974) .Physical Education for Primary Schools. Lusaka:
NECZAM
P.E.O- Perform forward roll.
- Demonstrate the wheelbarrow race
- Perform king‟s chariot.

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L.S.O- Establish good decision making in the learners

STEP TIME TEACHING ACTIVITY PUPIL ACTIVITY EVALUATION

1 4minutes INTRODUCTION  Observing.  Pupils seen to

 Arrange the pupils in order  Listening. be performing
giving their back to the sun  Perform the the activities
 Greet the learners. activities as per correctly.
 Inspect the attire. teacher
 Introduce the topic instruction.

WARM—UPS.
1. GENERAL WARM-UPS
A. static-warm up.
 Flexibility of the joints
from top-down .

B. dynamic warm-ups
 Running.
 Jogging.
 Flying like an earoplane
2. SPECIFIC WARM-UPS
 Plucking mangos.
 Crouch balance.
2 10 GUIDED PRACTICE
minutes (CLASS ACTIVITIES)
1. FOWARD ROLL
 Teacher demonstrate  Learners  Active
forward roll. observe the participation
 From crouch position tuck teachers and by learners in
the head in, touch the mat later perform performing
with the nap of the neck the forward roll activities
while the back is rounded. as per teacher correctly.
instruction.
2. WHEELBARROW RACE.
 Teacher demonstrates the
wheelbarrow race.
 Tell one learner to get
down on all fours, while
the other pupil holds the
pupils legs by the knee
joint and pushes him/ her.

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 3. KINGS CHARIOT

 Ask one learner to bend

and holds the hips of the
other learner in front and
the third learner rides on
the second leaner
3
10 INDEPENDENT PRACTICE.
minutes (GROUP ACTIVITIES).  Pupils in three  Pupils did the
 Divide the learners in to groups ABC activities with
three groups ABC and ask perform the less
them to perform the three class difficulties.
activities they have learnt activities.
in rotation order.

A B
T
R

C
Key
T- Teacher
Direction of group rotational
order

 Teacher stands at the

centre to observe mistakes
and make corrections.

Traditional game Perform a traditional

Nsale- nsale game “nsale nsale
bringing out the Cole
life skill –decision
making

4 6minutes CONCLUSION/ RECOVERY

STAGE.
.
 Demonstrate some Stretching  Perform some  Observing pupils
activities. stretching activities- doing the
 Thank the class. toe touching, traditional game
 Disperse. bending, and
twisting.

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OVERALL EVALUATION
PUPILS EVELUATION:
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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SELF EVELUATION:
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LESSON PREPARATION

Lesson preparation is concerned with two things; what the pupils will learn and how they will
learn it.

WHY MAKE A LESSON PLAN?

It is important to prepare a lesson because a lesson that has not been prepared will display the
following problems:

 Lack of detailed and illustrative materials: If the teacher is not prepared he/ she will end up
giving lesson which lack detailed and illustration. This will make the lesson less interesting
and boring.
 Lack of logical presentation or disorderly presentation. If the teacher is not familiar with
the material he/she teaching, it is likely that the lesson will lack logical, coherence and
interesting sequence.
 Poor timing.
 Excessive correction of teachers work by pupils. They may led to loss of confidence in the
teacher.
 Omission of important fact. When a case arises where a teacher has to give judgment on the
correctness of fact it becomes difficult if he/she has nowhere to refer.
 Incomplete of subject matter. A teacher may skip some important points because she/he has
nowhere to refer to.

GENERAL INFORMATION

This part includes the name of the teacher, school, subject, topic, and reference, learning
outcomes, teaching aids, date, time, duration and the grade. It is also known as the Bio-data. The
aims and objectives are also part of this.

The text books used in the preparation of the lesson are cited in this section.

TEACHING- LEARNING AIDS

These include all the materials and audio-visual aids that will be used to teach and learn. They
include mates, small balls, nets, bean bags etc.

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AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

These should be expressed explicitly, simply and Cleary. They should be attainable therefore
must be realistic. The purpose of aims and objectives is to keep the teacher from wandering.
They also help in the selection of content to be taught and what areas to emphasis during the
lesson. When writing objectives state them in a behavioral manner, that is, a manner that is
observable and measurable. Avoid vague expressions like “to understand” which cannot be
measured.
In Physical Education, objectives shall include physical education objectives and life skill
objectives.

INTRODUCTION

The lesson introduction must be done in an interesting and stimulating manner, arousing the
curiosity of the pupils and making them responsive and alert. There is no limit to kinds of
introduction one can make. The teacher should decide for each lesson and according to the
interest and age of the pupils.

In Physical Education introduction involves inspection of pupils‟ attire, checking of finger nails
and warm-ups activities which is divided in general and specific.

General warm-ups: here pupils do static and dynamic activities. Always start with static activities
which do not allow any movements.EG joint flexibility from top down or down top. Later they
do dynamic activities which involve movement such as running and jogging.

Specific warm-ups: This is the last part of warm-up activities. Her pupils do activities which are
related to the main activities of the lesson

LESSON CONCLUTION/ RECOVERY

At all events the lesson should come to an end in a descent and orderly manner. It should not be
concluded by the sound of the bell.

In Physical Education lesson it is advised to end the lesson with some recovery activities or cool
down activities. This can be as simple as just gently walking or performing some flexibility
exercises (bizley, 2001).

The use of traditional games at the recovery stage is encouraged so as to impart the life skills in
pupils

LESSON EVALUATION

The teacher reflects on the lesson and makes a judgment as to whether the lesson was successful
or not. If the later is the case, it is important to state why you think the lesson failed and make
suggestions for the future.

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METHODS OF TEACHING PHSICAL EDUCATION

CO-OPERATIVE LEARNING

Co-operative learning may be described as learners who work together in small groups enough to
allow everyone to participate in a given task without the direct supervision of the educator (van
der horst 1997: 137). This type of learning is an instructional design that stimulates peer
interaction and learner‟s learning. The cooperative learning has two primary aims. The first one
is to improve the success of learning through the employment of peer involvement, and the
second is for the learner to develop cooperative group skills and to gain an appreciation for the
different cultures and backgrounds of different learners.

In Physical Education activity based lesson plan, during independent practice pupils demonstrate
the co-operative learning. Here pupils do activities in small groups in a rotational order and the
teacher stands at the centre to observe the learners. After 2minutes the groups are stopped and
rotate to do different activity at another station.

OBSERVATION METHODS

Direct observations are more effective in the process of learning and what is learnt by direct
observation is retained for a longer period. Direct observations are rich experiences which are
purposeful seen, tested, touched, felt and smelt. They are an abridged version of life and real. A
trip to the actual site proves first hand information. Pupils can ask questions directly which is
highly conducive to learn. Sites are also a motivation force for further inquiry. In the activity
based lesson plan during guided practice, learners observe the teacher demonstrating the main
activities of the lesson. The pupil‟s task is to listen, observe, and perform the activities as per
teacher instructions. Pupils can ask questions concerning the activities were possible.

Rationales for learning by direct observation

- Outdoor study proved opportunities to apply ideas generated in class in the real world.
- It helps pupils learn new knowledge and concept from first hand observation.
- It makes pupils sensitive to the feeling of other people.
- It helps pupils to test hypothesis.

DEMONSTRATION METHIDS

It is basically an activity which combines telling, showing and doing for the benefit of an
audience, be it a person or a group of persons. (Desmond1989:53). Whether as a method or a
technique the demonstration can be very effective in the hands of a skillful and competent
teacher in appropriate situation.

Although the emphasis in demonstration is learning by observing, it is often followed by doing.

Thus drills and practice exercises are frequently provided to enable students to perform the
activity on their own or in groups.

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Demonstration can probably find more application in subjects involving skill learning, such as
physical education. For example in Physical Education the teacher may demonstrate the breast
stock or frog lack in swimming.

In learning a skill, it is important that students or learners learn the proper way of practicing the
skill right from the start. For example, when teaching headstand, a demonstration of a skill
involved will provide a correct model of performance before any practice is carried out. It is true
that students may learn skills on their own, but they may adopt a poor style or an incorrect
technique if not taught, and it is difficult to modify a fault skill which has become a habit. In
order to avoid student having accidents a demonstration and guided practice of how to operate
equipment and materials are necessary.

Techniques in preparing and performing a demonstration

1. Task analysis
2. preparation of explanatory materials
3. Rehearsal of the demonstration
4. Preparation of the environment
5. Decision on which type of demonstration to do

Performing the Demonstration

1. Perform the demonstration

2. Keep the demonstration simple
Refrain from deviating from the main points
3. Pace the demonstration for dramatic effort
Constantly check on students understanding
4. summarize and conclude the demonstration

Rationales of the demonstration methods

- It trains students to be good observers

- It stimulates thinking and the formation of concepts and generalization
- It is very effective as an introduction to skill learning
- It is most appropriate when teaching students how to use some equipment.

DISCUSSION METHOD

When two or more people interact with each other verbally, we say that they are involved in a
discussion (Desmond 1989: 46). If the pupils are going to benefit from discovery learning, they
should be able to talk. A discussion gives them this chance. It is a useful way of exploring
attitude (and so can be used to teach sensitive topics like HIV and AIDS), and helping change
anti-social attitudes such as being shy, too quite, or noisy.

It is advised in physical education under recovery time to engage pupils in discussion and talk
about cross-cutting issues and core life skills that will help them become better citizens. This is

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done through the use of traditional games. It should be noted that not all the traditional games
would have the HIV and AIDS message

This simply means that teachers should direct learners through discussion to talk about the HIV
and AIDS message but at least one or two of them. Teachers can use other game to come up with
the core life skills they would want to impact to the learners. This should be done through
discussion.

ACTIVITIES

 Suggest two reasons why a physical education teacher needs a syllabus during planning.
 Mention and describe the ten core life skills that you can impart to children for them to be
better citizens
 What is a teachers role during independent practice
 State the reason why it‟s important to use a variety of methods when teaching physical
education lessons.

SUMMARY

In this unity we have seen that successful teaching and learning to a large extent emanate from
careful planning and preparation. Before this can be done, the teacher must be fully aware of
what subject- matter is required to be taught in each subject and what method of teaching to be
applied. For this information a teacher will refer to the syllabus for each subject

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UNIT: 7 CORE LIFE SKILLS

INTRODUCTION

It is now generally recognized, in Africa and elsewhere, that in order to prepare our young
people for life, it is not enough to just fill them up with knowledge. There is need to pay more
attention to recognizing and developing their attitudes and behaviors so that they can lead happy,
healthy lives rather than assuming that positive attitudes and behaviors will grow out of
knowledge imparted. Furthermore, many children are subjected to physical or sexual abuse even
by those very people they respect most. Hence, the need to teach life skills that will enable them
to cope with what is outlined in the Education Policy „Educating Our Future‟ and in the
„Curriculum Framework Document.

LEARNING OUTCOMES:

 Demonstrate a better picture of identity

 Discuss strengths and weaknesses of being self-aware
 Explore decision making and relate to their behavior
 Discuss how decisions that are made now may influence the future.
 Identify situations where decision-making would be required
 Explore effective communication skills
 Define a communication process
 Demonstrate empathy
 Differentiate between empathy and sympathy
 Demonstrate techniques to manage stress.
 Develop necessary psycho-social life skills that will make them take control of their
emotions in order to overcome stress.
 Acquire skills to enable them make informed choices.
 Use different problem solving skills to meet challenges of their daily lives.
 Develop a sense of creativity so that they can use their environment to their own
advantage.
 Identify different levels of interpersonal relationships.
 Demonstrate how interpersonal relationships can be applied.

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 SELF-AWARENESS

Self awareness is about knowing who you are and your position in society. In addition, it is being
aware of what you can do. Self-awareness leads to the building of self-esteem and self-
confidence. These two build assertiveness and self-control. The end result is that you will be able
to cope with your emotion and stress, set and follow goals in life.

Hints

 Appreciate their own bodies

 Respect other peoples bodies.
 Reduce self-centered attitudes
 Take control of their feelings and emotions
 Appreciate cultural values.
 Take control of their moods

Learners should be made aware of the following aspects

Open –this is the part of themselves that is known to them and others.

Hidden-this is the part of them that is known to them but is kept hidden from others.

Blind-this is the part of themselves that is unknown to them but is known to others.

Unknown-this is the part of themselves that remains unknown to them and others.

It is important to allow learners to use several games to demonstrate body awareness.

ASSERTIVENESS

Assertiveness involves expressing oneself without hurting other people‟s views, feelings and
ideas. It is telling someone exactly what you want in a way that does not seem rude or hurtful. To
be assertive is to be straightforward and honest with oneself and with other people about what
you need and want. It is important to learn how to communicate those feelings and reasons
without putting down other people or making them feel bad-without being unkind, aggressive or
unhelpfully critical.

Ask t volunteers male and female to do the role-play.

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Role play 1

Male looking directly at a female and proposes to her. The female says “No” but looking down
or playing with her hands.

Role play 2: Ask another pair of volunteer to role play activity2.

Male proposes to her but with the female looking straight into the male eyes and say “No”
Ask learners the following question:-

a. Ask learners what they saw happening on the two role play
b. Which of the two-role play portrays assertiveness?
c. What can be done to bring about assertiveness

DECISION-MAKING

In life we are always faced with situations in which we have to make decisions. Sometimes the
decision we make can either break or build us. Occasionally we are also faced with uncertain
situation and are either anxious or scared to do something because of indecision and at certain
times we make rush decisions whose consequences we may live to regret

Making good decision means carefully weighing all your options and thinking about the
consequences of each one. Make an informed and personal choice.

HINTS

 Children need to think carefully when making decision

 Children have the right to make their own decision over their bodies
 Children should remember that they could destroy their future if they make wrong
decisions

Story-telling

Let learners to reflect on their lives individually and identify any incident or situation where they
made a decision to do something that they regretted later. As they reflect they should answer
these questions

1. What influenced the decision they made?

2. What were their feelings at that time?
3. What was the outcome of their decision? Was it negative or positive?
4. How do they consider the decision they made, now?

After the learners have reflected on the decisions made in the past, let them come together and
share with the other members of the class. After sharing, take note of the decisions made and the
consequences of such decisions by asking the following

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 - Was it worth making such decisions?
- Was there a way in which they could have dealt with the situation?

EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

Communication is a two way process and is the act of transmitting information, thoughts,
opinions and feelings through speech, signs and actions. We also communicate through different
communication channels and receive feedback.

We also communicate to others through our body language and the clothes we wear as well as
activities we do and by the people we play with, and what we eat and drink. All these actions
speak a lot about us. The language we use and the message we transmit, and sometimes our
facial expressions say a lot about our intended action and also determines the kind of responses
or feedback. That we receive.

HINTS

 Body language plays an important role in communication

 Emphasize that the whole body is a communication tool.
 Remember culturally children must not:

1. Answer back to elders and adults. However emphasize that children have the right to
be heard.
2. Look in the face of elders or adult when speaking
3. Show their feelings on their face but look down humbly---

 State that these cultural practices above should be discouraged in this era of HIV and
AIDS so that learners are assertive and say “No” to sexual advances of both their peers
and elders and are aware of their sexual rights.

EMPATHY

Empathy is like self-awareness, except that it is the ability to understand what someone else is
feeling and why. Being empathetic means that you have the ability to imagine and identify
mentally with another person. For example, if a friend is feeling sad, putting yourself in his or
her shoes can help you know how to offer help.

Learners/youths must understand the difference between empathy and sympathy. Empathy is a
required action. In the case of sympathy you just make some emotional connection without inner
understanding. For example you may find your relative or people crying and in sympathy you
join in the cry. Just by sympathizing, you are not offering any solution. This is what learners
must avoid.

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MINI DRAMA

TRY SOMEONE SHOES

Ask few learners to take off their shoes and put them in front in a shuffled manner. Ask them to
rush and put on a pair of shoes regardless of size and type.

Ask them the following questions:-

How do you feel in the shoes you are in?

Is this how you feel when the owner of the shoes has the problems?
Do you easily fit in that problem?

Arrange participants in a horseshoe formation.

The facilitator whispers a statement to the first person in the line who should whisper the
statement to the next person. This should go on until the last person. The facilitator asks the last
person in the line to say what she/ he was told. Let the first person say what she/he was told at
the beginning and compare the accuracy of the message.

HINTS

- Empathy: putting yourself in someone else‟s solution.

- Sympathy: Feeling sorry for someone.
- Remember to tell the learners that if we do not get into the shoes of our friends we cannot
feel what they are going through.

COPING WITH EMOTIONS and STRESS

Coping is the ability to manage a situation or problem. Emotions are mental feelings in response
to stimuli. They are either positive or negative. Emotions needs to be properly managed.
Growing up comes with many emotional, physical and psychological problems and young
people experience many mood swings. The society in which they grow up sometimes offers no
avenue for them to learn and reflect on what is taking place in their bodies, and this causes
serious emotional problems. As a result they may suffer from stress (which is a condition of
increased activity in the body that goes beyond what ones mental capacity can handle) and find
life hard and meaningless. Emotions and stress need to be adequately managed.

Sometimes young people find some health centers unfriendly as heath providers are
unwelcoming and not attending to their psychological, physical and emotional needs. Usually
when young people turn to their parents for help they find no help due to poor parent-child
relationship. Some are abused in their own homes.

It is important to understand that young people need care and support in their formative stage and
that there is need to build skills in them to enable them cope with emotion and stressful situations

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Buzz groups

Ask each learner to identify how she/he would feel under each of the following situations:

a) Living with an HIV positive person.

b) Losing a close member of the family in death
c) Winning a scholarship to study in the USA.
d) Winning a jackpot or a lottery of about K50, 000,000.

Ask the participant to share their feelings.

List down various words to describe feelings e.g. anger, happiness, frustrations, joy, irritation,
good, bad.

Young people may experience wide mood swings that might leave them confused and
emotionally disturbed. Explain to them and assure them that it is normal to go through this.
Young people should not expect parents to change to make things better for them but they should
try to go along with their parents.

They should take responsibility of their behaviour.

Note: stress is pressure, tension or worry resulting from problems existing in one‟s life.

PROBLEM SOLVING

Growing up in today‟s word come with a lot of challenges. One has to develop and apply various
skills to solve problems that arise as they get on with life. There are also diverse expectations and
demands from society, peer, teachers, the media and religious teachers. These demands and
expectations require us to constantly make decisions to suit specific social contexts. However,
finding good solutions to difficult problems requires creative thinking. Creative thinking is the
ability to think of possible solutions that aren‟t obvious. We need different skills that will enable
us to make better choices regarding problems that we are confronted with, especially in the light
of HIV and AIDS.

Creative problem-solving involves talking to other people (teachers, youth counselors, parents,
family members, and friends) and exploring all the options that might be open to you. Once we
have been able to solve a problem, we suddenly feel less stressed, and life seems manageable
again.

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Brainstorming

1. Let learners sit in a circle. On the board or floor draw a face of a cake as shown below
Cake surface, with icing sugar on

2. Ask the learners to copy the drawing on to their papers and cut the cake into eight (8)
Pieces with only three strokes of a knife. They should cut through the cake only three
times and produce eight pieces all having icing sugar on top.
3. Tell them that nothing is impossible if we try different ways. Cat the cake as shown
below and you will have eight (8) pieces with icing sugar on

HINTS

- Not that some may give up the exercise; they may laugh, and say it is impossible to have
eight pieces out of three cuts only.
- Explain to the learners that problem solving requires examining all avenues, because
events even the most difficult problems can easily be solved.

CRITICAL THINKING

Self-awareness and effective communication is based on the development of critical and creative
thinking. This enables us to respond positively and effectively to the challenges of life and make
appropriate decision on what to do and how to solve problems.

Role-play

A pupil is trying to influence her/his friend to participate in vandalizing school property. Both
pupils are writing their final grade 7 examinations and see that they will have no more use for the
school property, as they will be moving on to secondary school.

Using critical thinking, how would the other friend advise her colleague against such an act?

CREATIVE THINKING

Creative thinking is being able to deal with a problem in more than one way. It may involve
coming up with an idea, trying out a new and more challenging way of doing a task, and trying
out a new and more challenging way of approaching a problem.

Case study

Today, the Anti AIDS club is holding a meeting to discuss ways of generating money for some
of the club members who are orphans and cannot pay their school feels at the beginning of next
term.

- Let the class discuss the possible solution to the problem.

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INTERPERSONAL RELETIONSHIPS

Interpersonal relationship involves ability that helps us relate positively to another person. There
are many ways to get to know someone well and to develop a close friendship and good
relationship. Many people think that sex will keep their relationship strong, but this is not true. If
the goal is to get to know someone well and develop a close, lasting relationship, doing a range
of different activities together work much better than just having sex.

Two people can have a very close relationship without having sex. By talking and sharing
experience-how each person views life and how they would make decisions together-they can
learn something more important about each other. Remember, the term “relationship‟ and “sex”
do not necessarily mean the same thing.

Teacher concludes by emphasizing that interpersonal relationships involve a combination of

several skills which includes empathy, respect for others, assertiveness and many more.

METHODS OF TEACHING CORE LIFE SKILLS

Methods used should be learner centered, that is children should be actively involved in the
teaching and learning process. The following methods could be used:

Brainstorming
Role play
Buzzy groups
Song
Dance
Problem solving
Discussion
Pair and group work
Drama
Field trips

ACTIVITIES

Identify traditional games that you can use to teach the core life skills
Discuss the reason why we should teach life skills to pupils.

SUMMARY

In this unit we have learnt how life skills are an important part in the learning process. The
school is seen as a major socializing agent in preparing young people for life. Therefore, the

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school will not only promote the development of positive attitudes and behavior through extra-
curriculum activity such as clubs, but also through the curriculum. This means that teachers will
have to integrate teaching of core life skills in their lessons. Children should be involved in
learning activities in order to develop their own positive attitudes and behavior

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UNIT: 8 FIRST AID AND SAFETY

INTRODUCTION

There is no way you can teach physical education lesson without the knowledge of first aid. The
teachers main concern during athletics, and indeed any other games or practical work, should be
safety and safety precautions. In every case, proper first aid reduces suffering and makes the
doctor‟s task easier when he takes over the care of the patient.

The need for first aid training is plainly evident in everyday life. Accidents are high among the
causes of death. No one can estimate how many of these death could be prevented if there were
people with First Aid training in the crowd which gathers at the scene of an accident.

LEARNING OUTCOMES:

 State the importance of first aid

 Identify common injuries during sports
 Treat minor injuries
 Describe the causes of accidents in sports.

FIRST AID DEFINITION

First Aid is the immediate and temporary care given to the victim of an accident or sudden
illness, until the service of a doctor can be obtained.

THE PURPOSE OF FIRST AID TRAINING

1. To prevent accidents:

Experience shows that people trained in First aid are safety-conscious and their accidents
rate is lower than that of untrained persons.

2. To train people to do the right thing at the right time

A first aider is not expected to make the doctors diagnosis, but he has the knowledge to
determine the nature and extent of an injury and he knows what to do about it.

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 3. To prevent added injury or danger

First aid prevents further contamination and infection of wounds. It lessens the livelihood of
shock or help to control it. Knowing what not to do is as important as knowing what to do.

4. To provide proper transport if necessary

Many accidents occur at places far away from medical help. It is often necessary to move
the victim in order to serve his life or get him to where he can get proper medical treatment.
Care must be taken to use correct methods of moving the victim so as to prevent further
injury.

GENERAL DIRECTIONS FOR GIVING FIRST AID

Remember that First aid is only temporary. Dressing must be simple and rapid; a doctor should
not have to waste time removing elaborate bandages.

The following general directions are given to enable you to approach your First aid problem
confidently and intelligently.

1. Keep the injured person lying down in a comfortable position, his head level with his
body, until you know whether the injury is serious? This is preventing against fainting
and helps to prevent the condition “shock‟ which will be discussed later. An untrained
person usually wants the patient to sit up, or tries to help him to stand up. You may
raise the patients head if his face is flushed. If he vomits, you may turn his head to
one side to prevent choking. Otherwise, the rule is to keep him lying down with head
level.

2. Look for hemorrhage, stoppage of breathing, poisoning, wounds, burns, fractures, and
dislocations. Be sure you find all the injuries. Pain is an indication of an injury. When
examining an injured person let him guide you to possible severe injuries

When you examine an injured person, remove enough clothing to determine the extent of his
injury. If it is an injury of the arm, leg, or body it is usually best to rip the seams if you can.
Taking off the clothes in the usual manner may cause unnecessary suffering or may
aggravate injury. If you see blood soaking through the clothing, remove enough clothing to
provide a clear view of the wound.

Remember: serious bleeding, stoppage of breathing, and poisoning, in that order, must be
treated immediately, before anything else is done.

You can determine whether the patient is breathing, in most cases, by inspecting the chest
closely for a few second. If asphyxiation has caused stoppage of breathing as in drowning,
gas poisoning, or electrical shock- artificial respiration is the immediate requirement.
Artificial respiration is also applied for head injury, if the patient stops breathing and turns
blue.

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 In case several persons are injured in one accident, it is most important that the first aider
quickly surveys the entire situation and determines which victims have injuries that require
immediate attention. “First thing first” should be the rules. Find out whether the patient is
conscious by talking to him. If he is, he can usually tell you where he has been hurt.

Remember: If a patient is conscious or semi-conscious after a violent accident, the cause is

usually a head injury. Bleeding from one or both ears or from the nose, if there is no direct
injury to those parts, usually indicated a fractured skill.

Examine the lips and the mouth for burns or dislocation. These are the signs of poisoning.
Bloody froth on the lips may indicate epilepsy. Smell the patients breathe for evidence of
poison, particularly when there does not appear to be an actual physical injury.

Feel the patients pulse. But remember that failure to find a pulse is an indication of death.
Note the colour of the face. A flushed or normal colour means a strong pulse and good
circulation. A pale face means a weak pulse and poor circulation. Do not give stimulants in
case of severe bleeding, or head injury.

1. Keep the injured person warm. Avoid overzealous application of external heat but
maintain normal body temperature. This is essential in order to prevent serious shock. If
the weather is cool, or the ground damp, it is important to keep the patient underneath as
well as to cover him. However, over heating is bad. When a person loses blood, his body
shuts down circulation through the skin to ensure supplies to the vital organs, brain, heart,
lungs. The skin goes pale and cold and the patient may shiver. To give him more than one
blanket may up set this self protective mechanism and kill him, for heat causes the
surface blood vessels to expand and claim more of the blood supply, allowing less for the
body‟s essential needs.

2. Keep calm and do not be hurried into moving the injured person unless it is absolutely
necessary. You should not move the patient until you have a clear idea of the nature and
extent of his injuries and have given first aid.

3. Never give water or other liquid to an unconscious person. Water may enter the windpipe
and strangle the unconscious and if there is no evidence of severe abdominal injury, give
him all the water he wants, slowly and in sips. Beer, whisky etc, are not proper first aid
stimulants. They may do considerable harm. Hot tea and coffee are satisfactory
particularly if the patient is cold.

4. Keep onlookers away from the injured. They frequently interfere with treatment.

5. Make the patient comfortable and keep them cheerful if possible. Quiet his fears and keep
him hopeful. It is important for him to have a good mental attitude in order to promote
co-operation and aid recovery.

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 6. Do not let the patient see his own injury. In severe cases do not let him know how badly
injured he is. Be sure that nothing is done to cause him further injury. You can avoid
distress and confusion by notifying the patient‟s family properly.

7. Tell them where the patient is, and whether he is being taken to hospital, and give any
other helpful information. But it is not your job to describe the patient‟s injuries or to
give the family any medical details.

COMMON INJURIES IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT

DISLOCATION

The point at which two or more bones come together is called a joint. Each joint is
completely enclosed in a tough. Flexible envelope or sac termed the capsule. Stretching
across the capsule is bands of strong, fibrous tissue which-together with the capsule hold the
bones tightly together at the joint. These bands called ligaments are so arranged as to permit
movement of the bones of the joint. When the ligament about the joint are severely stretched
or torn, one or more of the bones making up the joint may slip out of the place. This is known
as a dislocation.

Dislocation may be caused by a fall, a blow against the joint by a sudden twisting of the joint,
or less commonly, by a sudden contraction of the muscles which provide movement for the
bones making up the joint. Most common dislocations are those of the shoulder and finger
joints with that of the elbow next to in frequency. Bear in

mind that a dislocation may be accompanied by a fracture to the general principles for
fracture until the injury can be seen by a doctor.

DISLOCATION OF THE ELBOW

What to look for: Pain and tenderness about the elbow joint. Deformity of the joint compares
it with the uninjured elbow. Inability to bend the arm at the injured joint.

What to do: Do not attempt to correct the dislocation. Do not attempt to bend the injured
elbow. If the injured person holds the arm straight, put on a well-padded splint extending
from just below the armpit to the finger tips-as described in fractures. If the arm is held in a
bent position, give support with an arm splint. Apply an ice bag or cold compresses to the
joint. Give the injured person to medical aid quickly.

SPRAINS

A sprain is an injury to a joint.-the point at which two or more bones come together. In
severe injuries, the result will be a dislocation. In less severe injuries there may be some
tearing of the ligaments, but the bones remain in place. Such an injury is a sprain. They
usually occur where there is overstretching, or tearing, of ligaments at a joint. They are
usually caused by a sudden wrench or twist.

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 The joint most frequently sprained are the ankle, knee, wrist, elbow and spine in that order.
Sprains may vary in severity from an injury which causes only minor discomfort to one
which requires weeks of care before the joint can again function normally.

It is often difficult to tell the difference between a sprain and a fracture at or near a joint. In
fact both may result from the same injury, and only a doctor can rule the possibility of a
fracture. If there is any suspicion that a fracture may be present, use the first aid measures
described for fractures.

What to look for: Pain in the injured joint. This is increased if movement of the joint is
attempted and tenderness to the touch about the injured joint, rapid swelling of the joint, this
is likely to be quite extensive if the sprain is severe.

What to do: Rest the injured joint. For example, if the ankle joint is sprained, have the injured
person get off his feet and preferable lie down so that the joint is not moved or required to
bear the weight.

Elevate the injured part. For ankle sprain, have the victim lie down and then place pillows or
fold up clothing under the leg and ankle so that the latter is about twelve inches higher than
the rest of the body. For knee sprain, place a pillow or other paddling under the leg so that it
is raised. For wrist sprain put the arm in a sling. Adjust the sling so that the fingers are about
four inches higher than the elbow. For elbow sprain also put the arm in a sling.

Apply an ice bag or cold compresses to the injured joint. Cold will help to contract the many
tiny blood vessels about the joint which are sometimes damaged at time of injury. Leakage of
blood and fluid adds to the swelling which accompanies a sprain. By contracting the tiny
vessels, cold minimizes leakage and helps lessen pain. Continue the cold applications,
usually until the victim can be seen by a doctor.

STRAINS

These are caused by overstretching of a muscle rather than a joint and they can also be
caused by a twist or a wrench. They are quite painful and there may be some reduction or
weakened movement where the injury occurred, but the symptoms would not be as serious as
a sprain, dislocation or fracture.

Bandaging the area will help as this will give some support to the injury. An elastic bandage
can be particularly good.

How to prevent: When lifting an object, don‟t stop over by bending only the back and waist.
Bend the knees and keep the feet as close together as possible with weight equally distributed
on each foot. After grasping the object, try to make the back straight and rise by straightening
the legs. This gives most of the lifting work to the comparatively strong muscles of the legs
and arm instead of the weaker muscles of the back. Never try to move weights that are too
heavy. Get someone else to help or use a mechanical aid. Be careful about unusual stress.

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 What to do: soft tissue injury is where there is an injury to ligament or muscles. The standard
treatment which can be applied to any soft tissue injury is known as the RICE treatment.
RICE stands for Rest, Ice, Compression and Elevation and is described in more detailed
below

1. Rest- stop straight away and rest the injury, carrying on can make things far worse.
2. Ice- applying ice to the injury reduces swelling and relieves some of the pain. Do not put
ice on directly but use an ice pack or wrap the ice in a towel.
3. Compression- this can be either a bandage or some tap which will put some support and
pressure to the injured area. Be very careful not to apply this too tightly and restrict the
blood flow.
4. Elevation- try to raise the injured body part as this will decrease the circulation to the
area as it must work against gravity. This will also help to drain away any other fluid at
the injury.

The RICE treatment should be applied to any injury to the muscles, the ligament or the skin as it
is not only a simple treatment, but also a very effective treatment.

FRACTURES

This is a name given to broken bones. It is a break or crack in a bone. There are three main types
of fracture which you should be able to identify.

a. Closed or simple fracture. Are those that are not related to open wounds on the
surface of the body, Here the bone is broken but it has not pierced the skin.
b. Open or compound fracture. Are those associated directly with open wounds. An
open fracture may result from external violence or may be produced by injury from
within as broken ends of a bone protrude through the skin at the time of the accident
or later through motion or mishandling of the fractured bone.
c. Complicated. Closed or open fracture are said to be complicated when there is an
associated injury. For example, if an important structure, blood vessel, nerve or
organ is damaged in the broken bone end.

There are signs you should look for when checking for fractures.

- Has the snap of the bone been heard or felt?

- Is there pain where the injury has occurred and is there a lack of movement in
the limb?
- Casualty may find it difficult or impossible to move the part normally.
- Tenderness at the site of the fracture when gentle pressure is applied over the
affected area.
- Swelling around the injured area.
- Deformity at the site of the fracture. This may be irregularity of the bones.

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FAINTING

Fainting is a partial or complete loss of consciousness due to a reduced supply if blood to the
brain for a short time. Occasionally, a person collapses suddenly without warning. To prevent a
fainting attack, a person who feels weak and dizzy should lie down or bend over his head at the
level of his knees. Recovery of consciousness almost occurs when the victim is placed in a
reclining position.

First Aid: Leave the victim lying down.

1. Loosen any tight clothing and keep crowds away.

2. If the victim vomits, roll him onto his side or turn his head to the side and, if
necessary, wipe out his mouth with your fingers, preferable wrapped in cloth.
3. Maintain an open airway
4. Do not give any liquid unless the victim has revived.
5. Do not pour water over the victims face because of the danger of aspiration; instead,
bathe his face gently with cool water.
6. Examine the victim to determine whether or not he has suffered injury from falling.
7. Unless recovery is prompt, seek medical assistance.

WOUNDS

A wound is a break in the continuity of the tissues of the body, either internal or external. When
the surface of the skin is broken, a wound is caused. It may only involve the skin only or may
penetrate into deeper tissues such as muscles, bones, or internal organs.

TYPES OF WOUNDS

OPEN WOUNDS

Abrasions

Abrasions wounds usually result when the skin is scraped against a hard surface. Bleeding is
limited.

Incisions

An incised wound or cut frequently occurs when body tissue is cut by a knife, rough edges of
metal, broken glass, or other sharp objects. Bleeding may be rapid and heavy.

Lacerations

A lacerated wound displays jagged, irregular, or blunt breaking or tearing of the soft tissues, and
is usually caused when great force is exerted against the body. Bleeding may be rapid or
extensive.

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Puncture

A punctured wound is produced by an object piercing skin layers, creating a small hole in the
tissues. Puncture-producing objects include bullets and pointed objects, such as pins, nails and
splinters. External bleeding is usually quite limited.

Avulsions

An avulsed wound results when tissue is forcibly separated or torn from the victim‟s body. An
avulsed body part may be successfully reattached to a victim‟s body by a surgeon.

First Aids for open wounds

1. Stop the bleeding immediately
2. Protect the wound from contamination and infection
3. Provide shock care
4. Obtain medical attention

CLOSED WOUNDS

Closed wound may occur anywhere within the body. There is no break in the skin. Blood is not
lost through skin, but may flow through outer openings of body cavities. Closed wounds are less
likely to become infected than are open wounds, since they are subjected to less contamination.

NOSE BLEEDING

Bleeding from the nose may be direct result of a blow or the poking of fingers into the nose, or it
may be caused in directly by some other condition, such as high blood pressure. Bleeding usually
comes from one of the small blood vessels near the surface of the attention of the partition which
divide the nose. Frequent nosebleeds should always be called to the attention of the doctor.

BRUISES

These are extremely common and are collections of blood beneath the skin. The blood vessels
have been damaged just like a cut but the skin has not been broken so the bleeding occurs
beneath the skin. The first sign of a bruise is swelling and then there will be discoloration of the
area as it might go blue or purple first and then green or yellow.

A bruise should be treated by applying ice. This will reduce the swelling and relieve the pain.
The ice needs to be applied quite quickly. Witch-hazel is a lotion which also relieves the
symptoms.

CRAMP
This is an involuntary contraction of a muscle and although it is quite painful it is easy to treat
and to cure. To do this, the sufferer needs to stretch the muscle affected as far as it will go.

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FIRST AID KIT

Adhesive tape Aromatic spirits

Band-aids Codeine tablets
Cotton wool Cup
Gauze pads Boiled water
Gauze rolls Needles
Triangular bandage Matches
Soap
Towel
Pins
Splints
Scissors

ACTIVITIES

 Describe the general directions that enable you to approach your first aid problem
confidently and intelligently.
 Describe and identify the types of open wounds

SUMMARY

Through the study of first aid, a person is prepared to assist others wisely if they are stricken, to
give them instruction in first aid, and to promote among them a reasonable safety attitude. On a
humanitarian basis, there is always an obligation to assist the stricken and the helpless. There is
no greater satisfaction than of relieving suffering or saving the life of a member of your member
of community. First aid does not only to save lives and prevent complications from injuries but
also help in setting up an orderly method of handling emergency problems according to their
priority for treatment so that the greatest possible good may be accomplished for the greatest
number of people.

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Unit: 9 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

INTRODUCTION

The body works in such a way that each of its systems depend on each other. During physical
activities, all the body systems are actively involved. The discussion is put in three sections
namely the nervous system, circulatory system and the respiratory system..It is important that
anyone working with clients in the sport and exercise industry has a good understanding of how
each of these systems works and copes with the stresses of exercise. As teachers we need to
explore the relationship between the body systems and exercise.

LEARNING OUTCOMES:

 State the different functions of body systems

 Analyse the relationships between the body systems and exercise
 Discus the effects of exercise on the body systems
 Explain on how the carbon dioxide rates can affect the performance of an athlete.

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

While it is true that modern computers are capable of carrying out logical tasks such as solving
equations in higher mathematics in a fraction of the time it would take most individuals to do so.
We must not forget that it is the brilliance of human mind that allowed for the creation of this
splendid technology. However, understanding of the brain and how it operates is very difficult
because it is the brain studying the brain. What is known so far is that the brain controls
everything that goes on in human body. This process of controlling everything that goes on in the
body is done through what is known as the nervous system. To this end, this section will focus
on the nervous system of the body, its structure and functions and how it relates to other body
systems and Physical Education.

BUCHER (1968) defines the nervous system as the boss of the human body. By nature the
nervous system issues orders and controls and regulates everything the human organism does. It
controls the organs and other parts of the body. It actually acts as an organ of the mind and
regulates body heat, secretions of digestive juices and excretion of waste and controls every
movement made.

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The nervous system is composed of the brain and the spinal cord and nerves which go out from
the brain and the spinal cord to all parts of the body ganglia masses of grey tissues found in the
inner organs of the body. Basically we can say that the nervous system is made up of the central
nervous system and the peripheral nervous system. The central nervous system is made up of the
brain and the spinal cord while the peripheral nervous system comprises the nerves branching out
into the body from the spinal cord. A complex system is set up whereby vast interconnecting
pathways integrate and control the action of the entire body from head to toe. How the nervous
system accomplishes such remarkable feats is the area of concern in the paragraph the follows.

The fundamental unit of the nervous system is the nerve cell or the neuron. This is found in all
the various parts of the nervous system especially in the brain and the spinal cord. It is grey in
color. It is through the neuron that the message is carried through the receptors or cells that
receive the impulses to the effectors or the cells that react to the impulses such as those found in
muscle or gland. The nerve fibers that connect the nerve cells with the various parts of the body
are white in color, graying in the center, the machinery that carries the messages or impulses.
The grey core of the fiber is a branch of nerve cells. There is the cell body (Sana), which directs
the activities of the neuron and dendrites as well as the axon, which transmits the impulses away
from the cell body. The structure of a typical motor neuron is shown on the next page.

Neurons are considered excitable tissue for their ability to conduct an electrical signal. This is
initiated via a stimulus that causes a change in the vesting electrical charge on each side of the
nerve cell.

At rest, neurons like all other cells have a negative charge on the inside of the cell compared to
the outside. This negative charge is known as the resting membrane potential and the neuron is
said to be paralyzed. For an impulse to travel along the neuron, this resting potential has to be
changed as shown below.

This change in the resting electrical is known as depolarization. It is caused by stimulus allowing
an influx of Na+ (positively charged sodium ions) into the inside neuron, thus reversing the
electrical charge so that the inside becomes positively charged compared to a threshold (from –
70mv to -55 – 50mv) then an action potential is reached and the impulse will travel down the
neuron.

The impulse will travel the length of the axon without changing the voltage. There must
therefore be a minimum depolarization of 15 – 20mv to initiate the action of potential (impulse).
If this minimum depolarization is not reached, no impulse will be propagated. This is referred to
as „all or none‟ law Galligan (2000). Before another impulse (action potential) can be initiated
the resting potential membrane must be returned.

The depolarization is accomplished by K+ (positively charged potassium ions) flowing from the
inside to the outside of the cell membrane so that the inside is negatively charged to the outside
again and another impulse may be propagated.

These kinds of neurons are found in the nervous system. First, there is the sensory neuron,
second, the motor neuron and third, the intermediate neuron.

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The sensory neuron which is also known as the afferent neuron carries impulses into the central
nervous system (CNS). These impulses may be carried from the skin, eye, ear and various parts
of the body to the brain. These impulses are responsible for feeling, seeing, hearing and
understanding the condition of the body at all times, while the motor of the effectors neurons
send messages from the spinal cord to the muscles and results in muscular action and
intermediate neuron lie entirely within the Central Nervous System itself has no contact with the
outside.

The axon from one neuron does not connect on the dendrites of another neuron. There is always
a tiny gap called synapse between them and so messages in form of electrical and chemical are
transmitted through this gap .

THE TRANSMISSION OF A MESSAGE THROUGH A SYNAPSE

1. ELECTRICAL message travels a long Axon

2. CHEMICAL message released at the end of the Axon
3. CHEMICAL message carries across synapse
4. CHEMICAL message changed back to electrical message
5. ELECTRICAL message continues through the next neuron

The nervous system controls the body to a degree unconsciously (involuntary) or consciously
(voluntary). When the control is unconsciously done, the system is called Automatic Nervous
System. It is this system that controls the reflex actions. For example, striking an individual just
below the knee cap, involuntarily the leg will move upwards and practically all control of the
internal organs is carried on by the reflexes and every individual is born with them.

Another set of reflexes different from natural ones, consists of those that can be developed
through practice. For example, a swimmer does not think of how he/she is going to swim, how
he/she is going to move his/her arms or legs in the crawl stroke instead it becomes automatic
with him/her as a result of practice.

It is not possible that the nervous system can carry out functions in isolation. Other body systems
such as the endocrine System, the circulatory system, respiratory system, the muscular system,
the skeletal system to mention but a few also perform various functions that are beneficial to the
nervous system. For example, the nervous system works in conjunction with the endocrine
system which is responsible for the secretion of hormones and digestive juices known as
enzymes from various glands of the body.

The body temperature is kept constant with the help of the skin system. When the atmospheric
temperature is high, messages will be sent to the nervous system which will in turn also sends
messages back to the skin so that the blood capillaries will dialect and more water lost through
sweat thereby leaving the body cool and the opposite will happen if the temperatures are low.

The circulatory system has vital organs such as the heart and the lungs. If for instance, one is
involved in a physical activity, messages are sent to the nervous system controlling the vital
organs of the system which in turn sends messages to the heart to pump faster so that more blood

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is supplied to the working muscles. In fact, the nerve cells found in the nervous system depend
on this system for the supply of oxygen and glucose for their survival, as these cells do not
divide for the generation of new cells.

The nerves and muscles of the muscular are controlled by the nerves to the messages are relayed
by nerves to the muscle which react in a way individual wishes whether by running, playing a
musical instrument such as a piano or hitting a tennis ball. An important part of physical
education is concerned with the development of this kind of coordination of muscles. This
coordination can be developed to an extent that the movements become automatic. Because of
practice, these actions are a reality without thought to one‟s actions.

Bucher (1968) says that even social actions such as fair play, respect for the individual, courtesy
and like one developed and become part of an individual in a way these actions can be viewed as
reflexes that are formed by repetition of actions.

THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

The circulatory system or cardio – vascular system is the internal transport system by which
blood is carried to all parts of the body. And all other body systems depend on it and its
functioning efficiently. The circulatory system consists of three parts namely, the heart, a
muscular pump which is a high pressure distribution circuit, then the blood vessels consisting of
the arteries and arterioles, capillaries and veins and the blood itself. (Beashel et al 2004)

The systematic circulation has four major areas and these are: the coronary circulation which
supply blood from the cardiac muscle, the portal where blood from the stomach and intestines
returns to the heart through the liver so that nutrients such as glucose can be stored and so, blood
can be cleansed so that phagocyte cells can remove toxic materials such as alcohol from the
bloodstream. Then the muscle circulation which increases during exercise in an effort to provide
oxygen for ATP production. And finally, the skin circulation which varies as part of the
homeostatic mechanism, that is maintaining a constant internal temperature. For instance, the
blood vessels dilate in hot weather, allowing heat to be lost and are constricted in cold weather,
enabling heat to be retained. (Davis et‟ al 1986:61)

The major function of the circulatory system is that of transport and regulation of metabolism of
the body (homeostasis). The blood transports nutrients from the digestive system and lungs to the
tissues. It also transports oxygen from respiratory structures to the body cells and metabolic
wastes from each cell to organs that excrete them. For example the lungs and the urinary system.
The other function of the blood is to transport hormones from the endocrine glands to target
tissues. The system helps maintain fluid balance. This is called homeostasis. It regulates the
body‟s fluid content through the passing of fluid from blood to tissues. It also helps to distribute
metabolic heat within the body to maintain normal body temperature. This happens when the
blood absorbs heat and carries it to the skin and lungs where it is dissipated. The body against
invading mice - organisms.

The circulatory system is able to work efficiently and simultaneously because of the heart. The
heart is a muscle, a muscular pump made up of special cardiac muscles which contract regularly

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without tiring. It pumps first to the lungs to exchange carbon dioxide for oxygen. The blood with
new oxygen is returned to the beart to be pumped out around the body. (Beashel; 2004)

The heart is located in the centre of the chest between two lungs and behind the protection of the
ribs. The lower portion extends to the left of the chest. It is about the size of two average adult
fists. (Eshuys et‟ al 1987: 26). The heart is divided into four chambers. There is a muscular wall,
the septum, which divides it into right and left sides. Each side consists of two chambers, the
upper chamber called the atrium and the lower chamber the ventricle. The diagram below shows
the chambered heart and the direction of blood flowing.

Three stages of heart action take place in the process of blood circulation. The cardiac cycle is
complete cycle of thee stages. The heart beat is one complete contraction of the heart, and the
heart rate (pulse) is the number of heart beats per minute. Heart rate can increase because of fear,
excitement, exercise, age and smoking just to mention but a few. This heart rate is contracted by
the automatic (involuntary) nervous system. There is the sympathetic system, which stimulates
the heart to beat faster and the parasympathetic system, which enables the heart rate to return to
its normal resting level. Both systems work through the heart pacemaker, the sino – atria node
where electric impulses pass through and stimulate the contraction of both atria together. The
impulse then passes on to the atria vascular node which distributes the impulse to both ventricles
which contract together, about a second after the atria. (Davis, et‟ al: 62). At rest the heart pumps
between 50 and 80 times per minute. It pumps about 4.7 to 5 liters of blood around the heart per
minute. (Beashel; 2004:189).

Blood flows into the heart when it is between beats and relaxed. Deoxygenated blood from our
body enters the right atrium through the two vena cava veins. These are the superior and inferior
vena cava. At the same time, newly oxygenated blood from the lungs enters the right atrium
through the pulmonary veins.

Then the right atrium muscles contract to pump blood through the tricuspid valve into the right
ventricle. At the same time the left atrium muscles contracts to pump through the mitral
(bicuspid) valve into the left ventricle. (Beashel et‟ al: 190)

In the final stage, the right ventricle muscle contract to pump blood through the semi lunar
valves into the pulmonary artery to travel to the lungs while the left ventricle contract to blood
through the semi lunar into the aorta, to travel around the body again. The illustration below
shows the movement, contraction of atria and ventricles in blood flowing.

The work of the valves is to ensure that blood does not flow back into the atrium.

The blood vessels are known as vascular system carries the blood from the heart, distributes it
through the body and returns it to the heart. The blood vessels that take blood away from the
heart are the arteries. These divide into smaller arteries, the arterioles which in turn divide into
smaller microscopic vessels known as capillaries. The capillary walls are extremely thin and so
they allow nutrients to pass through the body tissue while waste products are passed back into
the blood. The capillaries then rejoin to form small veins (the ventures) and then larger veins
which carry the blood back to the heart. The artery consists of three layers; the endothelium

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lining, the involuntary muscle and elastic fibers that control diameter and the tough fibrous tissue
(Beashel et‟ al 2004).

The blood is pushed through the arteries by surges of pressure caused by the heartbeat. The
elastic arterial walls expand with each surge. This can be felt in arteries near the surface of the
skin as pulse, for instance, the veins at the side of the neck and the thumb wrist.

The arterioles themselves give rise to even smaller tubes, the capillaries. These are
microscopically thin walls just one cell thick. These tubules infiltrate all parts of the body,
bringing blood to every tissue. They also allow oxy gen, carbon dioxide, waste hormones and
nutrients to pass through their walls. When the tissues have absorbed oxygen and nutrients from
the blood and have given up waste products and carbon dioxide to it, blood begins its journey
with muscle fiber and connective tissue. These lead on the larger, stronger veins. By now, the
pressure pushing blood along is very weak, so many of the larger veins have valves to combat
the effects of gravity. In the legs, contracting calf muscles provide extra pumps that squeeze the
veins, thus driving blood on up towards the heart.

Veins have thinner walls than arteries. Their job is to take blood back to the heart. They indicate
the presence of carbon dioxide and less oxygen, except the vein that carries blood from the lungs
to the heart. (Eshuys et al, 2004:27)

Blood pressure on the other hand, is the pressure exerted by blood on the walls of the blood
vessels. A person‟s “blood pressure” refers to the measurement of blood pressure in large arteries
such as those around the elbow. This measurement is expressed in two ways as systolic pressure
when the left ventricle of the heart contracts while the diastolic pressure is measured when the
left ventricle of the heart is relaxed. Blood pressure is measured by a special machine called
sphygmomanometer and it‟s expressed as a fraction: systolic pressure and the average blood
pressure is 12.

Diastolic pressure

For health adults at rest, the pressure can go as far as 100 and 140 millimeters of mercury.
60 90
A number of factors can affect the blood pressure, for example, the strength and rate of the
heart‟s contraction, elasticity of blood vessels and the amount of blood in the system. However,
when a person is afraid, excited, worried or nervous, may have an increase in blood pressure
which is mostly temporary, but consistent high blood pressure is usually a sign of a health
problem.

Hypertension or high blood pressure is caused mainly by age, due to non elasticity of arteries,
exercise, because of increased heart rate, stress, causes hormones to be relaxed into the blood
stream and hence increases the pressure. Smoking also increases hypertension because nicotine
is found in tobacco reduces the efficiency of the capillaries. Sometimes diet, especially diet high
in fat or salt may lead to increased blood pressure. This is because the fats deposits around the
heart may restrict its working efficiently and so fat deposits may block up or harden arteries.
Excess salt intake may lead to imbalance of body chemistry. Those that are overweight may

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experience blood pressure because weight put an extra strain on the circulatory system thereby
raising the blood pressure.

Blood is one major part of the circulatory system. It is not a homogeneous solution like salt and
water, but a mixture of cells and large molecules in a watery base known as plasma. Blood
contains a number of cells among which are the red blood cells, white blood cells and the
platelets. These account for 45% of blood volume in solid section. While the fluid section
accounts for 55% of blood volume in form of plasma.

The red blood cells also known as Erythrocytes has a total volume of about 99%. A mature blood
cell is a disc with concave sides. They perform the tasks of bringing oxygen from the lungs to the
body tissues. They are able to do this because they contain hemoglobin, which picks up oxygen
molecules from the lungs. It is the hemoglobin which colors the erythrocytes bright red. When
the red blood cells surrender oxygen to tissues (capillaries) in exchange for carbon dioxide,
blood becomes more purple in color, this explains the color difference between bright red arterial
blood and duller – colored in veins.

The red blood cells are produced in the bone marrow particularly that of the pelvis, sternum, and
skull. They can survive up to about 120 days before they are broken down in the spleen, liver and
blood vessels. (Auty et al:58)

The white blood cells are larger than the red blood cells but less in number. The white blood
cells protect and move actively to sites or areas of infection or disease and attempt to engulf the
invading foreign bodies. Puss is the accumulation of dead leucocytes.

White blood cells are in three main parts as granulocytes, monocots and lymphocytes. The first
two come from the bone marrow while the last one comes from the lymph glands. Basically
granulocytes include cells that swarm upon infected tissue and devour/eat up bacterial by a
process of phagocytosis. Monocytes produce macrophages that settle primarily in the spleen and
liver, where they engulf old red blood cells and foreign bodies.

The lymphocytes are the core of the body‟s immune system. They fight specific types of foreign
bodies and recognize fresh invasions. Others produce anti bodies that coat these foreign bodies
and make them easy prey for granulocytes.

Platelets are the smallest blood particles. They play a crucial role in clotting the blood. They
collect where an injured blood vessels in leaking blood. They then stick together thereby partly
plugging the hole in the vessel wall. Platelets also react with clotting factors to convert the
soluble fibrogen in blood plasma into a mesh of fibrin threads, creating a net that traps other cells
to phig the completely.

Plasma accounts for 55% of blood volume, this is the liquid section. It is a pale yellowish fluid
which contains 90% water and 10% other dissolved substances such as salts, calcium, nutrients
that is proteins and glucose, also there are hormones, carbon dioxide and other wastes from the
body. (Beashel; 2004:22)

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It is important to note that plasma protein include albumin, globulin and fibrogen. Albumin helps
maintain blood volume and pressure while globulin contains various antibodies. Each kind
combined chemically with specific kind of foreign body such as bacterium or virus. This helps to
neutralize disease – including germs. Fibrogen plays a crucial role in blood clotting. Plasma
deprived of clotting factors forms watery liquid known as serum, which usually or often dozes
minor to injury to skin. (Kramer; 1989)

Lymph and lymphatic system is one other system that is very vital to our bodies. While blood
circulates through arteries and veins, the blood base fluids, „lymph‟ flows through the lymphatic
system. Lymph is colorless, like plasma but little protein and no blood cells. Leaking from
capillaries lymph bathes the body‟s cells and drains into the lymphatic system. It takes with it
water, matter, dead cells and bacteria. Tissues pressing on the smaller thin-walled tubes drives
lumph into two major ducts that ultimately drains into broad veins at the sides of the neck. On
the way, lymph flows through lymph nodes that filter out wastes and produces bacteria-
destroying lymphocytes and other defensive cells.

During illness, nodes actively increase, producing enlarged lymph glands that can be felt in the
armpits, neck and groin. Besides the lymph nodes, the tonsils, adenoids, intestines, spleen and
thymus gland all generate protective lymphocytes. (Kramer; 1989:21).

The circulatory system in relation other body systems cannot be over emphasized. All the other
body systems depend on it for them to function well, just as it depends on other systems to
function effectively. First and foremost, we see the relationship between the circulatory system
and the nervous system. Our heart is made of cardiac muscle which is an involuntary muscle
over which we do not have control. This muscle never tires from conception until death. The
speed and force of each beat are controlled by the brain. Our brain is affected by what we are
doing. If one starts running, the brain will quickly send a message to tell the heart to start
pumping more blood to supply to the working leg muscles with oxygen. (Beashel; 2004). We
therefore, see that there is an increase in heart beat and heart rate as more and more blood is
pumped out of the heart. The skeletal system does not only support and protect the internal
organs such as the lungs, heart and others, it is in the bones of the pelvis, sternum and skull that
hemoglobin is manufactured. Hemoglobin is an important and very vital element that gives blood
its color. White and red blood cells are also produced in the same bones, hence the circulatory
system depends on the skeletal system.

During the physical activity and training, the brain tells the digestive system to hold on its
activities to give more chance to the working muscle to utilize the blood and oxygen. the
digestive system compliance shows that it does support the circulatory system.

Equally, the respiratory system works hand in hand with the circulatory system. This is seen in
the way air is taken in from the atmosphere, very quickly and rapidly. The air (oxygen + Carbon
dioxide) is carried from the system by the blood. When gaseous exchange take place in the air
sacs (alveoli) it is carried to all body tissues while deoxygenated blood carrying carbon dioxide
goes back to the heart, where it is pumped to the lungs for purification and the cycle continues.

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In the same way, during light or moderate exercise, blood flows to the skin increases so that the
metabolic heat generated. But during intense work of short duration like sprinting, the skin
temporarily restricts blood flow to accommodate, the increased blood flow to the muscle. In this
process we relate the circulatory system to the excretory system. And as more blood flows
around the body waste products like urea is carried in the blood system and released as urine.

More significant also is the relation of the circulatory system with the endocrine system. The
hormones that are released by the endocrine system are transported through the blood to various
parts of the body where they are supposed to perform different functions. For example, hormones
that make pubic hair and beards to grow in adolescence. Another example is that of hormones
that are released to make people salivate at the sight of food. This and few other examples
sighted above are the relation that the circulatory system has with other body systems.

The final part of this discussion is to relate the circulatory system to physical education. One
major relation is seen in the supply of food to the heart by coronary circulation. Although, the
heart utilizes a lot of oxygen at rest, there is a greater demand of oxygen by the myocardium
during exercise. This demand can only be met by a proportionate increase in the coronary blood
flow. In fact, during vigorous exercise, coronary blood flow may increase four times to five
times above the resting levels. (Mc Ardle et al; 1986).

It is estimated that about 1 liter of blood per minute can be supplied to the heart during vigorous
exercise. In addition, hormones of the sympathetic nervous system are released during exercise
causing coronary dilation to facilitate increased blood flow. (Beashel et‟ al 2004).

The other relation is seen in the supply of blood to the working muscles. During exercise, our
muscles need more oxygen and we breath out and more deeply and quickly in order to get this
oxygen to the lungs. These increased supplies of oxygen are picked up by the blood in our lungs
and transported more quickly back to the heart. The double circulatory system ensures that the
increased supplies of oxygen collected from the lungs are transported at an increased rate to the
working muscle. At the same time, carbon dioxide and other waste products are removed at an
increased rate hence defeating lactic acid and strengthen the working period. (Beashel, et‟ al,
2004).

The right type of the training can release the size and pumping ability of the heart. That is, the
stroke volume and cardiac output of the heart. Like all muscles, the heart muscle responds to
training by becoming stronger as its walls thicken. There is greater volume of blood per heart
beat pumped through the body of a trained person than an untrained person.

Evidence gathered from Olympic Athletics and others show that a trained person has lower pulse
rate than untrained person. The pulse of a trained individual returns to normal much more
quickly than does the pulse rate of the untrained person. (Schneiler and Karpulch).

When individuals exercise, the muscles grow. In the same way, the bone density and strength is
increased. Lack of exercise will lead to loss of both bone mass and density, therefore weaken
bones.

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Research has shown that exercise increases efficiency of the veins to return blood to the central
nervous system. It is noted that during exercise reflex vaso constriction occurs in the veins so
that blood is turned promptly to the heart. The stiffening of the veins immediately increases the
return of blood to the right ventricle. Actually, as cardiac output increase, venous tone also
increases relatively in both working and non- working muscles so that a balance is maintained
between cardiac output and venous return.

The benefit of training or exercise may be more appreciated by people with high blood pressure
or hypertension. This is a condition that happens when arteries have become hardened because of
fatty materials that may have been deposited within the walls or fatty deposits have accumulated
around the heart tissue and so it‟s restricted when pumping blood. Such a scenario imposes
chronic excessive strain on the normal functioning of the circulatory system. If left unchecked,
this condition may be fatal.

However, regular exercise may help to burn or oxidize accumulated fatty materials in arteries
thereby opening up blood passage way and reduce blood pressure. The fatty deposits around the
heart may burn and allow free space for the heart to operate at its maximum capacity. (Davis; et‟
al, 1986).

THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

The respiratory system is one of the systems in living organisms. One notable and obvious
characteristic about living things is that they contain cells. Cells are the basic units of every
living thing. In other words, cells are the building blocks of living things just as a house is built
on smaller units called bricks or blocks.

Level of cell organization

Cells similar in shape and function work together to ensure the survival of the organism. A group
of these cells make up the body‟s tissues. Cells within a tissue are capable of recognizing similar
cells and sticking to them. In the human body there are four primary kinds of tissues: Epithelial,
Connective, Muscles and Nervous tissues.

Epithelial tissue is covering tissue that protects not only the outer surface of our bodies but our
internal organs as well. It also lines the insides of the digestive tract and blood vessels.
Connective tissues provide support and hold various parts of the body together. A group of
tissues specialized to carryout particular functions form an organ e.g the heart whose outer
structure is covered by epithelial tissues, which also lines the inside of the heart‟s chambers and
blood vessels where as the nerve tissue initiates and synchronizes cardinal muscle contractions
and relays information top brain about the strength of these contractions while the blood that
pulses through the heart is connective tissue. (Davis et‟ al;1986)

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Definition and Structure of the Respiratory System

The term respiratory refers to three separate but related functions:

i. Ventilation (breathing).

a. Gas exchange which occurs between the air and blood in the lungs and
between the blood and other tissues of the body.

ii. Oxygen utilization by the tissue in the energy – liberating reactions of cell respiration.
Ventilation and the exchange of gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide) between the air
and blood are collectively called external respiration. Gas exchange between them
and other tissues and oxygen utilization by the tissues are collectively called the
internal respiration. In simplicity, the respiratory system consists of:

1. The air
2. The lungs

o Diaphragm

The Air Passages

The following are the parts of the air passages:

Nasal cavity – air enters the nostrils and in each of these two cavities there are three ridges
which are covered in a thick, mucus membrane which filters the air and warms and moistens it.
The filtering is done by the cilia which are small hairs that trap dust, pollen and any other
airborne impurities.

i. Mouth – air as well enters through the mouth. The mouth is separated from the nasal
cavity by the palate which allows you to chew food at the same time as you breath.
ii. Pharynx – this allows both food and air to enter. The food goes into the esophagus
and air travels through the pharynx.
iii. Epiglottis – this is a flap at the back of the throat which prevents food from going
down the trachea or wind pipe.
iv. Larynx/ voice box – the epiglottis is at the upper end of the larynx and the air passes
through here to the trachea. It has the larynx that the voice is produced, as air moves
over the vocal cords.
v.

vi. Trachea/wind pipe – this is a large tube consisting of cartilage. It is flexible but
cartilage rings are rigid and keep open.
vii. Bronchus – these are at the base of the trachea where it branches out into smaller
tubes known as the left and right branches or bronchi.
viii. Bronchioles – the bronchi in turn branch out into small tubes known as bronchioles
and these subdivide into smaller air sacs which are called alveoli. There are literally

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 millions of these and they make up majority of the tissues. It is here that the exchange
of oxygen and carbon dioxide takes place. (Beashel et‟ al 2004).

1) The Lungs

Lungs are the main organs of the respiratory system. They are inside the chest cavity
protected by the ribs at the back, sides, font and the diaphragm at the bottom.
The left one has three sections. The lungs are surrounded by a layer of membrane, called
pleura. This acts like a lubricant, which is smooth and moist, and protects the lungs from
any friction as they get bigger and smaller during breathing.

2) The diaphragm

This is a large sheet which seals off the chest cavity from the abdominal cavity. Also, by
contracting and relaxing, it is responsible for the action of breathing.

FUNCTIONS OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

 It brings oxygen from the atmosphere into the lungs.

 It provides, inside the lungs, a method of gas exchange that allows oxygen to enter
the blood and carbon dioxide to leave the blood.
 It removes carbon dioxide and some water vapor from the lungs to the atmosphere.
 It removes also carbon dioxide from the muscles into the blood.
 It removes carbon dioxide from the muscles into the blood from where it is more (air
sac) to where it is less (blood capillary) while carbon dioxide diffuses in the opposite
direction. The oxygen diffuses into the blood attaching itself to the oxygen lover tart
of the red blood cells called carbon dioxide to form oxy – hemoglobin and carbon
dioxide and carbon acid. (Bucher 1968).

The table below shows the difference between the inspired air and the expired air.
Inspired air Expired air Expired air
from from sleeping from running
atmosphere man man
Nitrogen 78% 78% 78%
Oxygen 21% 16% 12%
Carbon Dioxide 0.03% 4% 9%
Rare Gases 1% 1% 1%
Water Vapor Variable Saturated Saturated

Lungs

The lungs are the major organs of the respiratory system and they take up most of the chest
cavity/ thorax. The lungs look and feel spongy because of the many tiny bronchioles and millions
alveoli. Lungs are covered by a double layer of membrane called pleura which lines the inside of
the ribs and envelops the lungs completely. Pleura contains some lubricating fluid to prevent
friction as the lungs expand and contract in breathing. (Galligan; 2000)

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Inspiration and Expiration

The thoracic cavity increases in size during inspiration (inhalation). In three directions
anteroposteriorly, laterally and vertically. This is accomplished by contractions of the diaphragm
and the intercostals muscles. Other thoracic muscles become involved in forced (deep)
inspiration, including the scalene and the sterncledomastoid muscles of the neck and pectoralis.
Minor muscles of the chest. When we are at rest we breathe between fourteen and sixteen times a
minute. (Beashel, et‟ al 2004).

Inspiration

During inspiration, the diaphragm contracts and descends, while the external intercostals muscle
raises the ribs and push out the sternum, enlarging the thoracic cavity. This process reduces
pressure in the lungs and air rushes in from the atmosphere.

Expiration

During expiration and external intercostals muscles relax allowing the thoracic cavity to return to
its normal size. This increases the pressure in the lungs and forces the air out.

Types of Lung Volume

Depending on the conditions of inspiration and expiration, our lungs exchange various amounts
of air with the atmosphere, consequently, several different respiratory volumes capacities – are
measured in a person‟s respiratory status. (Davis, et‟ al 1985).

i. Tidal Volume: the amount of expired or inspired air per breath.

ii. Vital Capacity: The maximum volume forcefully expired after maximum
inspiration. Slightly decreases during exercise.
iii. Inspiration Capacity: Maximum volume inspired from resting expiratory level.
Increases with exercise.
iv. Expiratory Reserve Volume: the amount of air which can be forced out after a
normal expiration.
v. Residual Volume: the amount of air which remains in the lungs after the maximum
expiration.
vi. Ventilation: this is the amount of air breathed in one minute. It can be defined by the
following equation;

Ventilation = Tidal Volume x Number of Breathes

Amount per breath = Per minute (Respiratory rate) x Breathes per minute

According to Dalton‟s law, the total pressure each gas mixture (such as air) is equal to the sum of
the pressures that each gas in the mixture would exert independently. The pressure that a
particular gas in the mixture exerts independently is determined by multiplying that gas. The
partial pressure of each gas in a mixture is determined by multiplying the percentage of the gas

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in the mixture by the total pressure. Since oxygen consists about 21% of the atmosphere, for
example, its pressure (abbreviated as Po 2) is 21% of 760 or about 159 mm Hg. Nitrogen
constitute 78% of the atmosphere, so it‟s partial pressure is equal to 78% of 760 or 593 mmHg.
Oxygen and nitrogen contribute about 99% of the total pressure of 760 mmHg P dry atmosphere
= PN2 + PO2 + PCO2 = 760mmHg (atmospheric pressure). Kramer 1989.

EXERCISE AND THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

There are two kinds of response to exercise:

i. Immediate/short – term response that last for only the duration of the exercise and the
recovery period.
ii. Chronic response which are long term adaptations to exercise bouts. We can call the
summation of these chronic adaptations the training effect.

ACUTE CARDIOVASCULAR RESPOSE TO EXERCISE

i. Effects on cardiac output – at rest, cardiac output is 4 to 6 beats per minute x

80mls per beat = 5.6 liters per minute.
ii. Effects on stroke volume – Stroke volume increases, because more blood is
returning to the heart (venous return), for exercise levels up to 40 – 60 percent of
person‟s maximum capacity. Therefore, stroke, stroke volume occurs during sub
maximum work.
iii. Increases in the heart rate – The heart rate increases as exercise intensity
increases, up to maximum heart rate. This is called tachycardia. Your maximum
heart rate is 220 minus your age.
iv. Effects on systolic blood pressure – systolic blood pressure linearly with
increasing exercise intensity because of the increased cardiac output. For instance,
at rest systolic blood pressure is 120 mm Hg whilst during exercise it may be
180mmHg.
v. Effects on the blood flow plasma volume – the blood plasma volume usually
decreases during strenuous exercise, especially in hot weather because of in
sweating. It‟s true this leads to loss from the body water and electrolysis.
vi. Effects on blood acidity – blood acidity increases because of increased amounts of
lactic acid circulating in the blood.
vii. Effects on the muscle glycogen content – there‟s decrease in muscle glycogen
content during strenuous exercise as glycogen is being used as a primary source
of energy.
viii. Effects on coronary blood flow – coronary blood flow increases about five fold
during strenuous exercise in order to supply oxygen to meet the increased demand
of the cardiac muscle. (Wilson and Ross, 2005)

CELL RESPIRATION AND PHYSICAL ACTIVITIES

 Cells get energy from glucose in a process called respiration. We have two kinds of cell
respiration that go on in our muscle fibers:
i. Aerobic respiration which uses oxygen to produce energy.

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 ii. Anaerobic respiration which does not use oxygen to produce energy.

 During exercise, cell respiration in our muscles increases. So the level of carbon
dioxide in our blood rises.
 The brain detects this (nervous system) and sends a signal to the lungs to breath faster
and deeper. Therefore gas exchange in the lungs speeds up. More carbon dioxide passes
out of the blood and more oxygen passes into it.
 The brain also sends a signal to the heart to beat faster so that:
 More blood gets pumped to the lungs for gas exchange
 More blood gets pumped to the muscles, carrying oxygen and removing carbon
dioxide.
 The muscles usually gets their energy from aerobic respiration e.g. when we walk, jog,
swim or cycle (the muscles use oxygen to get energy for all these activities).
 But sometimes muscles need a lot of energy very fast e.g. when we sprint, we cannot
provide enough by aerobic respiration because oxygen cannot reach the muscles fast
enough. So anaerobic respiration takes over.
 But after less than a minute, the lactic acid stops the muscles from working and if we
try to keep on sprinting, we may collapse. (Brown et‟ al 1980)

OXYGEN DEBT

During prolonged exercise (5 minutes) changes in pace or speed may push you abouve your
anaerobic threshold, that is above the state at which all ATP required can be supplied
aerobically. At this stage, the lactic acid system makes up the leaway and lactic acid accumulates
in the muscles and blood. In this situation, the body uses the anaerobic system to provide energy,
in the same way it does at the start or during high – intensity, short exercise. (Auty, et‟ al; 1986).

The oxygen occurs when the exercise performed is totally or partially anaerobic (without
oxygen). When this happens, creative phosphate (CP) stores are depleted, and lactic acid builds
up in the muscles. Oxygen is required to break down the lactic acid and replenish the (CP) stores.

Types of Oxygen Debt

Oxygen debt consists of two parts:

i. Alacid debt – alacid debt occurs when oxygen is consumed in early recovery and is used
to replenish ATP/CP stores. This takes about 30 seconds to proved 50% replenishment, 3
minutes to provide 100% recovery. This is the oxygen for which there is no increase in
the lactic acid in the muscles or the blood stream.
ii. Lactic acid debt – this occurs when the oxygen uptake recovery is used to break down
lactic acid: that is, the oxygen debt for which when lactic acid levels are increased
proportionally.

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Rates of recovery

Lactic acid takes about an hour to be removed completely. Therefore, if during exercise only 2
liters of oxygen debt accumulates, this amount to only an alacid debt, so recovery will be fast.

However, if after a hard run, you accumulate 5 liters of oxygen debt, only the first 2.5 liters
(alacid debt) will be repaid quickly, while 2.51 (lactic acid debt) will take long to be repaid.
(Linda G & Sally 2000).

ACTIVITY:

1. What is the difference between internal and external respiration?

2. Define oxygen debt
3. Discuss the effects of exercise on the following body systems: circulatory,
nervous, digestive and respiratory systems.
4. What energy source does the brain and nervous system rely on?

SUMMARY:

In this unit we have learnt that there is no single system in the human body that stands out on its
own. Each of the body systems depend on each other for the body to function well. When doing
physical activities, all the body systems are actively involved. However, the nervous systems on
what they could do although it also depends on the other systems as well. It is important that all
the people involved in handling lessons of Physical Education have full understanding on the
body systems get attached as one performs the activities

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UNIT: 10 ORGANIZATION OF EXPRESSIVE ARTS

ATHLETICS

INTRODUCTION

Athletics contests running, walking, jumping, and throwing are among the oldest of all sports.
Athletics competitions are typically divided into one of four categories track and field, road
running, cross country running and race walking.

Athletics strand provides a variety of opportunities to engage in the natural activities of running,
jumping and throwing. The child needs to learn to associate joyfulness with these experiences.
The emphasis should be on exploring and experimenting with the basic movement of walking,
running and throwing through a wide range of informal play experiences. Building on these
early experiences, children then develop the techniques of running, jumping and throwing as
they progress through the primary school

LEARNING OUTCOMES:

 Draw the running track with correct measurement

 Identify the officials in athletics and state their roles
 Describe the stages in sports organization
 Demonstrate the skills and techniques used in athletics
 Construct the play fields for field

USING YOUR FACILITIES TO ADVANTAGE

The lay-out of an athletic track with the jumping and throwing areas depends entirely on the
space available. Not every school has the space for 400 metre track of standard size. School
fields come on all shapes and sizes; many are long and narrow or just very small. Some have
built hazards – slopes, buildings, gardens etc. Some schools have no field at all. An athletics lay
out can be created in practically every situation.

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CONSTRUCTION OF A 400M RUNNING TRUCK

STANDARD 400M RUNNING TRUCK

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OFFICIALS

The number of official will depend on the size and scope of the athletic or sports occasion. Here
is a list of important officials.

Referees

- The referees shall ensure that the Rules are observed and shall decide upon any matter
which arises during the competition and for which provision has not been made in these
rules.

- He must be familiar with athletic rules and regulations. All judges should report to the
referee on arrival.

Chief Track and Field Judges

Are every responsible for organizing the judges who are under them.

JUDGES (FIELD EVENTS)

For every field event at least three judges are required.

- To act as a scribe
- To watch for the correctness of the jump or throw.
- To measure the distance/height of the jump/throw.

CHIEF TIME KEEPER

He is responsible for organizing his time keepers

TIME KEEPERS

They are usually six in number for an average meeting. Experience is necessary to be good at
time keeping. They should position themselves in line with the finishing tape. (Make sure stop
watches are synchronized).

STARTER

One starter is enough for an average meeting. Here again experienced teachers are needed to
handle the gun. The starter shall have entire control to the athletes on their marks. The starter
shall position himself so that he has full visual control over all athletes during the start
procedure.

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MARKSMEN

They see that the competitors are ready and in their correct positions. This is particularly
important when staggered starts are used. They also make sure that all athletes are behind the
starting line and watch for false starts and fire a recall gun if necessary.

CLERK OF THE COURSE

He is responsible for tie track marking and field event apparatus and ensures that those conform
with regulations.

ANNOUNCER

He should be clear and concise and should never make an announcement when a race is about to
start or when a field even competition is about to jump or throw. The announcer shall have
access to the results via a computer. He shall inform the public of the names and numbers of the
athletes taking part in each event, shall announce the result of each event.

RECORDER

Their duties are to keep all the official record of the meeting on the record sheet.

TAKE-OVER JUDGES

They are required during the relay races. They are stationed at the take-over points. They judge
the correctness of the take-over during a race.

CHIEF STEWARD
With the help of all other stewards under his charge, his main responsibility is to see that the
meeting runs smoothly.

STARTER’S ASSISTANTS

Shall check that the athletes are competing in the correct heat or race and that their number bibs
are worn correctly.

They must place each athlete in his correct lane or station, assembling the athletes approximately
3m behind the start line

LAP SCORERS

Lap scorers shall keep a record of the laps completed by all athletes in race longer than 1500m.
One lap scorer shall be needed at the finishing point showing a display of the laps remaining.

On lap scorer shall be responsible for maintain at the finish line, a display of the laps remaining

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COMPETITION SECRETARY

Shall collect the full results of each event, details of which shall be provided by the Referee. He
shall immediately relay these details to the announcer.

MARSHAL

Shall have control of the arena and shall not allow any person other than the officials and athletes
assembled to compete.

SCRIBERS: Prepares the certificates.

ORGANISATION OF A SPORTS MEETING

To host a tournament successfully requires a lot of advance preliminary planning. Such planning
can be sub divided into four main stages.

1) Early arrangements
2) Late arrangements
3) Meeting date itself
4) Post meeting work

Early Arrangement (Approximately 3 months in advance)

POINTS FOR DISCUSSION REMARKS

1. Decide date (keep an - No clash, arrange meeting before another one of
alternative date in mind) a higher level; notify Z.A.A.A. of date.
2. Decide Events - This depends on the type of athletics you expect.
There can be social athletics or serious athletics
and often a combination of both.
3. Book the ground - Write to the institution concerned if you do not
have your own track or arrange for any
maintenance or repairs
4. Loan of Equipment - Write to the institution that is likely to lend
equipment.
5. Deciding on admission charges - If any, usually only at provincial level. .
6. Entries - Send the list of events and ask the
house/school/province for entries. The entry
forms should stipulate a closing date for their
return which will allow sufficient time for the
detailed planning of the tournament.
7. Issue invitation to officials - Ask people who are likely to know a lot about
athletics (sport) or as the help of ZAAA
officials.
8. Posters - In case of a good meeting e.g. inter-provincial,
distribute posters to institutions and public

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 places. (For inter-house have a few posters
around school)
9. Arrangements for public - Seating arrangement and refreshments. Make
benefit arrangements for supply of food and
refreshments. Ask big firm to provide
refreshments. Allocate this part of arrangements
to school tuck-shop or responsible persons
10. Additional Fixtures - Consider any additional fixtures such as goal
posts and arranging to either borrow those or
have them made.

Late arrangements (Between one to two months in advance)

POINTS FOR DISCUSSION REMARKS

1. V.I.Ps - Who? Send invitations to them through
Headmaster
2. Draft programme - If any, find the estimated cost committee for
getting advertisement to lower the expenses.
Make a simple programme for house sports
3. Challenge cups - Arrange for their return
4. Prizes - If any, purchase them. Decide on prizes to be
awarded and make arrangements for their
procurement.
5. Clerical preparations - Get results cards printed e.g. High jump, Long
Jump and Track events.

Early arrangements - Remind tournament officials, attend to the

court/pitch marking if necessary,

- Plan the format of the tournament based on the

entries received, this planning include duration
of the matches,

- Determine the start and finishing times

- Conduct the tournament draw.

6. P.A. system - Make sure a public address system is available
and who can assemble and work it.
7. Items for Track layout - Lime, string, nails and equipments for cutting
grass.

- Ensure that balls, and whistles are available.

Source: Athletics for school.

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THE MEETING DAY ITSELF

Before the meeting begins

(a) Inspect the areas to see that everything is in order e.g. marking equipment etc. here is a
list of important items: -

(i) Z.A.A.A. rules for compettion

(ii) Worsted wood for finishing
(iii) Officials badges if any
(iv) Competitor‟s number or colours of any.
(v) Prizes and any challenge cups certificate and spares.
(vi) Tape measures (steel).
(vii) Relay batons, take over 8 judges flags
(viii) Official‟s programmes
(ix) Spare gun and ammunition
(x) Admission tickets
(xi) Scoring cards for field events and result-cards for track events.
(xii) Field event implements
(xiii) Chalkboard, chalk, rubber.

(b) Check on seating arrangements for guests and officials. Reservation cards should be
placed in the appropriate places.

(c)Check refreshment arrangements

(d) See people responsible for running the public address system. Also try to get hold of a
hailer in case P.A. system breaks down.

(e)First Aid kit.

POST MEETING WORK

(a) Immediate work

(i) See that the field is cleared. (Pupils organized by prefects are a great help)
(ii) All trophies which have been not taken must be locked away.
(iii) Thank personally everyone you can or write letters.
(iv) Consult with the Chief Official and get their suggestions on how to improve
the running of the meeting
(v) Pay everyone who requires immediate for services and obtain a receipt for
such payment.
(vi) Collect official‟s badges.
(vii) Collect the record sheet and all judges slips spare programme etc.

(b) Subsequent Work

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 (i) See to the immediate engraving of all trophies.
(ii) Write a letter of thanks to everyone who helped you on sports day e.g.: -
Dear John Chambanenge,
On behalf of the ZAAA sports organization, I would like to express my
sincere appreciation for the invaluable help which you gave and which
contributed to the success of the meeting.
I do hope you will help us again.
Thank you once again.
Yours sincerely,
(iii) Prepare a sports day file 2010 and in this file place the following: -
a) Copies of all circulars sent out concerning the meeting.
b) Copies of entry forms; judges stip
c) Record sheet
d) Copies of the programme fully marked with names of winners, new
records and standards.
e) A list showing all the officials who helped at the meeting.
A private note should be made of anything you think was not
satisfactory plus suggestions as to their improvement.

(iv) Pay outstanding accounts and prepare a simple balance sheet.

(v) A letter of thanks to the person who presented the prize should be sent
through the Head teacher.

(vi) Prepare a list of competitors who merit a place for a meeting of higher level.

GENERAL COACHING HINTS

It is important that your athletes start training way back before the competition season e.g. in
Zambia the competition is in July – October. The athletes should start their basic conditioning
actually in November. The yearly draining circle is actually divided into three phases: -

1) Basic conditioning
2) Specific training
3) Competitio

BASIC CONDITONING

Which starts in November up to February. This phase include mostly General training, Long
distance, running up-hill runs, forklike, weight-training and resistance running whose principle
key is to make running difficult e.g. Herness running, or running with a weighted jacket, circuit
training can also be used in this stage..

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SPECIFIC TRAINING

Spring training and this starts in March until June just before the competition phase. In this
phase the training is specific according to the events of an individual athlete e.g. a hurdler starts
hurdling and mastering the hurdling technique, jumpers start. Jumping and start acquiring the
skills needed. However the basic conditioning is not stopped but it‟s greatly reduced because the
specific training is more important in this phase.

COMPETITION

Summer training – this starts in July until October. The level of basic conditioning has been
greatly reduced and is supposed to peak in this phase. A lot of competitions are organized and
athletes almost compete every two weeks.

After the competition phase, there‟s one month of rest called The Transition phase and then the
whole yearly circle is repeated.

NOVEMBER TO MARCH TO JUNE JULY TO OCTOBER

FEBRUARY

General

TRANSITION PERIOD
Training

Specific
Training

BASIC SPECIFIC TRAINING COMPETITION

CONDITIONING
WINTER SPRING SUMMER

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Why do we train?

We train in order to improve our strength, mobility, Endurance, speed and skill. When training
athletes in the above we should ensure that energy of technique do not arise due to compensation
for deficiency in these areas because technique must never be sacrificed for anything. Different
events require varying degrees of development e.g. endurance is vital to middle distance runners,
strength is very important to throwers and speed is important to sprinters.

TRACK EVENTS

Running events should be considered as technical events. It is true, of course, that running is a
„natural activity‟, but efficient running requires technical instruction

Observation of a group of youngster running will clearly demonstrate the variety of movements
which come under the heading of „running‟. The variety is due to a complex of reasons, such as
poor motor coordination and poor mobility or strength, and the resultant compensatory actions.

The technical development of an athlete‟s running action should advance in three stages.

1. Development of general fitness – strength, mobility, endurance.

2. Development of a sound and efficient running techniques, together with specialized

elements such as hurdling, water jump clearance and starting

3. The progressive development of speed, and specific endurance, with parallel development
of relaxation, rhythm and economy of effort.

SPRINTING

There are three major sprint events: the 100m, 200m and 400m. All these involve athletes
running at top speed throughout the race. Athletes must stay within their designated lanes.

While there is no ideal physique for sprints, you may notice that they are often tall and long-
legged. In order to be successful they require a combination of leg speed, fast reactions and
strength. This is often referred to as explosive power.

Technique

The Athlete‟s first stride out of the block is around one metre in length. Each subsequent step
should increase until a natural stride length of around two metres is reached. A good sprinter
will only take around seven or eight strides to reach his natural length.

The finish
At the finish the winner is the athlete whose torso (Trunk) crosses the finish line first.

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In her attempt to beat opponents, the runner thrust her chest forward in the final stride, throwing
her arms back behind her body. This help to push her forward, and is often referred to as a dip
finish.

100 meters

The 100m takes place on the home straight and is most probably the most prestigious of all the
sprint event.

The 100m can be broken into three distinct stages

1. Driving strides (20 – 30m)

2. Acceleration (30 – 60m)
3. Maintaining speed (60m onwards)

200 metre
As the 200 m begins on the bend, a staggered start is required to ensure that each athlete runs the
same distance.

When running the bend at top speed athletes are thrown towards the outside edge of the lane,
increasing the distance they have to run. To overcome this they lean into the bend and drop their
inside arm while bringing the other slightly across their body.

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Staggered starts

Start

Source: Athletics A Handbook for Teachers(pg.28)

400 meter

This is the longest and most demanding of the sprints, requiring both stamina and speed. The
acceleration stage is not as explosive as in the 100m and 200m as in order to save energy the
runner increases his effort gradually. He does not reach maximum speed until around 150 –
200m. The runner may start to experience fatigue at 200m. This becomes more pronounced as
he enters the home straight. He must now concentrate on staying relaxed and ensuring good
running technique. This helps him maintain speed through to the finish.

The bends can also cause problems: athletes in the inside lanes must negotiate very tight bends
whilst those in the outside lanes cannot see their opponents. This is known as running blind.
All the three races 100m, 200m and 400m begin with a gunshot. „Take your marks, set (bang)‟.
The 800m and longer races begin „Take your marks, (bang)‟. The starter can stop the race with a
second shot if someone starts too early. This is called a false start. The race is then started
again. In sprints, runners are out if they false start once. (Paul et al 2004 Sport examined).

RELAY RACING

In the 4 x 100m, the baton must be passed to the next runner within the change over area. This
is a 20m zone. In the 4 x 400m, the baton is passed at the start/finish area at the end of each lap.
If the baton is dropped it must be picked up by the runner who dropped it. The baton is a
lightweight metal tube.

- The Athlete must start and finish the takeover inside the zones.

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 - The takeover is illegal if it takes place outside the changeover zone at either end.

- An athlete may not impede another by operating outside his lane. If this happens the
offending team must be disqualified.

Longer Relays

A 4 x 400 metres relay is usually run in lanes for the first lap and then athletes are allowed to
break for the inside lane. At international level the use of lane is maintained until the back
straight of the second lap.

The changeover take place on the finish line Red and White Flags are usually used to indicate
whether changeovers are legal or not. A white flag indicate that all is correct; a red flag indicates
an infringement of the rules.

Athletes can either use „upsweep‟ and „down sweep‟ changeover

FIELD EVENTS

THROWING EVENTS

Development of throwing events is best thought of as growing from a „common root‟ movement.
Certainly this is the case with Javelin, shot and Discus, while the Hammer, although resting on
similar principles should be introduced from a slightly different approach.

The „common root‟ idea is based on the fact that at their most fundamental level, the shot, discus
and javelin involves (in the right handed thrower). The following action sequence: -

1. Rotation of the right hip over a bent right knee, towards the direction of the thrown.

2. Transfer of weight from the right foot forward onto the left foot – by extending the right
ankle/knee.

3. Extension of the left ankle/knee/hip.

In other words, the right lower limb gives the body forward (horizontal) movement via rotation
and extension; the left lower limb gives the body upward (vertical) movement via extension.
By „the body‟, I mean the strong pillar of the hip/spine complex, which, in rotating forward adds
to the movement started by the right lower limb.

The totality of this movement is finally transferred to the shoulder/arm complex which, in turn,
adds its very fast contribution to the release of the implement.
The contribution of right lower limb, hips/spine – and should/arm provides the release velocity
of the implement, while the left lower limb/hip plus a „lifting‟ left side, provides the release
angle of the implement.

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These „common root‟ movements are so very important that the athlete learning to throw discus,
javelin or shot must be able to reproduce them if he is to produce to the specific of individual
events.

Shot put

Layout of shot put circle

The shot must be held by only one hand and from the time the competitor takes his stand in the
circle to commence a put, it must touch or be in close proximity to the chin, and the hand must
not drop below that position during the action of putting.

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A shot must not be brought behind the line of the shoulders. In other words it must be a one-
armed thrust or push away from the body. Thus a „put; as distinct from a throw.

- All movement must be carried out from within a circle of 2.135m diameter, which has a
stop-board fixed into the ground.

- The athlete may not touch the line of the circle, the top ends or front of the stop-board, nor
the ground outside the circle, during the put, but he/she is allowed to touch the inside of the
board.

- At all times in competition the athlete must leave the circle from its rear half after the
missile has landed

Competitor must not spray or spread any substance on the surface of a throwing circle nor on
their shoes.

- The competitor is allowed to interrupt a trail once he has started it, to put the shot on the
ground and to leave the circle, if he wishes, before returning and adopting a stationary
position again and restarting the trial.

- For a valid put the shot must fall completely within the inner edges of lines marking a
sector of 4 degrees set out on the ground

Landing Area

X No shot
 Correct shot

Source: Max. J. (1995) shot putting

Athlete should not leave the circle until the shot has touched the ground and shall then, from a
standing position, step out of the circle from the rear half.

IMPLEMENT: The Shot

- Shall be made of solid iron, brass or any metal not softer than brass.

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 - Shall be spherical in shape and the surface shall have no roughness and the finish shall be
smooth.

- The shot shall weight 7.26 kg for men and 4kg for women.

- For younger throwers the competition weight are as follows: -

BOYS U – 20 U – 17 U – 15 U – 13
WEIGHT 6.25kg 5kg 4kg 3.25kg

GIRLS U – 17 U – 15 U – 13
WEIGHT 4kg 3.25kg 2.72kg

KEY:
U = under

SOURCE: David g. (1980) Athletics, A Handbook for teachers.

JUDGING

A write flag indicates a fair throw and a red flag a foul throw. At least two judges should keep a
record of all trial and check recordings at the end of each round.

MEASUREMENT

This takes place immediately after each trial. Puts are measured from the nearest mark made by
the shot to the inner-edge of the ring bounding the circle.

Throwing circle.

Measurement taken here

Tape held at zero

Source: Dave G (1984) Athletics Sport pg 25

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Rules

- The javelin shall be held at the grip. It shall be thrown over the shoulder or upper part of
the throwing arm and shall not be stung or hurled non-orthodox styles are not permitted.

- A throw shall be valid only if the tip of the metal head strikes the ground before any other
part of the javelin. (Land point first).

- Until the javelin has been thrown an athlete shall not at any time turn completely around, so
that his back is towards the throwing arc.

- If the javelin breaks during throw or while in the air, it shall not count as a failure. An
athlete shall be awarded a new trail

- In leaving the throwing area, the javelin thrower must remain behind the nearer edge of the
scratch line or its 0.75m sideway projections.

Assistance

- The use of adhesive substance, such as Venice, Turpentine in order to aid the grip on the
javelin is not permitted.

- Gloves are not allowed to be worn on the throwing hand.

- Strapping of the wrist is permitted, as the wearing of a weight lifting belt around the waist.

Measurement

- A throw is measured from the nearest mark made by the head of the javelin to the inner
edge of the circumference of the arc.

- Measurement is along a line from the mark and through the centre of the radius of an arc.

JAVELIN SPECIFICATION

YEARS BOYS GIRLS

11 – 13 years 400gm 400gm
13 – 15 years 600gm 600gm
15 – 17 years 700gm 600gm
17 – 20 years 800gm 600gm

Source: Davie G. (1980) Athletics Sport

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DISCUS CIRCLE AND LANDING SECTOR

Layout of discus throw circle

Rules

No practice trials shall be allowed after a competition has begun

- All throws shall be made within a cage

- The competitor shall not leave the circle until the discus has touched the ground.
- When interrupting a trial, the competitor may lay down his discus. He/she must then
recommence his/her section from a stationary position.
- The discus must land within the inner edge of the sector line.

JUDGING

- Five judges are needed. Judge 1 and 2 watch on their own side for infringement with the
circle. Three judges are needed in the field since the landing area is unpredictable.

- Measuring is a long tape from the mark and through the centre of the circle.

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SPECIFICATION

YEARS BOYS GIRLS

0.75kg or
11 – 13 years 0.75
1.00kg
13 – 15 years 1.25kg 1.00kg
15 – 17 years 1.50kg 100kg
17 – 20 years 1.75kg 1.00kg

THE JUMPS

Jumping might be considered as a unique technical product of

TAKE-OFF: - Postural factors – alignment of trunk/hip etc.

- Momentum factors – use of non-jumping legs and arms
- Jumping leg action – for height, for maintaining momentum.

APPROACH: – Optional Velocity – for distance or height

– Running posture and transition to Jump.

FLIGHT: - Requirement of flight – Clear a bar

– remain balanced
– gain a landing advantage.

The jumping model from the trip upwards is almost identical in all jumps. It is absolutely
essential that the truck never bends or distorts over the trip, but that the body is balanced into and
out of take-off. Some ideas of this „balance‟ may be achieved by performing a half squat action
while the back is in content with a wall.

The basic model demands considerable static strength in the trunk – and a sound basis of general
strength in the shoulders/back/hips/legs.

The athlete develops strength in the back and legs by orthodox means – with or without
resistance before moving to jumps practices.

Games such as basketball, where jumping action may be rehearsed can be used to practice
jumping. Also traditional practices such as hopping bounding and running up hills flights of
steps can be used

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LAYOUT OF LONG JUMP/TRIPLE JUMP PITCH

5cm 1m

2.75m
Runway 1.22m 1m
Minimum
40m
Maximum

Take-off board 9m
1.22m L x 20cm W
Landing Area Long Jump/Triple jump
3m
Rules
Maximum
An Athlete Fails if:

- While taking off touches the ground beyond the take off time with any part of his body
whether running up without jumping or in the act of jumping.

- He takes off from the outside either end of the board, whether beyond or before the
extension of the take-off line; or

- The touches the ground between the take-off line and the landing area.

- He employs any form of somersaulting whilst running up or in the act of jumping.

- In the course of landing he touches the ground outside the landing area closer to the take
off line than the nearest break made in the sand.

- When leaving the landing area, his first contact with the ground outside the landing area is
clear to the take-off line than the nearest break made in the sand on landing, including any
break made on over balancing on tending which is completely inside the landing area but
closer to the take off line than the initial break made on landing.

Note: It is not a failure if:

- An athlete runs outside the white lines marking the runway at any point.

- A part of an athlete‟s show/foot is touching the ground outside either end of the take-off
board, before the take-off line.

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 - An athlete walks back through the landing area after having left the landing area in a
correct way.

- In the course of landing an athlete touches with any part of his body, the ground outside the
landing area.

- All jumps shall be measured from the nearest break in the landing area made by an part of
the body to the take-off line, or take off line extended.

TAKE OFF BOARD

The Take-off Board

The take-off shall be marked by a board sunk level with the run way and the surface of the
landing area. The edge of the board which is nearer to the landing area shall be the take-off line.
Immediately beyond the take-off line there shall be placed a plasticine indicator board for the
assistance of the Judges.

The distance between the take-off line and the far end of the landing area shall be at least 10m.
The take-off line shall be placed between 1m and 3m from the nearer end of the landing area.
Construction

. The take-off board shall be rectangular, made of wood or other suitable rigid material and shall
measure 1.22m ± 0.01m long, 20cm (±2mm) wide and 10cm deep. It shall be white.

Plasticine Indicator Board. This shall consist of a rigid board, 10cm (±2mm) wide and 1.22m ±
0.01m long made of wood or any other suitable material and shall be painted in a contrasting
colour to the take-off board. Where possible, the plasticine should be of a third contrasting
colour. The board shall be mounted in a recess or shelf in the runway, on the side of the take-off
board nearer the landing area. The surface shall rise from the level of the take-off board to a
height of 7mm (±1mm). The edges shall either slant at an angle of 45° with the edge nearer to the
runway covered with a plasticine layer along its length 1mm thick or shall be cut away such that
the recess, when filled with plasticine shall slant at an angle of 45°.

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The Take-off Board

TRIPPLE JUMP

The triple jump shall consist of a hop, a step and a jump in that order.

The hop shall be made so that on athlete lands first on the same foot as that from which he has
taken off: in the step he shall land on the other foot, from which, subsequently, the jump is
performed.

It shall not be considered a failure if on athlete, while jumping, touches the ground with the
„sleeping‟ leg.

TAKE OFF BOARD

The distance between the take-off line for men and for end of the landing area shall be at least
21m.
The international competitions, it is recommended that the take-off line shall be not less than
13m for men and 11m for women from the nearer end of the landing area.

Between the take off board and the land area there shall, for the step and jump phases, be a take-
off area of 1.22m wide.

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HIGH JUMP

- High jump techniques have always been determined by the landing equipment available.

- The development of foam landing areas has encourage athletes to concentrate exclusively
on improving efficiency at take-off and when crossing the bar.

- Today world class jumping is dominated by Fosbury flop technique which involves the
athlete landing on her back. Other techniques used are western roll, scissors.

- In this event height is a distinct advantage. Jumpers also need to be light, and do have
enough leg strength and spring to propel their bodyweight up to 20 – 30cm higher than
their own height.

TECHNIQUE

The athlete uses the first half of her approach run to gather speed. There is then a smooth
transition into a final curved approach which places her side-on to the bar. During this final
phase, (usually around three strides). The athlete leans into the curve and swings her outside arm
across her body. Her run changes from a bounding stride to one in which she lands heel first.
This enables her to lower her hips so that her take-off leg is flexed. At this point she should be
travelling at top speed (around 28km/h.

The Athlete takes off from the foot furthest away from the crossbar. Swinging both arms up to
assist her jump. On take-off is her hip that dictate the jumping action. She thrusts them forward
which in turn pulls her thing upwards.

Take athlete jumps straight up rather than towards her bar, but due to her curved approach run,
her body will naturally turn and propel her head first towards her bar.

The jumper keeps her back straight and by pressing her shoulder back and heels in force her hips
up and away from the crossbar. Once over, the athlete quickly brings her head forwards and
knees up to ensure that her feet clear the bar. The high jumper lands on her back and shoulders.

Point of take-off

- To ensure a safe landing on the foam matting, athletes must take of around 70cm in from
the nearer upright.

- They must also take off at the right distance from the cross bar so that they reach their
highest point directly over the bar.

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SCORING

- Having cleared a qualifying height, the jumper may enter the competition at any height he
chooses and also choose whether to attempt any subsequent height.

- The athlete is allowed to attempt each height three times. However once he has registered
three consecutive failures (not necessary at the same height) he will be disqualified.

- A failure is registered if the athlete:

(a) Knocks the bar down

(b) Touches the area beyond the uprights without clearing the bar.

(c) Does not attempt his jump within 90 seconds of taking his position on the
runway.

- In the event of a tie, the athlete who has made the fewest attempts at the height is the
winner. Should the number of the attempts be the same, the winner is the athlete with the
lowest number of failures throughout the competition.

- This scoring system means that an athlete must carefully consider whether or not to attempt
each height, as his decision can seriously alter his final position.

SCORE CARD

1.73m 1.75m 1.77m 1.80m 1.83m 1.85m 1.88m Total Total

fail jump
A - XO O XO XXO All
B O O O X- XO XXO failed
C O O X- 0 XXO XXO at this
D O - - XXO XXO XO height

KEY:
- X – Failed

- – Didn‟t jump

- O – clear

- D – is the winner as he has the least number of attempts at 1.85m

- C – is fourth as he has more failures than A and B.

- A and B have the same number of failures. Therefore, they share second place.

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Teaching Strategies:

Running

 Walk or Jug in a non- competitive setting for periods extending from 20minutes
Sprinting

 Sprint distances of 20m to 30m with the emphasis on sustained effort throughout the
sprint.

Relays

 Participate in a pair relay using a bean bag, developing simple technique, passing with
right hand and receiving with left hand.
 Participate in team relays in small groups

Jumping

 Practice skipping activities with and without ropes

Throwing

 Experiment with appropriate objects and methods of throwing aiming for height and
distance

ACTIVITY:

1. Draw the running track to the standard measurements and put in the staggers for all races.
2. State the major rules applied in track and field events
3. Identify any five officials in athletics and state their roles
4. Demonstrate on how you could teach the throwing of the shot put.

SUMMARY:

In this unit we have learnt that Athletics involves track and field, road running, cross country
running and race walking. Track events include events to do with running such as ; 100m, 200m,
400m etc. Field events include high jump, shot put, javelin and many more. Each of these events
have specific areas of play and it‟s important that we all know how to construct the areas of play.
The unit has also covered sports organization which is divided into four parts namely Early

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arrangements, Late arrangements, The meeting day, and the Post meeting day. All these stages
are very important if sports is to be effectively organized in our schools.

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UNIT: 11 VOLLEYBALL

INTRODUCTION

A volleyball game is played between two teams of six players on a rectangular court 18 meters
long and 9 meters wide. The teams are separated by a net, the height of which can be adjusted to
suit the age, height, level of play or gender of the players. The objective of the game is to play
the ball over the net in order to make it land in the opponent‟s court or to force the opponents to
mishandle it, fail to return it or to return it out of the court.

LEARNING OUTCOMES:

 Draw the volleyball court with correct measurements and position the players
 State and demonstrate the skills applied in volleyball
 Identify the rules of the game
 Play the game with less difficulties

Court positions and rotations of players

Each team is allowed to touch the ball up to three times before returning it over the net. The ball
may be struck with any part of the body above the waist as long as it does not come to rest or be
lifted or pushed. The six players on court are placed in two lines of three. Three in front and
three at the back. The court positions are numbered 1 to 6 starting with number 1 in the right rear
and then anti-clockwise to number 6 in the centre rear. The ball is always served by the player in
position1. See fig 1.

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 ,,,, ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, Net
4 3 2

5 6 1

Source: VSO (1998).Handbook for teaching Sports .

When a team regain service all players rotate one position clockwise as shown in fig 1. After
service players may move to any position on the court and play the ball. Note, however that rear
court players may not play the ball across the net in the attack zone.

In volleyball, the team winning a rally scores a point (rally point system). When the receiving
team wins a rally, it gains a point and the right to serve and its players rotate one position
clockwise

PLAYING AREA

The playing area includes the playing court and the free zone. It shall be rectangular and
symmetrical.

Dimensions

The playing area is a rectangle measuring 18m long and 9m width surrounded by a free zone
which is minimum of 3m wide on all sides.
The free playing space is the space above the playing area which is free from any obstruction.
The free playing area shall measure a minimum of 7m in height from the playing surface.

Playing Surface

The playing surface must be a flat, horizontal and uniform. It must not present any danger of
injury to the players. It is forbidden to play on a rough or slippery surface.

Lines on the Court

All lines are 5cm wide. They must be of a light color which is different from the color of the
floor and from any other lines.

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Playing Area

Free zone Attack line Centre line Attack line free zone

9m
Service zone Back Zone Front Front Back Zone
zone zone Service zone

Free zone
6m 3m 3m 6m
Free zone
substitution zone
Scorer’s
Team Bench table Team Bench

Source: Keith N (1986).Volleyball; the Skill of the game. London Crowood Press Ltd

Centre Line

The axis of the centre line divides the playing area into two equal courts measuring 9x9m each.

Attack Line

On each court, an attack line, whose rear edge is drawn 3m back from the axis of the center line,
marks the front zone.

Boundary Lines

Two side lines and two end lines mark the playing court. All these lines are drawn inside the
dimensions of the playing quarter.

Zones of the Playing Court

Front Zone

 On each court the front zone is limited by the axis of the centre line and the rear edge of
the attack line.
 The front zone is considered to extend beyond the side lines to the end of the free zone.

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Service Zone

This is a 9m wide area behind each end line.

Substitution Zone

The substitution zone is limited by the extension of both attack lines up to the scorer‟s table.

Warm-Area

These are located in both sides of the bench-side corners outside the free zone.

NET AND POLES

Height of the Net

Placed vertically over the centre line there is a net whose top is set at the height of 2.43m for
men and 2.24 for women.

Structure

The net is 1m wide and 9.50 to 10m long made of 10cm square black mesh. At its top there is a
horizontal band 7m wide made of two white canvases, is sawn along its full length. Each extreme
end of the band has a hole, through which passes a cord, fastening the band to the posts for
keeping its top taut.

Within the band, a flexible cable fastens the net to the posts and keeps its top taut.
At the bottom of the net there is a rope, threaded through the meshes for fastening it to the posts
and keeping the lower part of the net taut.

Side Bands

Two white bands, 5cm wide and 1m long are fastened vertically to the net and placed above each
side line. They are considered as part of the net.

Antennae

An antenna is a flexible rod 1.8m long and 10mm in diameter made of fiber glass or similar
material.

An antenna is fastened at the outer edge of each side band. The antennae are placed on opposite
sides of the net. The top 80cm of each antenna extends above the net and is marked with 10cm
stripes of contrasting colors, preferably red and white.

The antennae are considered as part of the net and laterally delimit the crossing space.

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The Posts

The posts supporting the net must be rounded and smooth with a height of 2.55m high preferably
adjustable.

They must be fixed to the ground at a distance of 0.5-1m from each side line. Fixing the posts to
the ground by means of wires is forbidden.

Ball

The ball shall be spherical, made of a flexible leather case with a bladder inside made of rubber
or a similar material.
Color - uniform and light
Circumference – 65-67cm.
Weight – 260-280grams

Pressure – 0.40-0.45kg/cm

MERITS OF VOLLEYBALL AS A GAME

 The game is played by both sex and all ages.

 Equipment is not expensive
 It is a non contact team sport.
 It can be played inside or outside.
 It provides enjoyment.
 Physical growth.
 Motor development.
 Sociological growth.
 Psychological development

SKILLS IN VOLLEYBALL

Dig pass

The dig pass is used when the ball is too low or too fast to volley. It involves receiving the ball
on the fleshy part of the outstretched forearms which act as a platform.

Technique

i. Hands: these are brought together as quick as possible placing the fingers of one hand on
top of and at right angle to the fingers of the other hand and closed by bringing the thumbs
together.
ii. Arms: these are locked at the elbows with the forearms together making a flat platform
with the fleshy parts between the wrists and elbows.
iii. Back: this should be as flat as is comfortable.

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iv. Legs: the legs should be bent with one in front of the other; the back foot/leg extends
smoothly upwards and forwards.

Skill Practices

a. Forming the Platform: Each player throws a ball into the air forms the platform with the arms
parallel to the ground and lets the ball bounce on the platform.

NB. Pupils should always remember the Lozi way of greeting, “Enisha”

The hands should always be together when receiving the ball until the ball is released

b. Introducing the Leg action:

 Pairs are facing each other and holding hands to make a platform, helper places the ball
on the platform, and player transfers the ball from one to the other by extending and
flexing the legs- see-saw action of the dig.
 Each player throws the ball into the air, let it bounce once and then digs it on its way
down again.
 Continuous digging.

c. Moving to play the ball

 Pairs: one feeding one digging. The digger starts on a line about 1.5 meters behind the
spot from which he will dig. He must then move forward to dig and return to the line
before the next feed. The feed should start as an under arm toss.
 As above, but moving to the left and right to dig.
 In pairs: Volley and dig. The volley varies the height and direction of his pass so that
the digger must constantly be on the move.

Serving

Types of Serving

a) Underarm serving
b) Tennis serving
 For the learner emphasize on the underarm. Pupils should always toss the ball.
 One leg should be in front depending on which hand is being used
 The ball should be served outside the backline and should cross the net.

Setting

 The ball should be flipped

 Spread the fingers on the ball
 The ball must be from the forehead
 The power should be from the knee join

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Spiking

The spike or smash is the main weapon of attack in volleyball. To spike effectively a player must
be capable of jumping high enough to get his hand at least above the level of the net so that the
ball can be directed downward.

Technique

The spiking action can be broken down into four phases:

i. The approach to the net
ii. The take off
iii. The movement of the body in the air
iv. The hitting action

The approach to the net

It is normal to take a two or even three step approach to the net before taking off in order to build
up momentum for the spike.

In either case the player should start with his feet together. For a two-step approach he takes the
first step with the right leg then a long step with the left. During his left step the right leg is
brought quickly forward to within 15cm of the left leg in order to prepare for a two-foot take off.
For a three step approach the player steps first with his left leg, then the right leg and then the
long step with the left as before. During the final step the feet should be kept low, skimming the
ground.

At the end o his approach the spike should land with both knees flexed and with his arms
extended behind him. His landing is first onto his heels but rocking over onto his toes in order to
convert some of his horizontal momentum into vertical momentum.

The Take-off:

As the player rocks forward onto his toes, his arms swing forward and upwards and hip, knee
and ankle joints are vigorously extended.

The Hitting Action

The truck now rotates forward towards the ball and the right arm extends upwards and forward.
The fingers are kept together and the wrist loose. Just before contact the wrist is extended in
order to bring the hand over the top of the ball. Contact is made with the open hand.

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Skill Practices

Learning the take-off

Players adopt take-off position and practice the upward jump. Emphasis is on one leg extension
and upward swing of the arms.

Learning the arm action

Players go through the take off action without actually jumping; arms are allowed to continue
upwards and then go through the spiking action.
Combining the Take off and Spiking Action
Players take off and perform the spiking action in the air

Hitting the Ball

Pairs on the opposite sidelines of the court; holding the ball in the left hand at arms length and at
around shoulder height and hit it onto the ground so that it bounces towards the partner.

BLOCK

The block is the first line of defense against a spike. It is formed close to and above the net and
may be made above the opponents‟ court area. The block may be formed by one, two or all the
three of the line front players.

Technique

The blocking action is performed position close to the net. The blocker should stand upright with
knees flexed, elbows close to his body, arms bent and hands held at shoulder height. The jump is
a standing jump, the power coming from the extension of the legs. As the player jumps, he
extends his arm upwards and brings the hands together with the

fingers spread. When the ball is set close to the net the blocker must push his hands forward over
the top of the net trying to „cap‟ the ball just after it has been hit. On contact with the ball, the
hands should be flexed strongly downwards. When the ball is set further back from the net, it is
better to keep the arms and hands vertical, only crossing the net at the moment of impact.
After the block has been completed, the blocker must bring his arms back to own side of the net
without touching it. This is best achieved by lifting the arms quickly and bringing them
backwards to the side of the head. As the arms bend, the elbows should move backwards so that
the hands can come down in front of the body without touching the net. On landing, the knees
should bend to absorb the body weight and help check any forward movement into the net.
It is normal to use a two-man block when the spike is coming from one of the wing positions and
a three-man block when the spike is coming from the centre. The two-man block is made by No.
3 moving across to the appropriate wing and then jumping alongside No.2 or 4 to provide two
sets of hands at the top of the net. To form the three-man block Nos. 2 and 4 move in alongside
No.3 and place their hands in the air.

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 BASIC TEAM TACTICS

In this section we will consider the basic tactics associated with attack, defense, service,
reception and serving.

Basic Attacking Tactics

The following are three basic line-ups which permit the development of varying degrees of
attacking play.

The 6- setter system

In this system each player becomes a setter when he rotates into position 3. No specialist setter is
used.

Advantages

i. Very simple as each player becomes a setter when he rotates into position 3.
ii. The team also knows that the setter is always in the middle of the front line.
iii. No specialization.

Disadvantages
i. at times the person with the worst volley pass is setting and other times the best spiker
might be setting
ii. attacking potential of the team might be greatly reduced
iii. the system provides little variety of attack

The 3 Setter System

In this system there are three specialist setters and three specialist spikes. The spikes and setters
alternate in rotation order.

Advantages

i. The team can make use of the players‟ specialist abilities

ii. The system ensures that there will always be at least one setter and one spike in the front
line.
Disadvantages

i. At one point in the game there will only be one spike but two setters in the front line.
ii. It requires three specialist setters who may not always be available

The 2 setter system

This is based on two setters and four spikes. In the rotational order two spikes are placed on
either side of each setter.

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 Advantages

i. The attacking potential of the team increases by having four spikes.

ii. There will always be two spikes and one setter in the front line.

Note: whichever system the coach has decided to use, it is most important that he has the
players with appropriate attributes to suit the system

BASIC DEFENSIVE TACTICS

The block is the first line of defense. It is essential, however, for the rest of the team to have a
system for covering behind the block. We will deal here with one simple defensive system for
covering the block.

The 2-1-3, No.6 Cover System

Figure 5 and 6 illustrate this system when covering against attacks from the left and right wings
respectively.

,,,,,,,,,:::,,,,:::,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,:::,,
4 3 3 2

6 6

1 2 4 5
5 5 1
Fig.

Source: Keith N. (1986) Volleyball; The skill of the game. Pg80.

 The lines projected back from the block in figures 5 and 6 enclose the area covered by the
block.
 When teaching this system it is important to provide guidelines or reference points on the
court to help the players position themselves correctly. In figure 5 the reference points would
be as follows:
 Player 5 should line up his inside shoulder with the outside shoulder of player 4, so that he is
best positioned to cover balls which pass outside the block.
 Player 2 must line up his inside shoulder with the right shoulder of player 3 in order to cover
balls passing inside the block.
 Player 1 should line himself up with the centre of the block i.e where the two blockers‟ hands
meet (weak point) and in line with the spike‟s approach.
 Player 6 is responsible for the area immediately behind the block. To cover this area he
should position himself on the spiking line keeping as low as possible so that he can most
easily move forward to play the ball. When the attack is coming from the centre and there is
a three-man block, player 6 should cover behind the block, again positioned on the spiking

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 line. Player 1 and 5 should be towards the sidelines with their inside shoulders lined up with
the outside shoulders of players 2 and 4 in the block.

TACTICS FOR SERVICE RECEPTION

When preparing to receive a service a team must not only adopt a line-up which enables it to
effectively cover the court defensive but which also enables it to prepare for attack.

The W+1 System

This is the simplest service-receive formation and is illustrated in figure 7. It can be seen that the
five players towards the back form a W-shape and remaining player, the setter, is at the net
waiting to receive the first pass.

4 6 2

5 1

Fig.7

 The two wing players (player 2 and 4) should stand about an arms length away from the side
line. This will mean that any ball that passes more than an arm length to the side of them is
going out of court. The outside foot should be the forward foot so that the dig pass will be
more accurate to the setter.
 It is important that the player realize that they are defending an area of court and not a
particular position

The division of responsibility for each player in the W+1 formation is shown in fig. 8.
Players should be encouraged to shout “Mine” if they are going to play the ball. This is to
avoid a situation where two players either both go for the ball or both leave the ball.

4 3 2

Fig. 8 Court areas .

6

5 1

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 Advantages of the W+1 System
i. Very simple and easy to learn
ii. Minimum of movement of players away from the positions which they will adopt for
most of the game
iii. All players can see the server and the court is well divided amongst the players.

The main disadvantage of this system is that it involves using the 6-setter system which is the
least efficient of all the setter systems. There is only two attack points 4 and 2, open to the setter.

Modified W+1 Service-Receive Formation

When a team is using a 2-setter system or a 3-setter system there will be situations when the
setter is not at position 3. This means that the normal W+1 formation must be modified either to
bring the setter into the centre or to leave him at the side.

Using Lateral Switch

This modification enables the setter, when in position 2 or 4, to switch into the centre. The
switch and formation is illustrated in figs. 9 and 10
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
4 2

3 2 4 3

6 6

5 1
1 5

Source: Keith N. (1986) Volleyball; The skill of the game. Pg80.

In using the switch it is important that the overlapping rule is not contravened. In fig. 9,
therefore, player 3 must be in advance of player 6 and to the right of player 4 at the moment the
ball is served.

TACTICS IN SERVICE

As teams normally only score points while they retain service, it is important that the server
makes the use of the serve. The following are some tactical guild lines which should be adopted
by the server.

i. Always aim at the weak point in the opposition line-up, or at whose reception is least
good.

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  Weak points rend to be the area just behind the centre player in the W+1 formation and
the back corners
ii. Serve to a player who has already made a mistake
iii. Move quickly into the court immediately after serving
iv. Serve to a player who has just come in as a substitution and who has not yet touched the
ball
v. Make use of exterior factors such as the sun and wind

TEACHING STRATEGIES

i. Toss the ball when serving

ii. Knee bend when digging and volleying to generate power
iii. Volley from the forehead
iv. Smash from above the net
v. Shout “mine” when receiving the ball
vi. Always direct the ball to the setter for first attack
vii. Cover the blocks for an encounter

ACTIVITY

.Explain the meaning of the following words in relation to volleyball:

i. Switching
ii. Penetration
iii. Calling (Mine)
iv. Overlapping
v. A liberal player
vi. Covering a block
vii. Players strip

1 . Explain what is involved in the w+1 system of play in volleyball

2 State two advantages of the 3 setter system
3 What skills are involved in the game of volleyball?

SUMMARY

In this unit skills, rules, techniques of the game of volleyball have been covered. The unit has
also discussed the merits, types of serving and the basic team tactics. The game is played by six
players on each side of the court. The objective of the game is to score more points

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UNIT: 12 NETBALL

INTRODUCTION

Netball is played by teams of seven players. The objective is to score goals by throwing the ball
through a ring at the opponent end of the court. Players may pass the ball by throwing it, but
may not run with it. Players have got positions. The court is divided into three areas and two
goal-shooting circles. Each player can only play in certain parts of the court. The players wear
bibs to show which position they are playing in. Goals can only be scored by the Goal Shooter
or the Goal attacker players. They must be in a shooting circle to score. Matches are controlled
by two umpires, helped by two scorers and two time keepers. The winning team is the team
which scores most goals.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

 Measure and mark the field of play

 Identify the rules of the games
 Identify the areas of play
 Demonstrate the skills used in the game
 Participate actively in the game.

THE COURT EQUIPMENT AND PLAYERS

The Ball is played on a court which must have a firm surface, and which measures 30.5
meters long and 15.25 meters wide. The court is divided into three equal parts, with a small
centre circle 0.9 meters in diameter. There are two goal circles each of 4.9 meters.

Expressive Arts Module - 221 -

 Source: IFNA Basic Coaching Manual. Pg 1

Goal Post

The goal post shall be 3.05 meters high. The metal ring should have an internal diameter of
380mm and projection 150mm from the top of the post. The ring should be fitted with a net
clearly visible and open at both ends. The goal post shall be placed so that the back of the goal
post is at the outside of the goal line.

380mm 150mm

3.0m

Source: Mary Thomas (1985).Netball, pg 6.

The ball

Size 5 made of leather, rubber or similar material.

he player

- No spiked shoes and shoes have to be a light weight material.

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 - Playing initials worn front and back.
- No sharp adornment or item of jewelers
- Finger nails should be short
- Inspection of players should be undertaken by the umpires prior to the games.

1. DURATION OF THE GAME

- Dependent on the rules of the league or tournament.

- International games should consist of 4 quarters of 15 minutes each with 5 minutes break
at half time and 3 minutes for quarter times. Team change ends after each quarter.

Other possibilities are

- 20 minutes each way

- 15 minutes each way (school league)
- 7 minutes each (tournament)

Playing time last for stoppages must be noted and added onto that quarter or half.

2. OFFICIALS

UMPIRES

- Matches are controlled by two umpires.

- The umpire shall

(a) Control and give decisions only in one half of the court unless appealed to by the
other umpire. For this purpose the length of the court is divided in half across the
centre from sideline to sideline.

D U1

C A
Source: Basic Coaching manual netball.

B U2
Umpire 1 (U1) is responsible for the whole of the un shaded area and side line D and
back line C. Umpire 2 (U2) is responsible for the whole shaded area, sideline B and
back line A.

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 (b) Umpire in the same half of the court for the whole game

(c) Restart the game if a goal has been scored in his/her half

(d) Give decisions for the thrown in for the Goal and side lines that he/she is controlling
and call out Play when all other players are on court. This umpire is also responsible
for making decisions related to infringements by the player throwing in e.g. toe on the
line.

(e) Keep outside the court except when it is necessary to enter it to secure a clear view of
play or to take a Toss Up.

(f) Move along the side line and behind the Goal line to se play and make decisions.

(g) Play advantage wherever possible so refraining from placing the non-offending team
at a disadvantage.

(h) Not criticize or coach any room while a match is in progress.

(i) State the infringement and the penalty clearly e.g. Footwork, free pass to Reds or
contact against Red W.A Penalty pass to Blues or out of court, Blue Throw In.

SCOERS
There shall be 2 scorers who shall:

(a) Keep a written record of the score together with a record of the centre pass.
(b) Call the centre pass if called for by the umpire.

TIME KEEPER

There shall be 1 time keeper who shall: -

(a) Keep time when the game is started by the umpires whistle and signal the end of each
quarter or half to the umpire.

(b) Ensure that time lost for stoppage is added on to the appropriate quarter/half.

CAPTAINS

The captains shall: -

(a) Toss for choice of goal or first centre pass and notify the umpires of the result.
(b) During an interval or a result of injury notify the umpires and the opposing captain
when substitutions and/or team changes are made.
(c) For the sake of good manners, thank the official of the end of the game.

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The captain has the right to approach an umpire during an interval or after the game for
clarification of any rule.

PENALTY: a Free pass shall be awarded immediately an umpire notices a substitution on court
or a player in a changed opposition. The opposing captain may have time to make any
appropriate adjustments to her own team.

THE TEAM

Shall consist of 7 players: -

Goal shooter (GS)
Goal Attack (GA)
Wing Attack (WA)
Centre (C)
Wing Defender (WD)
Goal Defender (GD)
Goal Keeper (GK)

- No team may begin with fewer than 5 players.

- Three (3) substitutes are permitted in any one game to replace injured players at any time
or to replace someone identified by the coach during an interval.

Late Arrivals

No prayer arriving after play has started is allowed to replace another player. They can
however, fill a spare position after a goal has been scored. The players can then be
rearranged during the next interval or if any injury occurs.

3. SUBSTITUTIONS AND TEAM CHANGES

Substitution is allowed:
(a) During an interval
(b) In the event of injury or illness
(c) During a stoppage for failure to give notification of team changes

Once 3 substitutions have been made, if a further one is made the umpires must tell the
player to leave the court and this player cannot be replaced. Neither team is allowed to make
team changes unless the player is a centre, in which case, on player only moves to fill this
position.

4. STOPPAGES

The decision to stop play shall be at the discretion of the umpire. This may be because of:

- Injury or illness
- Problems with the equipment, court or weather.

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 - Problems with a player‟s person or clothing.

5. PLAYING AREAS

A game is designed for single-sex competition. It is played between two teams of seven
players who have strictly defined playing areas according to their positions. The positions
are: -

Goal shooter (GS)

Roles: To score goals and to Area of play allowed.
defend immediate Opponent
Area of play allowed.

1 2

Goal Attack (GA)

Roles: To score goals and
1

2 3

Work in and around the

Circle with Goal Shooter

- To defend immediate opponent Goal Attack (GA)

- Goal defense
- Work with the wing attack and the centre in the Goal Third

Wing Attack (WA) Area of Play Allowed

Roles: - to feed the Goal Shooter

and Goal Attack giving them
Shooting opportunities
2 3

- To defend immediate Wing Defense (WD)

opponent the Wing Defense.

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 - To work with the centre in the Goal Third and around the circle edge.

Centre (C) Area of play allowed

- Roles:- To take centre pass and

to link the defense with the attack
- To feed the goal shooter and
Goal Attack giving them shooting 2 3 4
opportunities.
- To work with Wing Attacker in the Centre (C)
Goal Third and around the circle edge.
- To work with the wing Defense around the defense circle edge
- To defend immediate opponent the centre.

Wing Defense (WD) Area of play allowed

Roles: - To defend immediate

Opponent the wing Attack and
Prevent the Wing Attack feeding from
The circle edge
3 4

- To work with the centre around the defense circle edges

- To look for interceptions
- To provide attacking opportunities through the Defense Third and Centre Third

Goal Defense (GD) Area of play allowed

Roles: - To defend immediate opponent

the Goal Attack and reduce their 5
effectiveness.
3 4
- To work with the goal keeper in the
Defense Circle Goal Defense (GD)
- To look for interceptions.
- To provide attacking opportunities through the Defense Third and Centre Third.

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 Goal Keeper (GK) Area of play allowed

Roles: - To defend immediate opponent

The goal shooter and prevent them from
5
Scoring goals
4
- To work with the goal defense in the
Defense Circle Goal Keeper (GK)
- To work for interceptions
- To provide attacking opportunities in the Defense Third

KEY FOR AREAS OF PLAY

1-5 Area of play allowed

RULES OF THE GAME

OFFSIDE

A player with or without the ball shall be offside if the player enters any area other than the
playing area for that designated position. A player may reach over and take the ball from offside
provided no physical contact is made with the ground in the offside area.

Penalty – A free pass to the opposing them where the fragment occurred were the player was not
allowed to go.

OUT OF COURT

The ball is out of court when:

(a) It touches the ground outside the court

(b) It touches the object or person in contact with the ground outside the court.
(c) It is held by a player in contact with the ground, an object or a person outside the
court.

The ball which hits any part of the Goal post rebounds into play is not out of play.

A player having no contact with the ball may stand or move out of court but must re-enter before
playing the ball, i.e. she cannot jump from out of court, catch the ball and land on court.

Penalty – A through to the team opposing.

STARTING OR RESTARTING THE GAME

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The umpire shall blow the whistle to start and restart play. The captains shall toss for choice of
goal end or first centre pass and notify the umpires and the scorers of the result. The pass made
by a centre in response to the umpires whistle at the start and restart of play shall be designated a
centre pass.

Play shall be started and re-started after every goal and after each interval by a centre pass taken
alternately throughout the game by the two centers.

When the whistle is blown the centre in possession of the ball shall throw it within three (3)
seconds and shall obey the Footwork Rule.

The centre pass shall be caught or touched by any player who is standing wholly within the
centre third or whose landing foot is wholly within this third.

A player who lands with any part of either foot in the Goal Third is judged to have received the
ball in that third and thus is at fault.

If a member of the opposing team touches or catches the centre pass in the Goal Third play
continues.

POSITIONING OF PLAYERS FOR THE START OF PLAY

The centre must stand on one or both feet inside the centre circle.

The opposing centre is free to move around the centre third.

All other players should be in their appropriate Goal Third and are free to move.

BALL SKILLS

The main rule concerned is called „playing the Ball‟ which has 31 separate clauses! However,
these can be summarized to explain the major skills they promote

A player may:

(a) Catch the ball with one or both hands.

(b) Gain or regain control of the ball it rebounds from the Goal post.

(c) Bat or bounce the ball to another player without fir having possession of it.

(d) Tip the ball in an uncontrolled manner once of more than once and then catch the ball or
direct the ball to another player.

(e) Roll the ball to oneself to gain possession.

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 (f) Fall while holding the ball but must regain footing and throw within three (3) seconds of
receiving the ball.

(g) Lean on the ball to prevent going offside.

(h) Lean on the ball on court to gain balance.

A Play may not:

(a) Strike the ball with a fist.

(b) Fall on the ball to gain possession.

(c) Attempt to gain possession of the ball while lying, sitting or kneeling on the ground.

(d) Throw the ball while lying, sitting or kneeling on the ground.

(e) Deliberately lack the ball.

(f) Roll the ball to another player.

(g) Drop the ball and replay it.

(h) Bounce the ball and replay it.

(i) Throw the ball and play it before it has been touched by another player or the Goal post

(j) Give the ball to another player, not may it be thrown to someone who is so close that a
defending opponent could not possibly try to intercept the ball without touching her.

- So skilled catching within the Ball handling Rule means:

 Watch the flight of the ball.

 Stretch arm, fingers and think towards the ball.
 Bend the arms really quickly towards your body as your fingers touch the ball.
 Hold the ball tightly until you are ready to throw it.

And before 3 seconds have passed, skilled throwing will mean:

 Look to see where, and how far away, the receiver is moving.
 Throw with one or two hands.
 Use fingers and feet to guide the ball accurately.
 Make the whole movement quick.
 Use a long preparation and the trunk and the feet to make a strong throw.

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 OVER A THIRD
A ball may not be thrown over a complete third without being touched or caught by a player
who at the time of touching or catching the ball is standing wholly within that third.

KEY

W O R – RIGHT

O R W - WRONG

W
Source: Mary Thomas (1985). Netball pg10.
 O R
FOOT WORK

A player may receive the ball with one foot grounded or jump to catch and land on one foot
and then:

(a) Step with the other foot in any direction, lift the landing foot and throw or shoot before
this foot is re-grounded.

(b) Step with either foot in any direction any number of times pivoting on the other. The
pivoting foot may be lifted but the player must throw or shoot before re-grounding it.

A player may receive the ball while both feet are grounded or jump to catch and land on both
feet simultaneously and then:

(a) Step with either foot in any direction, lift the other foot and throw or shoot before this
foot is re-grounded.

(b) Step with eight foot in any direction any number of times pivoting on the other. The
pivoting foot may be lifted but the player must throw or shoot before re-grounding it.

Penalty – A free pass awarded to the opposing team.

SCORING A GOAL

A goal is scored when the ball is thrown or batted over and completely through the ring by the
Goal Shooter or Goal attack from any point within the Goal circle including lines bounding the
Goal Circle. If another player throws the ball through the ring no goal is scored and play
continues.

If the whistle is blown for an interval before the ball has passed through the ring, no goal is
scored.

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If the whistle for an interval or time is blown after a penalty pass or shot has been awarded in the
goal circle, the pass or shot is allowed to be taken.

In taking a shot for goal a player shall:

(a) Shoot within 3 seconds of receiving the ball.

(b) Obey the foot work rule.

(c) Have no contact with the ground outside the Goal Circle either during the catching or
the holding of the ball. However, the player is permitted to lean on the ball outside
this area.

A defending player may not cause the Goal post to move so as to interfere with the shot or goal.

Penalty: Penalty pass or shot the opposing team to be tak

OBSTRUCTION

An attempt to intercept or defend the ball may be made by a defending player if the distance on
the ground is not less than 0.9m from a player in possession of the ball. When the ball is
received this distance is measured as follows:

(a) If the player‟s landing, grounded or pivoting foot remains on the ground the distance is
measured from that foot to the near foot of the defending player.

(b) If the player‟s landing, grounded or pivoting is lifted the distance is measured from the
spot on the ground from which the foot was lifted to the nearer foot of the defending
player.

From the correct distance a defending player may attempt to intercept or defend the ball:

(a) By jumping upwards or towards the player with the ball, but if the landing is within 0.9
meters of that player and interferes with the throwing or shooting motion, obstruction
occurs.

(b) If the player with the ball steps forward to lessen the distance between them.

A player may be within 0.9m of an opponent in possession of the ball providing no effort is
made to intercept or defend the ball and there is no interference with that opponents throwing or
shooting action.

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OBSTRUCTION OF PLAYER NOT IN POSSESSION OF THE BALL

A player is obstructing if within 0.9 meters of an opponent without the ball, any movements are
made which take the arms away from the body, other than those involved in natural body
balance.

However, the player is not obstructing if the arms are outstretched: -

(a) To catch, deflect or intercept a pass or a feint pass.

(b) To obtain a rebound.

(c) Momentarily to signal for a pass or to indicate direction of movement.

INTIMIDATION

When a player with or without the ball intimidates an opponent the offender shall be penalized
by awarding penalty pass or penalty pass/shot where the infringer is standing unless this places
the non-offending team at a disadvantage when the penalty shall be taken where the obstruction
player was standing.

DEFENDING A PLAYER WHO IS OUT OF COURT

A player may defend an opponent who has chosen to go out of court providing that the defender
does not leave the court in order to defend. A penalty pass or shot from the point where the
infringer leaves the court is awarded

OBSTRUCTION BY A PLAYER OUT OF COURT

A player who is standing out of court may not attempt to defend a player who is on court.
Penalty pass or penalty pass or shot is awarded.

CONTACT

No player may contact an opponent either accidentally or deliberately in such a way that
interferes with the play of that opponent or causes contact to occur. In an effort to attack or
defend or to play the ball a player shall not:

(a) Move into the path of an opponent who is committed to a particular landing space.

(b) Position so closely to an opponent that the player is unable to move without contacting.

(c) Push, trip, hold or lean on a ball held by an opponent or use other forms of physical
contact.

(d) Place a hand or hands on a ball held by an opponent.

(e) Knock or remove the ball from the possession of an opponent.

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 (f) While holding the ball push it into an opponent.

PENALTIES AND THE TOSS-UP

Play which breaks the rules suffers some penalty which results in the ball being given to the
other team in one of the three ways:

 Free pass
 Penalty pass or penalty pass or shot.
 Throw-in
 Toss-up.

Free pass

- This is awarded for nearly all faults. It is awarded to a team and may be taken by any
player allowed in the area where the infringement occurred. A Goal Shooter or Goal
Attack taking a free pass in the Goal Circle may not shoot for goal. If this is attempted
the opposing team will receive a free pass.

A PENALT PASS OR PENALTY PASS SHOT

A penalty pass is awarded when a player brooks the obstruction or the contact Rule or
interference with the Goal Post.

- A Goal Shooter or Goal Attack taking a penalty pass or penalty pass/shot in the circle
may either pass it or shoot for goal.

- A player who broke the rule (fouled) must stand still beside the player taking the penalty
until the ball is released. This is the additional penalty which makes it different from a
free pass.

THE THROW-IN

- This is awarded when a ball has gone out of court. It has to be taken from behind the line
of the point where the ball crossed that line.

- The player taking the throw-in can only take it from behind her own playing area. She
stands close to the line and waits for the umpire to say „play‟ and then obeys all the other
rules as she prepares and then passes the ball.

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Positions for the Throw-in

W.A W.A

Wrong

Correct

G.K.

Source: Mary Thomas (1985). Netball

Positions for the Throw-In

All awards are taken where the fault occurred. The stars in the diagrams show some
examples of where the pass is taken following a fault.

G.K.Player offside

WA

X O

The „over a third‟ Source: Mary Thomas (1985) Netball.

The Toss-Up

This is taken by the umpire whenever two opposing players are involved simultaneously in a
fault.

 Two offside together

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  Two out of court together, or simultaneous touching a ball which went out of court
 Two contacting each other
 Two catching a ball together.

The two players stand 0.9 meters apart facing each other and their attacking Goal Line: Their
hands are by their sides and they must not move until the umpire blows her whistle as she tosses
up the ball between them
The ball may be caught or it may be batted in any direction except directly at the opposing
player.

OTHER RULES

 Two umpires control the game. They are responsible for all the decisions, and
players are not permitted to question umpiring decisions.

 The team coach and the team captain are called the Team Officials. The captain is
permitted to as an umpire for clarification about a decision during a quarter – or half
time interval.

 It one or two players arrives late for a game which has started they are not permitted
just to walk onto the court. Umpires and the other team must be aware of the
situation, so there are instructions for late arrivals.

 If a player is genuinely hurt on court, a Team Official may claim 5 minutes to check
whether she/he can recover. If she cannot play on, a substitute is allowed. This rule
shows a concern for player‟s comfort, but does not allow for „pretend‟ illnesses to
delay the game

PASSING SKILLS

Netball is a game made up of a variety of passing techniques. The player‟s ability to pass
accurate and well timed throws will determine the success of the team. Players need to master
the basic skills of each of the throwing techniques as well as balancing, timing and Control. The
player must learn when and where to pass the ball and which pass to use.

SHOULDER PASS – 1 HANDED

Coaching Points

- Stand side-on to the intended receiver

- Feet should be shoulder width apart with knees slightly bent and weight on the back foot.

- The ball can be held with two hands but as the arm is taken back behind the shoulder the
ball is held with one hand.

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 - Elbow should be bent.

- The opposite foot to the throwing arm should be forward.

- Transfer the body weight from the back foot to the front foot as the player steps forward
with the front foot.

- The ball is pushed forward with the shoulder, elbow, wrist and fingers.

- Follow through with the hand whilst the fingers should be pointed in line with the throw.

A „one handed shoulder pass describes a pass where the preparation takes the ball back
behind the head on one hand and the throw made with a long, hard thrust of the whole
arm, assisted by a step into the direction of the throw. It is needed when a long throw is
required.
SHOULDER PASS – 2 HANDED

A two-handed loop thrust pass (like a footballer used for a sideline throw-in) prepares by
swinging the ball lower behind the head in both hands and immediately swinging up and forward
again to thrust the ball forward with a very fast movement(Mary Thomas 1985).

Everything is the same as the one handed should pass, but as the arm is taken back behind the
shoulder two hands remain on the ball.

CHEST PASS

Are used for short distances

Coaching points

- Two hands behind the ball with thumbs and fingers in a “W” shape.

- Ball held close to chest.

- Elbows bent and relaxed by side.

- Wrist and fingers direct and control the ball.

- Step forward into the pass.

- Weight is transferred onto the front foot.

- Follow through with arms and fingers in the direction of the pass.

- As the player steps forward ensure feet are in a balance position

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BOUNCING PASS
Bouncing pass are also used for short distances when the preparation may be with one or two
hands.

A bounce pass can be performed with one or two hands from in front or the side of the body.

- Hold the ball the same as far as shoulder pass.

- Ball can be held at either waist or trip level.

- Bend knees and step forward onto the front foot.

- As the ball is pushed forward the hand and fingers should follow the path of the ball.

- When executing the bounce pass the ball should bounce approximately 2/3.5 of the
distance between passer and receiver.

LOB PASS/OVERHEAD

- One hand or two handed pass.

- The body can be facing or side-on to the receiver.

- The ball should be released above the head.

- As the throw is executed the throwing arm or arms moves up and forward towards the
receiver.

- The wrist and fingers direct the ball in a high arc into the space ahead of the receiver.

- The highest point of the arc should be when the ball passes over the defender.

- Weight is transferred from the back to the front foot as the step forward is made.

Factors that determine what pass a player should use and when they should release it:

(a) Positioning of attacker and defender

(b) Length of pass
(c) Positioning of immediate defender at 0.9m
(d) Timing of attacker‟s movement.

MOVEMENT AND AGILITY

The ability to run, jump and change direction are major components of Netball. As a coach you
need to consider how players get to where they want to go! Walk, jog or run and finally sprint

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some players may need to change the direction of their movement. They also need to be able to
stop. These are the movement skills of Netball (IFNA pg 6).

When planning training, make sure the following movements are included:

 Change of pace e.g. walking, jogging, running and sprint.

 Pivoting/turning
 Changing of direction
 Stopping

PIVOTING
- This movement is necessary when the player receiving the ball wishes to turn ready to
pass. In order to pivot the player with the ball must turn in a rotating motion on the ball
of the first grounded foot. This turning motion should be away from the defender. The
ball should be held close to the body whilst it is positioned to throw. As the player pivots
around, the head should precede the body so the eyes are looking at where the pass can be
thrown (IFNA: Basic Coaching Manual pg 6).

DODGING

Dodging is a short, sharp movement often executed from a stationary beginning. It can be used
to quickly change direction to create space for themselves of team mates. It also allows the
attacker to wrong foot or takes the defending player away from the space where the ball is to be
caught (NFA: Basic Coaching Manual pg 6).

All movements when dodging must be quick and decisive. Good balance should be maintained
throughout the movement. Correct footwork and prick decision making assist to execute this
skill

Change of direction

The change of direction is executed from a longer run. The same technique is used as for the
dodge but the player changes direction after making a longer run.

Developing the Skills

Footwork

- Various speeds and strides length

- Various direction
- Variety of jumps
- Pivot on either foot, in either direction
- Turning in the air

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Receiving

In a variety of pressure situation

Using either hand

Passing
Various appropriate passes
Feint pass

Getting Free
Various methods
Timing

Marking
Intercepting from various angles
Covering in pass
Marking space

Teaching Strategies;

 Start by finding out what learners know about the topic

 Explain the key words in the lesson
 Divide the class into four groups
 Give each group an activity to do and thereafter ask each group to present their work
 Give summary of the work

ACTIVITY

1. Draw a netball court to the correct measurement showing the positions and areas of play,
2. Identify any five rules applied in the game of netball
3. State four passing skills used in the game of netball

Expressive Arts Module - 240 -

 SUMMARY

In this unit we have looked at the game of netball that is played by seven players on each court.
The court measures 30.5m length and court 15.25m width. The game is played according to
specified rules. The objective of the game is to score more points than the other team. It is very
important that as teachers we understand all the rules and skills applied in the game if the
learners are to benefit.

Expressive Arts Module - 241 -

UNIT:13 BASKETBALL

INTRODUCTION

Basketball is played by two teams of five players. The teams have five other players who begin
the match as substitutes. Players can be swapped whenever there is a break in play. The objective
of the game is to score points by throwing the ball into the opposing team‟s basket. An ordinary
basket scores two points. A free throw scores one point. A shot from outside the three point line
score three points. Players can pass, throw, tap roll or dribble the ball. They cannot kick or carry
it. Most passes are chest passes made with two hands from in front of the chest. Other passes
include the bounce pass and the overhead pass. The game is controlled by the referee, umpire, a
scorer, a time keeper and a 30 seconds clock operator. Matches last for 40 minutes played over
two halves of 20 minutes each. The clock stops whenever the whistle is blown to stop play.

LEARNING OUT COMES:

 Draw the basketball court with correct measurements

 Demonstrate the skills applied in the game
 Identify the rules of the game
 Actively participate in the game
 Practice the passes used in the game

THE COURT

The standard indoor basketball court is 28m long and 15m wide. Playing surface is wood or any
smooth, level artificial surface. It‟s essential requirement is to allow the ball to bounce
consistently.

Expressive Arts Module - 242 -

Dress

Shorts and sleeveless vests are normally worn. They are comfortable and don‟t restrict
movement.

Officials and Players

The game is controlled by a referee and an umpire helped by a scorer and a time keeper

Referee and Umpire

Role

i. Jointly control the game though the referee has ultimate control and the final decision on
any point.

Expressive Arts Module - 243 -

 ii. Take up positions on opposite sides of the court: outside the boundaries as far as possible
and swap sides after each foul and before each jump ball.
iii. Keep a careful watch on the play and stop the game where necessary according to the
rules.
iv. Uses a number of hand signals to indicate their decisions and whistle to stop play.

Time keeper

Role

i. Keeps a record of playing time and time of stoppages

ii. Times the time-outs
iii. Indicates the end of each half or overtime with the gang or bell.

Scorer

i. records the names and numbers of players including substitutions

ii. keeps a running check of all points scored
iii. indicates all fouls called against each player by raising the appropriate numbered markers
iv. keeps a record of all time-outs

The Players

Each of the two teams consists of up to ten players but only five from each team are in the court
at any given time during a match.

 Each team has a coach responsible for team tactics and substitution.
 The greatest thing in basketball is that it has no positional restrictions – all players need to be
versatile, able to attack and defend. Players can however, be divided into three main types.

1. Guards

These are usually the quickest members of the team and initiate attacking moves. They tend
to play furthest away from the basket. They are usually the smallest players in the team.

Skill and attributes

i. Speed
ii. Long distance shooting
iii. Accurate passing

2. Forwards

They are normally taller than the guards and concentrate their play in either sides of the key

Expressive Arts Module - 244 -

 Skills and attributes

i. Shooting especially from the edges of the key

ii. Passing normally to centers
iii. Rebound play

3. Centers

4. Also known as posts or pivots. They are usually the tallest players in a team or the best at
jumping. They operate close to the basket.

Skills and attributes

i. Height
ii. Shooting from close
iii. Rebound play
iv. Passing

PLAYING POSITIONS

Teams can use different line ups of players and change the balance during the game depending
on how the play develops and strengths and weaknesses of the opposition. Here are two typical
starting formations.

NB; WE NEED TO DRAW IN PEN AND SCAN

This is a 2-1- This is a 1-2-2

2 formation. line-up. One
Two guard, G C guard, two
F
one center, F centers and
and two two forwards.
forwards. Easiest to play
This is C G and the most
normally difficult for
used as a opponents to
defensive penetrate.
F
formation.
F C
G

Substitutions
 Any or all of the five players in action may be replaced by substitutes during the game

Expressive Arts Module - 245 -

 Substitutes can only be made when the ball is dead and the game clock is stopped
 Following a violation only the „innocent‟ team can make a substitution but if they opt to do
so, the other team can as well do so. If the coach tells you to go in as a substitute you must:

i. Report to the scorer

ii. Sit on the bench until the scorer‟s signal is sounded
iii. Stand up and indicate your intention to play to the nearest floor official
iv. Wait to be beckoned by the official before entering the court

THE GAME

The basic idea of the game is to score more points than the opponents but to get the ball through
your opponent‟s basket to score. Your time must first get possession of the ball. Then you have
30 seconds to dribble or pass it to the net and shoot, all using hands only.

Starting

The visiting team chooses ends for the first half (A coin is tossed if you are on neutral territory),
and teams change ends at half time. The game is started by a jump ball at the center.

1. One player from each team stands in the center circle on the half line, each on the side nearer
to their own basket. The referee throws the ball up into the air between them. The other
players must all stand outside the circle.
2. Both players try to tap the ball and get possession for their team – but the ball must not be
touched until it has reached its greatest height.
3. A player involved in the jump ball may only touch the ball twice. After that it must be
touched by one of the other players or touch the backboard or floor before they can touch it
again.
4. The jump ball procedure is also used at the beginning of the second half and periods of extra
play and to restart the game in certain situations.

Duration: the game is divided into two 20minutes halves with an interval (usually ten minutes)
at the end of the first half. A full game usually takes about 90 minutes including the
stoppages and half time.

HINT

If the ball hits the floor before either players touch it the jump ball is taken
again
Scoring: Team scores points for throwing the ball successfully through their opponent‟s basket.
The number of points awarded depends on the type of the shot and where it was taken from.

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 A - A field goal taken from
outside the three point line
(3 points).

C B - A field goal taken from inside

the three point line (2 points)

C - A field goal taken from a free

A B throw (1 point)

NB:THIS NEEDS TO BE DRAWN AND SCANNED

HINT

A game cannot end at a tie. If the score are level at the full time whistle, an extra five
minute period is played. As many extra periods as it takes to break the tie are played.

An umpire can blow the whistle for any of the following:

1. A violation or foul
2. A held ball – (two or more players of opposing teams have one or both hands firmly on the
ball or the ball is lodged in the basket supports)
3. Ball goes out of bound (over boundary lines)
4. Suspension of play for injury
5. 30 seconds signal is sounded (A team has gone over the time limit for possession of the ball)

HINT

The clock does not stop after a basket is scored. An opponent of the scoring
throws the ball into court from behind the end lines where the goal was scored.
This must be done within five seconds of holding the ball.

Expressive Arts Module - 247 -

Moving the Ball

 You use one or both hands to catch, control, pass or shoot.

 One hand only for dribbling
 You must hit the ball with a clenched fist.
 Deliberately playing the ball with your foot is a violation but if you hit it accidentally you
will not be penalized.
 The team in possession must not pass the ball back to their half of their court. This would be
a back court violation.
 The dribble ends when you touch the ball with both hands at once, or let it rest on one or both
hands. When the dribble ends you must not start another one until you have taken a shot or
the ball is played by another player.

Getting possession when you are standing still:

If you are standing still when you get the ball from another player or from a rebounded shot at
the basket, you are not allowed to move with it. You can, however, pivot. This means one of
your feet stays on the ground while you turn with the other.

If you collect the ball while on move, you are allowed two steps only before shooting, passing or
dribbling the ball. The two steps are executed in a particular way called two count rhythm.

FOULS

When a foul occurs

 the referee blows the whistle and indicates his judgment on the severity of the foul
 the ball becomes dead
 the offending player must raise an arm and turn to face the scorer
 the scorer records the foul against the foul the player
 a player who has committed five fouls, personal or technical, must leave the court for the rest
of the ga

What kind of foul?

1. Technical foul: A foul against the spirit of the game e.g. unsporting behavior or language
Penalty: the other side is awarded two free throws or the option of a throw – in from the mid
– point side line.
2. A personal foul: passing, blocking, charging, illegal use of hands or any other contact
Penalty: Varies according to severity of offence. See below:

A. Normal personal foul: for accidentally making contact with an opponent.

Penalty: a throw in from the sideline nearest to where the foul occurred.
B. Intentional foul: deliberately causing contact with an opponent
Penalty: two free throws allowed to the other team
C. Disqualifying foul: unsporting behavior e.g punching an opponent

Expressive Arts Module - 248 -

 Penalty: the offender is disqualified and a substitute is brought on
D. Double foul: when two players from opposing side commit personal fouls against each
other
Penalty: no penalty, a jump ball is taken
E. Multiple foul: when two or more team – mate commit a personal foul on one opponent
Penalty: the other side is awarded two free shots
F. Foul on the player in the action of shooting
Penalty: if a goal is made it will count and a free throw will be awarded. If it misses, two
or three free throws are given.

One and One Rule

After seven player fouls either technical or personal have been called against a team in one half,
the one and one rule is brought into force. The player fouled against is given
one free throw. If the basket is scored from this, as second throw is taken. If the first throw is not
successful play continues.

At the end of the half, the seven team fouls are cancelled and foul count starts again for the
second half, though the fouls remain against the individual play

SKILLS FOR PASSING

i. Chest pass: this is the most basic pass used when there is no opponent between you and the
receiver. It is used for quick, clean passing over short distances.
ii. Overhead pass: used for passing over an opponent‟s head and especially useful for a taller
player to use when passing over a short player.
iii. Javelin pass: it also goes above the opponent‟s head and is designed for distance, speed and
initiating breaks.
iv. Bounce pass: a way of passing when there is an opponent between you and your team –
mate. It is most useful if your team – mate is not far away. You can make the pass with one
or both hands – one is more usual.

Dribbling: Bouncing the ball with one hand is another way of moving the ball around the
court and is a skill you should practice hard to perfect. Dribble without looking at the ball.
Shooting: there are several different types of shooting practices:

i. Lay up shot: at the end of the dribble, or after receiving a pass, remember you are
allowed just two steps, first on the right and the second step is the take – off step on the
left foot and usually longer. Third as you jump, take the ball up with both hands. Then a
full stretch, release the ball with the hand opposite your take off foot. Here the right hand
and aim to hit the back board gently at the top right corner of the marked square.
ii. Set shot: this is useful for shooting from a distance and when there is an opponent
between you and the basket.
iii. Jump shot: the ball is released at the top of a vertical jump. It must be with a strong flip
of the wrist and full follow –through.

Expressive Arts Module - 249 -

 TEACHING STRATEGIES

i. Start with simple skills to complex ones.

ii. Emphasis visual bouncing to beginners.
iii. Use part whole strategy.
iv. Keep knees slightly bent and trunk leaning slightly.
v. When shooting keep the eyes focused on the ring of the basket.
vi. Pivot in any direction, but don‟t drag the pivot foot and always try to get the body in front
of the offensive player.

ACTIVITY:

1. Draw the basketball with correct measurements and put the positions of the players
for a single team.
2. Demonstrate three skills used in the game of basketball.
3. When can a player be awarded three points in the game of basketball?
4. State the rules of the game of basketball.

SUMMARY:

In this unit we have learnt that the game of basketball is played by five players on each side of
the court but each the teams consist of up to ten players but only five from each are in court at
any given time during a match. The game is played for 40minutes played over two halves of
20minutes each. The court is 28m long and 15m wide.

Expressive Arts Module - 250 -

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