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Introduction

Gyroscopes are devices mounted on a frame and able to sense an angular velocity if the
frame is rotating. Many classes of gyroscopes exist, depending on the operating physical
principle and the involved technology. Gyroscopes can be used alone or included in more
complex systems, such as Gyrocompass, Inertial Measurement Unit, Inertial Navigation System
and Attitude Heading Reference System. In this paper, a review of the more commercially
diffused classes of gyroscopes is presented. In particular, mechanical gyroscopes, optical
gyroscopes (Section 3), including Fiber Optic Gyroscopes (FOGs) [6–8] and Ring Laser
Gyroscopes (RLG) [9,10]; and Micro-electromechanical system (MEMS) gyroscopes [11,12]
(Section 4) have been considered by focusing attention on the operating principles and different
improvements in commercial architectures in terms of performance.

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 Gyroscope

Mechanical gyroscope

A mechanical gyroscope essentially consists of a spinning mass that rotates around its
axis. When the mass is rotating on its axis, it tends to remain parallel to itself and to oppose any
attempt to change its orientation. If a gyroscope is installed on gimbals that allow the mass to
navigate freely in the three directions of space, its spinning axis will remain oriented in the same
direction, even if it changes direction. A mechanical gyroscope shows several physical
phenomena, including precession and nutation. In the following sections, the main operating
principles of the mechanical gyroscopes are reported, with reference to the Inertial Navigation
Systems. [1]

Principle of Mechanical Gyroscopes: Gyroscopic Effects

The basic effect upon which a gyroscope

relies is that an isolated spinning mass tends to
keep its angular position with respect to an
inertial reference frame, and, when a constant
external torque (respectively, a constant
angular speed) is applied to the mass, its
rotation axis undergoes a precession motion at
a constant angular speed (respectively, with a
constant output torque), in a direction that is
Figure 1: Elements of mechanical gyroscope and main
parameters normal to the direction of the applied torque
(respectively, to the constant angular speed).
External forces acting on the center of mass of the rotating part do not affect the angular position
of the rotation axis. [1]

Referring to Figure 1, the simplified equations governing the physical phenomenon are:

C y =−IΩω z (0)

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 C z =IΩω y (0)
Where C y and C z are the torques acting along y and z axis, respectively; I is the polar mass
moment of inertia of the spinning mass; Ω is the angular velocity of the spinning mass along the
rotation axis; and ω yand ω z are the precession speeds along y and z axis, respectively. As shown
by Equations (1) and (2), the output torque due to an imposed precession motion is proportional
to the inertia and the rotational speed of the spinning mass. [1]

Mechanical Displacement Gyroscopes

The primary application of gyroscopic effects consists in the measurement of the angular
position of a moving vehicle. The spinning mass is mounted upon a gimbaled frame, allowing
rotation along two perpendicular axes. [1]

The gimbaled frame of the gyroscope is attached to the vehicle and it is free to rotate,
while the rotation axis of the spinning mass keeps its angular position during the motion of the
vehicle. The variation of the absolute angle of the vehicle can be simply associated to the relative
variation of the angle between the rotation axis of the mass and a fixed direction on the frame of
the gyroscope. [1]

Mechanical Rate Gyroscope

Rate gyros measure the angular speed of a

vehicle during rotary motion. According to
Equation(1), it is possible to notice that when

an angular speed is imposed to a gimbal

(ω z )

and hence to the spinning mass, a proportional

torque appears along a direction that

(C ¿¿ y)¿

is perpendicular to the direction of imposed

angular speed, as shown in Figure 2. If a
Figure 2: Mechanical rate gyroscope
spring system of known stiffness is opposing
and balancing the output torque,it is possible

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to compute the imposed angular speed through the measurement of the output angle (ϑ y )
assumed by the inner gimbal frame over time. [1]

Description of Common Mechanical Gyroscopes:

A mechanical gyroscope consists of:

1. A spinning wheel mounted on two gimbals: This allows it to undergo precession motions
along two perpendicular directions. [1]
2. A rigid frame with rotating bearings: The mechanical components in relative motion are
subjected to friction, which in turn leads to measurement drifts over time. The main goal
in gyroscope design is to build a frictionless and perfectly balanced device. To minimize
friction, high-precision bearings and special lubricants are used or, in many critical
applications, magnetic suspensions or fluid-suspended configurations. [1]
3. Sensing systems (pick-offs): These are capable of reading angular displacements between
the two adjacent gimbals and to transduce them into electric signals by means of
potentiometers, resolvers or encoders, thus constituting the input for a computing unit. [1]

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Optical gyroscopes: they come in two forms, the ring laser gyroscope and the fiber-optic
gyroscope. The ring laser gyroscope consists of a glass ceramic chamber containing a helium-
neon gas mixture in which two laser beams are generated by a single anode/twin cathode system
as shown in Figure 3. Three mirrors, supported by the ceramic block and mounted in a triangular
arrangement, direct the pair of laser beams around the cavity in opposite directions. Any rotation
of the ring affects the coherence of the two beams, raising the frequency of one and lowering the
frequency of the other. The clockwise and anticlockwise beams are directed into a photodetector
that measures the beat frequency according to the frequency difference, which is proportional to
the angle of rotation. The fiber-optic gyroscope is a rate gyro that measures angular velocity. [2]

Figure 3: Ring laser gyroscope

Gyrocompass
Gyrocompass is a navigational instrument which makes use of a continuously driven
gyroscope to accurately seek the direction of true (geographic) north. [3]

Operation Principles

One form of gyroscope is a spinning wheel mounted so that the direction of its spin axis
has universal rotational freedom. The spin allows the mass, or inertial, properties of the material
in the wheel to be used continuously and thereby gives rise to a relatively large gyroscopic

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momentum or inertia in a moderate-sized wheel. The important property of a practical gyroscope
is its angular momentum, the product of its spin and its inertia about the spin axis. The angular
momentum is nearly parallel to the spin axis in a practical gyrocompass. [3]

The following is the basic law of gyroscopics: when a torque is applied to a gyroscope, it
will rotate (or precess) so as to attempt to align its angular momentum with the torque. The
precession is with respect to inertial space—that is, a reference space that is nonrotating relative
to the “fixed stars.” Note that Earth is not part of inertial space because of its daily rotation. The
magnitude of the precession is directly proportional to the magnitude of the torque and inversely
proportional to the magnitude of the angular momentum. When no torque is applied, the spin
axis remains motionless relative to inertial space; if aimed at a star it remains aimed at the star,
and consequently one end of the axis appears to an Earth observer, in the course of a day, to rise
in the east and set in the west. When an applied torque attempts to rotate a gyroscope about the
vertical axis, the spin axis will rise or dip as it attempts to align its angular momentum with the
torque. Similarly, an applied torque about a horizontal axis will cause the spin axis to precess
about the vertical axis. [3]

A gyrocompass is a gyroscope having a frame with a mass unbalance giving it a

pendulosity at right angles to the spin axis. In normal operation the spin axis will be nearly
horizontal and pointed north, while the pendulosity is downward. Consider a gyrocompass
started with its spin axis horizontal and pointing a few degrees east of north. Earth’s rotation then
causes the spin axis to rise above the horizon as seen by an Earth observer (more accurately, the
horizon dips below the spin axis, which initially remains motionless in inertial space). This
action produces a horizontal torque directed westward due to the effect of gravity on the
pendulosity. The spin axis, obeying the basic law of gyroscopics, precesses about the vertical
toward the meridian, continuing to rise because of Earth’s rotation until the meridian is reached.
At this point the pendulous torque is maximum and the spin axis continues to precess through the
meridian. When the spin axis is west of the meridian Earth’s rotation causes the spin axis to set,
thus reducing the pendulous torque. At the same distance west of north as the starting direction
was east of north, the spin axis is horizontal again but because of Earth’s rotation continues to
set. This causes the spin axis to dip below the horizon and produces an eastward pendulous
torque, which causes the spin axis to precess toward the meridian again and eventually precess

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past the meridian and back to its starting direction, where this whole process is repeated. The
spin axis thus traces out an ellipse about the meridian and horizontal. The flatness of the ellipse
and the period of the oscillation depend on the strength of the pendulosity. [3]

For a gyrocompass to point north, it is necessary that the oscillation be damped out so
that the unit can settle on the meridian and not keep passing through it. Damping an oscillator
involves changing its energy state by opposing the velocity of the body. Two principle methods
for damping have been used. The first, used in all gyrocompasses except the Sperry, was
developed by Schuler. It consists of applying an antipendulous torque caused by the restricted
flow of a viscous fluid responding to the tilt of the gyroscopic element. Viscosity and direction
of flow through the constriction are combined so that the torque is applied in the proper phase for
damping. The torque is horizontal and ideally is directed so as to precess the gyro toward the
meridian at all times: it points west when the spin axis is east of the meridian and east when the
spin axis is west of the meridian. The combined action of pendulous and damping torques
changes the previously mentioned elliptical motion of the undamped regime to a spiraling-in
motion toward the meridian. Viscous friction absorbs the energy withdrawn to affect the
damping. [3]

The second method of damping is used in the Sperry gyrocompass. The Sperry compass
is supported by a wire suspension with a power-driven follow-up system, known as a phantom
ring, which is a type of servomechanism. Damping involves applying the pendulous torque in
such a manner that its interaction with the phantom ring and follow-up motor produces a torque
along the vertical axis. This attempts to reduce the tilt of the gyroscopic element. Since tilt and
motion in the horizontal plane are coupled together in a gyrocompass, this method also serves to
damp the spin axis toward the meridian. The energy for damping is furnished by the motor that
operates the phantom ring. This system has antipendulous action, and damping is obtained by
adding energy to the system. [3]

In its steady state a gyrocompass has a slight upward tilt on the north side of its spin axis
in the Northern Hemisphere and a downward tilt in the Southern Hemisphere. This produces the
torque required to precess the gyrocompass relative to inertial space about the vertical axis at the
same rate that the meridian is rotating about that axis because of Earth’s rotation. This rate is
zero at the Equator and increases to full Earth rate at the poles. Because of this equilibrium tilt,

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the damping method used in the Sperry gyrocompass causes the spin axis to settle slightly east of
the meridian in the Northern Hemisphere and west in the Southern. This is a small known angle
that is readily compensated for in the heading indication. [3]

The Anschütz and Arma compasses are supported by flotation. The pendulous torque is
obtained by simply mounting the unit with the centre of gravity below the pivot. Damping is
obtained by restricted flow of a viscous fluid in a tube. The Brown compass is supported by a
pulsing oil column. The pendulous torque is obtained by the flow of oil between two tanks. Air
pressure generated by the spin of the gyro wheel forces the oil uphill to give it pendulosity, since
it is naturally antipendulous, or top-heavy. It is damped by restricted flow of a viscous fluid in a
tube. The Sperry compass is supported by a wire suspension with a power-driven phantom ring
to remove torsion (twisting) from the wires. Surrounding the phantom ring is a frame called the
ballistic. The pendulous torque is obtained by the flow of mercury between two tanks (the
mercury ballistic). As this action is antipendulous, the equilibrium direction of the gyroscopic
angular momentum is south. This combination of two potentially unstable components produces
a stable system. It is damped by the follow-up motor, which receives a signal proportional to the
displacement of the phantom ring from the wheel-supporting gimbal. [3]

Flywheel

The flywheel was normally envisioned in its conventional use as a way to steady the
speed of rotating equipment. The ability of a flywheel to provide remarkable assistance to speed
control of a rotating machine lies in its capacity to absorb and release energy with small
variations in speed. This quality of a flywheel can make it useful as an energy-storage medium in
certain kinds of energy systems. [4]

Since the kinetic energy contained by a rotating flywheel is given by

1
Ek = I ω2 (0)
2

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Where I is the moment of inertia of the mass about the center of rotation, ω is the angular
velocity in radian units, energy will be absorbed when ω changes slightly only upon the
condition that I be a large quantity. Consequently, flywheels are characterized by large moments
of inertia. Mass alone is no criterion for the “flywheel effect,” however, because the moment of
inertia is involved as well as the disposition of the mass. Thus, the shape of the body becomes
important. In practice, not only are flywheels massive, but also the mass is placed as far as
practical from the center of rotation, as provided, for example, by a heavy rim. The flywheel
effect, then, is obtained whenever a large mass having a large moment of inertia about its center
of rotation is constructed. The large moment of inertia about the center of rotation steadies the
rotational motion in the face of uneven power impulses through the process of absorbing or
releasing kinetic energy by slight changes of angular rotation. [4]

In the hydraulic turbine field, the flywheel effect has a very special meaning. The
magnitude of the flywheel effect of a hydraulic turbine is determined by the weight of its rotating
element, multiplied by the square of the radius of gyration of the same. [4]

Energy Storage. A major problem in attempts to use so-called unconventional sources of

energy is the severe limitations imposed by the need to store energy from a cyclical source
(direct heat radiation from the sun, mechanical energy from the sun in the form of wind, etc.).
Central electric power-generating stations, which are now tied together by way of vast
interconnecting networks in many countries, and which also have oversize units to handle peak
loads, are to be contrasted with smaller wind-generating facilities which, for example, located in
remote regions or developing countries, cannot utilize a grid for the transfer of energy. Thus, the
possible use of flywheel technology is
being considered along with batteries and
other less conventional energy storage
approaches. [4]

Double pendulum

Here is a schematic diagram of the double

pendulum. Both limbs of the double
pendulum are restricted to move in the

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vertical plane. The upper limb of the double pendulum has length L. Its center of mass is at a
distance l1 from the point of suspension and the moment of inertia about the center of mass is I1.
The center of mass of the lower limb is situated at a distance l2 from its point of suspension and
its moment of inertia around the center of mass is I2. The masses of the limbs are m1 and m2
respectively. This is a conservative system. Equations of motion are derived here using the
Lagrangian formalism.

Translational kinetic energies of the centers of mass of the two limbs are given by:

1 1
T 1 ,trans= m 1 ( ẋ 21+ ẏ 21 )= m 1 l 21 θ̇21 (0)
2 2

1 1 1
T 2 ,trans= m 1 ( ẋ22 + ẏ 22 ) = m 2 L2 θ̇ 21+ m 2 l 22 θ̇22 +m 2 L l 2 cos (θ1−θ 2) θ̇1 θ̇ 2
2 2 2
(0)

Rotational kinetic energies of the limbs around their respective centers of mass are given by:

1
T 1 ,rot = I 1 θ̇21 (0)
2
1
T 2 ,rot = I 2 θ̇22 (0)
2
Hence the total kinetic energy of the system is:

1 1 1 1 1
T = m 1 l 21 θ̇ 21+ m2 L2 θ̇21 + m 2 l 22 θ̇22+ m2 L l2 cos (θ1−θ2 ) θ̇ 1 θ̇2 + I 1 θ̇21 + I 2 θ̇22 (0)
2 2 2 2 2
The gravitational potential energies of the two limbs are:

V 1=−g m 1 l 1 cos(θ1) (0)

( m 2 l 22 I 2
c 2= + (0)
V 2=−g m2 L cos ( θ 1 )−g m2 l 2 cos(θ 2) 2 2
0)
Hence the total potential energy of the system is:

V =−g m1 l 1 cos (θ1)−g m2 L cos ( θ1 )−g m2 l 2 cos (θ2) (0)

and the Lagrangian is:

L=T −V =c 1 θ̇ 21+ c2 θ̇22 +c 3 θ̇ 1 θ̇2 cos ( θ1 −θ2 ) +c 4 cos ( θ 1 )+ c 5 cos θ 2 (0)

Where

m 1 l 21 I 1 m 2 L2
c 1= + + (0)
2 2 2
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 c 5=g m2 l 2 (0) c 4 =g(m1 l 1 +m2 L) (0)

The evolution of the system is determined by the Euler-Lagrange equations

d ∂ L ∂L
− =0 (0)
dt ∂ θ̇i ∂ θi
For the current system, this gives us two coupled second order ordinary differential equations:

c 4 sin(θ ¿¿ 1)+2 c 1 θ̈1 + c3 θ̈2 cos ( θ1−θ 2 )+ c 3 θ̇ 22 sin(θ 1−θ2 )=0 ¿ (0)
c 5 sin(θ¿¿ 2)+2 c2 θ̈2 +c 3 θ̈ 1 cos ( θ1−θ2 ) −c 3 θ̇ 21 sin(θ 1−θ2 )=0 ¿ (0)

Decoupling the second order parts:

2 c 2 c 4 sin ( θ 1) + c 23 θ̇21 sin(θ 1−θ2) cos ( θ 1−θ2 ) +2 c 2 c3 θ̇22 sin ( θ1−θ2 ) −c 3 c5 cos (θ1−θ2 )sin (θ2 )
θ̈1= (0)
c 23 co s 2 ( θ 1−θ2 ) −4 c1 c 2

2 c 1 c 5 sin ( θ2 )−c 23 θ̇22 sin(θ1 −θ2)cos ( θ 1−θ2 )−2c 1 c 3 θ̇21 sin ( θ1−θ 2 )−c 3 c 4 cos(θ 1−θ2 )sin (θ1)
θ̈2= (0)
c23 co s2 ( θ1−θ 2 )−4 c 1 c 2

Conic Pendulum

A small ball of mass m is suspended from a

string of length L. The ball revolves with
constant speed v in a horizontal circle of
radius r as shown in Figure. (Because the
c 3=m2 Ll 2 (0)
string sweeps out the surface of a cone, the
system is known as a conical pendulum.)
Imagine the motion of the ball in Figure
6.3a and convince yourself that the string
sweeps out a cone and that the ball moves in a horizontal circle.

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The ball in Figure 6.3 does not accelerate vertically. Therefore, we model it as a particle in
equilibrium in the vertical direction. It experiences a centripetal acceleration in the horizontal
direction, so it is modeled as a particle in uniform circular motion in this direction.
Let θ represent the angle between the string and the vertical. In the diagram of forces acting on
T exerted by the string on the ball is resolved into a vertical
the ball in Figure 6.3b, the force ⃗
component T cos u and a horizontal component T sin u acting toward the center of the circular
path.
By applying the particle in equilibrium model in the vertical direction:

∑ F y =T cos θ−mg=0 (0)

T cos θ=mg (0)

The net force causing the centripetal acceleration can be related to the acceleration as follows:

v2
∑ F=mac =m (0)
r
Using equ (24) from the particle in uniform circular motion model in the horizontal direction:

m v2
∑ F x =T sin θ=ma c = r (0)
Dividing equ (25) by equ (23) gives:

v2
tanθ= (0)
rg
v=√ rg tan θ (0)

Incorporate r =Lsin θ from the geometry in figure

v=√ Lg sinθ tanθ (0)

The speed is independent of the mass of the ball. Consider what happens when θ goes to 90○ so
that the string is horizontal. Because the tangent of 90○ is infinite, the speed v is infinite, which
tells us the string cannot possibly be horizontal. If it were, there would be no vertical component
T to balance the gravitational force on the ball.
of the force ⃗

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Conclusion
A mechanical gyroscope shows several physical phenomena, including precession and
nutation. The basic effect upon which a gyroscope relies is that an isolated spinning mass tends
to keep its angular position with respect to an inertial reference frame, and, when a constant
external torque is applied to the mass, its rotation axis undergoes a precession motion at a
constant angular speed in a direction that is normal to the direction of the applied torque.

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References

[1] Passaro, V., Cuccovillo, A., Vaiani, L., De Carlo, M., & Campanella, C. E. (2017).
Gyroscope technology and applications: A review in the industrial perspective. Sensors, 17(10),
2284.

[1] Morris, A. S., & Langari, R. (2012). Measurement and instrumentation: theory and
application. Academic Press.

[3] Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc. (2019, August 21). Gyrocompass. Retrieved

from Encyclopaedia Britannica website:
https://www.britannica.com/technology/gyrocompass

[4] Considine, D. M., & Considine, G. D. (2013). Van Nostrand’s scientific

encyclopedia. Springer Science & Business Media.

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