Helicopter

 Helicopter Aerodynamics
aerodynamics,
He Wharekura-tini

structures and systemsKaihautu 0 Aotearoa

structures and systemsTHE OPE N

P0|.YTE(HN|(
OF NEW ZEALAND

B3810 He//capters
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 CONTENTS

“knew
- tau

Basic Operating Principles

Controls

Structures

The Powertrain

Safety In and Around Helicopters

Appendix: Table of Definitions

Copyright
{his material is for the sole use of enrolled students and may not be
reproduced without the written authority of the Principal, TOPNZ.

55573/1
 AIRCRAFT ENGINEERING"

AIRFRAMES 111 ASSIGNMENT 1

BASIC HELICOPTERS

This assignment is intended to serve as an introduction to the

rest of the assignments in the 5S5~3 series. The complete series
consists of

Assignment 1 Basic Helicopters

Assignment 2 Basic Flying Controls
Assignment 3 Basic Rotors
Assignment Q Piston Engine Installations
Assignment S Rotating Flying Controls
Assignment 6 Main and Tail Rotor Heads and Blades
Assignment 7 Transmission Systems
Assignment 8 Helicopter Vibrations
Assignment 9 Turbine Engine Installations
Assignment 10 Basic Helicopter Flight Aerodynamics

The word Helicopter is derived from the two Greek words:

Helicon = helix
Pteron = wing

and so literally the word helicopter means spiral wing.

The history of helicopter flight starts in the mid 1700s when

people of many nationalities began making models of helicopters
of all shapes and sizes, powered in a variety of ways, such as
gunpowder, steam, and electricity. However, vertical flight was
known much earlier. It was first described by the Chinese
alchemist Ko—Hung, who wrote in 320 AD about a toy now known as
the "Chinese flying top".

In 1907, Paul Carnu, a Frenchman, made the world's first free

helicopter flight. His machine reached a height of about 1.7 metres

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and was airborne for but a'few seconds. In the years that followe d
many helicopters were made and flown. In 1936, the successful
Focke-Wulf Fw 61 flew for the first time. In 1939, Igor Sikorsky
flew his VS 300, which became the RH production model and is the
forerunner of the present—day Sikorsky helicopter models.

Many of the advances made in the design of the helicopter

rotor are due to the work of Juan de La Cierva who, during the
development of his "autogyro" re~invented the flapping hinge,
invented the drag hinge and its damper, and developed cyclic pitch
control of the rotor.

So far, several terms associated with helicopters have been

used. Before going any further, and to avoid confusion, a list of
words and terms as they are used on helicopters and on fixed-wing
aircraft is given in the Appendix at the end of this assignment.
As part of your work on this assignment you should now read the
Appendix and than dg Practice Exercise A that follows here.

PRACTICE EXERCISE A

State whether each of the following statements is True

or False.

1. Disc area is the sum of the area of all the blades

of a rotor.

2. The angle between the chord line of a rotor blade

and its plane of rotation is called the angle of
incidence.

3. The control that changes the main rotor blade pitch

angles all together is the cyclic pitch control

4. An aircraft pitches about its longitudinal axis.

S. The propulsion rotor sited at the tail in a more or

less vertical plane is the tail rotor-

6. An aircraft yaws about its normal axis.

7. The study of the motion of air is called dynamics.

8. The control that changes the main rotor blade pitch

angles differently to each other is the collective
pitch lever.

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9. The angle between the chord line of an airfoil and

the direction of the airflow (relative airflow) is
called the angle of attack.

10. An aircraft rolls about its lateral axis-

(Answers on page 27)

BASIC OPERATING PRINCIPLES

If two or more airfoils (see

Fig. 1) are fioined together,
pivoted at the centre, held
horizontal, and then spun around
quickly, they will rise straight
upwards because of the lift
developed by the airfoils as they
move through the air. This device
FIG. l
is the Chinese flying top -
mentioned earlier. Should a gust
of wind tilt it to one side while it is flying, then it will move
in the direction of the tilt. All the time that the lift
generated exceeds its weight, the top climbs, and when the lift is
equal to the weight the top hovers, and when it becomes less, the
top descends. The helicopter main rotor operates in a similar way
to the flying top, except that it is power driven and its tilt is
controlled by the pilot.

Because the main rotor is power driven, a torque reaction

equal and opposite to the torque turning the rotor is developed.
(Newton's third law of motion.) If this torque reaction were
allowed to act unhindered, then the fuselage of the helicopter
would turn in the opposite direction to the main rotor. The c
component that controls the effect of the torque reaction is
usually a tail rotor, which is a vertical, side-mounted propeller '
WhOS@ blade angles can be moved from a positive pitch through 0°

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to a negative pitch to vary the

side thrust produced. Besides
/' controlling the effect of the
torque reaction, the tail rotor is
also used to control the helicopter
I \°’ I Dimzciion
about its vertical (yaw) axis when
of it is hovering. The pilot
rototbn
controls the pitch angle of the
tail rotor blades through the
tail rotor pedals.

The lift developed by the

“h-III 1 'Tbfl main rotor is altered not by
T‘o*'cLuQ.'- _ ‘ - flfotor
Hmochorz pbvoz speeding up or slowing down the
rotor but by increasing/decreasing
FIG. 2 Main rotor torque and
the pitch angle of all the blades
tail rotor force together by the same amount, in
the same direction, and at the same time. This is known as
collective pitch. Lifting up the collective pitch lever increases
the pitch angles and causes the helicopter to climb. Pushing it
down causes the helicopter to descend.

The reason for changing the pitch angles and not the rev/min
is that the inertia of the main rotor would cause a time delay
between the opening or closing of the engine throttle and the
rev/min of the main rotor increasing or decreasing. By, say,
increasing the pitch of the main rotor blades and increasing the
engine power output at the same time, the main rotor rev/min stays
constant and the power delivered to the main rotor is increased
without the time delay due to inertia.

The main rotor is tilted through the cyclic pitch control

column by progressively increasing and then decreasing the angles
of the blades in their orbit. Thus, to move into forward flight,
the pitch angle of a rearwardgmoving blade is increased, which
causes the blade to develop more lift while a forward—moving blade
has its pitch angle decreased to develop less lift. The result is
to tilt the total reaction into a forward—leaning position ~— see
Fig. H. The main rotor can be tilted in any direction by moving

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the cyclic pitch control column in the direction desired for the
tilt, the helicopter then flies in the direction of the tilt.

The actual tilting may be done by

1. Using a gimbal-mounted main rotor. This assembly

is called a semi—rigid rotor. See Fig. 3(a).

2. Aerodynamic forces moving the blades, each pivoted

on a horizontal hinge pin, up and down in relation
to the centre of the fixed main rotor hub. This
assembly is called an articulated rotor. See Pig.
3(b).
3. Using aerodynamic forces to bend relatively flexible
blades and their mount elements up and down in
relation to the centre of the fixed main rotor hub.
This assembly is called a rigid rotor. See Fig. 3(0)

(a) Semi—rigid rotor (b) Articulated rotor (c) Rigid rotor

FIG. 3 Types of main rotor

The main rotor gives energy to a large mass airflow, and

because the airflow is accelerated to a low speed only, this offers
a most efficient method of hovering. As a theoretical example, a
helicopter that hovers by passing 500 kg of air each second at a
velocity of 20 m/s downwards through its main rotor generates a"
lifting force where

Force = mass per second (%§) X velocity (%>

/

= §§Ll§ (N)*
B

* This is a variation of the familiar

S
Force = mass (kg) X acceleration

k
.;“\ it
= -2-gin-(N)
In both equations the answer is in newtons (N).

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;. F = 500 (kg) X 20 (m)

1 (s) 1 (S)

= 10 000 (kg m)
l (s7)
8

= 10 000 kg m/52
0

= 10 000 N

The energy needed to generate this force of 10 000 N is found

from

= 2
Ke i mV

= i X 500 X 202

= 100 000 J

where Ke is kinetic energy,

m is mass, and

V is velocity.

This amount of energy is used each second, so the-power needed

is

100 O00 (J)

1 (S) = 100 O00 W

= 100 kW

If, by some means a smaller mass of air is moved, say, 250 kg,
then, to keep momentum the same, the velocity must be increased.
r-

Momentum = mass X velocity

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_ 10 O00 (momentum)
New “e1°°i’°Y " “E§6
= 40 m/s

The energy needed has become

K8 = 5 X 250 X 402

= 200 O00 J

Because this amount of energy is used each second

200 O00 (J)

Power needed =
1 (s)

= 200 000 w

= £92=§E

This is a twofold increase in power just to do the same job

as before.

The comparison becomes even more marked if we take a

theoretical VTOL jet aircraft of the same weight but with a jet
velocity of Q00 m/s. As the momentum of the air lS the same, its
mass is now as follows:

momentum
Mass =
velocity

10 O00
400

New mass = 2.§1.=1<.e

The energy needed is now

K
e
= § X 25 X 4002

= 2 000 000 J

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Power'needed = 2 000 O00 W

= 2000 kW

You can thus see that the helicopter is quite efficient

compared with the VTOL jet aircraft when both are hovering. High-
speed flight is another story, and here the helicopter becomes
severely handicapped partly because of its large-diameter main
rotor. This is discussed in a later assignment.

The force generated by the turning main rotor acts at right

angles to the plane of rotation of the rotor blades. Figure H shows
a helicopter in steady level forward flight with the total reaction
acting in a forward direction.

_Té+ca| reacifion

so’

Forwarcl

<i
FIG. 4 Total reaction

The name total reaction is used because this force is resolved

into

1. A horizontal force (thrust) to propel the

helicopter, and

2. A vertical force (lift) to sustain the weight

of the helicopter.

As with a fixed-wing aircraft in steady level flight

Thrust = drag, and

Lift = weight.

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* Figure 5 shows the total

reaction resolved into thrust and
‘ lift, together with the opposing
@ | 1 forces of drag and weight for
75*? ?L§% steady, level forward flight. In
rzochon
. I this respect, the helicopter is
I
no different from a fixed~wing
E‘..-’*“ ‘ aircraft where forces act through
' moment arms about the centre of
cg?‘ Di. gravity (c.g.) and the centre of
Q-I
Fwd‘ 1I ‘
llft (CL).

In practice, the c.g.

1“@Bb+ position in a helicopter lies on
or very close to the centre of
FIG. 5 Total reaction resolved lift (CL) so that the lift and
weight forces will give an effect
ranging from slight nose down to slight nose up. But, unlike the
usual fixed-wing aircraft, the thrust and drag forces act to give
a nose—down attitude. To correct this nose~down tendency, many
helicopters have a horizontal stabiliser similar to that on a
fixed-wing aircraft. This stabiliser may be either fixed or
controllable.

To gain altitude, the total reaction is increased, which, if

nothing else is changed, also results in an increase in forward
speed. This acceleration up and forward will continue until the
total reaction is again equalled by the new, greater weight—drag
resultant.

To provide greater forward speed while flying straight and

level, a forward movement of the cyclic control is made. This
gives an increase in the pitch angle of the rear—going blades to
cause them to develop more lift and a decrease in pitch angle of
the forward—going blades to cause them to develop less lift. The
difference in lift between the rear—going and forward—going blades
tilts the rotor disc forward, perhaps causing a slight loss of
altitude, but giving the desired acceleration. At the same time,
the line of total reaction moves slightly to the rear of the rotor

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disc. See Fig. 6. The small couple that this produces is enough
to tilt the helicopter in the direction that the cyclic stick was
moved.
'TE>+oJ r':za<;-1-ic;r~, Téioi reaction I I
-H-1 + of’ o‘F r +01»-I _
hM'§°§§\Q+;§-fiige hub ==~=-c-3'1-1~Y\<= ' Reta" ‘file
pa+H hfih
-,,,--if V _.-=-"

‘ lZc+c-P -Hp
Pa‘H"1 low

(ca) T12LJ+YQl 5'h'¢\< ‘Pqrwqrd

a
FIG. 6 Result of cyclic movement

Figure 7 shows the action of the forces in a vertical climb

and in level, accelerating flight.

upe
Z'_\\_
ct ,Q§§h \
-' 7 ;:- \
I 1
X
\
f"'
IF!‘

K
, ——/
51> ————
l _ ‘======—a

Lift exceeds weight

for vertical climb.
Thrust === Qgg =-= Zero
Weight

(a) Vertical climb flight

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R, '
R: Lm~ ///’ \

,. §\\\\s,\\\

' CL -4?
F,;@s; ’
H
,
‘wt 91
I /
fil \ Z
”,//’ -
;?5l5“q_“\’////,»///
,»-/'

‘ R1, T1, D; show slraigl-nt and

A\ I I level flight ai‘ conslanl Spfled

I
Moving R1 Forward to R1 will Increase
T; to T; , causing nose—down athtude
l;%%¢¢ we cadences-

(b) Level and accelerating flight

FIG. 7 Forces on a helicopter

SUMMARY

All aircraft, including helicopters, are subject to the

same aerodynamic forces.

For equilibrium in flight

Thrust = drag

Lift = weight

The thrust—drag couple equals the lift~weight couple.

Angled vectors can be resolved into horizontal and
vertical components.

Provided rotor rev/min are maintained, an increase in

pitch of a rotating airfoil will increase its lifting
force.

A tail rotor may be used to provide a force to balance

the main rotor torque reaction and to give directional
control when the helicopter is hovering.

A difference in lift between one part of the rotor disc

and another will cause it to tilt.

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PRACTICE EXERCISE B '

State whether each of the following statements is True

or False.

l. Due to torque reaction, the fuselage of a power-

driven single—main helicopter will try to turn in
the same direction as the main rotor.

2. The lift of a main rotor is varied by altering the

pitch angles of its blades while keeping its
rev/min constant.

3. The total reaction from a main rotor is resolved

into lift and drag forces.

4. When a helicopter is hovering in still air, it

has no thrust and drag, and its lift just exceeds
its weight.

5. When the cyclic control is moved forward, the line

of total reaction moves to a position slightly
aft of the rotor hub centre line.

(Answers on page 27)

CONTROLS

From the Table of Definition in the Appendix and the Basic

Operating Principles on page 29, you will know that

1. Yaw and main rotor torque reaction is controlled

by the tail rotor through the movement of the
tail rotor (rudder) pedals.
2. The in-flight directions of forwards, sideways,
and backwards are controlled through the cyclic
pitch control column, sometimes called the
Azimuth control or cyclic stick.

3. Climb and descent are controlled by the collective

pitch control lever, or collective.

By co-ordinating the use of these three controls, the pilot

can make the helicopter bank, dive, and climb like a fixed-wing
aircraft, as well as fly it sideways and backwards and make it
climb and descend vertically.

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Earlier in this assignment, we said that the power deiivered

to the main rotor was increased by increasing its blade angles
collectively and by increasing the engine power at the same time.
To achieve this, a throttle twist grip is mounted on the end of
the collective pitch lever. This twist grip, very much like a
motorcycle throttle grip, is mechanically connected to the engine
carburettor or fuel control unit, and interconnected with the
collective pitch control.

The engine power will be automatically increased when the

collective is raised, and if too little or too much power is then
delivered, delivery can be corrected by use of the throttle grip.

Thus raising/lowering the collective will increase/decrease

the power, as will twisting the throttle grip.

The throttle grip also makes it possible to "throttle back"

in flight and to start up the engine and bring it up to its
operational rev/min without raising the collective.

In gas turbine-powered helicopters, fine adjustments to the

throttle setting can be made using a "beep" switch on the collective
control hand grip.

Figure 8 shows the flying controls and the throttle twist

grip in an S55 helicopter. All modern helicopters have a similar ‘_
layout.

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. RUDDER PEDAL LEG REACH CONTROL

. RUDDER PEDALS
. CYCLIC-PITCH CONTROL COLUMN
. FORE-AND-AFT FRICTION CONTROL
. LATERAL FRICTION CONTROL \\\\|—

. THROTTLE TWIST GRIP O<>§>

Q
~IOU\-Lil )!-I . FRICTION CONTROL RING,
'r1-mo'r'ru=: -rwxsr am?
FRICTION CONTROL,
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FIG. 8 Flying controls in the cockpit

STRUCTURES

The two most common construction methods used at present for

helicopters are

1. Semi-monocoque, and

2. Girder.

Each method has its advantages, the former leaving a large

open box for crew, baggage and payload, but requiring a complex
structure and reinforcing for strength. The materials used in this

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FIG. 10 Fuselage structure assembly

A third form of construction now coming into use is the

composite structure, which uses carbon fibre reinforced stiffeners,
frames, and bulkheads, plus impact»resistant fibre reinforced
skinning (Kevlar) in the primary structure and high—quality glass
fibre in the secondary structure. The use of these materials gives
a great saving of weight.

THE POWERTRAIN

The components that transmit the engine power to the main

and tail rotors are collectively called the powertrain or the
transmission.

The essential components of a powertrain are

1. An engine-driven clutch (on piston-engined

helicopters);
2. A freewheel unit, which may be called a
sprag clutch OP a one—way clutch;

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3. A main—rotor gearbox; M
H. A tail-rotor gearbox; and

5. Driveshafts from the engine to the main-

rotor gearbox and from the main—rotor
gearbox to the tail—rotor gearbox.

The functions of these components are as follows.

The engine~driven clutch is fitted to allow the engine to be

started without turning the rest of the powertrain.

Ehewfreewheel unit permits the two rotors to turn faster than

the engine. This could occur when the engine is throttled back
to idle rev/min.

The mainmrotorggearbgi changes the direction of the engine

drive and reduces the engine rev/min to the much lower rev/min
needed by the main rotor. It also provides drive pads for
ancillary equipment.

rhe tail~rotq;mgea;box changes the direction of the drive to

suit the need of the tail rotor. Depending on the helicopter type,
this gearbox may increase, decrease, or make no change in the
rev/min of the output shaft relative to the input shaft. This
gearbox may house the blade pitch—changing mechanism of the tail
rotor.

The driveshafts transmit the power from the engine to the

gearboxes. These shafts may also drive ancillary components, such
as cooler fan units.

In all powertrains, the main rotor is always mechanically

connected to the tail rotor so that at no time can one rotor turn
without the other. This fact, coupled with the function of the
freewheel unit means that, should the engine fail, both rotors will
keep turning and the pilot can make a safe and controlled landing.
This flying condition, known as autorotation, is the equivalent
of a fixed-wing aircraft gliding. Figure 11 shows three different
powertrains in schematic form.

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Rofor brake Q
Main-roinr gur-bur-|"',' . .. . I ___ , ——
F
'" - "i1 “,,‘f§,’
C‘
I ‘Y -'
-=II ”\
Drive-shzfi ,
u..a.....1¢~»-V. Tail rotor
gearbox

Engine -cnolfng -
fa H
R

(a) Vertical piston engine

Fru--whul unit
.___W _ 0
,.'.......
Min rotor __ , _ ' — .
/— "'
Drive.-Sheff Tail-shaft 5881‘-ha:
Clunch

“ii
Engin:-cooling Flfl

(b) Horizontal piston engine

‘ Free-wi\c¢|uni1' Um‘ shin

Milin nior \__ _
gearbox ' I _ ’' \
OH coohng uni?
Tail 1-afar
gar-ma

(c) Gas turbine engine

FIG. ll Powertrains

SUMMARY

The pilot flies a helicopter by using

1. The cyclic pitch control column,

2. The collective pitch control lever, and

3. The tail rotor pedals.

The collective pitch control and the engine throttle

control are interconnected.

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The movements of the-flying controls are natural ones for

the response desired. That is
l .

Cyclic forward + fly forward

Collective down + descent
Right tail rotor
pedal forward + yaw right

All helicopters have a freewheel unit between the engine

and the rest of the powertrain. y
T
The main and tail rotors are mechanically connected so I
that one cannot turn without the other.

PRACTICE EXERCISE C

Match each of the items in the left—hand column with its

correct item in the rightwhand column and write the
numbers of the items in the box below. Each item is to
be used only once.

A. Tail rotor 1. Azimuth control

B. Cyclic pitch 2. Interconnected with the collective
C. Collective pitch 3. Lateral control
D. Engine throttle 4. Directional control
5. Control of climb—descent
6. Yaw and torque control

IA I B I C I D I

(Answers on page 33) .

SAFETY IN AND AROUND HELICOPTERS

Because of the ability of a helicopter to hover, the loading

crew may come into its close proximity while it is flying. They
could thus also find themselves in positions where they cannot be
seen by the pilot. For this and other situations, a series of

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hand signals has been devised which, if used sensibly, can make a
useful contribution to both the safety and the economics of
helicopter operation.

For the signalS to be of real use, both the helicopter

marshaller and the pilot must know exactly what the signals mean,
and the pilot must be aware that, when a sling load is being
"hooked on", there can be a third man underneath the helicopter
using a lot of effort amidst the confusion of noise and a
buffeting ground cushion of air. The hand signals are shown in
Fig. 12.

STAHT ENGINE ENGAGE ROTOR STOP ROTOR STOP

O‘?<9
1% F‘
fiog O 5 O

nova BACK movs FORWARD MOVE mo:-n~ MOVE LEFT

O O 11°11 non
2‘
"mm: OFF LANDING co UP co DOWN
nzazonon

O<)==:| c==(>Q

SWING TAIL SWING TAIL

TD RIGHT TO LEFT

FIG. 12 Helicopter hand signals

For safety in and around helicopters the FAA Advisory

Circular 91-32A of that name is important reading. We reproduce
it here in full.

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AC 91-32A
DATE 6/21/79

ADVISORY CIRCULAR
a ex-‘O FT I4“-no

'4 DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION

Diguqr
n Federal Aviation Administration
en“
6,)- ‘*5
.'¢44-MO“ Washington, D.C.
"4715 04 '

Subject: SAFETY IN AND AROUND HELICOPTERS

1} PURPOSE. This advisory circular provides suggestions to improve
helicopter safety by means of acquainting flight and non~flight crew
personnel and passengers with the precautions and procedures necessary to
avoid undue hazards.

2. CANCELLATION. AC 91-32, Safety In and Around Helicopters, dated 5/7/71

is canceled.

3. GENERAL. People have been injured, some fatally, in helicopter acci—

dents which would not have occurred had they been informed of the proper
method of boarding or deplaning. A properly briefed passenger should never
be endangered by a spinning tail rotor. The simplest method of avoiding
accidents of this sort is to have the rotors stopped before passengers are
boarded or allowed to depart. Because this action is not always practicable,
and to realize the vast and unique capabilities of the helicopter, it is
often necessary to take on passengers or to deplane them while the engine
and rotors are turning. Therefore, if accidents are to be avoided, it is
essential that all persons associated with helicopter operations, including
passengers, be made aware of all possible hazards, and instructed as to how
they can be avoided.

4. FLIGHI AND NON—FLIQHT CREW PERSQEQEL. Persons directly involved with

boarding or deplaning passengers, aircraft servicing, rigging or hooking up
of external loads, etc., should be instructed as to their duties. It would
be difficult, if not impossible, to cover each and every type of operation
or non~flight crew training matter related to helicopters. A few of the
more obvious and common ones are covered below:

a. Ramp attendants and aircraft servicing personnel. These personnel

should be instructed as to their specific duties, and the proper method of
fulfilling them. In addition, the ramp attendant should be taught to:

Iniuated by: AF5-gg0

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AC 91-31A 5/21/79

(1) Keep passengers and unauthorized persons out of the helicopter

landing and takeoff area.

(2) Brief passengers on the best way to approach and board a

helicopter with its rotors turning (see paragraph 4a).

b. Aircraft servicing.

(1) The helicopter rotor blades should be stopped and both the
aircraft and the refueling unit properly grounded prior to any refueling
operation. The pilot should ensure that the proper grade of fuel and, when
required, the proper additives are being dispensed.

(2) Refueling the aircraft, while the blades are turning ("hot
refueling"), may be practical for certain types of operation. However, this
can be hazardous if not properly conducted. Pilots should remain at the
flight controls and refueling personnel should be knowledgeable with respect
to proper refueling procedures and properly briefed for specific makes and
models. ‘

(3) Refueling units should be positioned to ensure adequate rotor

blade clearance and persons not involved with the refueling operation should
be kept clear of the area.

(4) Smoking must be prohibited in and around the aircraft during

all refueling operations.

c. External~load”riggers. Rigger training is possibly one of the most

difficult and continually changing problems of the helicopter external—load
operator. A poorly rigged cargo net, light standard, or load pallet could
result in a serious and costly accident. It is imperative that all riggers
be thoroughly trained to meet the needs of each individual external—load
operation. Since rigging requirements may vary several times in a single
day, proper training is of the utmost importance to safe operations.

d. Pilot at the flight controls.

. (1) Many helicopter operators have been lured into a "quick

turnaround" ground operation to avoid delays at airport terminals and to
minimize stop/start cycles of the engine. As part of this quick turnaround,
the pilot will leave the cockpit with the engine and rotors turning. Such
an operation can be extremely hazardous if a gust of wind disturbs the rotor
disc or the collective flight control moves causing lift to be generated by
the rotor system. Either occurrence may cause the helicopter to roll or
pitch resulting in a rotor blade striking the tailboom or the ground.

(2) Good operating procedures dictate that pilots remain at the

flight controls whenever the engine is running and rotors are turning. On
occasion, however, the pilot may find it necessary to leave the controls of
a "running machine." On these occasions the pilot should:

2 Par 4

555/3/1
 -28..

6/21/79 " AC 91-32A

(i) Ensure that all controls are secured in accordance with

the aircraft flight manual.

(ii) Reduce rotor and/or engine RPM to ground idle or minimum

recommended settings.

(iii) Turn off hydraulic boost when appropriate.

e. External"load hookup personnel.

(1) Know the lifting capability of the helicopters inyolved. Since

some operators have models of helicopters that have almost identical
physical characteristics but with different lifting capabilities, this
knowledge is essential. For example, a hookup person may be working with a
supercharged helicopter on a high altitude project and without any warning a
non—supercharged helicopter, which looks exactly the same to the ground
crew, comes to a hover to pick up a load. It does not take a vivid imagina~
tion to see what could happen if the hookup person connects a load far too
heavy for the non~supercharged helicopter to lift.

(2) Know the pilots. The safest plan would be to standardize all
pilots insofar as the manner in which sling loads are picked up and
released. Without pilot standardization, the hookup person should learn the
technique used by each pilot. Does the pilot come in fast or slow, high or
low? Does the pilot try to lift the load off with a combination of
collective and cyclic? The hookup person should specifically demand
standardization on the pilot technique for any sort of emergency occurring
while personnel are beneath the helicopter.

(3) Know the cargo. Many items carried via sling are very fragile,
others can take a beating. The hookup person should always know when a haz-
ardous article is involved, and the nature of the hazard; such as explo-
sives, radioactive materials, and toxic chemicals. In addition to knowing
this, they should be familiar with the types of protective gear or clothing
or actions that are necessary for their and the operations safety.

(4) Know appropriate hand signals. When direct radio communica—

tions between ground and flight personnel are not used, the specific meaning
of hand signals should be coordinated prior to operations. '

(5) Know emergency procedures. Ground and flight personnel should

fully agree to and understand actions to be taken by all participants in the
event of emergencies. This prior planning is essential to avoid injuries to
all concerned. .

Par 4 3

555/3/1
 _ gu _

AC 91-32A 6/21/79

5. PASSENGERS. The term "passenger" used throughout this advisory

circular refers to all non-flight crew personnel that ride in helicopters,
and is not limited to the fare-paying customer. All persons that board a
helicopter while its rotors are turning should be instructed as to the
safest means of doing so. Naturally, if the pilot is at the controls,
he/she may not be able to conduct a boarding briefing. Therefore, the
individual who arranged for the passenger flight or assigned as the ramp
attendant should accomplish this task. The exact procedures may vary
slightly from one helicopter model to another, but in general the following
should suffice:

a. Boarding.

(1) Stay away from the rear of the helicopter.

(2) Crouch low before getting under the main rotor.

(3) Approach from the side or front, but never out of the pilot's
line of vision.

(4) Hold firmly to hats and loose articles.

(5) Never reach up or dart after a hat or other object that might
be blown off or away.

(6) Protect eyes by shielding with a hand or by squinting.

(7) If suddenly blinded by dust or a blowing object,stop — crouch

lower — or better yet — sit down — and await help.

(8) Never grope or feel your way toward or away from the
helicopter.

b. Pre—takeoff briefing. Since few helicopters carry cabin attendants,

this briefing must be made by the pilot. The type of operation will dictate
what sort of briefing is necessary. Passengers should always be briefed on:

(1) Seatbelts. The use and operation of seatbelts for takeoff,

en route and landing.

(2) Overwater flights. The location and use of flotation gear and
other survival equipment that might be on board. How and when to abandon
ship should a ditching be necessary.

(3) Flights over rough or isolated terrain. All occupants should u

be told where maps and survival gear are located.

I

A Par 5

555/3/1
 _25...

.- AC 91-32A

(4) Emergency instructions. In the event of an emergency, each

passenger should be instructed as to what actions and precautions to take;
such as the body position for best spinal protection against a high
vertical impact landing (erect with back firmly against the seat back); and
when and how to exit after landing. Ensure that passengers are aware of
fire extinguisher and survival equipment locations.

(5) Smoking. Smoking within 50 feet of an aircraft on the ground

should be prohibited. Smoking could be permitted, at the discretion of the
pilot, except under the following conditions:

(i) During all ground operations;

(ii) Immediately before, during, or after takeoff or landing;

or

(iii) when carrying flammable or hazardous materials.

c. Rreelanding briefing. The nature of the landing will determine what

the passengers need to be told. A few items to consider are:

(1) If on a hill, depart downhill. If this involves walking around

the helicopter to avoid the area of lowest rotor clearance, always go around
the front, never the rear.

(2) Repetition of the basic instructions shown in paragraph 4a.

6. SAFETX AROUND HELICOPTERS. The material appearing in Appendix 1 was

taken from the June 1970 issue of ROTORNEWS, a publication of the Helicopter
Association of America.

[Z4 L§~’l~-E ' §\

\\.\.. .-if’! ' "'1_“ v

AMES M. VINES
‘ Acting Director
Flight Standards Service

Par 5 5

555/3/1
 -25..

6/21/79 AC 91- 32A

Appendix 1
SAFETY AROUND HELICOPTERS
$ ~ min. _-is a W’
hi T A

1. Approach or leeve machine ln e crouchlng manner

(for extra clururwo twm main wlorl 9. Keep hellspot cleer cl loose erllcles - ureter begs.
_ '___ .1 * ""'""' " I. U ii’ _
groundaheets. empty cane. etc.

2. Approach or leeve on the down slope slde (to avoid

“Q. J
H
'°‘°"' i
. 10. Keep cooking lites well clear of hellspol.

' .. "
3. Approach or leeve In pilot’: tleld ol vision (to avoid
tell rotor). 11. Loading assistants should always be supplied with
plastic eye shields.
—

i ’ i 12. Alter hooking up cargo sling, move lorwerd and to

4. Carry tools horizontally, below weiet level (MW! aide to signal pilot (lo avoid entanglement and
upright or over shoulder). getting struck, with loaded sling).
f nevi. '* ""1le| '* ’ - .
Wlfld
_._..._, l
i
--qi-q
I’
veg

5. Hm‘:cm:':'°um:;‘
In t h d net cm“ when
‘mmapproaching
m um, or leevlng l 3. to
when directing machine tor Iendlng. stand with beck
vvlnd wllh errna outstretched toward lending ped.

t4. when dlrectlng pilot by mole. give no lending In-

6. Feeten seat belt on entering helicopter and leave it $"'\l¢!l°l'l$ "131 Ffiqlllffi fl¢=k"°\"16¢l§9mll"l I! P"°|
buckled untll pilot signals you to get out. "Vi" "I" b°"l "BM! b"!Y- .

' - ' 0'eee eeeeeeeeeeeee

W _____ 15. when moving terger crews:

7 ll leaving machine at the hover. get out and oil in ('1 5"‘! 3'1"“ °“ “my ” “°"'°-
' - i _ (bl Keep them together end well beck It side cl
am Smooth‘ unhurmd mm on lendrng zone_(lhis gives the pilot e chance In the
_____ event he hes to land suddenly either during
c"1*""""fi-- J lending or take-otl).
(cl Have them face away from machine during lend-
% lng and lake-ell.
(cl) Have each men look elter hie own personal geer.
l t (Q
" all T A W * * l Hive mlnpaired off and reudyto get aboard. es
tl Ot ' h ‘ _
8. Do not touch bubble or eny.ol the moving pens “an i pk gw” ‘ Q men“
(tell rotor linkage. etc.). 1

QU.5. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICES 1979-28l“S6B/159

555/3/1
 — 27

PRACTICE EXERCISE D "

Which suggestion in AC 91-32A, if followed, will make it

impossible for a passenger to be struck by the rotating
tail rotor of the helicopter?

(Answer on page 28)

ANSWERS TO PRACTICE EXERCISES

EXERCISE A

Items 2, 6, and 9 are True.

1. False: See page 30

3. False: See page 30

4. False: An aircraft pitches about its lateral

axis. See page 29

5. False: The tail rotor is not a propulsion rotor.

See page 31

7. Egigg: See page 29

8. fglse: See page 80

10. False: An aircraft rolls about its longitudinal

axis. See page 29

EXERCISE B

Items 2 and 5 are True.

1. False: Due to torque reaction, the fuselage will

try to turn in the opposite direction to the main
rotor. See Fig. 2.

3. False: The total reaction from a main rotor is

resolved into lift and thrust forces.

H. False: when a helicopter is hovering in still air,

there is no thrust and drag and its lift equals its
weight. If the lift just exceeds the weight, there
would be a nett upward force and so the helicopter
would climb.

555/3/1
 _ 23 _

EXERCISE C

A B C D

6 l 5 2

EXERCISE D

The suggestion in paragraph 5.a.(3) that says "Approach from

the side or front, but never out of the pilot's line of vision"
will, if followed, ensure that a passenger will not be struck by
the tail I‘O'tOI"

555/3/1
 _ 29 _

.. APPENDIX
Table of Definitions

Aerodynamics: The study of motion of air (and other gases),

particularly its reaction to moving bodies therein

Aerodgne: An aircraft that derives its lift in flight chiefly

from reaction to the air through which it passes

§5;rni1= A body shaped to produce an aerodynamic reaction

when moved through the air

Angle of attack: The angle between the chord line of an airfoil

and the direction of the airflow approaching it

Angle of incidence: The angle between the chord line of a

rotor blade (or an airfoil) and its plane of rotation (or the
longitudinal axis of the aircraft)

Articulated rotor: A rotor whose blades are joined to the

rotor hub through one or more hinges (pivots)
2
Aspect ratio: The ratio spanz : area, éfiggry of an airfoil,
sometimes written as 5§EEL
chord

Autorotation: The continuous rotation about an axis of a body

(usually an airfoil) due to aerodynamic forces on that body

Axes:

l. Lateral: A straight line through the c.g. running parallel

to a line from wingtip to wingtip. An aircraft pitches
nose up and nose down about the lateral axis

2. Longitudinal: A straight line through the c.g. running

fore and aft along the centre line of the aircraft. The
aircraft rolls about the longitudinal axis

3. Normal: A straight line passing vertically through the

c.g. at right angles to the other two axes. The aircraft
yaws about the normal axis

Bank: To cause the lateral axis to assume an angle to the

Earth's horizon

Boundary lager: The "sheath" of air directly in contact with

the airfoil and moving with it, out to (at a progressively
increasing speed) the layer of air flowing at normal speed.
(It is often only a few molecules thick.)

Camber: The curved upper and/or lower surfaces of an airfoil

¢entre_q§Wgravity (c.g.): The point in a body through which

the total weight can be said to act

555/3/1
 -39..

Centre of lift (CL): The resultant of all centres of pressure

on a wing or a rotor

Centre of pressure (CP): The point on the chord of an airfoil

through which the lift and drag appear to act

Chord: The straight line joining the leading and trailing edges
of an airfoil

Collective pitch lever: A control by which all a helicopter's

main rotor blades’ pitch angles are changed together by
equal amounts

Cyclic pitch control: A column, similar to an aeroplane control

column, that changes the main rotor blade pitch angles
cyclically, that is, in a recurring sequence

Disc area: The area of the circle described by the tips of the
blades of a rotor

Dragging: The lagging of a rotor blade behind where it would be

if it was fixed, and not hinged, to a hub rotating about an axis

Eeathering: Variation of the pitch angle of an airfoil

Flapping: Movement of a rotor blade (up and down for a main rotor
blade) about a horizontal hinge or by bending. The see—sawing
of a semi-rigid rotor about its central pivot is also called
"flapping"

Frame: A transverse structural member of a fuselage

Ggroplane_(autogyro): A rotorcraft propelled by a horizontal

thrust system (propeller) and supported by a rotor free to turn
under action of air flowing upwards through the disc, that is,
by autorotating

Helicopter: A rotorcraft deriving lift, thrust, and control from

power-driven rotors causing air to flow downwards through the
disc

Induced drag: Drag caused by an airfoil deriving lift from

passing air by changing the direction of the air

Laminar flow: Flow of air past a surface whose boundary layer

remains flowing smoothly without turbulence

Lift: The component of the total aerodynamic force that acts

vertically upwards (opposite to weight)

Main rotor: The rotor that provides the major aerodynamic forces
of a rotorcraft

Pitch angle: Angle of incidence

555/3/1
 _ 31 _

Rigid rotor: A rotor whose blades cannot pivot with respect

to the hub except to change their pitch angle and whose hub is
attached rigidly to the drive shaft

Rotorcraft: An aerodyne that derives lift from a rotor or

rotors

Rotor head: The entire rotor assembly, except for the rotor
blades

Rotor hub: The central rotating member of the rotor head that
carries the blade arms and hinge assemblies

Rudder ——-tail_rot9r pedals: Pedals that operate the rudder or

tail rotor for yaw control

Semi~rigid rotor: A two-bladed rotor system freely pivoted to

see—saw as one unit about a central axis

Separation point: Point of detachment of the airflow from the

solid surface on which it formed a boundary layer

STOL: Short take off and landing

Stability: The quality of resisting disturbance from an existing

condition and a tendency to return to that condition once the
disturbance is removed

Stall: Complete separation of the boundary layer from the upper

surface of the airfoil and with a large reduction in lift

Tail boom: A projection rearwards from the fuselage designed to

carry the tail unit or tail rotor

Tail rotor: An anti—torque and yaw control rotor rotating, at

the tail, in a more or less vertical plane

Teetering rotor: Semi—rigid rotor

Tracking: The procedure of ensuring that each rotor blade

follows in precisely the path of the one ahead of it

VTOL: Vertical take off and landing

Wash—in: Increase in angle of incidence towards the tip of a

wing or rotor blade

Wash—out: Decrease in angle of incidence towards the tip of a

wing or rotor blade

555/3/1
 _ 32 i

.TEST PAPER l '

State whether each of the following statements is true

false, and give a correction for each false statement
2
. s an
Aspect ratio = :§;;;y or span X chord.

An articulated rotor has one or more hinges that join

each blade to the rotor hub.

The resultant of all centres of gravity on a wing or

rotor is called the centre of lift (CL).

A gyroplane is a rotorcraft that is propelled by a

horizontal thrust system and supported by a rotor free
to turn under action of air flowing downward through
the disc, that is, by autorotation.

The rudder pedals operate the rudder or tail rotor to

give yaw control about the lateral axis-

Induced drag is caused by an airfoil deriving lift from

the passing air by changing its direction.

The straight line from the leading edge of an airfoil

running parallel to the relative airflow is called the
chord.

A helicopter is defined as a rotorcraft deriving lift,

thrust, and control from power—driven rotors causing
air to flow upwards through the rotor disc.

The point on the chord of an airfoil through which the

total lift appears to act is called the centre of
pressure (CP).

The up and down bending movements of a main rotor blade

on a rotor head are called flapping.

Draw a freehand sketch of a helicopter viewed from above

showing

a The main rotor turning counter-clockwise,

The direction of the main rotor torque reaction

and

c The direction of the_tail rotor force in hovering

flight.

555/3/1
 _33._.

Explain, with the aid'of a sketch, how a movement of the

cyclic control to the left will produce a small couple
to tilt the fuselage to the left.

Draw a helicopter powertrain and identify the components

shown.

In tabulated form, give a reason for each of the

instructions in Para 5.5 (1) to (8) of AC 93-82A
(page 2% of the assignment). would these rules be good
for people leaving as well as boarding the helicopter?

-@-?-ea
S55/3/1
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THE 0 P E N
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OF NEWZEALAND

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Basic Helicopter Flying

Controls
555—3—2
 CONTENTS

Basic Flying Controls 1

Cyclic Control 3
Collective Control 7
Control Mixing 3
Tail Rotor Control 10
Control Damping 1n
Rotor Head Feedback Forces 1n
Power Assistance 15
Friction Controls 13
Artificial Feel 19
Trimming Controls 20
Magnetic Brake 22
The Collective Lever and Throttle Control Zn
Throttle Correlation 26
Piston Engine Throttle (Power) Control 26
Turbine Engine Power Control 31
Control Systems Maintenance 3H
Safety of Personnel 35

COPYRIGHT

This material is for the sole use of enrolled students and may not
be reproduced without the written authority of the Principal, TOPNZ

555/3/2
 _ AIRCRAFT ENGINEERING

HELICOPTERS ASSIGNMENT 2

BASIC FLYING CONTROLS

All aircraft have three controllable axes:

Longitudinal »~ Pitch
Lateral - Roll
Normal - Yaw

A control gives movement about each axis:

Longitudinal - Ailerons
Lateral - Elevators
Normal —- Rudder

The ailerons and elevators are controlled through the control

column or handwheel, and the rudder is controlled through pedals.

Rotating the handwheel clockwise or counterclockwise or

leaning the control column to the right or left, causes the
aircraft, through the effect of ailerons, to roll to the right or
to the left.

By pulling the control column or handwheel towards him, the

pilot raises the nose of the aircraft by raising the elevator's
trailing edge; to force the nose down, he pushes the control
column forward, away from him.

Pushing the right rudder pedal forward brings the nose of

the aircraft round to the right, and pushing the left pedal
forward brings the nose to the left.

To sustain ahalancedturn requires a combination of each of

these controls, the ratio of force or movement of each depending
on the characteristics of the aircraft and the rate of the turn.

10/85 555/3/2
 l 2 l

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Forces acting on a helicopter in a turn. Lift causes the helicopter to turn when it is banked.

FIG. l An aircraft in a moderate turn

555/3/2
 _ 3 _

The pilot starts a turn by banking using the ailerons, and

he then keeps the nose smoothly moving round, without raising or
dipping it, by a combination of elevator and rudder movement.
Generally, the steeper the turn, the more he moves each control
to maintain balance.

Figure l shows the force distribution needed during the turn

to keep the aircraft from returning to its stable straight and
level original attitude.

A helicopter is controlled in flight by much the same

interaction of controls and forces. In this assignment, we shall
consider a helicopter's flying and powerplant controls in some
detail.

Cyclic Control

The equivalent of aileron control on a helicopter is sideways

movement of the cyclic stick, which, by angular change of the rotor
blades‘ pitch, leans the rotor disc in the direction of movement
desired. Figure 2 shows the effect of moving the cyclic stick,
which also gives fore and aft control (stick forward, nose down;
stick back, nose up).

555/3/2
 _ 4 _

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FIG. 2 Cyclic control

The interesting thing about this control is that the blade

angle is changed when the blades are fore and aft, which results
in rotor disc tilt about 90° later, that is, when the blades are
athwartships of the aircraft. The helicopter then moves in the
direction of the low~pitched blade.

Figure 3 shows a relatively simple main rotor control

mechanism with the longitudinal and collective sections of the
linkages hatched for reference.

Sideways movement of the cyclic control column (10) moves the

pilot's lateral control rod (1%) lengthwise, pivoting the lateral
bellorank (ll) about its rear RH corner. This pushes or pulls

555/3/2
 -5...-

the lower lateral control rod (15), whose movement is transferred

through links and bellcranks to the end of the lateral pitch mixer
bellcrank (6).

This bellcrank is pivoted so that as it rocks under the

influence of the control rod, the left and right upper lateral
control rods (H and 5) rock the non~rotating section of the
swash plate athwartships, appropriately changing rotor blade angles
through the pitch control links (1).

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The swash plate allows interconnection between the lower

control system, which does not rotate, and the upper control
system, rotating with the rotor head. Any tilt of the lower
swash plate is transmitted to the upper swash plate through a
very substantial ball or roller bearing, necessary because the
upper swash plate changes rotor blade angularity every rotor
revolution.

555/3/2
 - 5 _

We discuss swash plates in some detail in another assignment

_ Thus, lateral control, like aileron control, is by a tilt

athwartships. The resulting tilt on the rotor disc causes
the helicopter to bank, like a fixed-wing aircraft.

Figure H shows longitudinal control, which is by fore and

aft movement of the cyclic control column. The system shown in
Fig. H is from the same helicopter as that shown in Fig. 3.

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Longitudinal control

A forward movement of the stick rotates the cyclic control

torque tube (9), the arm on the torque tube brings the control
rod (8) forward, and the linkages and rods thereon result in an
upward movement of the upperlongitudinal control rod, tilting
the lower (or stationary) swash plate forward.

Again, this movement of the cyclic stick has its effect on

the pitch of the main rotor blades, changing each blade through
the sequence from coarse through fine and back to coarse again

555/3/2
 _ 7 _

with each main rotor head revolution, fine pitch in this case being
over the nose of the helicopter.

This movement of the longitudinal control system acts in

addition to and is superimposed upon lateral stick movement-
Within the limits of the control stops, full lateral movement can
have imposed on it full longitudinal movement, but such extreme
selections are rare during normal flight.

You must remember that the cyclic loads are reciprocal.

Thus, loose play in agg control rod will be the source of much
vibration and very rapid wear.

Later in this course we have an assignment on vibration

in helicopters.

The main rotor can be tilted by the two control systems just
described, but superimposed on the cyclic system is the collective
control system.

Collective Control

As Fig. S shows, the pilot has, at his left hand, a lever

that he raises to increase the pitch of all rotor blades
together and lowers to reduce the pitch of all the rotor blades
together.

Lifting this collective pitch lezei (ll) rotates the torque

tube (10) and raises the control rod (8). This raises the front
of the collective pitch mixer bellcrank (7), which pivots down
at the rear, lowering the upper longitudinal control rod‘s
bellcrank pivot. Moreover, tilting the bellcrank (7) back and
down lowers the lateral pitch mixer bellcrank (5), the whole
movement bringing the swash plate assembly down the mast without
tilting it in any direction.

555/3/2
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Thus, through the pitch control rods, an increase of the

pitch of all blades equally and together is made while maintaining
their cyclic relationship. Superimposing collective control
movements on cyclic control movements and vice versa is called
control mixing.

Control Mixing

Figure 6 shows a demonstration example of a one~levered

mixing unit. It consists of lever A connected at pivot A to
the airframe structure and connected by rod A to the collective
pitch lever so that, in this example, raising the collective
lever raises the free end of the lever up as it turns about
pivot A.

555/3/2
 _ 9 _

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FIGL_§ Simple mixing unit

Lever B is carried on lever A and is pivoted between

the attachment points of rods B and C, that is, lever B see~
saws about its pivot point, B. This lever is connected by rod
B to, say, the cyclic fore~and-aft control and by rod C to the
stationary swamiplate. In this example, moving the cyclic
control column forward moves rod B down, thus moving rod C up.

When the collective lever is held fixed in one position and

the cyclic control column is moved fore and aft, lever B seesaws
about pivot B. When the collective lever is raised and the
cyclic control column is held fixed in one position, then as
lever A is raised, the pivot point of lever B moves to the
attachment point of rod B and rod C is raised. Thus, a movement
of the collective lever has been added to the fore-and-aft cyclic
control without the cyclic control column moving.

ln practice, a lateral lever (or levers) is added to lever A

so that collective lever movement is added to both thefore»and-aft
and lateral cyclic controls.

The reverse of the movements happens when the collective

lever is lowered. Of course, the cyclic control column can be
moved and its motion transmitted in the normal way while the
collective lever is being moved.

The mixing unit shown in Fig. 7_is taken from an S55 helicopter
All mixing units work on the same principle but their levers and
bellcranks are not usually the simple shapes shown in Fig. 7.

555/3/2
 — 10 —

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FIG. 7 Mixing unit and inputs and outputs

with this simple system in mind, now look again at Fig. 3 l

and 5.

Tail Rotor Control

The tail rotor is the equivalent of the rudder of a fixed-

wing aircraft

This small rotor provides:

l. Yaw control in forward flight,

2. Directional control when the helicopter is hovering, and

3. Control of the torque reaction of the main rotor in

all stages of flight.

555/3/2
 ...]_]__

Figure 8 shows a helicopter tail rotor system, from the

rudder pedals to the bellcrank that operates the tail rotor pitch
change mechanism.

The rudder pedals are separately mounted on a torque tube,

each pair being linked together by bellcranks and push rods.
The right~hand bellcrank directly operates a quadrant and cable
loop to a bellcrank in the aft of the centre section.

From this aft bellcrank, a push-pull rod runs to the arm on

the tail rotor swash plate bellcrank. On this bellcrank is a
pin that moves the nonerotating portion of the swash plate in and
out in response to the pilot's pedal movement“

A bungee spring is fitted to apply a slight left—pedal

forward preload to the tail rotor controls, this bias balancing
the slight sideways drift caused by the tail rotor.

The cable system, accessible through the right side of the

fuselage, is carried round the cargo/passenger compartment.
Bellcranks are on bearings, and pulleys are bushed so that the
system is free-moving but contains the minimum of free play.

S55/3/2
 _ 12 _

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555/3/'2
 _]_3_

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l REMEMBER

> A helicopter has the same axes of control as a fixed—wing

aircraft.
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Collective control is changing the pitch of all rotor

blades together and by the same amount.

Cyclic control gives the blades in one place in the

rotor disc a greater angle of attack than those in
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- K K _ E

PRACTICE EXERCISE A

State whether each of the following is true or false:

1. The tail rotor counteracts main rotor torque only when

the helicopter is hovering.

2 A forward and leftward movement of the cyclic control

column moves the nose of the helicopter down and
to the left.

3. Forward movement of the right rudder pedal moves the

nose of the helicopter to the left.

4 Raising the collective lever causes the helicopter to

climb.

5. The cyclic, collective, and tail rotor control

movements are added to each other by the mixing unit.

(Answers on page 37)

555/3/2
 l la _

CONTROL DAMPING

Rotor Head Feedback Forces

with a small helicopter that has an articulated rotor head

(for example, the Hughes 269 series), when the rotor head and blades
assembly is correctly rigged, adjusted, and balanced, there are
few or no forces fed back from the rotor to the pilot‘s
controls. Thus, no devices are needed to absorb or prevent any
forces being felt by the pilot.

ln the semi rigid and heavier articulated rotor helicopters

with their correspondingly larger rotor»head forces, the effort
needed to move the controls would quickly tire the pilot. In
these helicopters, hydraulic power assistance is used in both the
cyclic and collective controls. Built into the power assistance
(servo units) are valves that prevent rotor»head forces being
fed back to the pilot when'Uuahydraulic system is inoperative.
Futhermope, the hydraulic lock formed either side of the servo
piston when the hydraulic system is in operation also stops feed-
back forces. The hydraulic system is usually powered by a pump
driven by the main rotor gearbox so that, in the event of engine
failure, hydraulic servo assistance is still available during
autorotation. If the hydraulic system should fail, the pilot
would still be able to fly the helicopter in complete safety
although, as we said earlier, this would be tiring.

The rotor forces of the bigger helicopters are so large that

manual control is impossible. These helicopters have two separate
hydraulic~powered servo systems. One system is driven by the
main rotor gearbox and the other is driven by the engine(s).
The two systems are connected electrically and so if the on—line
system fails, the other system is automatically and 5£_3£§§
brought into use.

555/3/2
 ¢ .
~3-‘E
_;;$ _

Power Assistance

Figure 9 shows a type of servo actuator. We now describe

the operation of valves 3 and l0, which together form aninreversible
valve,andvalve u.

Operation of an irreversible valve: when hydraulic power

is lost or switched off, the lower spring and the poppet valve (10)
push up the plunger (12) of the sequence valve (3) while the
upper spring holds the valve seat (ll) down. This action stops
the flow of fluid to the return port (1) and so no hydraulic
fluid can now leave the unit unless the valve seat (ll) moves
up to relieve the pressure caused by heating of the fluid.

If, with the sequence valve (8) closed, the pilot's control
input (9) is moved, the hydraulic fluidtrappedin the servo unit
is displaced from one side of the actuator piston to the other
by flowing through the slide and sleeve assembly (7). When
control input stops, the slide and sleeve takes up a central position
and hydraulic fluid is again trapped either side of the actuator
piston, effectively locking the piston in position and passing
any feedback forces into the airframe structure through the
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555/3/2
 _ 15 _

If, however, the rotor loads become very heavy, the

differential relief valve (H) lifts and relieves any excessive
pressure build-up. when this occurs, a small but damped feedback
is felt in the cockpit controls.

Qperatign of the servo actuapcrz The operation of this type

of actuator - see Fig. 9 - relies upon a small amount of play
between the input (9) and the output (13). This play permits
the pilot to move the slide of the slide and sleeve assembly (7)
without moving the output (13). Immediately the slide is moved
from its neutral position, hydraulic fluid is directed to the
actuator piston (8) and, because the cylinder is anchored to the
airframe at its trunnion (5), the whole assembly moves in the
direction of the displaced sleeve. As the assembly moves, it
moves its rotor head control and progressively returns the sleeve
to neutral, thus stopping the movement. This is a simple follow
through action with the actuator piston trying to catch up with
the pilot input movement.

This system is sometimes called a SlOppy link system

because of the essential clearance at the input control (9),
which can be felt by the pilot, when there is no hydraulic pressure,
as a slight backlash or slop in the system.

This servo actuator assists the pilot to move the control,

allows full manual control should the hydraulic system fail and,
through the action of valves 3, H, 6, and 10, stops rotor head
forces being fed back to the pilot.

Figure 10 shows a typical installation of cyclic and

collective control actuators and Fig. ll shows a schematic layout
of the hydraulic system for these actuators. Note that this
system provides assistance for controlling the tail rotor.

555/3/2
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 _ 13 _

Friction Controls

Lateral and longitudinal adjustable friction controls are

provided to enable the pilot to add some friction to the control
systems to suit his individual feel for the control response.

The friction controls are also used on the ground to secure

the controls while the helicopter is left unattended. Maintenance
personnel also use the friction controls while maintaining the
helicopter. To a very limited extent, these friction controls
dampen rotor—head feedback forces.

Figure 12 shows typical lateral and longitudinal friction

controls for the cyclic control system. They consist of slotted
links spanned by friction washers held against the faces of
the link by a spring whose tension is adjusted by a knob on a
threaded rod. The range of friction of these controls is usually
from fully free to fully locked.

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Figure 13 shows a typical collective pitch friction control.

This uses a slotted guide, friction discs, and a spring. It
is adjusted by an operating handle. As with the cyclic friction
control, you must refer to the particular helicopter maintenance
manual before making any adjustments or replacements.
555/3/2
 _ 19 _

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Whenever the friction controls have been worked on, a

_du piicate inspection nest be made to satisfy New Zealand Civil
Airworthiness Requirements, Volume 1, Leaflet F16.

Artificial Feel

Part of the reason for power assistance is to damp out the

reciprocating forces of the rotor heads from the pilot's controls
To do this totally is unsafe because the pilot needs feedback
for effective control of the helicopter, which is basically an
unstable flying machine.

Stability is achieved by fixing the controls in a position

selected momentarily by the pilot. Movement from that setting
should have a feel proportional to the size of the control
movement.

555/3/2
 _ 29 _

Feel may be provided by bungee or §o£Ee_g£§§§ent cylinders

~ see Fig. lH ~ fitted between the control system and the
helicopter structure and, typically, operating in each of the
three control systems, or it may be provided for in the design
of the servo actuators and their control valves.

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FIG. 14 Force gradient cylinder

When a control of the flight system is moved in either

direction from neutral, it compresses a spring in the system's
force gradient cylinder. The further the control is moved, the
more the spring is compressed. This compression is transmitted
to the pilot's hand control as proportional feedback or feel.

On release, the control tends to move back to neutral,

that is, to where the spring in the force gradient cylinder is
least compressed.

Clearly, a pilot cannot be expected to fly for a long time

holding a control column against a spring, or a set of springs,
as with the helicopter in an untrimmed condition.

Trimming Controls

Figure l2 shows a load-feel system, similar to that just

described, that incorporates a trim function.

Trimming through the force gradient spring is achieved by

moving the spring's point of attachment to the airframe. If
the control column is left to follow the trim movement, the
whole spring, housing, and control column moves in the direction
of the trim force.

S55/3/2
 W Q1 _

The electric motors used to operate the lateral and

longitudinal trim units are controlled by a four~way centre
OFF switch on the hand grip of the cyclic control column.
The switch positions are Fwn

LEFT (I) RT

AFT

These switch postions indicate the direction in which the

rotor tilt takes the helicopter when trim is selected.

Briefly, on selection by the pilot, the trim motor, through

a worm gear, drives the rack to which the load-feel spring is
attached to extend it from or retract it into the trim housing.
This alters the point of attachment of the load~feel spring,
taking with it the main control unit.

with a motor driving through a worm and pinion, the position

is maintained, once set, and can be altered only by use of the
electric motor.

The lateral trim assembly shown in Fig. l2 is operated

by a rack and pinion. The longitudinal trim assembly is operated
by an arm. Figure l5 shows an exploded view of the lateral trim
motor and force gradient spring assembly.

/.jIT&\ [] PINION RACK

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FIG. 15
Tr
Lateral trim motor and spring assembly

555/3/2
 _ 22 _

Magnetic Brake

Another way of changing a force gradient spring setting is

with magnetic brakes or clutches that operate whenever the pilot
presses a trim button on the hand grip of the cyclic control
column.

Until the force trim switch on the instrument control panel

is selected ON, the helicopter's flying controls are free to move
within the constraints of the range stops and with the feel of the
servo actuators, if fitted, but without the feel and spring return
given by the force gradient units.

Once the controls are satisfactorily set and the helicopter

is in, say, a cruise attitude, the force trim switch can be used to
magnetically lock the rotary clutches that allow the force
gradient cylinders tethered ends to be adjusted.
r
The magnetic brake consists of a housing containing a solenoid
capped with a rotatable armature. The armature has attached to it
a shaft to which the operating lever is clamped. To this operating
lever is attached the tethered end of a force gradient cylinder.

When the force trim switch is selected, all magnetic brake

circuits are energised, the armatures become part of the magnetic
fields, and the brakes are locked. \

Locking the brakes renders every control movement subject to

the compression of the force gradient spring. If any control move-
ment is made, the appropriate force gradient cylinder has its spring
compressed. On removal of the force on the control, the force
gradient cylinder returns to its original uncompressed length.

The trim button provides instant control of the trim. This

button, when pressed, breaks the circuits to the magnetic brakes,
thus allowing them to free their armatures.

This enables the controls to be reset by the pilot, without

any restriction, to a new and desired position and there locked,
the locks being made as soon as the trim button is released.

555/3/2
 -23..

NOTE: The force trim switch, when selected, locks all

magnetic brakes, bringing all force gradient
cylinders into action-

The force trim button releases all magnetic brakes

momentarily while control trim changes are made.

A force gradient cylinder and a trim assembly may be fitted

in the tail rotor control circuit. This circuit may be servo
assisted. To prevent very fast rotation about the vertical
axes, which will damage the airframe, a snubber of some kind may
be fitted between the tail rotor pedals and the tail rotor servo
actuator.

SUMMARY

The angular changes of pitch forced on the main rotor by

A.._ . _. . _. _ . -c the swash plate result in substantial reciprocal loads
1
in all parts of the control system-
1

Z The effect of the rotor load feedback can be greatly

1
1
reduced at the pilot's controls by several methods,
1 notably

l. Power assistance,
I
|

2. Hydromechanical damping, and I|

I
3. Friction damping (to a lesser extent). I

Any helicopter's controls may have any combination of ;\

‘\
friction damping, power assistance, and force gradient ‘l

I
damping.

All controls may also be trimmable.

The trimming method is to alter the location of the force

gradient springs‘ mountings, electrically or electro-
magnetically, to remove any set of the spring from its
neutral or unloaded position.

Trim adjustment switches are invariably on the cyclic

control column hand grip.
1
U
\

555/3/2
 ._2L|.....

PRACTICE EXERCISE B

State whether each of the following is true or false:

l. The trim switch is sited on the collective lever.

2. Force gradient devices may be fitted in all

control systems to give artificial feel.

3. Tail rotor controls are not servo assisted.

4. The slop in the input linkage of a follow through

actuator is desirable but not essential
for its operation.

5. An irreversible valve causes a hydraulic lock to

form across the servo piston.

(Answers on page 37)

THE COLLECTIVE LEVER AND THROTTLE CONTROL

Positioned for operation by the pilot's left hand, and

sometimes known as the power lever or altitude control, the
collective-pitch control lever has two main functions:

1. It alters the pitch of all main rotor blades

simultaneously and equally in addition to any
settings imposed by the cyclic control.

2. It carries the engine power control as a twist grip,

but it also has automatic connection to the power system
to increase or decrease engine power when the
collective pitch lever is raised or lowered during
powered flight.

We saw in Fig. 5 how the collective lever is connected to

the main rotor control system, and on page 8 how its operation
is superimposed on the cyclic control system through a mixing
mechanism.

555/3/2
 _ 25 _

in this part of the assignment, we shall see how the

collective and engine controls are interconnected.

A combination of balanced forces acts on a fixed-wing

aircraft in straight and level flight at constant speed. If the
pilot moves the aircraft out of this balanced state, forces
increase or decrease, depending on the new attitude of the
aircraft- To maintain a set airspeed in a turn, a pilot must
increase power because any deflection of a control surface from
its faired position increases drag. The same is true of a
helicopter.

NOTE: The collective~pitch control lever is more often

called the collective lever or simply as the
collective.

If the helicopter must change direction, climb, or accelerate,

or must decelerate rapidly, more power is needed than for straight
and level flight at constant speed.

Extra power is needed more often when increasing altitude,

but small increases are necessary to reduce sink when changing
direction and for acceleration.

So that power is readily to hand, the throttle lever is

operated by a twist grip on the end of the collective lever.
This throttle control is often set to full power in flight, with
movement of the collective lever altering power as necessary
to maintain rotor rev/min.

The engine thus automatically provides the extra power to be

absorbed by the rotor blades when they are operating at a higher
angle of attack than previously.

Although not mechanically trimmable, as are the cyclic

controls, the collective lever and the throttle have friction
controls that each pilot can adjust to suit his feel for the
control.

The helicopter throttle control is almost always a twist

grip, as on a motorcycle, on the forward end of the collective

555/3/2
 _.26...

pitch lever. It is sometimes called the collective grip. The

twist grip friction control's knurled ring is immediately below
the twist grip. Rolling the twist grip away from the pilot opens
the throttle; rolling it towards the pilot closes the throttle.

Throttle Correlation

The power (throttle) control of both piston— and turbine-

engined helicopters is designed so that

l. The pilot can start the engine, ground run it, and
bring the engine and rotor rev/min up to their
operating range without lifting the collective
lever;

2. As the pilot raises the collective lever to increase

lift, so the engine power is automatically increased
and vice versa;

3. At full power (full throttle), the pilot may still

raise the collective lever without damaging the
control mechanism; and

H. The pilot may greatly reduce power in flight while

at the same time using the collective lever to
control the rate of descent of the helicopter.
This is necessary for autorotation practice and
for any power—0ff-but-engine—still—running descent.

For these four requirements to be met, the fuel metering

system, piston engine or turbine, must have an input from both
the throttle twist grip and the collective lever.

Piston Engine Throttle (Power) Control

The carburettor or fuel injector unit is the only component

that meters the fuel and air charge into the piston engine. This
means that the throttle twist grip control and the collective
lever have to be interconnected and the combined output applied
to the throttle butterfly shaft of the carburettor or fuel
control unit.

555/3/2
 _ 27 i

This can be done by

1. A push-pull flexible control or rods from the

collective lever assembly to the engine; or

2. A specially designed cam linkage sited in

the control run between the collective lever
assembly and the engine.

Figure 33 shows a collective lever and the pilot's throttle

twist grip, and Fig. 16 shows an exploded view of the throttle
control housing and the installation of the collective lever
assembly and push~pull flexible control assembly with its attach-
ment to the servo control (fuel injection unit).

Rotating the throttle twist grip shown in Fig. 13 turns the

throttle interconnecting rod shown in Fig. 16 through a pinion
and gearshaft assembly. (The drive for the co—pilot's twist grip
is shown in A of Fig. 16.) Attached firmly to the throttle inter~
connecting rod and gearshaft assembly is the throttle override
bellcrank. Supported and driven by the throttle override bell-
crank through the legs of a spring is the throttle bellcrank,
which is connected by a push-pull flexible control to the throttle
arm of the servo control.

The four design needs set out on page 26 are satisfied by the
system in Fig. 16 thus:
1. With the collective lever down, the throttle
twist grip opens and closes the throttle
butterfly from fully closed to about full
throttle. When the throttle is on its idle
speed stop, further rotation of the twist
grip compresses the spring sited between the
override bellcrank and the throttle bellcrank.

2. If, when the throttle is partly opened, the

collective lever is raised, the throttle is
opened further. This happens because raising
the collective lever rotates the complete
collective and throttle control assembly
about its centre line, thus adding collective
lever movement to the existing'throttle setting.

3. At full throttle and with the collective lever

raised, further collective lever upward move»
ment is possible because the spring between
the throttle override bellcrank and the"
throttle bellcrank is compressed.

555/3/2
 _23_

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assembly

555/3/2
 _ 29 i

A. when the throttle twist grip is held closed

the collective lever can be raised and lowered without
moving the throttle arm off its idle stop because
as the collective lever tries to open the throttle,
the force applied by the pilot's hand to the throttle
grip keeps it closed, and when the collective is
lowered, the spring is compressed between the two
bellcranks.

The range of movement of the throttle control can be increased

by screwing out the extension of the throttle bellcrank and vice~
versa as moving the extension, in or out, alters the distance its
end connection moves for the same angular movement.

This system operates by superimposing collective lever

movement on the throttle twist grip movement and by providing a
spring gushion at each end of the throttle twist grip range to
allow the collective lever movement to overrun it in safety.

Figure l7 shows a throttle and cam control system. The

throttle linkage to the cam box is moved by a throttle twist
grip turning the extension (ll) through a bevel gear assembly.

The operation of this control system meets the four design

needs in the following ways:

l. with the collective lever down, the throttle twist

grip opens and closes the throttle butterfly from
fully closed to about a three—quarter open position
as the cam follower bearing (9) rides in the slot of
the moving cam (7). The system is adjusted so that
when the throttle lever (3) is on the idle stop
screw (2), the cam follower bearing (9) is just
entering the deadpQ$itiOnOf the cam slot towards
its closeg end. Further movement of the throttle twist
grip in a closing direction causes the cam follower
bearing to move to the closed end of the cam slot
while the throttle arm stays firmly on its idle stop.

2. If the throttle is partly opened and the collective

lever is raised, the throttle is opened further.
This happens because raising the collective lever
rotates the complete collective and throttle control
assembly about its centre line, thus adding
collective lever movement to the existing throttle
setting. The advantage of the cam slot is now
felt because the cam slot shape can be made so
that it will add power (open the throttle),by the

555/3/2
 - 30

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1. CONTROL CABLE.
2. IDLE STOP SCREW. .
3.TH HOTTLE LEVER.
4.CAM SHAFT AND LEVEFI.
5.PUSH-PULL ROD.
6_CAM FOLLOWEH LEVER
7. CAM.
8, CAM FOLLOWEH.
9. CAM FOLLOWER BEARING.
10. CAM BOX.
11, EXTENS!ON.
12.THROTTLE CONTROL SHAFT.
13. COLLECTIVE TORQUE TUBE.
14 COLLECTIVE PITCH LEVER
AND THROTTLE CONTROL

FIG. 17 Collective and throttle (cam) control assembly

555/3/2
 — 31 —

correct amount to suit a specific helicopter

weight. This means that the throttle opening is
automatically and correctly changed whenever the
collective pitch blade angles are changed, but at
only one helicopter weight. At other weights, small
movements of the throttle twist grip are needed to
keep engine power and main rotor rev/min properly
matched.

3. At full throttle with the collective lever raised,

the throttle lever (3) is fully open and the cam
follower bearing has just entered the dead position
of the cam slot at its open end. Further collective
movement upward is still possible because the cam
follower bearing (9) moves to the open end of the
cam slot and the throttle lever (3) stays fully open.

H. When the throttle twist grip is held closed, the

collective lever can be raised from its full down
position without opening the throttle lever (3)
appreciably at the same time. This is because the
cam follower bearing is right against the closed
end of the cam slot, and it has to move through
the dead portion of the slot before it starts
to move the throttle open.

In this system, movement of the cam (7) is determined by

the length of the extension (ll), and the co-ordination between
collective lever and throttle lever movement is decided by the
E5535 of the cam slot. The dead areas, or detents, asthey may be
called, at each end of the cam slot allow collective lever
movement when the throttle lever is on either of its stops.

Turbine Engine Power Control

A fuel system for a turbo—shaft gas turbine engine consists

of two units.

They are

l. The fuel control, which is mechanically connected

to the throttle twist grip and is driven by the
gas producer turbine (N1); and

2. The governor, which is mechanically connected to the

collective lever through a linear actuator and is
driven by the power turbine(Ng).

555/3/2
 _ 39 _

In this system, the function of the throttle twist grip is

to select on the fuel control,

l. Cut off,

2. Ground idle, or

3. Maximum power.

No allowance is made for the position of the collective

lever. Thus, no mechanical connection is made between the
throttle twist grip and the collective lever.

The function of the collective pitch lever is

l. To select the pitch angle of the main rotor blades,

and

2. To instruct the governor to supply enough fuel for

the engine to meet the power demanded.

When set to maximum power, the fuel control computes the

amount of fuel needed by the gas producer turbine and the fuel
needed to satisfy the maximum demand of the power turbine. This
fuel is led to the governor, which computes the fuel to meet the
power demanded of the engine. The fuel needed is then
sent to the engine through the £321 control cut-off valve.
Excess fuel from the fuel control and the governor is led to
the inlet of the engine-driven fuel pump.

The design meets the four requirements on page 26

l. By starting and running the engine with the fuel

control set by the throttle twist grip at ground idle.

2. By selecting maximum power with the throttle twist

grip and raising the collective lever.

3. Because there is no mechanical connection between

the throttle and collective controls they
cannot interfere one with the other.

H. By selecting ground idle with the throttle twist

grip and then using the collective lever in the
usual manner.

Figure 18 shows a gas-turbine control system in schematic form

555/3/2
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The linear actuator' in the control run to the governor

provides a fine adjustment of engine power to engine speed. It
is electrically operated and is controlled by a centre-off two~way
switch at the end of the collective lever. This i8 the beep SWiT0h-

To prevent accidental selection of cut-off, there is a

detent button on the collective lever. To obtain cut—off, the
pilot presses the detent button and then rolls the twist grip
to the cut—off position.

CONTROL SYSTEMS MAINTENANCE

Control systems in both rotary and fixed-wing aircraft must

be rigged and maintained to the instructions given in their
maintenance manuals.

Note the following general points:

l. A complete system should move smoothly and easily

from stop to stop. The manufacturer may specify
a maximum and/or minimum force to overcome stiction
and another force to keep the system moving.

2. There must be no play (wear) anywhere in the system

because this allows unwanted movement of one part of
the system relative to another part.

3. Use only the correct type and length of attachment

bolts. Substitution of other bolts can cause
weakened attachments and a loss of the free
movement of the system.

Q. Fit attachment bolts the correct way around. On

rotating parts, bolts usually head into wind.

5. when a torque is specified for a nut or bolt, apply

it.

6. Do not substitute one form of safety locking for another

unless this is specified. For example, do not use a
stiff nut in place of a castle nut and split pin.

7. Install split pins correctly. Single leg bending

is unacceptable.

8. Where lockwire is used, it should be of monel

or stainless steel, not soft iron, copper, or brass.

555/3/2
 l 35 _

9. when you make adjustments to controls, all safety

locking must be complete before a test flight is
made and preferably before any ground running is done

lU. Do not secure electrical wiring to any component that

moves in a control system. For example, never
secure a cable of an electronic vibration analyser
to the fixed swafiiplatecontrol rods.

ll. You must take especial care not to leave tools, rags,
or debris of any kind near any control run because,
unlike a fixed—wing aircraft, which has natural
stability and can fly without, say, l00% elevator
control, the helicopter is naturally unstable
and each control system is vital for its safe
flight. Tools and other obstacles may hinder control
movement or even jam a system solidly.
12 . when you have adjusted or replaced a control system
component, consider the effect this may have on
another system with which it is connected. for
example, a throttle adjustment could affect the
collective pitch control.

SAFETY OF PERSONNEL

Remember these points

l. Take care when working on or near a control system

that it is not operated while your hands are close
to any part. The collective lever and the cyclic
control column can exert considerable leverage,
crushing a finger caught between a moving bellcrank
and its support structure. This is even more
important to remember when the controls are hydraulically
assisted.

2. During the course of maintenance, it is usual to turn

the main rotor. Even a very slowly turning main rotor
has enough power to crush a finger caught between
the fixed and rotating halves of the swamiplate.

555/3/2
 r35-

? SUMMARY
on piston—engined helicopters, the collective pitch D
and throttle twist grip controls are mechanically 1
j interconnected. i

I On turbine—powered helicopters, the pilot uses the

i throttle twist grip to select one of three fuel 3
~ flows on the gas producer fuel control unit. The ,
collective pitch lever schedules the power turbine
governor unit as well as selecting the collective
pitch angles. In this installation, the collective §
pitch lever and the throttle twist grip are not 1
mechanically ihterconnected.

PRACTICE EXERCISE C

Match each of the items in the top list with its

correct item in thebottom list, writing the numbers
of the items in the box below. Use each item only once.

A. Governor

B. Fuel control unit

C. Carburettor

D. Linear actuator

Controlled by

1. The throttle twist grip detent button

2. The throttle twist grip

3. The throttle twist grip beep switch

4. The throttle twist grip and the collective lever

5. The collective lever

6. The cyclic control

Y Y1 ii D 3 (Answer on page 37)

555/3/2
 He Wharekura-tini
Kaihautu 0 Aotearoa

THE OPE N
P0l.YTE(HN|(
OF NEW ZEALAND

\\ ‘R
$_\\ ~<

\ II

Main and Tail Rotor Theory

555—3—3
 CONTENTS

Basic Rotors 1

The Main Rotor 1

Tilting the Tip-path Plane 2

Coning and Flapping 5

Forces of the Rotor Head 11

Dissymmetry of Lift 13

Gyroscopic Effect 21

Coriolis Effect 23

Hooke's Joint Effect 25

Drag Effect 27

The Tail Rotor 30

Principle of Operation 31

Forces of the Tail Rotor 32

Dissymmetry of Lift 33
Drift 36

10/91

Copyright

This rn'a'Yerial is for the sole use of enrolled students and may not be
reproduced without the written authority of the Principal, TOPNZ.

555/3/3
 AIRCRAFT Er IHEERING
$- CI)

HELICOPTERS ASSIGNMENT 3
2

s
BASIC ROTORS

The main rotor of a helicopter converts the power supplied

to it from the engine into a lifting force. When tilted forwards,
backwards, or to either side, the lifting force propels the
helicopter. The mechanism within the rotor head that tilts the
lifting force is controlled by the pilot through the collective
pitch lever and the cyclic pitch~control column. By tilting
the lifting force, the pilot controls the helicopter about the
lateral and longitudinal axes.

The tail rotor is the helicopter's rudder. It consists of

a rotor mounted vertically and at 90° to the centre line of the
helicopter. It is driven by the engine through the same power
train used to drive the main rotor and is arranged to turn
whenever the main rotor turns. The tail rotor provides an opposing
force to the torque reaction of the main rotor and controls the
helicopter about the vertical axis, especially when hovering. It
is controlled through the tail rotor (rudder) pedals.

In this assignment, we will show you how the lifting force of

a main rotor is tilted and resolved into lift and thrust. We will
consider the tail rotor and discuss the aerodynamic and mechanical
forces acting on the helicopter. You will find the terms used in the
Table of Definitions in the Basic Helicopter assignment.

THE MAIN ROTOR

As with an aircraft propeller, the thrust generated by a

WW
helicopter rotor acts at right angles to the tip-path plane.
Opposing this force and exactly equalling it, when hovering, is
the weight of the helicopter. In this condition, iii; is equal

555/3/8
 to weight and, because the
Lift
helicopter is not moving, £532
fl
TOTAL
REACTION
T°ta|
ltladkm and thrust are zero. To obtain
horizontal movement of the
helicopter, the tip-path plane
is tilted and the total reaction
resolves into lift and thrust,
with the lift supporting the
(El) Hovering Qrillair); Tip path Plane horizontal. weight and the thrust being
equal to the drag for straight
rout 'i
as/\c'r |ou E vvmic-=1
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shows these forces acting on a
Ferward (thrill!)
wmpumni
Div-cc! ion of V‘ helicopter in hover and in
mot] In
L
forward flight.

wucur When lift and weight are

(b) Forward flight. Tip path Plane lilted forward.
unbalanced, the helicopter will
climb or descend. When thrust
LIFT
and drag are unbalanced, the
-rnausr e-— _ —; ”
helicopter will accelerate or
X i DRAG slow down. For example, in
Dlndinn J
Ivnhnn a climbing, accelerating flight,
L

the thrust exceeds the drag and

the lift exceeds the weight.
(c) Total reaction resolved into lift and thrust for
for-ward flight.

FIG. l .Ti1ting the tip-path plane to

obtain thrust

Tilting the Tip-path Plane

The tip-path plane can be tilted in several ways:

l. By tilting the complete rotor head, gearbox, and

engine assembly;

2. By changing the centre of gravity of the helicopter

by, for example, moving the cabin assembly;

555/3/3
 _ 3 _

3. By tilting a gimbal or centrally pivoted rotor

head;

4. By using aerodynamic forces to lift and depress

rotor blades hinged to a rotor head that is
rigidly mounted on its drive shaft; or

5. By using aerodynamic forces to lift and depress

rotor blades rigidly fixed to the rigidly mounted
rotor head, thus bending the blades near their
root ends.

In practice, the last three methods are used, and the rotors
that use these methods are

1. The semi—rigid rotor,

2. The articulated rotor, and

3. The rigid rotor or hingeless rotor.

Thehingeless and articulated rotor heads tilt the tip~path plane

by simply increasing the angle of attack of the retreating blade and
decreasing that of the advancing blade. The retreating blade then
generates more lift and the advancing blade, less lift. As a
result, the retreating blade flaps up and the advancing blade
flaps down, as shown in Fig. 2 (a) and(b).

555/3/3
 _ u _

The tilting is controlled

by the cyclic-pitch control column
usually called the cyclic, and
can be effected in any direction.
The cyclic column is moved
forward to tilt the tip-path
plane forward, which moves the
helicopter forward. It is
moved to the right to tilt the
(a) An articulated rotor with tip-path plane to the right
the tip-path plane tilted moving the helicopter to the
right. The same principle
applies to left and aft movements
of the cyclic column and, of
___ ~ F»; -Et?f£’I:D course, for any intermediate
position.

The tip~path plane of the

semi-rigid rotor is tilted in
the same way, with the rising
(b) A hingeless rotor with the of the retreating blade being
tip-path plane tilted equalled by the dropping of
the advancing blade. Because
both blades are mounted on a
rigid, centrally pivoted yoke,
___===r-— the complete rotor head tilts
or seesaws in the direction
chosen. Figure 2 (c) shows
a tilted tip-path plane for
a semi—rigid rotor.

(c) A semi-rigid rotor with the For vertical flight, the

tip-path plane tilted angle of attack of all the blades
is increased or decreased
FIG. 2 Types of rotor simultaneously. This is
controlled by the collective-
pitch control column, usually called the collective. The
pilot raises the collective for the helicopter to go up and
lowers it to go down.

555/3/3
 _ 5 _

The control inputs to the rotor head from the cyclic and the
collective pitch controls are superimposed upon each other
mechanically so that, for example, a climbing, turning, forward
flight path is possible.

$9 I7 7 7 7 7 7 ' ""7" 77
\

I SUMMARY

The main rotor converts engine power into a force that

can both lift and propel the helicopter.

The total reaction of a rotor is at right angles to

the tip-path plane.

Flight in any direction is obtained by tilting the

tip-path plane.

In flight, the total rotor reaction is resolved into

lift and thrust.

I Three types of rotor are generally used:

‘\
p l. The semi—rigid rotor,

2. The articulated rotor, and

3. The rigid or hingeless rotor.

The tail rotor counteracts the torque of the main rotor

and gives directional control during hovering.

Coning and Flapping

when the helicopter is hovering in still air, the airflow

comes from directly above and goes straight down through the rotor
The lift force generated by the turning rotor acts vertically
upward and is equal to the weight (mass) of the helicopter acting
vertically downward. In this condition, the main forces acting
on the rotor assembly are

1. The lift force from each blade, and

2. The centrifugal force of each blade.

555/3/3
 _ 5 _

The lift force acts to lift each blade tip upwards, and the
centrifugal force acts to keep each blade horizontal. The two
forces resolve into a single force, that results in a small upward
movement of the blade tip. The angle formed between the blade
and a plane at right angles to the rotor shaft is called the
coning angle. See Fig. 3.

The articulated rotor has each blade mounted on a horizontal

or flapping hinge, which permits its blade to freely move up and
down or flap.

The rigid rotor permits the blade tip to move up andcbwn by

the bending of the blade and the bending of the rotor head just
inboard of the blade attachment.

Z/B
kg
%Z _
%
A7 T A

1%
EIIJ
l?’

/?\\
Coning angle

- Hovering in sffll air’

¢=>- w:> Comng angk dbphced.

FIG. 3 Coning angle

Neither the articulated nor the rigid rotor system can give
flight other than hovering unless a coning angle is generated.
The coning angle must be displaced about the main rotor shaft
by the flapping of the blades to give the tilted tip-path plane
necessary for horizontal movement. See Fig. 2 (a) and (b).

Because the semi-rigid rotor has its tip-path plane tilted by

the complete rotor-head assembly tilting about its central pivot
point, both blades flap together but in opposite directions.
As one blade flaps up, the other blade simultaneously flaps down
by an equal amount. See Fig. 2 (c). Thus, the semi-rigid rotor
does not need to make a coning angle, and the lift force bends
the stiff, heavily built blades evenly but slightly along their
span. However, the yoke of the semi-rigid rotor does have a small
built-in coning angle of between 2° and 6°. This is done for

555/3/3
 _ 7 _

a reason that we shall discuss later in this assignment under

Coriolis Effect.

In fact, the coning angle hardly varies during all stages of

flight because the rotor and engine rev/min are held in a narrow
operating range. During flight, fuel is burned off and so the
helicopter becomes lighter. Also during flight, loads may be
winched aboard or released from a cargo hook. Any increases/decreases
in load make only a small difference to the coning angle and so-
only small changes in blade—pitch angle are made to correct for
them.

The following simplified example shows the change in coning

angle caused by an increase in the weight of a helicopter with a
four-bladed articulated rotor head. The figures used are not
exact.

Helicopter AUW = 8000 lbf

Weight of each blade = llO lbf

Radius of blade at its

C of G location = 13 ft

Rotor rev/min = 210

Lift generated by each blade # gggg

= 2000 lbf

2
Centrifugal force = aléloz ><<1TXn2n2n0*x 210) >< 113 lbf

= 21 477 lbf

555/3/3
 . _ 8 _

_ ** fjzmmur
4* l _ .7] .Wt ”
m+77mf

FIG. 4 Generating a coning angle

2000
tans = are
6 = tan 0.093l2

Coning angle or 9 = 5° 19‘

The helicopter is now loaded to ll 000 lb max. AUW.

Lift generated
by each blade = iiggg

= 2750 lb

Centrifugal force = 21477 lb

2750
tan“ " nan"
9 = tan 0.1280

Coning angle or G = 7° 18‘

A weight increase of 3000 lb has increased the coning

angle by about 2°.

During flight, the rotor and engine rev/min can be considered

as constant, with the power being changed by alteration to the
engine induction manifold pressure or fuel flow and, at the
same time, collectively altering the main rotor blade angles.

555/3/3
 i Q _

The power is changed because the inertia of the rotor head and
blades assembly makes an increase or decrease in rotor rev/min
impossible to get in a reasonable time, but a quick response
to a change in power may be obtained by changing the blade pitch-
angles with a change in engine fuel flow.

We cannot overemphasise the importance of keeping the rev/min

in the correct range. If the recommended rev/min are exceeded,
damage to the engine, transmission, rotor head, and blades will
result, the severity of the damage depending upon the amount and
duration of the overspeed.

If the rev/min fall below those recommended, the collective

pitch must be decreased or the engine power increased and the
rev/min allowed to increase to their normal value. However,
if no more engine power is available, the helicopter will have to
descend with the reduced collective pitch. If the collective
pitch is increased to maintain altitude, the increase in blade
angle above normal will produce more drag for the lift generated,
the rev/min will decay (slow down) further, and the helicopter will
descend rapidly. When this occurs with a fully articulated rotor,
the coning angle increases due to the reduced centrifugal force
until a position is reached where it takes a long time to bring
the blades down again by reducing collective pitch. A very
heavylandingp is then unavoidable.

Early helicopters with articulated rotors could get their

blades pointing almost vertically upwards. This condition, known
as candling, resulted in a crash landing. Modern articulated
rotor heads have inbuilt or adjustable upper coning stops to
prevent excessive coning of the blades. These stops are set at
an angle well outside the normal coning angle of the blades
but small enough to allow a reasonably rapid increase in rev/min
when collective pitch is reduced.

555/3/3
 _ 19 _

SUMMARY

In flight, the engine and rotor rev/min are kept in a

narrow operating range .

The coning angle is caused by the balance of lift and

centrifugal forces.

The tip-path plane is tilted to give forward flight

by flapping the blades up at the rear and down at the
front of the helicopter.

3 In a semi-rigid rotor, as one blade flaps up, the

‘ other blade flaps down by an equal amount.

1 A very low rotor rev/min will produce a large coning

angle, which could endanger flight.

PRACTICE EXERCISE A

State whether each of the following statements is true

or false:

l. The main rotor is controlled by the pilot through

the collective and cyclic pitch control columns.

2. The main purpose of the tail rotor is to control

the helicopter about the vertical axis when in
level flight.

3. The total reaction of the main rotor is resolved

into lift and drag when the tip-path plane is
tilted.

4. When the tip-path plane is tilted to the right,

the helicopter moves to the right.

5. During hovering, the lift of the main rotor must

slightly exceed the weight of the helicopter.

6. In tilting the tip~path plane of a semi-rigid

rotor, the complete rotor head assembly is tilted.

7. The total reaction of a rotor is at right angles

to the tip-path plane.

8. The coning angle is the angle formed between the

blades and the relative airflow.

- 555/3/3
 -11..

9. The horizontal or flapping hinges of an articulated

rotor permit the blades to freely flap up and down.

10. A rigid rotor has its blades rigidly attached to

the rotor head, which is itself rigidly attached
to the rotor drive shaft.

(Answers on page39)

Forces of the Rotor Head

To achieve flight, the tip-path plane is tilted in the desired

direction, and the total reaction from the rotor head and blades
assembly becomes resolved into lift to support the weight and
thrust to propel the helicopter. As the helicopter moves, the
airflow direction into the rotor head changes from directly
above to ahead and above. At the same time, the airflow from the
rotor changes from straight down, forming a ground cushion, to aft
and down.

These changes in the airflow through the rotor disc, and the
fact that the tip-path plane has been tilted, create extra forces
and effects above those experienced when hovering.

555/3/3
 _12_

w ‘T 7
1 If

/""“‘ -\\
*_ i4._ _ F

is
r—\ 5.

\
lire-2
— \

7
_‘_&§
.._/ '
\l_l \l__h
’h‘ / /// 7%%

(a) When hovering

i if _r ;_ . 1. Z--\\

4* a so ~ it ,_%;; w¥— -|»—~

.
n \

Q;
_\ fi
\\

\
i\
(la) In §eve| flight \

(b) In level flight

FIG. 5 Airflow through the rotor

555/3/3
 _ 13 _

Dissymmetry of Lift

The area within the tip~path plane of the main rotor is called
the disc area or, more generally, the rotor disc. when the
Q helicopter is hovering in still air, lift is generated by the
rotor blades equally at all positions around the rotor disc.
Q
As the helicopter moves, or as a wind is felt, the velocity of the
airflow over the rotor blades changes, with a higher velocity
in one half of the rotor disc and a lower velocity in the other
half. As a result of the different air velocities, different
lift forces will be generated from one side of the rotor disc to
the other. Unless this unequal distribution of lift is counteracted,
the helicopter would roll over in the direction of the side with
the least lift. The unequal distribution of lift, called the
dissgngetrg of 1ift,was a considerable problem to the designers
of early helicopters and autogiros.

Figure 6 (a) shows typical velocities at different positions

on a rotor blade when the helicopter is hovering in still air.
Because the air is still and the helicopter is hovering, the
rotor blade velocity is also the velocity of the air over the
blade. The blade will thus experience the same air velocities
at all positions in the rotor disc.

Figure 6 (b) shows the same helicopter in forward flight

with an IAS of 100 kt. With this IAS, the air velocity felt
by the tip of the blade when it is advancing and at 90° to the
line of flight is the tip velocity pigs the 100 kt TAS, giving
a total of 500 kt. This increase in air velocity of 100 kt is
felt along the span of the advancing blade. when the blade is
retreating and at 90° to the line of flight, the air velocity
felt at the tip is the tip velocity minus the lU0—kt IAS, giving
a total of 300 kt. This decrease in air velocity of 100 kt is
£2 felt along the span of the retreating blade. For any given angle
of attack, the lift generated increases as the velocity of the
5
airflow over the airfoil increases. In fact, the lift increases
as the square of the air velocity. That is
If an air velocity of A m/s gives l unit of lift, then an air
velocity of ZXA m/s gives 4 units of lift, and an air velocity
of 3XA m/s gives 9 units of lift.

555/3/3
 .. 11; _

FORWARD

{‘
‘so \-
é'b
Iv
'5
8*

Drrecflon

RETREATING /////~_\\\\ ADVANCiNG

|4gq I lgw I00 i H _0 \lO0 \3QD /_ 400

\\ » HALF
Blade ”vei5cir)/ in know

HALF
I

\
\
AFT

(a) Hovering

A FORWARD

<\
63
-;~°
L
‘e
'7
ho
r'|-EC
_
Q

RIETREAHNG ADVANCING
Y
zoo 1-=00 0 V V*T1gp_ _ zoo Loo W 500
Blade vetodfy in knols F

HALF HALF

AFT

(b) Forward flight of 100 kt

FIG. 6 Rotor—blade velocities in hovér and in forward flight

555/3/3
 _ 15 _

Bearing this in mind, a study of Fig. 6 (b) will show that

more lift will be generated in the advancing half than in the
retreating half of the rotor disc unless some correction is used

an
We have seen that the articulated rotor and the rigid rotor
systems have blades that either flap or bend in the vertical
4%
plane. In forward flight, the increased lift on the advancing
blade due to forward motion of the helicopter will cause the
blade to flap or bend up. This upward movement will decrease
the angle of attack because the relative wind will change from
a horizontal direction to more of a downward direction while the
blade is moving upward. See Fig. 7.

AIRFLOW
FROM ABOVE

its ,d
AIRFLOW mom AHEAD
APParen1 angle of attack
Space diagram of two velocities

—-- MRFLOW FROM ABOVE

R55!-1:.rAN r
V —-_L>_AlRFLOw
I’
AIRFLOW FROM AHEAD —-__ __ _ __ __ ‘

6: True angle of attack

FIG. 7 Change in angle of attack due to flapping

555/3/ 3
 _ 15 _

The decreased lift on the retreating blade will cause the

blade to flap or bend downward. This downward movement will
increase the angle of attack because the relative wind will
change from a horizontal direction to an upward direction while the
blade is moving down, as shown in Fig. 7.

The combination of decreased angle of attack on the advancing

blade and increased angle of attack on the retreating blade
through blade flapping tends to equalise the lift over the two
halves of the rotor disc. The position of the cyclic pitch—control
column in forward flight also causes a decrease in the angle
of attack on the advancing blade and an increase in the angle of
attack of the retreating blade. This movement of the control
column gives the major correction for dissymmetry of lift, with
the correction for blade flap being a minor but necessary contribution

The semi-rigid rotor behaves as a seesaw. As one blade flaps

up, the other blade flaps down and, as already explained, the
change in angle of attack of each blade tends to equalise the
lift over the rotor disc. Again, however, the major correction
for dissymetry of lift is supplied by the forward movement of the
control column.

Another method that can be used on the articulated and rigid

rotor systems to decrease the angle of attack and the consequent
lift of an advancing blade flapping up and to increase the angle
of attack and the lift of a retreating blade flapping down is
to slightly offset the pitch—change horn on the blade in relation
to the flapping hinge. Figure 8 shows this offset in a greatly
exaggerated form. The pitch~change control rod that conveys
the input from the pilot to the rotor blade is attached to
face A on the control horn and the blade can rotate on the blade
spindle.

555/3/3
 _ 17 l

\. Q - /’
~ / \ ’

Q
. ¢_r.\‘°"‘ °{ '°'a'5¢>n\_ \ /.-X \
‘ i K.
\ \
. \ ~

’ / -_ r" \ . A _ _ . \
Q, i».
*3‘ \
" 1'
/ . .

Ftapping hinge I A I
1 I
91 . _

____| _ Piich corliroi Blade spindle ‘EII A gl Z of-f5et

I horn ' "

I Pikfn control
' horn

Angle of attack d ~ ’
J » A . .-I .-a‘:---— ‘ p
mcP.ET.s_§ D5‘-"M55
(a) Normai (5) Offs“

FIG. 8 Offset pitch~change horn

In Fig. 8 (a), when the advancing blade flaps up because of

the increased airflow, there will be no mechanical change in the
angle of attack of the blade because the centre lines of the
flapping hinge and the contro1—rod attachment to the control horn
coincide. However, in Fig. 8 (b), when the advancing blade flaps
up, the angle of attack of the blade is mechanically decreased
because the centre line of the control rod attachment to the
control horn is outboard of the centre line of the flapping hinge
As the blade flaps up, it also rotates on its blade spindle, with
the leading edge going down. The reverse occurs when a blade
retreats and starts to flap down.

In flight, the blades are allowed to flap as they wish.

No damping devices or mechanicalrestraintsare used to inhibit or
prevent flapping other than the limits of movement imposed by the
design of the rotor head and,in some helicopters, an upper coning
stop.

For practical design and construction reasons, the flapping

hinges are offset. That is, they do not lie in the geometric
centre of the rotor head. This offset of the flapping hinges
has a useful dynamic effect in the control of the helicopter.

555/3/3
 _ 13 _

In Fig. 9, the strings represent the rotor blades, the arrows

show the centrifugal force, and the weight represents the fuselage
of the helicopter. In Fig. 9 (a), the tip-path plane is tilted,
but because the blades are hinged in the centre of the rotor, the
fuselage hangs straight down and will be slow to adapt its
attitude to the tilt of the rotor. If its centre of gravity was
anywhere but in the same lateral plane as the lift vector of the
rotor, the helicopter would be unmanageable. In Fig. 9 Cb), the
fuselage quickly follows the tilt of the tip-path plane, and
the position of the centre of gravity is now not so critical. The
result is a helicopter that is sensitive to the control of the
pilot and has a useful working range of permissible centre—of-
gravity movement.
Offset of hi--51.;

7 . ,_ _.v__>_“_\3_H if}
__ .___—

ti -1

\\V
‘D-

(a) NOT OFFSET (b) ovrszr

FIG. 9 Dynamic effect of offset flapping hinges

The offset distance of the flapping hinges determines the

size of this dynamic effect. The blades in a rigid rotor are,
in effect, stiff continuous flapping hinges, and the overall
effect is similar to widely offset flapping hinges.

The semi-rigid rotor also uses a dynamic effect to give a

manageable and sensitive response to the pilot’s controls. This
effect is obtained by having the rotor assembly underslung on

555/3/3
 .-...]_Q..

its pivot. That is, the centre of gravity of the rotor assembly
lies below its central pivot axis.

Figure l0 Ca) shows a semi-rigid rotor helicopter hovering,

with the lift vector acting vertically upward and the weight
vector acting vertically downward and in the same plane. Figure l0
Cb) shows the tip-path plane tilted for forward flight, with the
lift vector moved aft because of the tilt of the assembly. As a
result of this movement, a couple is formed by the lift and weight
vectors, which lowers the nose of the helicopter. The underslung
mounting of the semi-rigid rotor assembly has another important
service to perform, which we shall discuss later on in this
assignment under Coriolis Effect.

LIFT

_ Rnior Pivol Pom?

C. cf G. cf" rofar assembly /'7

.. 5.. J

WEi6H'|'

(a) Hovering

Tofal
reaciion L";-r

Rotor pivu+ pn'|v1~|-

THRUST
Q--i V
‘--C of 6 of mfer asumbly

. tcf;Z'
c J /,.\
in
5///\}\\

WEIGHT

(b) Rotor tilted for forward flight

FIG. 10 Semi-rigid rotor helicopter
- 555/3/3
 _ 29 _

SUMMARY

Dissymmetry of lift is caused by horizontal flight or

by wind during hover.

Y Dissymmetry of lift is the difference in lift that occurs

between the advancing blade half and the retreating blade
half of the rotor disc area.
\
5 Unless corrected, dissymetry of lift will roll the
‘ helicopter to the side opposite to the advancing blade.

Dissymmetry of lift is corrected by

l. An aerodynamic reduction in the angle of attack

T as the advancing blade flaps up and an increase
l as the retreating blade flaps down;

2. The blade's angle of attack being reduced as it

advances and increased as it retreats by the
position of the cyclic control column; and some-
] times by

3. Mechanically reducing the angle of attack of the

\ advancing blade and increasing it on the retreating
1 blade by offsetting the blade control horn with
‘ respect to the flapping hinge.

PRACTICE EXERCISE B

l. Show, with the aid of a sketch, why the adyancing

blade of a helicopter in horizontal flight tends
to develop more lift than the retreating blade
unless corrected.

2. Make a freehand sketch of an airfoil section meeting

an airflw, and show the chord line and angle of
attack of the airfoil.

3. With the aid of a sketch, show that, when a rotor

blade flaps up, its angle of attack is aero-
dynamically reduced.

(Answers on page39)

555/3/3
 _ 21 _

Gyroscopic Effect
The turning main rotor assembly behaves as a large gyroscope
in that it tilts at right angles to the direction of a push that
it receives. This behaviour in a gyroscope is called precession
—— in a helicopter if is called ggrgscopic effect or phase lag.

Figure ll shows how a gyroscope tilts or precesses in a

reaction to an applied force or push. -

I
‘I 13!!

t
s
(Q) 11,, grm,c,,p¢_ (5) The ‘rg':eJegr?;;:>l;!;£::°I:Pi41Y~F" (C) 5ubpose"t£|;’::'Inr;-is split into (d) Attend to two of these segments.

‘Ii’; ~23
11 ‘-;~t>

(2) Forget all the others. ::;:és‘ee%m&n3,ca;i‘fgidIy fhei, 5|-mp: 5”, not man" (gen tgwtlrrxovgggeztgd tltggnulilguéoaie

2 /ct_j):{, lg’
(i) Now suppose we apply a torque "lhis imparts a mation in the horizontal (lg) 7,4,", the ngmenls mm M" both 1-My me";-are mu" dwgcnaflyfi
to the axle an the horizontal plane, dlrecnnn to the segments, one to the right _ 0 ;,,,|z,,nm/ and G "mm, momm
and the other to the left.

\
L\ eff!
_.__t
t -_. 7
._\_-.L2.| ..
<;
\ I

%%é%g;€%%%:%?%?%E éégggfiéégé C::(§@§§;§§%§:::D €EiEi!!;g%i§i§§ifir

(M) This is the key diagram. Study it care- (H) All the other segment: must (0) T-h='=l'¢re the whole wheel trlu.
I
(P) Thu: when a gyroscope is given a push
fH"Y- The axle is rigidly connected In the fin in we mm, wan il "'15 1" Pith! angle: to the directwn uf
segments and must therefore tilt when the the push.
segments move diagonally.
FIG. ll How a gyroscope tilts

555/3/3
 ._ 22 _

Figure 12 shows the gyroscope

f““~\ rotor without its gimbals, and
fii?T lying in a horizontal plane such
r/,/IF as a main rotor assembly. If
‘\\\\'i§._M/ we apply a push to the rotor '
A'/ at A,it will move in the direction
marked tilt at B. Compare this
Ll ‘PUSH movement with that shown in
Fig. ll and you will find that
FIG. 12 Tilting of a rotor
it is the same. You can thus
see that the tilting of the
o
rotor occurs 90 later in the direction of rotation from, and in
the same sense as, the applied force.

We have seen earlier that, for horizontal flight, the tip~

path plane is tilted forward by the retreating blade being made
to flap up and the advancing blade being allowed to flap down, and
that a blade is made to flap up or down by its angle of attack,
and thus the lift-force generated being increased or decreased.
Because of the gyroscopic effect of the turning rotor, the change
in angle of attack must be made 90° before it is to take effect.
Thus, the desired change for forward flight is made at 90° to the
centre line on the left—hand side of the helicopter —— see Fig. 13.

LOW NTCH APPLIED

HIGH FLAP RESULT

W-I
\%f"ilk- F ""_\\,-__ ’

tow rm aesutt ‘id \| " IGH mcla APPLIED

- FIG. 13 Where the angle of attack is changed

This applies to a rotor which is turning in the conventional

direction, which is counterclockwise when viewed from above.

555/3/3
 _ 23 _

This 90° lead in the control can be seen very easily on a

Bell helicopter if you position the blades in a fore~and—aft
direction and then move the cyclic control column backwar d s and
forwards, watching the blades at the same time. No movement
takes place at all when this is done, but when the control column
is moved laterally, the blades increase and decrease their pitch
as the control is moved. The same effect can be seen, less easily,
in a fully articulated rotor if you position the control horn push-
pull rod of one blade directly over a control rod into the swash-
p lat e and then move the cyclic control column.

Coriolis Effect

As a blade of a fully articulated or rigid rotor flaps up, the

centre of mass of the blade moves in towards the centre of the
rotor disc, and as the blade flaps down, it moves outward.
See Fig. lu.

UP
Axis \
of rotaficn

‘. Blade flapping
X3 “

\
X2 \\|

I \
\
X:
DOWN

_ Xwn W
' \KC8ntre of mass

FIG. 14 Blade centre of mass movement

Remember that, because of coning, a blade of these two types

f .
0 rotor will not flap down below a plane passing through the
ro t or hub and perpendicular to the axis of rotation.

The product of mass and velocity yields momentum. Thatis

Mass X Velocity = Momentum

555/3/3
 _ gu _

Thus, when a rotor is turning, each blade has a certain

amount of momentum.

The law of Conservation of Momentum states that "the momentum

of a body does not change unless an unbalanced external force
acts on it". As a blade flaps up, its centre of mass moves towards
the axis of rotation, and so the length of its path around the
axis becomes shorter. For the blade to retain the same momentum,
which it must, its angular velocity must therefore increase. The
reverse holds true as a blade flaps down.

This law is well demonstrated by the exhibition ice skater.

When the skater pirouettes with her arms outstretched, her rate
of spin is not very great, but as she lowers her arms, the rate
increases markedly.

When the blade flaps up and increases its angular velocity,

it is said to £551, and as it flaps down and decreases its angular
velocity, it is said to £52. The rigid rotor handles the lead
and lag forces by allowing the blade to bend at or near its
attachment to the rotor head. The blade on an articulated rotor
moves because it is mounted on a vertical hinge. See Fig. 15.
This hinge is sometimes called a @532 or lead-lag hinge.

--- I 6 E
Dir¢ch.°~ .... -- LE \
W‘
-:4. ___. _ ‘I
ca ___.-- ;

'.

_ 1_ ::'

/‘ .7. _’
1 _________ __
,. , '=, ‘___ -A . __ _ __ I:-5
/__ I ; ' ' '' ' . ~' " .__ If
“--- ““'I 1. =I "--\ ":
. \.- _ 3
. . :' /
Vcrhcal hmge .' I

‘"-~~~.':.AGG”VG / : I '

FIG. l5 Leading and lagging

555/3/3
 -25..

The blade is not free to lead and lag without restraint, which
would cause mechanical damage to the rotor head and would also
create an unbalanced rotor. It is attached to a damping device,
which is adjusted to give a specified rate of movement under a
given load.

The semi-rigid rotor is underslung and has a small preset

coning angle. These two features greatly reduce the coriolis
effect. As a blade flaps up, the centre of gravity of the rotor
assembly moves out from the axis of rotation in the direction of
that blade. See Fig. 16 (b). As the blades flap, they will
tend to increase their velocity to maintain their momentum but,
because the C of G of the head has moved away from the axis of
rotation, it will generate some added momentum of its own to the
system. This added momentum partly cancels that needed by the
blades. The source of the momentum does not matter, just so
long as the total momentum of the system stays the same. Thus,
the blade flapping up will have little tendency to increase its
velocity to conserve momentum, and the blade flapping down will
have little tendency to decrease its velocity. The small
lead-lag forces that are generated by the remaining coriolis
effect are absorbed in blade bending and by massive blade drag
braces that locate the blades in their grips.

Ho0ke's Joint Effect

Horizontal flight is obtained by tilting the tip~path plane.

When the tip-path plane is tilted, its plane of rotation differs
from that of the rotor drive shaft. This difference gives rise
to Hooke's joint effect, wherein the driven member of a universal
joint accelerates and decelerates twice in each revolution of the
driving member. Figure l6 shows the effect on a four—bladed
articulated rotor. During hover, the tip-path plane is parallel
to the rotor drive-shaft plane, and the blades space themselves
at 90° to each other. Because the blades are not flapping, there
is no coriolis effect, and so the blades will not move about
their vertical hinges. In horizontal flight with the tip~path
plane tilted(for the rotor shaft plane of rotation to maintain
a constant velocity),the two athwartships blades must move on

555/3/3
 _ 25 _

their vertical hinges to positions A and B. The blades thus

accelerate and decelerate twice in each revolution of the rotor
shaft.

__|_./L‘ ..ml-n - ,........-dd‘;-~

wéat .~<i“"at -a

<’* rgtajg Qt: if e t ‘Til

\
.,_ _ / ,_
‘—-_._—~"" ‘---...-x._.._....----

._. ......................................................................... .._.,;__

.- -‘ - /-'
\ _

"t" \

(a) Hovering gb) Horizontal flight

FIG. 16 Hooke‘s joint effect

The articulated rotor caters for this effect by allowing the

blades to move on their vertical hinges, the rigid rotor by
bending the blades at or near their attachments to the rotor head,
and the semi-rigid rotor by bending its stiff and heavy blades.

_ 555/3/3
 _ 27 _

I Figure l7 shows a constant-

Wmwwfii
'_:>§.:,‘ .;;|‘
velocity universal joint where
\ 1HL”““J%§a
_ _ v 3. 1-’ torque is transferred at constant
fir
4 “'.g.-.-.- 1.
fi a/..q_ :3 V » g '55‘
speed by the use of free-moving
1|.-4mll-=w|-I-||f"" "'““w“' '1 nfflrm T . .
—— - -—i;+fi% ’ steel balls between the driving
Q I
"‘=1|li\'1 l 1
2‘-.:\\“1_i,1’ n' iv » _
HE “wmi \ ”m and driven members. Each member
in "K -_ agave" /A J’.-
/' ,5” has two fingers or arms, in
“vawng
1 *hjf;§&§:,»
ffiY /;§ pix,/
. €~;€“‘
§?Q‘E
’
”‘Zé,_ the sides of which are specially
shaped grooves. A steel ball forms
the driving connection in the
FIG. l7 Cqnstant—velocity universal two curved channels formed when
joint the joint is assembled. The
shape of these channels is such that, irrespective of the angle at
which the joint operates, the balls always lie in a plane that makes
equal angles with both driving and driven members of the joint.
This feature is common to all makes of constant~velocity universal
joints.

Rotor heads have been designed and built to behave as a

constant-velocity joint but, so far, this type of rotor head has
not been used in production-run helicopters.

Drag Effect

As a turning blade advances and then retreats, the velocity

of the airflow over the blade varies as does the drag generated.
This changing value in drag causes the blade to move about its
vertical hinge or, in the case of the rigid and semi»rigid rotors,
for the blade itself to bend.

The five main effects discussed, that is

l. Dissymmetry of lift,

2. j Gyroscopic effect,

3. Coriolis effect,

4. Hooke's joint effect, and

5. Drag effect,

555/3/3
 _28..

all take place together when the helicopter is in horizontal

flight. However, for hovering in still air, only gyroscopic
and drag effects occur.

SUMMARY

In an articulated rotor

l. Dissymmetry of lift is corrected by the blade

flapping up and down about the horizontal (flapping)
hinge;

2. Gyroscopic effect is allowed for by the angle of

attack of the blade being changed approximately
90° before the result of the pitch change is
desired; and

3. Coriolis, Hooke‘s joint, and drag effects are

absorbed by each blade being mounted on a vertical
(drag) hinge, with its variations in velocity
with respect to the rotor head being controlled
by a blade damper.

For a semi-rigid rotor

1. Dissymmetry of lift is corrected by the blades

flapping up and down about the rotor-head pivot
point;

2. Gyroscopic effect is allowed for as in the

articulated rotor;

3. Coriolis effect is absorbed by the rotor assembly

being underslung on the rotor drive shaft; and

4. Hooke‘s joint and drag effects are absorbed by

blade bending.

In a rigid rotor

l. Gyroscopic effect is allowed for as in the

articulated rotor, and

2. All other effects are absorbed by the blades

bending at or very near their attachment to the
rotor head.

555/3/3
 _ 29 _

PRACTICE EXERCISE C

State whether each of the following statements is true

or false:

l. Dissymmetry of lift is experienced when hovering

in still air.

2. The rotor disc is the area within the tip~path plane.

3. A retreating blade experiences a greater air velocity

than does an advancing blade.

4. A horizontal hinge is often called a flapping hinge.

5. As a blade flaps up, its angle of attack decreases.

6. An offset pitch—change horn has no effect on a

flapping blade.

7. No allowance for the gyroscopic effect of the

rotating rotor is needed in its control.

8. Phase lag is another name for gyroscopic effect.

9. Because of gyroscopic effect, the angle of attack

of a blade is changed at about 90° of rotor
rotation before the desired effect of the change
is to take place.

10. Coriolis effect is apparent only during hovering

in still air.

ll. An underslung semi-rigid rotor with between.2° to 6° of

preconing will experience little coriolis effect.

l2. The movement of rotor blades in the vertical plane

is called flagging.

13. Rotor blade movement on the vertical hinge is

called flapping.

14. Coriolis, Hooke‘s joint, and drag effects cause

a blade to move about the vertical hinge.

15. The vertical hinge is often called the drag

hinge.

16. The rate of blade flap is controlled by a rotor

blade damper.

8 l7. A cyclic pitch change alters the pitch angles

of all the blades by the same amount at the
same time.

18. A rigid rotor uses blade bending instead of

vertical and horizontal hinges.

555/3/3
 _ 30 _

19. A semi-rigid rotor seesaws spanwise about a central

point.

20. An articulated rotor blade is free to flap about

a horizontal hinge but is damped in its dragging
about a vertical hinge.

(Answers on page 41)

The Tail Rotor

A tail rotor is used to counteract the torque P€acTiOn frcm

a single main rotor and, to a much lesser extent, to provide
directional control in flight. Helicopters with twin main rotors
counteract their torque reaction by counter—rotating the rotors.
Thus, they obtain directional control by mixing the cyclic
inputs to each rotor head and so don't need a tail rotor.

The tail rotor is mounted vertically, or nearly so, on one side

of the fuselage, with its centre line at right angles to the
direction of normal forward flight. See Fig. 18. It is driven
through shafting and gearboxes from the main rotor and is
connected mechanically with the main rotor so that, when the main
rotor turns, so must the tail rotor. This mechanical connection
between the two rotors means that, in autorotation, the pilot
has normal behaviour from the tail rotor. Ideally, in level
flight, the tail rotor uses little or no power, nearly all power
being available at the main rotor for lifting and propelling the
helicopter. The tail rotor uses most power during a climbing
turn in the direction of rotation of the main rotor. This is
a climbing, left-hand turn if the main rotor turns in the
conventional direction of counter-clockwise when looked at from
above, with a maximum AUW the power used by the tail rotor
in such a turn can exceed 10% of the total power available from
the engine.

555/3/3
 _ 31 i

/ .'.;.;.;~-~
nu
if
sefl$5' .. .. , F1

§ “lllli?/_,=ifl\'!-'
. i
an
I
-1-ulna-Q Q!
MI

//

%A:'|- V, 7' 7 // --. \

/"‘|
Ifitli
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U
ii
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L1 |"
‘fig _ '
' //* \\§»
I 41 I Rt-'te\‘°

l________l

FIG 18 Position of the tail rotor

We determine the direction of rotation by viewing the tail

rotor from the side that it is mounted on the helicopter. A
tail rotor may have between two and six blades and will turn
much faster than the main rotor, but usually slower than the
engine rev/min. (The rev/min ratio between tail rotor and engine
differs from one type of helicopter to another.)

Principle of Operation

The tail rotor, which is a type of reversible pitch propeller,

is controlled by the pilot through conventional rudder pedals.
Movement of the rudder pedals increases or decreases the pitch
of all the blades by the same amount and in the same_direction,
Q!‘
thereby increasing or decreasing the thrust generated and the
lateral force felt by the tail of the helicopter. The blades
can be moved from a positive-pitch angle through 0° to a
negative-pitch angle so that a thrust to the right or left may be
obtained. See Fig. l9.

S55/3/3
 ._ 32 _

FORWARD
(1-innnnnu

‘\f'—Tai| - rofor gearbox

,—""_°
-: "“' -'_'jIi-'*"
'::—T'—i1>
AIR FLOW 1;» —<>°
\_ +.

FIG. 19 Positive and negative angles of a

tail rotor blade

Forces of a Tail Rotor

The tail rotor is a rotating airfoil sited in an airflow. As

with the main rotor, the airflow causes dissymmetry of lift to be
felt across the disc of the tail rotor. In correcting for
dissymmetry of lift, the effects of drag, Hooke's joint, and
coriolis are introduced and absorbed by the relatively stiff
blades and heavily built hub assembly. The presence of gyroscopic
effect or phase lag does not matter because the pitch of the
tail~rotor blades is always changed collectively. As with the
articulated and semi-rigid main rotors, dissymmetry of lift is
catered for by blade flapping or by the assembly seesawing in a
vertical plane, and by the geometry of the pitch—change mechanism
to the blades.

555/3/3
 _ 33 _

Dissymmetry of Lift

From Fig. 18, you will see that the velocity of the airflow
over the top tail—rotor blade is

Blade velocity plus airflow velocity.

Over the lower blade, it is

Blade velocity minus airflow velocity.

Thus, if both blades have the same angle of attack, then

much more thrust will be produced by the top half of the disc
than by the lower half. This uneven distribution of the thrust
will cause vibration and will unevenly load the tail rotor and
the tail—rotor gearbox assembly. This problem is overcome by
the blades flapping in much the same way as the main rotor
blades flap. As the top blade flaps outwards away from the
helicopter, its angle of attack becomes less, and less thrust is
produced. At the same time, the lower blade flaps inwards, its
angle of attack is increased, and more thrust is produced. The
net‘ result of the flapping action is an even distribution of
thrust over the disc area.

Figure 20 shows schematically a two—bladed tail rotor with

both the blades mounted on a yoke freely pivoted in the centre
about a trunnion. Each blade can turn on a feathering (spanwise)
axis and is connected to the pitch-change mechanism by a push-pull
rod. The trunnion is mounted so that its axis lies at an angle
to the centre line of the yoke, which gives an angled hinge called
a delta three hinge, This hinge reduces the angle of attack of
the advancing blade and increases that of the retreating blade
as the tail rotor flaps. The angle of attack is further altered
by the pitchmchange linkage, because each push-pull rod is
attached to the leading-edge side of a blade, the angle of
attack of an outward-flapping blade is reduced. As the blade
flaps inward, its angle of attack is increased. The result of
tail~rotor flapping is that for level flight in calm air, the
assembly assumes a less than vertical angle. Note angle 6 in Fig.2O

555/3/3
 _ 34 _

~-
..4--——-~1-
?‘d\-5-Han of +=-:1 v-¢,»b__

____,/

Fuih-Pu" Nd

./ "'§
I -iv — Fnfch-change
V Yakg Yo kg “G fl$
‘I

.. Trunnion J

"W \\ Tall-rotor drive. shaft _ 1

an
,-
>
~‘
\
A
/6‘
Pdch-change head
""—'—
/ Fa
"Fail-rota:
dnv: shaft
I
/3
|F@jrg|{@7
'

1
‘
Trunnion

Roiaiiu of blade "_' ‘ '

ab BUrfnQ1:11 C-T axis ‘---_--4’ "L ' Pushpunrod
r—'“'\"" \ * :1 o

r
5+
0

P=-+-.+.-.,.. .r-1.,“ r=""' ‘ i

; L
in --vi FLAP -------—->- Ouk

FIG. 20 Tail--rotor flapping

You can see the change in the angle of attack of the blades
due to tail~rotor flapping on the delta three hinge very easily
if you balance a 30—cm rule on a pencil with the rule inclined
(offset) at a small angle to the pencil. See Fig. 21. Seesaw

555/3/8
 _ 35 _

the rule on the pencil. As

the 30 cm end of the rule lifts
up, the numbers between 15 and 30
incline down, and the opposite
' happens with the other end of
' e the rule. Increase the angle
Lead'
edgen5 Tra'
ragedge
of the rule relative to the
pencil and see the effect.
Position the pencil almost
‘QQR lengthwise under the rule and
see the effect.

The delta-hinge-mounted
tail rotor can have only two
\
blades. If more are needed
ag: because more thrust is necessary
~edge
ng
1- or because a large~diameter
Tra L¢.;d';g
tail rotor cannot be used, a
different type of tail rotor
FIG; 21 Delta—three-—hinge effect is called for. One common
type of tail rotor that can have as few as two and as many as
six blades has a central hub rigidly fixed to the tail—rotor
gearbox output shaft, with each blade attached to the hub by a
flapping hinge. Each blade can be turned about its feathering
axis and is connected to the pitch—change head by a push»pull
rod. The geometry of the pitch~change head and the attachment
of the push—pull rod to the blade is arranged so that, as the
blade flaps outward, its angle of attack is reduced and vice
versa.

Figure 22 shows schematically this angle change and the

tip-path plane of this tail rotor during level flight in calm
air.

555/3/3
 '- as -

I
Ft‘? Our
I

ROTATION I
-4-—-—-——- 4

F -
Blade

“-~_a_

HI‘
..__,___-- Biade spindle

Hingfi C)

e Pikh - change. hand

H_“'PLKE}
"“
l ., 7 \
_Q
WW
\
p/. QTH
TP

\\l I

/
L?‘
f
.\'1-4';';;;n

t FIG. 22 Tail rotor with flapping hinge

Drift

The force or thrust from the tail

' rotor 15
' u sed to counteract
the torque reaction of the main rotor. A couple is a pair of
equal and opposite parallel forces that tend to produce rotation,
that is, a torque. The force produced by the tail rotor acts
perpendicularly to an arm. That is, the tail rotor produces
a moment. The main
' rotor torqu e is balanced by the moment, which
stops its rotational effect but results in a s mall translationa
‘ l
force that drifts the helicop
' ter sideways.

555/3/3
 - 37 _

/ Dlrechon of rotation
of mam rater

. , F A
F 1 RESULTANT
Q
\ -
I
fie
Reaction for ue O
t: 1*;=. : a.*:.
‘

\
, \

! B:i:ru:|r\g momenl produced by Tall-ruler 1

Q _2_+_ ,
E Ta}? rotor fare: I

- FIG. 23 Tail~rotor drift

Drift is counteracted by tilting the main rotor to one side

The tilt can be achieved by the design of the mount supporting
the main transmission or by the cyclic controls being rigged so
that neutral on the cyclic control column results in the tipa
path plane of the main rotor being tilted. A combination of
both methods is often used.

The main rotor control system is often designed to give a

progressively increasing tilt of the tip-path plane as the
collective is raised. Thus, as power is increased by raising
the collective and as more tail—rotor thrust is applied by the
pilot, the resulting increase in drift is automatically opposed.

SUMMARY

The tail rotor counteracts the torque of the main rotor.

The tail rotor's blade angles are changed collectively.

That is, all blades have their pitch angle changed by
the same amount and in the same direction at the
same time.

555/3/3
 _33_

The tail rotor, like the main rotor, experiences

dissymmetry of lift, which is corrected by blade
flapping.

Whenever the main rotor turns, so does the tail

rotor. They are mechanically connected.

The tail rotor is controlled by the pilot through

the tail rotor (rudder) pedals.

PRACTICE EXERCISE D

State whether each of the following statements is true or

false.

l. The tail rotor supplies a small propulsive force for

the helicopter.

2. A two~bladed tail—rotor assembly may be mounted on

an angled or delta three hinge.

3. Dissymmetry of lift is corrected by blade flapping.

4. During autorotation, the tail rotor stops turning.

5. Tail rotor blades can be moved either side of 0°

pitch angle.

6. In level cruise flight, the tail rotor does little

work.

7. Tail—rotor blade angles are changed independently

of each other, that is,cyclically.

8. The tail rotor is connected mechanically to the

main rotor.

9. The main rotor turns at the same rev/min as the

tail rotor.

10. The tail rotor supplies a force to counteract the

torque reaction of the main rotor, especially
during hovering.

(Answers on page 42)

555/3/3
 _ 39 i

ANSWERS TO PRACTICE EXERCISES

EXERCISE A

Statements 1, H, 6, 7, 9, and 10 are true.

Statement 2 is false. The main purpose of the tail rotor

is to counteract the torque reaction of the main rotor.

Statement 3 is false. The total reaction of the main

rotor is resolved into lift and thrust.

Statement 5 is false. when the lift exceeds the weight,

the helicopter climbs. To hover (neither gain nor
lose height), lift must exactly equal weight.

Statement 8 is false. The coning angle is the angle

formed between the blades and a plane at right angles to
the rotor shaft.

EXERCISE B
1.
1

E-4
I./'\.S. 60 knbfs

'>
D <
Q.
->

fer,/8
0/

1 ADVANCING r|Au=

0 1
W; E
*, s' O '7:1.' ' O“. 80 a' Q Nan K. Q 4&0
‘I Blade Hp velocify when
REYREANNG HALF i‘ hovering in siill a|r:400 knots.

AH

FIG. 24 Difference in blade velocities

555/3/3
 ...L[»Q_

If, instead of the helicopter flying forward at 60 kt IAS,

we hover in a steady head wind of 60 kt, the ASI will read
60 IAS. when the advancing blade is at 90° to the air-
craft centre line, the velocity of the air over the blade
tip is now the still—air tip velocity plus the air
velocity of 60 kt, and the retreating blade tip experiences
the still-air tip velocity minus the air velocity of 60 kt.
More lift is now generated by the advancing blade and less
lift by the retreating blade. As a result, the helicopter
will tend to roll to the side of the retreating blade.
2.

~ ~ chord fine $74;-‘Aug/e 0!" EH36}:

Relam Iir'_’f|OW ,._ L -_->- —-v'- E " "7 _

FIG. 25 Relative airflow and angle of attack

3. when a rotor blade is turning and flapping up, it

has two velocities. One velocity is in the direction
of rotation and the other is upwards and at right
angles to the first. If we hold the blade still and
apply to it the air velocities it felt when turning
and flapping up, we will have an airflow from ahead
and an airflow from above. Figure 26 shows the
space diagram of the two velocities.

Air mofion

‘R ' A lI"Qr\
7“L"i' t|°n irigle of aliids

Blade motion

FIG. 26 Space diagram of two velocities

555/3/3
 -141-

These two velocities are combined to give a

triangle of velocities. Its resultant gives us
the new velocity and direction. See Fig.27.

/'
A"_f|°w
, 7, -;:.:. .
Airflow from ahead
°"' _ _ “-
“ ‘ ~ ~ _ _ ___
mm abut “* ~ -___ __ 5 New angle. of afiack

FIG. 27 The new angle of attack

The change in direction gives a decrease in the

angle of attack of the blade and, it follows, a
decrease in the lift generated. The opposite
occurs as a blade flaps down.

EXERCISE C

Statements 2, H, 5, 8, 9, ll, 12, lH,l5, 18, 19, and 20

are true.

Statement l is false. Dissymmetry of lift is caused by

an airflow meeting the rotor disc and causing differing
air velocities over the advancing and retreating rotor
blades. Thus, during hover in still air, there is no
dissymmetry of lift.

Statement 3 is false. A retreating blade experiences a

lesser air velocity than an advancing blade.

Statement 6 is false. An offset pitch change horn

changes the pitch angle of the blade as it flaps
up and down. The offset is arranged so that, as the
blade flaps up, the pitch angle is reduced.

Statement 7 is false. Because of the gyroscopic effect

the change in angle of attack must be made 90° of rotor
"rotation ahead of where the effect is to take place.

Statement 10 is false. Coriolis effect occurs because

of the flapping up and down of the blades needed to
tilt the rotor disc for flight other than hover. During
hover in still air, no tilting of the rotor disc is
needed, and so no Coriolis effect will be felt.

Statement l3 is false. Rotor blade movement on the vertical

hinge is called dragging or leading and lagging.

555/3/3
 _ n2 _

Statement 16 is false. A rotor blade damper controls

the lead—lag rate of t he blade.

Statement 17 is false. A collective pitch change alters

the pitch angles of all the blades by the same amount
at the same time.
F
EXERCISE D e
‘$3

ii

Statements 2, 3, 5, 6, 8 and 10 are true.

Statement l is false. The propulsive force for the

helicopter is supplied by the main rotor.

Statement H is false. The tail rotor turns at all

times that the main ro tor turns.

Statement 7 is false. Tail rotor-blade angles are only

changed collectively.

Statement 9 is false. The rev/min of the tail rotor

are higher than those of the main rotor.

TEST PAPER 3
l. In your own words, state the purpose of

(a) A main rotor, and

(b) A tail rotor.

2. Draw two sketches showing a helicopter of 1200 kg AUW,

(a) Hovering in still air, and

(b) In straight and level flight.

In each sketch, show the main rotor force resolved into

lift and thrust forces and also show the drag and weight
forces. Assign values to the lift, drag, and thrust
forces.

555/3/3
 ..L1_3 _

Discuss briefly the main differences between semi-rigid,

articulated, and hingeless rotors.

With the aid of a diagram, show how dissymmetry of lift

may be felt by a main rotor unless corrected. What
% would happen to the helicopter if no correction were
% made?
e

Give alternative names for

(a) A vertical hinge, and

(b) A horizontal hinge.

(c) What type of rotor head uses both of these

hinges?

Explain why the angle of attack of a main rotor blade is

changed 90° of rotor~head rotation before the desired
effect of the change is to take place.

(a) Name the three effects that will cause a main rotor
blade to lead and lag about its vertical hinge.

(b) when the helicopter is hovering in still air, do the

blades lead and lag? Give reasons for your answer.

§ 8- with the aid of a diagram, show how dissymmetry of lift

can be felt by a tail rotor unless corrected. What
would happen to the tail rotor if no correction were made?

Briefly describe one method used to correct dissymmetry of

lift of a tail rotor.
9

-3 Why is the tail rotor mechanically connected to the main

rotor so that it must turn when the main rotor turns?

555/3/3
 He Wharekura-tini
Kaihautu 0 Aotearoa

T H E 0 P E N
a
P0 LYTECHN |(
UF NEW ZEALAND

\
e e

\*
< s
v

Helicopter Piston
Engine Installations
555—3—4
 CONTENTS

Piston Engine Installations 1

Position of the Engine 1

Adaption of a Horizontal Engine to a

Vertical Position 3

Installation of a Vertical Engine Q

§~

Installation of a Horizontal Engine 10

Components in Common 15 15

Fuel Systems 15

Gravity—flow System 17

A Non—gravity System 20

Oil Systems 23

A Wet—sump System 23

A Dry-sump System 25

Engine Controls and Instruments 25

Copyright

This material is for the sole use of enrolled students and may not
be reproduced without the written authority of the Principal, TOPNZ.

555/3/H
 AI RCRAFT ENGll\iEERi%G

hELICGPTERS ssetsemest %

PESTON ENGINE §NST§LLAI§@fiS

The helicopter engine provides power for flight and for the
various systems needed for the operation of the helicopter;

The piston engines used in helicopters are adaptions of fixed“

wing aircraft engines. These adapted engines provide a reliable
source of power that is cheaper than would be an engine developed
specially for helicopter use.

Piston engines are now used only in the small helicopters.

This is because for all but the small helicopters, small, reliable
gas turbines are readily available. Furthermore, turbine fuel is
cheaper and easier to produce than the Avgas needed by the piston
engine. In future, the production of piston-engined helicopters
may well be phased out. " l

eesition at the Engine

Because of the compact mass of the piston engineg it is usually

located immediately beneath the main rotor mast and thus approxi~
mately in the middle of the centre—of~gravity range for the
helicoptere Its installed attitude is either pointing straight
upward, with the original lower half facing rearwardp {Hiller l2E§
or lying horizontally, with the drive shaft facing rearward
€Hughes 269}.

Figure l shows a rear view of a Lycoming vo-see engine

installation in the Hiller l2E. Cylinder numbering and references
to engine parts are the same as if the engine were installed in a
fixed~wing aircraft. For instance? the left~hand side of the engine
is still referred to as such, although in this installationfi it is
on the right~hand side of the aircraft.

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 _ 2 _

1. Engine Strut Assembly

3. Engine
2. Right-Hand Engine Frame Assembly
4. Engine Air Induction System
l
5. Earth Strap

FIG. l Vertical engine installation

Figure 2 shows the installation of a Lycoming HIO~360 engine

for a Hughes 269 helicopter. Note that the engine manufacturer's
engine locations are still used. For example, the right—hand side
of the engine is on the left~hand side of the helicopter, and the
right-hand magneto is now on the left—hand side of the helicopter.
Note, too, that the engine front mounts are now at the rear of the
airframe, and the rear mounts are at the front of the airframe.

555/3/H
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1. Fuel System Installation
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2. Engine Mounting installation Front Mounts
3. Cooling Scroll Assembly it l=I-'l I-"»"“r1;-\. -
4 Engine .
A 5. Air lnductlon System ‘ * \. Q
6. Engine Rear Mounting Lugs qgn my \
.2 7. Engine Cooling Shroud Assembly , age‘ \ \
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FIG. 2 Horizontal engine installation

Adaption of a Horizontal Engine to a Vertical Position

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Because the engine now has to run in a vertical position, the

oil system must be modified so that the splash lubricating oil that
drains to the bottom of the engine can be picked up by the scaveng G
pump and returned to a separate oil tank. This is done by a sump
that bolts directly on to the engine accessorj\ hou"ing.
ts Used oil
from the modified cylinder-head rocker box covers in carried in the
new sump through two external oil pipes. The sump may be used as
the oil tank. or the oil may be pumped from the sump to a separate
oil tank.

sss/3/e
 47-“

The eng ine is attached to the airframe by modifying the

forward ends of the crankcase right- and left—hand halves so that a
substantial casing designed by the helicopter manufacturer can be
bolted to th e two halves, {This casing, in turnt is attached to
another heav ily made airframe component, which is bolted to the
engine mount assembly,)

The eng ine is now suspended from its

shaft end and must 13;,W3 pi. "<1(D

be tethered at its base to keep it steady and upright. inis is ~ <¢ .. FY77

achieved by snubbing rods joining attachment points on the special

sump to the helicopter structurei A minimum of two rods will be
fitted, one in a fore—and~aft direction, and one in a lateral
direction, In some installationsa four rods may be used, two in
each directi Oils

The induction system is also redesigned so that the carburettor

Q? v*'\ ,. ll be in a level position when the engine is installed,
ii

The oil pressure system of the engine may be altered to provide

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for an oil s upply to the main transmission. This is simply done by
taking an external oil line from the oil pressure pump housing
directly to a connection at the top of the transmission.

Finally , and most important, is the fact that, although all

models of a vertical engine may look alikeg there can be very
- ¢ -
important di fferences in their internal construction to cope with
the damping of torsional vibrationsi
If rtU1 Do wrong engine model is
installed in a helicopter (as can be done quite easily), the result
will possibly be a mis—match between the engine and transmission,
which will rapidly lead to an engine and/or transmission failure.

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lasts; W4 $31) V?‘ Mu (:3 Z3 at a Vertical engine

Figure 3 shows the installation of a vertical engine into its

support mounts, The engine is_bolted to the inner gimbal (1% which
is located and secured in the outer gimbal /'\ I\3 M,’ by two bonded
t o xible mounts r~\ C1.) \,../ and bolts /"\ 43' -../ The two mounts damp andU

restrict engine movement in a clockwise and anti~clockwise direction

when viewed from above“ This allows for changes in engine torque
and lets the engine be tilted in a fore~and~aft direction,

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1. inner Gimbai
’ 2. Outer Gimbal
,\ 3. Fiexible Mount
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8. Searing Mount Frame
% ‘ 7. Bolt
8. Engme Sump
9. Snubber Assembly, Afi
10. Snubber Assembty, Lateral
11. Snubber Brackets
\__/ , 12. Flexible Mounts
‘ 13. Earth Strap

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FIG._§ Engine installation Q

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The outer gimbal <2} is secured in the engine frame assembly(5)

which is bolted to the airframe by two bearings and bolts /'"-. O‘) \./ and(7)
The two bearings (6) allow the engine to rock laterally. Attached
to the sump (8), at the base of the engine, are the aft and lateral
engine snubber assemblies <9} and (l0). The other ends of these
assemblies are attached to the engine snubber brackets (ll) an d
flexible mounts (12), which are bolted to the airframe structure.

The engine§ as it is now installed? is flexibly but firmly held

by the mounts (32 and (l2}@ The engine can be adjusted for it S
fore—and—aft and lateral tilting by the snubber assemblies (9) and
€l0>@ This adjustment is made during the rigging of the helicopter.

The engine is coupled to the driven member of the clutch by a

torsion coupling bolted to the driving end of the crankshafte In
w H m Q, the torsion coupling lower section (2) is bolted directly
on to the crankshaft mounting flange (1). To the top of the torsion
coupling lower section is bolted the torsion coupling upper section
(3), and to this is bolted the main drive clutch (4): which is
encircled by the clutch housing (5). Finally, the main transmission
is splined directly to the clutch housing.

The engine drive torsion coupling (2) and (3) is a two-section,

interlocking steel and rubber assembly positioned between the
engine crankshaft and the main drive clutch. The coupling reduces
engine torsional vibration loads imposed by the engine on the main
drive clutch and transmission,

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Crankshaft Mount Flange
Torsion Coupling Lower Section
Torsion Coupling Upper Section
Main Drive Clutch
Clutch Housing
Bearing
Transmission To Clutch Spline

FIG. 4 Torsion coupling

The compact assembly of the torsional coupling, main drive

clutch, and inner gimbal are shown in part section in Fig 5

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Main Dove Zliutch W3
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FIG. 5 Engine to transmission coupling assembly

Because the helicopter can hover and fly sideways and backwards
the airflow over the fuselage cannot be used for engine cooling T
effect engine cooling, a fan driven by a shaft from the main trans~
mission is mounted on the front face of the engine Tn's fan will
always turn when the main rotor is turning Figure 6 shows an
exploded view of the engine cooling fan and shroud assemblies

Secured to the engine are the rightehand enc left-hand shroud

assemblies £1) and 23 lhese tmo shrouds "box in“ the ngine and,
tog ther "i
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Wenufacturer, direct cooling air eroird tne cylinder heads and

barrels. To these two snroocs are secured the loser the left~hand§
and the right~hand transition essew lie
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nellyg at the front, i _itted the shroud r;n¢ assemoly (6)

which closely encircles the cool_ig far ‘ M the left—hano si
lS fitted the oil cooler duct essembi Q} woicl conveys air to the
engine and transmission oil coolers “we cor 1 Qfl \./ gZ.'\.7€ ECCQSS TO

tie front of the engine end smell outlets are provided for ducting
cooling air to the generator and warm air to tne ceoin neeter system

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1. Right Hand Shroud Assembiy ’
2. Len-Hand Shroud Assembly
3. Lower Transition Assembly
4. Right-Hand Upper ‘transition Assembly
5. Left-Hand upper Transition Assembly
, 6. Shroud Ring Assembly
‘ 7. Oooiing Fan
8, Access Door
9. Oil Cooier Duct Assembly

FIG. 6 Engine cooling fan and shroud assemblies

Because of the rubberlike flexible mounts (3) and (12) of

P.
rig, 8, the engine and transmission are not in good electrical
contact with the airframe, To prevent problems with the generator,
the engine starter motor, and the magneto switch circuits that will
arise because of this lack of contact, a heavy earthing strap is
f't
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' and the engine mount frame (5).

S55/3/Q
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To protect the pilot and passengers in the event of an engine

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.1. ire, a stainless steel firewall is fitted between the engine and
the cabin enclosure.

l T5 V’! Pi‘ $13) 0461/I’ a’€on of a horizontal W‘! Z3 (Q Ma. H (ll

The Lycoming HID» (.0 0') CD engine used in the Hughes 269 helicopter
is an adaption of a fixed~wing 10-350 engine, the changes made being
mainly to the cylinders and pistons to enable the engine to develop
more power than its fixed~wing counterpart.

ln Fig, 7 the rear of the engine is attached to the helicopter

centre frame (3) by two bolt, spacer, and rubber bushings assemblies,
using the top two rear mounting lugs {M} of the engine. At the
front of the engine, two special hangers -
/’\ }...J \../ are bolted, one on each
side of the engine crankcase. These hangers are Pi‘W (D lower attach~
ment points for two rod—and~bushings assemblies, whose top attach-
ment points are lugs (2) on the main transmission. Thus, the rear
of the engine is supported by the helicopter centre frame, and the
front of the engine is supported by the main transmission.

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1. Engine Front Hanger 2. Main Trasmission Engine Mtg Lug

3. Centre Frame 4. Engine Rear Mtg Lug

FIG¢ 7 Engine mounting

Figure 8 shows the coupling of the engine to the transmission.

An internally splined engine lower coupling adaptor (1) is bolted to
the engine starter ring gear support. Mating with these internal
splines are the front splines of the lower coupling drive shaft (l2L
whose rear splines engage with internal splines in the lower pulley
assembly (8). The lower coupling drive shaft is made of a high-
quality steel, and its splined ends are slightly convex in section
to permit small lateral and vertical movements of the engine on its
rubber mounts. Fore-and-aft movement is catered for by the freely
floating attitude of the shaft in the two sets of splines. Rubber
bumper plugs (6) and (ll) are fitted inside the engine lower
coupling adaptor and inside the aft end of the lower pulley assembly
to cushion the floating drive shaft.

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ln this installation, the main transmission is firmly attached

_ -. :-

to the airframe, as is the upper and lower pulley and Vee-belt

assembly, and the engine is mounted on flexible rubber mounts. The
engine is aligned with the lower coupling by raising or lowering
the engine with the length-adj ustable mounts between the main trans-
mission and the engine front hangers (1) of fig. 7 until the align-
ment ring (9) is exactly centred in the hollow lower pulley assembly.
This adjustment is made with the main drive Vee belts tensioned.

Cooling air for the engine and

afiwwo jg oil cooler is supplied by an
impeller assembly bolted to the
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engine starter ring gear support.
® This assembly comprises an aluminium
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alloy impeller wheel with a steel
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flywheel weight riveted TO the
wen!
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5, outer edge of the wheel. The steel
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® weight increases the mass of the
o‘ “E?
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'C) assembly, which helps to maintain
smooth engine operation. Figure 9
shows the placement of the impeller
in relation to the scroll assembly.
1. Scroll Assembly 2. inlet Surface
3. Scroll lniet Ring 4. kmpeiler Assembiy
5. Starter Ring Gear Support 6. Fiy Wheei Weight.Assembiy
7. Scroii Forward Lip

FIG. 9 Impeller and scroll

The scroll assembly direc ts a cooling airflow through the

engine shroud assembly and thr ough the oil cooler or coolers fitted
to the shroud and the scroll. In Fig. l0, the scroll and shroud
assembly is shown in an explod ed view. The oil cooler —-not shown
- is mounted on the left~hand side of the scroll assembly. Various
tubes from
"‘..
the shroud panels c onvey cooling
-1
air to the generator/
alternator and to the accessor ies mounted on the rear of the engine.
The engine is separated from t he cabin by;a firewall that is ‘
designed to give protection to the pilot and passengers should the
engine catch fire.

555/3/H
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 _ 15 i

All earth straps and bonding jumpers fitted between the engine
and the airframe must be kept in good repair if easy engine starting,
efficient electrical generation, accurate instrumentation, and a
safe ignition system are to be had.

Components in Common

In both the vertical and horizontal installations, the exhaust

1» system fitted must be the correct one for the helicopter model. In
both installations, the system is very simple, the object being to
s get the exhaust gases safely clear of the aircraft without any back
pressure imposed on the pistons. The exhaust system is often used
as a source of heat to prevent carburettor icing and to heat the
cabin enclosure. In both cases, the heat is taken from the exhaust
gases by a simple pilot-controlled exhaust gas-to-air heat
exchanger.

The carburettor air intake systems are similar for both

installations, comprising a forward-facing air intake connected by
ducting to the engine. Installed in the ducting is a chamber
housing one or two paper cartridge air filters, a bypass to admit
air should the filters become blocked and, if the engine is fitted
with a carburettor, a duct to bring hot air from a heat exchanger
fitted to the engine exhaust assembly. All flexible ducting in an
engine air induction system will be made from a wire reinforced
petrol-, oil-, and flame~resistant material. Ducting that does not
have these qualities must ngt be used as a substitute.

<.
51 1’
{I

g REMEMBER

The engine retains its manufacturer's names and location A

t references. T

Only the correct engine model for a particular helicopter r

~ may be fitted to that helicopter.

A heavy earth strap between the engine and engine mount

is
»frame (earth) is essential for the proper and trouble-
free operation of the electrical components fitted to the
L engine and transmission.
.»-~ »m-.i,-_s:-

555/3/M
 _ 15 _

PRACTICE EXERCISE A

State whether each of the following is true or false.

l. Engine—mount assemblies may be used to adjust the

alignment of the engine to the transmission.

2. In a helicopter with a centrifugal clutch, the

cooling fan will turn only when the engine is
running.

3. Any type of flexible ducting may be used in the

carburettor air induction system.

4.. The exhaust system is often used as a heat source

for the carburettor and for cabin air.

5. Because the engine is aft (downwind) of the cabin,

no firewall is needed between the two.

6. The engine earth strap is needed only to take static

electricity to earth in the airframe.

7. Some engine cooling air is distributed through

ducting to cool magnetos, the generator/alternator,
and the oil cooler(s).

8O The engine-to-transmission torsional coupling takes

up acceleration and deceleration loads when the
throttle is opened and closed.

9. Engine cylinder numbering remains the same whatever

its installed attitude.

l0. A fixed—wing aircraft engine with an unmodified

wet~sump oil system cannot be installed in a
vertical position.

(Answers on page 23;

FQEL SYS?E I3 6/J

The fuel systems used in helicopters, as in fixed-wing aircraft,

can be divided into two types:

l. Gravity~flow systems, and

2. Non-gravity systems.

555/3/Q
 _ 17 _

The fuel tanks in the gravity~flow system are mounted aboye,

and in the non-gravity system, below, the level of the carburettor
or fuel injector unit. A gravity-flow system may or may not need a
fuel pump, but a non-gravity system must have one or more pumps.
Generally, only the smaller of the helicopters and fixed-wing air-
craft utilise gravity—flow systems.

Gravity-flow System

Figure 11 shows a gravity~f1ow system from the tank to the

engine, and Fig. 12 shows a rear view of the tank. Because the
engine has a fuel injector or fuel metering, an electrically driven
fuel boost pump has to be fitted to the system so that the fuel
injector and the engine cylinders can be primed with fuel to enable
the engine to be started. To ensure that the necessary fuel
pressure exists at the fuel injector all the time the engine is
running, an engine—driven fuel pump is also fitted, with the fuel
boost pump being available should the engine—driven pump fail. The
fuel boost pump is controlled by the pilot through an on/off switch
in the cockpit. l

Referring to Fig. 11, fuel is housed in the fuel tank (1)

mounted on the right-hand side of the helicopter, aft of the cabin.
It is attached to the airframe by two strap assemblies (2) and (17)
and separated from the engine by a firewall pan (7). Mounted on the
rear-sloping face of the tank is a filler cap neck (10) of Fig. 12,
a fuel quantity sender (8) of fig. 12, and a low-level switch (3),
of Fig. 12. At the top of the tank is a tank vent (2) o W w |-I. m 12,
to let air out of the tank when the fuel expands and to let air
into the tank as fuel is consumed by the engine. At the bottom of
the tank is the tank sump (Q). The fuel outlets to the engine and
to the fuel drain valve (16) are taken from this sump. The fuel
drain valve is readily accessible, and from its outlet, a pipe (12)
carries the drained fuel clear of the helicopter. fitted to the
—-a

inside of the tank is a baffle assembly (Q) of Fig. 12 that

prevents fuel from "sloshing". The tank is bonded electrically to
the airframe. The filler cap neck is sited below the top of the
tank, thus providing an airspace for expansion of the fuel when it
becomes heated.

555/3/Q
 -18..

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Fuel Tank Upper Strap

. ! F
Fuel Qua ntlty Sender Bond mg vUmD€ Yank sump
. Elbow Strainer Assembly Flexlble Fuel Lines
.Firew all .Pan 9°.°"§“l'° Engine Driven Fuel Pump
' * Adaptor/Elb-aw
9 Fuel ingeclor 10. Fuel lnjector
A 11 I Fuel Strainer ‘:2. Fuel Drain Line
13 . External Fuel Boost Pump 14. Centre Frame
‘ 15 . Fuel Shut-off Valve 16. Fuel Drain Valve
17_ Lower Strap 18. Tank Support

FIG. ll Gravity~fl ow fuel system

555/3/Ll
 -19..

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1’. Main Fuell'anl< assembly I 2. Tanktvent i I 3. Low Level Switch

4. Baffle 5. Firewall Pan Bracket 6. Bonding Jumper
7’. Lower Strap, _ V 8. Fuel Quantity Sender Q. Filler Cap
10. Chamol§,Flf:¥;}§e§';§£;§;£ 11. Upper Strap

FIG. l2 Fuel tank

Fuel from the tank passes through an elbow/strainer assembly

(5), whose coarse mesh stops large pieces of foreign matter from
entering the fuel system, and passes through the pilot-controlled
fuel shut—off valve (15) to the external fuel boost pump (13) and
then to the fuel strainer assembly (ll).

The fuel strainer houses a fine—mesh filter inside a large

filter bowl, to which is attached a fuel drain valve (not shown).
The filter bowl and filter are easily removed for inspection and
cleaning, and the fuel drain valve is easily reached to obtain a
fuel sample after refuelling. from the fuel strainer assembly, the
fuel goes through the engine—driven fuel pump (8) (which operates
whenever the engine is running) and then into the fuel injector
(10), where it has to pass through another fine—mesh strainer before
being metered to the engine, .

The fuel quantity sander unit, which consists of a variable

resistor controlled by an attached float arm, is connected to a fuel
quantity gauge on the instrument panel. The fuel low—level switch
operates a fuel low warning light on the instrument panel. This

sss/3/Q
 ...2Q...

light comes on when the fuel remaining in the tank falls below
l§ to 2 gallons. Injector fuel pressure is measured at the injector
by an electrical fuel pressure sender and displayed on a gauge on
the instrument panel.

A son-gravity System

Figure l3 shows a nonegravity fuel system, where a bladder~type,

rubber nylon reinforced, fuel cell is installed and secuzifi by tabs
in a specially prepared cavity in the lower section of the fuselage.
lnstalled immediately above the fuel tank are the engine,
transmission, and main rotor, so the fuel is carried almost exactly
at the c.g. position of the helicoptert Thus, as fuel is burned?
there is very little change in the c.g. position,
1. Fuel Cell Assembly 2. Filler Cap 3. Scupper Drain
4. Drain Valve 5. Fuel Strainer 6. Shut-off Valve
7. Supply Hose 8. Auxlllary Pump 9. Fuel Strainer
10. Supply Hose To Engine Driven Fuel Pump 11. Fuel Quantity Tank Unit 12. Vent Lines
13. Overboard Drain 14. Shutfoflvalvo _(§gnt_r_ol' _ _ A _ H
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V‘ A FIG. 3.3 Non-gravity fuel system

fuel is drawn through the coarse mesh strainer (5)5 the fuel
shutoff valve (6), and the fine meshed strainer assembly (9) by the
auxiliary pump (8) and then sent under pressure to the engine—driven
fuel pump £2) of Fig. ls. Both the fuel shutoff valve and the
auxiliary pump are controlled by the pilot from the cockpit,

555/3/H
 _ 21 _

When the engine is running, the engine~driven fuel pump is used to

supply fuel to the engine, with the auxiliary pump being used for
engine starting and during take—off and landing as a precautionary
measure. The auxiliary fuel pump has its own relief valve and an
internal bypass so that it will offer no restriction to the fuel
flow when it is not in use.

Fuel is added to the tank through a conventional filler cap

sited in a drained scupper. The tank assembly is vented by forward
and aft vent pipes (12), which join with a drain from the auxiliary
pump seals and go overboard through the drain (l3).

A drain valve (4) is fitted to the bottom of the fuel tank sump
immediately below the strainer (5).

Another fuel drain valve (not shown) is fitted to the auxiliary

pump (8) and fuel strainer assembly (9), and an air relief valve (not
shown) is fitted to the top of the fuel strainer (9). The fuel drain
valves are used to obtain fuel samples after each re—fuelling and
before the first flight of each day. The air relief valve is opened
to release air that may be trapped in the strainer assembly.

Fuel quantity gauging is done by either two capacitance units

or two float-operated resistance units sited at position (ll). The
fuel quantity is shown by an indicator mounted on the instrument
panel. t

Figure ls shows the continuation of the fuel system from

Figg l3. The fuel arrives through the hose (l) at the engine-driven
pump (2), where its pressure is increased. From the pump, the fuel
is taken to the carburettor(s) and to the solenoid priming valve
(4), which is normally closed, being used only for engine startup.
This valve is controlled by a switch on the cabin console and, when
energised, allows fuel under auxiliary pump pressure to pass through
the priming line (5) and into the inlet manifold of the engine,
where it is readily available for the cylinders.

A drain valve and drain line are fitted to the base of the
carburettor(s) for taking fuel samples. Drain lines (6) are fitted
to the base of the air filter assembly and to the engine—driven
fuel pump seal chamber to drain away any fuel and oil that may have
accumulated.
555/3/4
 -22-

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Engine Driven Fuel Pump
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FIG. 14 Engnlgmfuel §y§£é}§1

Engine fuel pressure is tapped from a carburettor and led via

tubing to the fuel pressure gauge on the instrument panel. This
gauge is a direct~reading instrument.

Figure l5 shows this fuel system in schematic form.

555/3/Q
 _ 23 _

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QUANTITY PRE$SURE

. 1. Fuel Tank Vent 2. Fuel Tank 3. FilierCaD

4. Fuel Shut-off Valve 5. Fuel Filter 6. Air Relief Valve
7. Auxiliary Fuel Pump 8. Engine Driven Fuel Pump 9. Solenoid Valve
10. Caburetior 11. Drain Valve

FIG. l5 Schematic fuel system

OIL SYSTEMS

Aircraft piston engines have either a wet sump or a drg sump.

The wet—sump engine carries its oil supply in its sump, and the
dry—sump engine uses a separate oil tank to hold its oil. We shall
discuss the helicopter airframe part of the lubrication system for
an engine of each type.

A Wet-sump System

_Figure l6 shows a wet-sump engine and its external oil system.

The system is a simple one and consists of an oil cooler inlet
line (6), an oil cooler (7), an oil cooler return line (5), a
crankcase breather (4), an oil temperature sender unit (2), and,
not shown, an electrical oil pressure sender unit clamped to the
engine mount and connected to an oil pressure tapping on the engine
with a flexible hose. The oil temperature and pressure are
displayed on the instrument panel in the cockpit. The oil system
is vented to atmosphere through the crankcase breather tube (Q).

555/3/4
 ....2l.,L..

Cooling air for the oil cooler is ducted from the scroll
surrounding the engine~driven fan assembly. In later versions of,
the installation shown, another oil cooler is added, in series, with
the existing oil cooler. This cooler also takes its air supply
from the engine cooling air.

Temperature control and filtration of the oil are done by the

thermostatic oil cooler bypass valve (3) and an oil pressure screen
(l). This combined unit is part of the engine assembly, not part
of the airframe. .

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* 8. Temperature Control (Thermostatic) Oil Cooler By-Pass Valve
4. Crankcase Breather Tube 5. Oil Cooler Return Line
1 6. Oil Cooler inlet Line 7. Oi! Cooler

FIG. 16 Wet~sump engine external oil system

555/3/Ll
 -25..

A Dry-sump System

The dry-sump system shown in Fig. 17 comprises an oil tank, a

cooler, and connecting hoses between the engine, the cooler, and the
oil tank. The cooling air for the oil cooler is tapped from the
engine cooling air supplied by the engine cooling fan. A breather
hose between the oil tank and the engine allows the oil in the tank
to expand or contract without bursting the tank. The engine
breathes to atmosphere through a breather line attached to the top
of the engine.

Oil under pressure is taken from a tapping on the engine oil

pump by small tubing to an indicating gauge on the instrument panel.
Engine oil temperature is measured electrically and displayed on the
same gauge. This gauge, sometimes known as a triple gauge, is a
combined fuel-pressure, oil-pressure, and oil—temperature gauge.

TRAQSMISSIOK Oil. UNES

1:3 ENGINE OIL LINES
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/ ' I 5 lit! OIL PUMP SUPPLY
SCAVENGE PUMP PRESSURE
llfl OlL DRAIN LINES
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FIG. l7 Dry-sump engine external oil system

555/3/M
 -25 _

REMEMBER

The oil system is vented to the atmosphere.

A thermostatic valve controls the flow of oil through

§
the cooler.

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The three basic engine controls used are

1 .
_. A hand—operated twist grip mounted on the end of
the collective control lever to open and close
the carburettor/injector throttle valve;

2. A lever-operated mixture/idle cutoff control

sited near the instrument panel and used for
adjusting the strength of the fuel/air mixture
engering the engine and for stopping the engine;
an

3. A lever~operated hot air control to regulate the

temperature of the air in the air intake. This
control is fitted only when a carburettor is
used to meter the fuel.

Other controls needed for controlling and starting the engine

<3.I"€

l. A lever- or knob—operated fuel supply valve On/Off

selector;

2. A starter button used to energise, through a relay,

the engine starter motor and the starter vibrator;

3. An on/off switch for each magneto, for testing the

magnetos only when ’ the helicopter is on the ground é.
and for making the engine dead when it is not running.
In some aircraft, two separate switches may be used,
but a combined magneto/starter switch is usually
fitted;

A. An on/off switch to operate the fuel priming valve.

This switch is not needed if the engine is fitted
with a fuel injector and not a carburettor;

S. An on/off switch to operate the fuel booster pump; and

6. An on/off switch to bring the generator/alternator on

to line.

S55/3/Q
 ._2']..

The engine and engine-related instruments used are

1. An oil pressure gauge, which measures the regulated

oil pressure as it leaves the engine oil pressure
PUmP5

2. An engine tachometer, which is usually housed in the

same case as the rotor tachometer, with the needles
of the two instruments lying one above the other
when the drive from the engine to the rotor is made
and is not Slipping;
3. An oil temperature gauge that shows the temperature
of the oil as it enters the engine oil pressure pump;
H. A cylinder head temperature gauge, which shows the
temperature of the hottest running cylinder (the
hottest running cylinder is determined by the aircraft
manufacturer);

5, A carburettor air temperature gauge that gives the

temperature of the induction air at or close to the
carburettor venturi;
6. An induction manifold gauge, which shows the pressure
of the air/fuel mixture in the induction system;

7. A fuel pressure gauge, which shows the pressure of

'the fuel at the inlet to the carburettor or fuel
injector;
8. A voltameter to show the voltage and current output
of the generator/alternator, or

9. A warning light that will light up when the generator/

alternator output falls below that of the battery;
l0. A fuel quantity gauge to indicate the amount of fuel
held in the fuel tank; and
t ll. A fuel low—level light, which will light up when the
fuel quantity remaining in the fuel tank(s) falls
below a certain minimum.

5
§ REMEMBER =
Fuel drain valves must be opened, and the fuel must be F
checked for contamination, after every refuelling and
\
before the first flight of the day. é

5 Magnetos must never be tested while the helicopter is

5 airborne.

555/3/A
 i 28 _

ERACTECE EXERCISE B

State whether each of the following is true or false.

l. To prevent flooding of the carburettor in a

gravity—flow system. the fuel tanks are sited
just below the level of the carburettor.

2. A fuel booster pump must be running whenever

the engine is running.

3. A fuel injector houses a fine—mesh fuel filter.

4. The fuel outlet from a tank houses a fine~mesh

fuel filter.

5. A fuel tank must be bonded to the airframe.

6. The main purpose of a baffle is to strengthen

the fuel tank.

7. The fuel tank vent incorporates a one-way check

valve. '

8. An engine oil system breathes to the atmosphere.

9. The oil temperature gauge shows the temperature

of the oil as it leaves the engine.

l0. A hot air supply is needed only when a carburettor

is used to meter the fuel to the engine.

(Answers on page 29)

ANSWEQS T9 PRACTECE EXE%CZSE$

EXERCISE A

Statements l, 4, 7, 9, and l0 are true.

2. False: Because the cooling fan, in this installation,

is driven by the transmission, the fan will turn when-
ever the rotors are turning.

3. False: The flexible ducting used must be ....-..._.,...._....-.-.-_......-._-._---.------

fire-resistant
and impervious to oil and fuel.

555/3/M
 ' 29 _ a'eewe
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5. False: The position of the engine makes no difference.

A firewall must be installed between the engine and the
cabin.

6. False: The engine earth strap must be capable of

carrying, with little resistance, the heavy return
current from the starter motor.

8. False: The torsional coupling damps the torsional

vibrations of the engine, due to the power impulses
of the cylinders, to an acceptable level for the
transmission.

EXERCISE B

Statements 3, 5, 8, and 10 are true.

l. False: If the tanks were mounted below the level

of the carburettor by even a small amount, the
carburettor would never fill with fuel and would
not function properly. In practice, the carburettor
manufacturer gives a minimum fuel pressure for the
carburettor. This pressure translates to a minimum
height for the tank above the carburettor.

2. False: The fuel booster pump is needed to start the

engine and as a safety precaution during take-off
and landing. In normal flight, this pump is not
usually required.
H. False: The fuel outlet from a tank houses a coarse-
mesh filter. Fine filtration is done by the main
fuel strainer/filter assembly.

6. False: The main purpose of a baffle is to stop the

fuel from sloshing around in the tank during changes
in flight attitude.

7. False: Air must be free to enter and leave the tank

during changes of atmospheric pressure and fuel
temperature, when fuel is taken from the tank during
engine operation, and during fuel draining. This
means that the vent must be unobstructed, and so
no one-way check valve is fitted.

9. False: The oil temperature gauge shows the temperature

of the oil as it enters the engine.

555/3/Q
 ‘W *' J-"Xe: P’

TEST PAPER /-I N a

Give reasons for the small helicopter having its engine

located immediately under the main rotor mast.

How is fore-and—aft and lateral alignment of the vertical

engine and transmission installation achieved?

Make a schematic sketch, including the fuel tank and fuel

injector, of the fuel system shown in Fig. ll and l2.
Label all the components. i
.5
3
:9
Why must the magnetos not be tested while the helicopter
is airborne? (Hint: the main rotor can never drive the
engine.)

What are the three basic engine controls needed for an

engine fitted with a carburettor? Which of these
controls is not needed for an injected engine, and why?

Suggest how a horizontally opposed engine may be modified

so that it can be installed and run in a vertical position.

State why a heavy earthing strap is used to electrically

bond the engine to the airframe. If the strap becomes
disconnected and the starter motor is energised, what
could happen to

(a) The shielded ignition switch leads, and

(b) The fuel lines to the carburettor/injector.

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555/3/H
 He Wharekura-tini
Kaihautu 0 Aotearoa

THE OPEN
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UFNEW ZEALAND

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Main and Tail Rotor Contra/s

555—3—5
 CONTENTS A

Main Rotor Controls l

The Swashplate Assembly 1
Tail Rotor Controls _ 12
Tail Rotor Pitch—Change Mechanisms 12
Horizontal and Vertical Stabilisers 13
Stabiliser Bar and Control Rotor Systems 20
Control Rotor System 29
Stabiliser Bar System 21

‘ Copyright
This material is for the sole use of enrolled students and may not
be reproduced W1thOUt the written authority of the Principai, TOPNZ

555/3/5
 AIRCRAFT ENGINEERING

HELICOPTERS ASSIGNMENT 5 Y
ROTATING FLYING CONTROLS

MAIN ROTOR CONTOLS

In our Basic Flying Controls assignment, we saw how the control

inputs for the main rotor were brought from the cockpit to the non~
rotating part of a swashplate assembly. We are now concerned with
the relatively simple step of getting these inputs to the rotating
main rotor. The inputs are directly fed to the main rotor by the
use of a swashplate, which is given different names by different
manufacturers, the most common names being

1. The swashplate assembly,

2. The fixed and rotating star assembly, and

3. The azimuth star assembly.

The Swashplate Assembly

In simple terms, a swashplate is a circular plate mounted

obliquely on a shaft. The swashplate assembly that is fitted to
a helicopter consists of two plates, one on top of the other,
separated by and running on a heavy—duty ball- or roller-bearing.
The plates are mounted on a gimbal or large universal ball, which
enables the assembly to be tilted in any direction. The gimbal
encircles the main rotor drive—shaft of mast.

The lower plate is fixed to a stationary part of the helicopter

and to it are attached the control rods bringing the cyclic and
collective control inputs from the pilot.

The upper plate is attached to the main rotor assembly and

thus rotates with the rotors. To it are attached the push~pull
rods taking the control inputs to the individual rotor blades.

9/88 555/3/5
 _ 2 _

Figure l shows schematically a swashplate assembly and its controls

In Fig. l (a), the rotor—blade dampers and the two lateral control
rods have been omitted. In Pig. l (b), the rotating half of the
swashplate is positioned directly over the fixed half, and a
pitch-change horn is shown on only one blade. This type of
swashplate is used in Sikorsky and Hughes helicopters.

The rotating scissors provide the drive to the rotating

half, and the fixed scissors axially restrain the fixed half of
the swashplate assembly. Movement of the cyclic pitch control will
tilt the swashplate about the universal ball, and movement of
the collective pitch control will raise or lower the whole assembly,
with the universal ball sliding on the rotor drive shaft. Because
the two control systems are mifed before they arrive at the swash-
plate, it can be both raised and tilted at the same time. If it
is already tilted, it may be raised or lowered without any change
in the angle of tilt, and the tilt may be changed without
affecting the height setting.

In Fig. l (b), blade A is positioned immediately above the

foreeand-aft control rod attachment. If the cyclic pitch control
is moved forward to give forward flight, the fore—and~aft control
rod will move down and the swashplate will tilt about the axis XX,
the fixed scissors will expand, and the rotating scissors will
contract. This position will decrease the angle of attack of
blade A and increase that of blade C. Because of gyroscopic
effect, blade A will be fully flapped down and blade C will be
fully flapped up when they reach a position 90° later in the plane
of rotation. A lateral movement of the cyclic control would tilt
the assembly about the axis YY and, as before, the change in blade
angles is made 90° early. The swashplate assembly is thus offset
about the centre line of the helicopter to correct for the
ggroscqpig effect discussed in Assignment 3 of this course.

555/3/5
 _ 3 _

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FIG. 1 Swashplate and its controls

555/ 3/ 5
 _ q _
A gimbal—mounted swashplate is u se d on the Bell H7 series
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co n t rol movements to the rotor-head assembly, it also mixes
these controls. Fi gure 2 shows this swashplate assembl Y -

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D. Output to stabiliser bar
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FIG. 2 Gimbal~mounted swashplate

555/3/5
 _ 5 _

The outer ring (l) turns on the swashplate bearings (2),

which are mounted on the stationary swashplate (3). This assembly
is attached to the gimbal ring (Q) by two pivot pins (5), and the
gimbal ring is attached to the swashplate support (6) by two
pivot pins (7). The collective~pitch sleeve (8) is splined to
the mast and lies in the centre of the swashplate and support
assembly. At its lower end, it is attached to the collective-
pitch lever (9) by the yoke and bearing assembly (10). The
collective-pitch lever (9) pivots about the pivot shaft (ll) and
is connected by a system of push~pull rods and bellcranks to the
collective-pitch control column. Operation of this control will
raise or lower the rotating collective~pitch sleeve, which is
driven by, and slides on, splines cut on the mast. Mounted at
the top of the collective»pitch sleeve assembly (8) are two scissor
levers (l2), which pivot about centrally positioned bolts (13).
At one end of each scissor lever, at position D, is attached a
control rod going upward to the stabiliser bar assembly, and at
the other end is attached a swivel fork (1%), which is connected
by a swivel (15) to the outer ring (1). The complete swashplate
assembly is secured to the top of the transmission by studs
passing through holes on the mount flange of the swashplate
support (6). Fore—and—aft movement of the cyclic—pitch control
column is transmitted to horn A, and the lateral control movement
to horn B. In both cases, a system of push-pull rods and bellcranks
is used to convey these movements.

The swashplate (3) and outer ring (1) can tilt in any
direction through the action of the gimbal ring (Q). with a swivel
fork lying above the lateral horn B and the swashplate tilted
laterally, one scissor~lever output end moves down while the
other scissor output end lifts up. This movement is conducted
through pushupull rods and levers to the two rotor blades,
increasing the pitch on one blade and decreasing the pitch on the
other blade. Because the rotor blades are installed with their
spanwise axis at right~angles to the scissor levers, the pitch
change is thus made 90° before the pitch~change effect is to be felt
If collective pitch is increased, the collective»pitch sleeve is

555/3/5
 _ 5 _

lifted up raising the pivot points of both scissor levers by

the same amount, thus lifting the push-pull rods at D by the
same amount. In this manner, any input from the collective control
is superimposed upon, or mixed with, any movement of the cyclic
control. Alternatively, any cyclic control movement is superimposed
upon any collective control movement.

The same series of events follows with a swivel fork (6)

lying above horn A. In this position, a change in cyclic pitch
is transmitted to the rotor head to produce forward or backward
flight. Because the swashplate can be tilted in any direction,
the rotor head can be controlled to give flight in any direction.

Figure 3 shows a ball—mounted swashplate. This swashplate

has its inner~ring (l) and outer-ring (2) assembly mounted on
and attached to the pivot sleeve (3), which incorporates a large
spherical surface at its top end. This assembly can slide on
the bearings (Q) up and down on the support assembly (5). The
collective lever (6) is pivoted and secured to the support
assembly by the idler link (7), and the inner end of the lever is
attached to the pivot sleeve by two pins (8) (only one pin is shown)

‘The drive to the rotating outer ring is through a collar set

(9) and drive linkage (l0). The collar set is splined and clamped
to the mast (ll), and the drive linkage is secured to the
outer ring by a nut.

555/3/5
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8. Pin C. inner ring control horns ® _ ..,
9. Collar set
20. Drive linkage
E 1. Mast

FIG. 3 Ball—mounted swashplate

555/3/5
 _ 3 _

Movement of the cyclic-pitch control column is transmitted

by a system of linkages to the intermixing bellcrank, to two
hydraulic servo actuators, and then to the control horns C on
the inner ring (l). Prom the intermixing bellcrank onward, the
cyclic control movements cannot be considered in terms of separate
fore—and-aft or lateral movements, and so the horns at C cannot
be identified separately as the fore-and~aft horn or the lateral
horn.

Movement of the collective-pitch control column is transmitted

by a system of linkages through an intermixing bellcrank, where
cyclic movements are superimposed, and a hydraulic servo actuator
to position A on the collective lever (6). As the collective-
pitch control column is raised, the inner and outer ring and the
pivot sleeve are lifted up, and the push—pull rods connecting
control horns B of the outer ring to the rotor head transmit
the movement to the main rotor blades.

Due to the intermixing bellcrank, as the collective pitch

is increased, the two cyclic control rods to the horns C are
raised by the same amount, the whole assembly being raised by
the collective lever (6). Thus, a cyclic pitch change can be
superimposed upon a collective pitch setting, and a collective
pitch change can be superimposed upon a cyclic pitch setting.

Another type of ball~mounted swashplate is shown in Fig. M.

The rotating swashplate is mounted on a heavy—duty ball race,
which is itself attached to the stationary swashplate. This
assembly is mounted on a spherical ball bearing and the
Complete assembly can slide up and down on the main rotor mast.

555/3/5
 _ 9 -

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FIG. 4 Spherical ball1nounted swashplate

Immediately below the swashplate assembly is the control

mixer assembly shown in Fig. 5, which is connected to the
swashplate assembly by the two mixer links and the longitudinal
link and is attached to the mast base at the mixe r support
bracket. In this installation, the longitudinal link and the
longitudinal—pitch mixer bellcrank also act as the fixed scissors
and prevent the stationary star from rotating.

555/3/5
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FIG. 5 Control mixer assembly

Figure 6 shows

l. The ball-mounted swashplate and control mixer as they

are installed in the helicopter;
2. The scissors crank and scissors link, or rotating
scissors WhlCh provide the drive from the rotor
hub to the rotating swashplate; and

3. One of the four pitch~control rods that finally

transmit control movement to each main rotor blade.

555/3/5
 _1]__

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555/3/5
 _ 12 _

TAIL ROTOR CONTROLS

We have seen in Assignment 3 that, for control about the

vertical axis, the pitch angle of all tail rotor blades is
simultaneously changed by the same amount and in the same direction
Because of this fact, all that is needed to control the tail rotor
is a simple mechanical arrangement to transfer control movements
from the fixed airframe to the rotating tail rotor.

Two main types of tail rotor pitch—change mechanisms are

used. One type uses a simple pitch-control assembly mounted
inboard of the tail rotor on the tail—rotor gearbox output shaft.
The other type has a control rod passing through the hollow
tail rotor gearbox output shaft to a pitch—change head outboard
of the tail rotor.

Tail Rotor Pitch-Change Mechanisms

Figure 7 shows a layout of a tail rotor and its pitch—change

mechanism. The tail rotor assembly is located on and driven by
splines on the transmission output shaft, being held on the shaft
by a retaining nut and centralised by two split, matched cone
halves. Immediately inboard of the tail rotor assembly and free
to slide on the output shaft splines is the pitch control assembly.
This assembly is moved back and forth on the splines by movement
of the station 282 bellcrank, which is itself moved through a
system of push—pull rods by the tail rotor pedals. The swashplate
of the pitch—control assembly is connected to the tail rotor blade
pitch-change horns by two fixed length pitch-control links.

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mechanism

The pitch—control assembly of Fig. 7 is shown as an exploded

view in Fig. 8. Figure 9 shows a side view of the assemblies,
with protective neoprene boots in position.

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assemblies

555/3/5
 _ 15 _

Figure l0 shows a tail rotor and tail rotor gearbox

assembly with the pitch~change head situated outboard of the tail
rotor.

NOTE: Figures 10, ll, and 12 are all different views

of the same gearbox and tail rotor assembly.
Thus, the numbered parts shown are common to all
three figures.

Control movement from the tail rotor pedals is transmitted

from tube assembly (l) to bellcrank (2) and then to the tail rotor
pitch-change mechanism (5) at the back of the tail rotor gearbox (3)

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5. Piich change mechanism

FIG. 10 Tail rotor and tail rotor gearbox assembly

by a short rod assembly (6). At the pitch—change mechanism in

Fig. ll, the control movement is fed into the control tube (7),
which passes through, and is turned by, a pin and key (8) in the
hollow tail rotor shaft. The change from non»rotating to a
rotating motion is effected by the trunnion (9), the bearing (10),
the levers (ll) and the idler link (12). The control tube (7)
always turns with the shaft, but it can also move axially the length
of its keyway.

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The crosshead (13) is located by a pin-(1%) and secured

by a nut (15) to the control tube (7). Two pitch links (16)
connect the crosshead with the blade-pitch horns (17). The
trunnion (21) of the tail rotor assembly (Q) is located and
I driven by external splines on the tail rotor shaft (18).
The tail rotor assembly is restrained by the static stop (19)
and secured by the retaining nut (20).

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FIG. l2 Tail rotor assembly

555/3/5
 _l8...

Movement of the tail rotor pedals will move the control

tube axially inside the tail rotor shaft and will alter the pitch
of the tail rotor blades, each one by the same amount, to give
the desired control of yaw.

HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL STABILISERS

Many helicopters have horizontal and vertical stabilising

surfaces, which give extra stability in normal cruise flight and
so permit the main and tail rotors to be relieved of some of
their directional control duties. The horizontal stabiliser may
be interconnected with the fore~and—aft cyclic control so that
forward movement of the control moves the trailing edge of the
surface down, and vice versa.
The surfaces usually consist of an airfoil section,
often of an unusual shape. Their "neutral" position on the
helicopter can look to be anything but neutral. These surfaces
must be installed, rigged, and maintained to the manufacturers‘
instructions if the helicopter is to achieve safety and reach
its design performance.

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1, SUMMARY
The swashplate transfers control movements from the
non-rotating cyclic and collective pitch controls to
the rotating rotor head.

Mixing of the collective and cyclic pitch controls may

take place at the swashplate.

To allow for the gyroscopic effect, discussed in Assignment

3 of this course,the fixed or stationary swashplate is
positioned so that control changes to the main rotor
blades are made 90° of rotation before they are to take
effect. ‘

,~ The tail rotor pitch~change mechanism transfers control

movement from the non—rotating tail rotor (rudder) controls to
the rotating tail rotor. A swashplate or a bearing ‘
ip and trunnion assembly is used to make the transfer.

555/3/5
 _ 19 _

PRACTICE EXERCISE A

State whether each of the following statements is true

or false:

1. Another name for a swashplate assembly is an

azimuth star_§§§emblg,

2. A swashplate can be tilted in only one direction.

3. A swashplate assembly must be mounted on a spherical

ball.

4. The fixed scissor prevents vertical movement of

the swashplate.

5. The cyclic and collective control movements may be mixed

at the swashplate.

6. Mixing of the control movements superimposes

cyclic control on to collective control, and vice
versa.

7. The rotating scissor drives and locates the rotating

half of the swashplate.

8. A tail rotor pitch—change head is, in effect,

the rotating half of a swashplate.

9. The pitch of a tail rotor blade is controlled

cyclically and collectively.

10. The rotating part of the tail rotor pitch—change

mechanism can be driven by a key or by splines.

(Answers on page 25)

555/3/5
 _ 29 _

STABILISER BAR AND CONTROL ROTOR SYSTEMS

The control rotor system used by the Hiller UH 12 helicopter

and the stabiliser bar system used by the older Bell helicopters,
help to control the main rotor. Both of these types of aircraft
will possibly remain in use in New Zealand for some years to come,
and so we shall briefly look at their main rotor~control systems.

Control Rotor System

In the control rotor system shown in Fig. 13, the rotor

head is underslung and gimbal~mounted. As a result, the rotor can
teeter spanwise and rock chordwise. The control rotor, which is
an integral part of the rotor head, consists of two small controll-
able in pitch aerofoils or paddles mounted at 90° to the main rotor
blades. Cyclic control»column movements are fed from the rotating
part of the wobble Elate (another name for swashplate) to each
paddle. The forces generated by the rotating paddles tilt the
main rotor in the desired direction. In effect, the pilot controls
the paddles, and the paddles control the main rotor.

Collective control is from the collective pitch~control lever

to the yoke assembly at the top of the gearbox, where movement is
transferred to a rod inside the rotating main—rotor driveshaft.

R55/R/5
 _ 21 _

1. Cuff and trunnion

2. Contra! rotor
3. Push rod assembiy
4. Wobbie plate $11090" ’
5. Fore-and-aft control rod
6. Collective yoke assembly
7. Wobble plate
8. Lower scissor arm
9. Upper scissor arm
10. Ballast tube

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FIG. 13 Control rotor system

On the top of the rotor head is mounted a cross arm, which carries
a push rod to each blade incidence arm and two ballast tube
assemblies, which balance the collective control forces.
Movement of the collective pitch lever increases the incidence
of both blades by the same amount and in the same sense.

Stabiliser Bar System

In the stabiliser bar system, the rotor head is gimbal-

mounted and free to teeter spanwise and rock chordwise. Each
blade grip is mechanically connected to the other by an equaliser
beam so that the angular positions of the blades on the yoke
will always be equal to each other. Mounted, usually below and
always at 90° to the span of the main rotor assembly, and splined
to the mast assembly, is the stabiliser bar and frame. To
quote the manufacturer,

The inertia effect of the stabiliser bar tends to stabilise

the helicopter and to provide an absolute horizon in reference
' to which the rotor is controlled independently of the body.

In Fig. 14 the stabiliser bar assembly (10) is splined to

the mast (13) and is pivoted at its centre. Its frame is
connected by two short links to the blade dampers (9) of the

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2. Lateral horn
3. Fore-and-aft horn
4. Swash plate assembly
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7. Control rods
B.Damperfrarneassembly 5-

9. Damper
10. Stabiliser bar assembly
11. Control links
12. Mixing lever Fif
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13. Mast assembly

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555/3/5
 - 23 _

damper frame assembly (5), which is splined and rigidly attached

to the mast. The outputs from the cyclic and collective~pitch
control columns are brought to the lever and to horns (1), (2),
and (3). These controls are mixed in the swashplate assembly (H)
andare carried by control rods (7) to the mixing levers (12) on
the stabiliser bar assembly.

Despite their name, the mixing levers (12) do not mix the
fore—and-aft, lateral, and collective controls but mix the inputs
to the rotor head from the control rods (7) and the stabiliser
bar.

From the levers, the control outputs arecarried to each main

rotor—blade horn by a control link (ll). The hydraulic dampers (9)
restrict the pivot rate of the stabiliser bar frame.

Refer to Fig. 1H and consider the events when the cyclic

pitch-control column is moved to the right.

l. The horn (2) is lifted up.

2. The swashplate is tilted to the right.

3. The red rod (7) goes up and the white rod (7) goes
down.

Q. The inertia forces of the rotor head assembly will

try to resist a change in blade~pitch angles.
5. Because of the resistance set up, the control links
will not move, and their attachments to the mixing
levers (12) become pivot points to allow rods (7)
to move.

6. As rods (7) move, the red end of the stabliser bar

is pushed down, and the white end is lifted up.

7. The stabiliser bar has now had its plane of rotation

displaced.

8. with the cyclic pitch—control column held to the

right, the stabiliser bar will try to return to its
proper plane of rotation.

9. The pivot point of each mixing lever is now the

attachment point of rod (7).

555/3/5
 _ gu _

10. The red rod (ll) is now lifted up and the

white rod (ll) pulled down.

ll. The action in (10) rocks the rotor head assembly about
its spanwise axis, lifting the leading edge of the
red blade up and that of the white blade down.

REMEMBER
__..........-._--I--
: The blades are mechanically connected together with
equaliser beams.

12. The red blade now has a greater angle of attack and
will generate more lift than the white blade.

13. Due to gyroscopic forces or phase lag, the increase

in lift takes effect 90° later in the plane of
rotation, and the rotor disc tilts to the right.

1%. As the rotor turns, the white blade comes to where

the red blade was, and in turn gets the increase in
angle of attack.

Q9221: These events all take place together.

The same sequence of events takes place for a fore—and-

e-
aft movement of the cyclic pitch control. However, a collectiv
control movement moves the rods (7) equally and in the same
direction, and the stabiliser bar is not displaced at all. The
rate of response to the cyclic pitch-control is governed by the
stiffness of the dampers (9). Stiff or hard dampers give a
very quick and sensitive response.

The damper rate is decided by the helicopter manufacturer

and is checked and adjusted during normal routine servicing.

M
l SUMMARY
A control rotor provides a form of power assistance
to the cyclic control.

A stabiliser bar gives a reference horizon base for

the control of the rotor. Its rate of movement is
governed by two hydraulic dampers.
l

555/3/5
 _ 25 _

PRACTICE EXERCISE B

State whether each of the following statements is true

or false: -

l. A control rotor assists collective pitch changes in

the control rotor system.

2. The control rotor‘s two small aerofoils produce

the force needed forcyclic control of the main rotor.

3. A stabiliserbar is rigidly attached to the main rotor

drive shaft.

4. In the stabiliser bar system, the cyclic and collective

controls are mixed before they reach the stabiliser bar.

5. Two ballasted tubes balance the collective forces in

the controlerotor system.

6. Two hydraulic dampers are fitted in the control~rotor

system to control the rate of response of the helicopter.

7. Wobble plate is another name for a swashplate.

8. The mixing levers of the stabiliser bar mix the

collective- and cyclic-control inputs.

9. The timing rate of hydraulic dampers in a flight~control

system is important to the handling qualities of the
helicopter.

l0. The control rotor forms an integral part of the rotor head.

(Answers on page 25)

ANSWERS TO PRACTICE EXERCISES

EXERCISE A

Statements 1, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 10 are true.

2. False. A swashplate may or may not be tiltable.

The type used in the main rotor controls can be
tilted in any direction.

3. False. A swashplate assembly may be ball-mounted, but

it may also be gimbal-mounted.

555/3/5
 _ 25 _

4. False. The fixed scissor stops the fixed half of

the swashplate from turning.

9. False. The pitch of the tail rotor blades is

changed collectively only. 1

EXERCISE B E

Statements 2, H, 5, 7, 9 and l0 are true.

l. False. The control rotor produces the force for cyclic

control of the main rotor. é
E
8. False. The stabiliser bar is pivoted about a Tix

core, which is splined to the mast. '9

6. False. No hydraulic dampers are needed or fitted

in the control-rotor system.

8. False. The collective and cyclic controls are

mixed at the swashplate assembly. The stabiliser—
bar mixing levers mix the inputs from the swashplate
with the movement of the stabiliser bar.

TEST PAPER 5

l. Describe the purpose and operation of a main rotor

swashplate assembly.
2. What are the functions of the fixed and rotating scissors?

3. Why is correct timing necessary for the dampers fitted to

a stabiliser—bar assembly?
M
an-2?-5?
H. With the aid of a simple sketch, describe a tail rotor ‘Q
pitch—change mechanism, from the non-rotating input at
the tail rotor gearbox to the rotating pitch-change
beam/head of the tail rotor.

555/3/5
 He Wharekura-tml
Kaihautu 0 Aotearoa

T H E O P E N
P O |.Y T E (H N I C
OF NEW ZEALAND

N N
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T0‘
< N
V

Main and Tail

Rotor Canstructions
555—3—6
 He Wharekura-tml
Kaihautu 0 Aotearoa

T H E O P E N
P O |.Y T E (H N I C
OF NEW ZEALAND

N N
{T _

T0‘
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V

Main and Tail

Rotor Canstructions
555—3—6
 k __

CONTENTS

Main Rotor Heads 1

Semierigid Rotor Head 1

Articulated Rotor Head 5

Hingeless LRigidl-Rotor Head 9

Articulated Rotor with One Hinge 1H

Tail Rotors 19 i
if
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Two-bladed Deltaehinge Tail Rotor 19 a

Two-bladed Flapping—hinge Tail Rotor 22

Main Rotor Damper 2H

Mechanical or Friction Type 25

Hydraulic Type 27

Ancillary Devices 28

Counterweights 28
Flapping Restrainers 29

Droop Stops 29

Vibration Absorbers 29

Main and Tail Rotor Blades 31

Copyright -~%~¢s»@w

This material is for the sole use of enrolled students and may not
be reproduced without the written authority of the Principal, TOPNZ.

555/3/6
 AIRCRAFT ENGINEERING

HELICOPTERS ASSIGNMENT 6

MAIN AND TAIL ROTOR HEADS AND BLADES

MAIN ROTOR HEADS

In Assignment 3, we discussed the operation of the rotor

head and some of the forces acting on it. We shall now discuss
the three types of rotor head:

l. The semi~rigid,

2. The articulated, and

3. The hingeless or rigid.

One manufacturer uses a rotor head that is a combination of

articulated and hingeless, and so we shall also consider this
type of head.

Semi-rigid Rotor Head

The semi-rigid or teetering rotor head shown in Fig. 1

is located on and driven by external splines on the mast (5)
through the internal splines in the trunnion (3). It is secured
and centralised on the mast by the retaining nut (1) and the cone
set (#1. Two pitch~link assemblies (9) connect the trunnions (10)
to the horns (ll) on the rotating half of the swashplate and
support assembly (6). Each main rotor blade (8) is retained in
the main rotor hub assembly (12) by a blade bolt (7).

The main rotor hub assembly is free to pivot about the

trunnion C31, and the pitch of each blade can be changed
collectively by raising the swashplate assembly or changed
cyclically by tilting the swashplate assembly.

6/88 555/3/s
 _ 2 _

1. Mast nut
2. Flapping restrainer T
3 "trunnion
4 Cone set
. _ Mast
. Swashpiate and support assembly
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Blade boil
Main rotor blade
9. Pitch link assembly
10 Trunnion (\_~ Q
1 I Swashplate horn
1?. Main rolor hub assembly
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FIG. l Semi~rigid main rotor hub and blade assembly

The flapping restrainer (2) is supplied by the manufacturer

as an optional extra. Its purpose is to limit the flapping of
th ehub and blade assembly when it
' is turning through the low
rev/min range during start~up and shut~down. During this time 5 é
a gust of wind could flap a blade down so that it could hit the
tail cone. Furthermore, and more importantly, the flapping
restrainer makes it safer for people to approach and leave the
helicopter when the rotor is turning.

555/3/6
 _ 3 _

The top half of each restrainer is a boh~weight, and the

lower half is a wedge. when the rotor is stationary, a spring
holds each restrainer upright, and the lower half interposes
between the trunnion (3) and the teetering hub assembly (12).
when the rotor turns above a predetermined rev/min, the bob—weights
move outboard, the wedges withdraw, and the hub assembly becomes
free to flap. As the rotor slows down, the weights resume their
upright position under the action of their springs.

Figure 2 shows an exploded view of this type of rotor head.

The massive steel yoke (1) is supported on the trunnion (3), which
is carried on bearings and sleeves (H) and (5) in the pillow
blocks (6). Each grip (2) is located on an arm of the yoke by
needle bearings (l0) and is retained by the strap bolt (ll), the
strap (7), the pin (8), and the strap fitting (9). The strap is
a tension~torsion assembly, which carries the rotor blade's
centrifugal forces. The bearings (S) and (10) are lubricated
with a light mineral oil contained in four reservoirs, one
reservoir to each grip and pillow block. Each reservoir has
its own sight glass.

The latches (13) on the strap bolt (ll) are used to locate
the blade in the grip, and they provide an adjustment for chordwise
balance of the rotor blade and hub assembly.

This rotor is underslung and preconed. That is, the centre

of mass of the assembly lies below its pivoting point, and the
trunnion (3), and each arm of the yoke (1) is angled slightly
upward.

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FIG. 2 Trunnion, yoke, and grip

Ogeration: The semi—rigid rotor head affects blade operation

follows:

1. Flapging takes place by the whole rotor head seesawing

freely about the trunnion (3).

@555/3/6
 ...5...

2. Leading and lagging are not necessary for the

operation of this type of rotor.
3. Pitch change is by the rotation of each blade
grip E2) about its feathering axis.

M. Position at rest is governed by a static stop

assembly or by the flapping restrainer where
fitted.
5. Qggtrifugal forces are carried through the blade
grip (2), the strap bolt (ll), the strap C7),
and the pin (8) into the yoke (ll.

Articulated Rotor Head

Figure 8 shows a three~bladed articulated rotor head. Each

rotor blade is retained in the pitch—ohange case (2) by, and pivots
about, a lead~lag hinge bolt (6) and is connected to a damper (H)
by a damper arm (5). To change the pitch of the blade, the
pitch~change case, blade, and damper assembly can be turned
about the pitch-change shaft (3) by the rod (8) from the rotating
swashplate (9). The complete pitch—bearing shaft, case, blade,
and damper assembly is free to move up and down on a flapping
hinge (7), which also holds the assembly to the hub (1). The
action of the two hinges (6) and (7) means that the blade is
attached to the hub by a universal joint.

555/3/6
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555/3/6
 _ 7 _

Figure H shows the same articulated rotor shown in Fig. 3

without the blade and pitch—bearing case assemblies. The steel
hub (2) is located and secured to the main rotor drive shaft (5)
by washer plates (3), bolts (4), and the hoisting eye (1).
Immediately below the hub are the droop—stop components (5), (7)
and (8), the main rotor upper scissors support (10), the upper
scissors assembly (ll), and the dust boot (l2)!

A lug on each pitch~bearing shaft projects into a closed slot

in the droop-stop retaining ring (7) so that the length of the
slot determines the maximum coning angle of the blade in flight
and the droop angle when the rotor is at rest.
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2 Hub
3. Washer plate
4. Bolts
Main rotor drive shafl
Droop-slop retainer plate
Droop-stop retainer ring

Q
11;; I
?“.“.°’P‘ Droop-stop retainer
9. Retaining ring nut
10 Upper scissor support
11 Upper scissor
12. Dust boot

FIG. 4 Hub and dro0p—stop assembly

585/3/6
 _ 3 _

Figure 5 shows the pitch—bearing case and shaft assembly in

some detail. The pitchechange shaft (2) is a substantial alloy
steel forging, and the pitch-bearing case (1) is an aluminium
alloy forging. The lug (5) engages in the slot in the droop~stop
retainer ring (7) of Fig. H, and the stack of selected and
matched bearings (3) absorb the blade's centrifugal forces. Compare
this bearing stack with the simple strapeand-pin assembly shown
in Fig. 2. ‘

This rotor head is lubricated by grease, which is applied with

a hand-operated grease gun at regular intervals, although it is
usual, and prudent,to regrease immediately after flying through
heavy rain. The grease used is an oscillating bearing grease to
specification MILHG-25537. No other type of grease should be used
in its place. pF r

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SLEEVE
. Pitch bearing case ~ Pl-Us
. Pitch bearing shaft
. Thrusl bearings Q) 9
. Stainless steel sleeve and bushing
4'>OJl\J—~ / (
assembly (sell lubricating) ®
5. Lug
6. Retaining nut D Q

FIG. 5 Pitch—bearing case and shaft assembly

S55/3/6
 _ 9 a

Operation; The articulated rotor head affects blade operation

as follows:

l. Flagging takes place by each blade and pitch—bearing

case assembly moving up and down unrestrained about
its flapping hinge bolt (7) of Fig. 3._
2. Qeading and lagging are caused by the blade pivoting
about its leadélag hinge bolt C6) of Fig. 3,. The
rate of the leading and lagging is controlled and
damped by the damper (51 of Fig. 3.
8. Pitch.chan'e is by the rotation of each pitchebearing
case —e (2% of Fig, 3 - about its feathering axis.
U. Position at rest is governed by a droop-stop
assembly that serves all three blades. See Fig. M,
items (6), (7), and (8).
5. gentrifqgal forces pass into the pitch—bearing case
fl) of Fig. Sithrough a matched stack of heavy duty
ball bearings and a retaining nut (6) into the
pitch~bearing shaft (2). The forces then go via the
flapping hinge bolt into the main rotor hub (1) of
Fig. 3.

Hingeless (Rigid) Rotor Head

The articulated rotor head, with its many parts and bearings
3
presented the designer with a problem that grew in difficulty as
the helicopter grew larger. For many years, it was known that
blade flapping, leading and lagging, and pitch changing could all
be done by twisting or bending the blades or the component parts
in the rotor head, However, with the conventional materials then
available, this was not practical. The advent and proving of the
titanium alloys and the soecalled plastic materials completely
changed this, and the hingeless, or rigid,rotor is now a
practical proposition to manufacture and operate.

The term rigid rotor is not the best one to use because this
type of head is anything but rigid. The preferred name is
hingeless rotor.

Figure 6 shows a three—bladed hingeless rotor. A comparison

between this rotor and that shown in Fig. 3, H, and 5, shows
the simplicity of the hingeless rotor.

555/3/6
 _ 19 _

Tee '1"?-fit

FIG. 6 Hingeless rotor head assembly

The manufacturers of the rotor head shown in Fig. 6 claim

that it has a total of 70 parts in its construction compared with
the 377 parts of an articulated rotor of the same size, a weight
reduction of H5%, and a cost reduction of about 75%. Add to this
improved flight handling, reliability and much easier and reduced
maintenance, and you can see that the hingeless rotor is a very
attractive proposition.

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Q . Star arm
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. Pitch change horn
. Eiastomericsphericaithrustbearing assembly
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l'“_l-_’=. 7 Schematic views of a Starflfix hingeless rotor

Figure 7 shows schematically the rotor head of Fig. 6. The

rotor blade (#1 is attached to the blade sleeves (3) by two
large quick-release bolts. The blade sleeves are located and

555/3/6
 ~11-

and supported in a cutout in the star arm (2) by an §la§§g@e££3

spherical thrust bearing (6) and a Qigh hgsterggis blade
stiffener and damper (7) at the extremity of the star arm. The
whole assembly is bolted to the rotor hub (1), which is
attached in turn to the transmission main drive shaft. lncorpor-
ated in the rotor hub is a lifting eye for use in ground handling

Elastomer A rubber—like substance

lHigb hysteresis: Having less than normal bounce

The star arm is made of epoxy resin—impregnated glass fabric

which is compressed,moulded, and oven—cured. The blade sleeves
are built up from wound glass fibres impregnated with epoxy
resin and oven~cured.

The two sleeves are separated at their inboard end by the

elastomeric thrust~bearing assembly and at their outboard end
by the high—hysteresis elastomeric and spherical bearing assembly
The complete sleeve assembly is held firmly together by long
through bolts, of which the inboard ones also secure the pitch-
change horn to the lower sleeve.

Figure 8 shows a Starflex star, with the star and one

blade—sleeve assembly.

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Rotor hub (not shown)
Star arm
© Blade sleeve
Rotor blade (not shown)
Pitch change horn
o>o1_4>_wm- Elastomeric spherical thrust bearmg
7 assembly
O '7. High hysleresls elaslomer layers and
spherical housing assembly
Note: Numbering is lhe same as in Fig. 7'.

FIG. 8 Exploded part view of Starflex hingeless rotor

555/3/6
 _ 12 i

Operation; The hingeless rotor head affects blade operation @

as follows: '

l. Flapping is accommodated by vertical movement of the

star arms, which bend, and the rotation of the
blade»s1eeve assembly about the spherical thrust
bearing (Gl.

2. Leading and lagging (dragging) is achieved by shear

loading of the highehysteresis layers and compression
of the spherical bearing assembly (7), with rotation
of the blade sleeve assembly about the spherical
thrust bearing (6)- The movement is damped by the
highehysteresis layers.
3. Pitch is changed by deflection of the spherical
thrust bearing about an axis passing through its
centre.
H. Position at rest is governed by the rigidity of the -

star arm and the stiffness of the spherical bearing

at the outboard end of the arm.
5. Centrifugal forces are carried through the blade
sleeves to the elastomeric thrust~bearing assembly
Qfil and into the star central section.

The functional diagram of this rotor head, Fig. 9, shows that

it can be compared, in flapping, to an articulated head with a
large offset flapping hinge and an elastic return to a neutral
position and, in dragging, to a hinged head with damping and an
elastic return to a neutral position.

Offset

(a) Flapping
C_L

I. é ‘

(b) Dragging
FIG. 9 Functional diagram of hingeless rotor head

555/3/6
 The Starflex rotor head uses plastics for all its load-
carrying members. We'll now briefly consider a hingeless rotor
head using metal throughout

The Westland Lynx is a military helicopter with a developing

civilian model counterpart Both models use a hingeless rotor
head See Fig. 10.

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cuflet
Dog bone
Pitch change arm
Oil resenroir
Tie bar
Retention pins
f
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FIG 10 Lynx rotor head

Each rotor blade is carried at the outboard end of a dog bone

(2), which is supported by needle rollers and retained by an
internal tie bar (5) to the flexible extension arm and outlet l
The needle rollers are lubricated with oil from the reservoir
and the flexible extension arm and outlet are rigidly attached
to the main transmission A damper (7) lS fitted between the
extremities of the dog bone

555/3/6
 i lu _

The flexible extension arm and outlet (l) and the dog bone
(2) are forged from titanium. The tie bar consists of two high-
tensile steel fittings wound longitudinally and laterally with
high-tensile resinecoated steel wire to form a dumb bell.

operation: The all-metal hingeless rotor head affects blade

operation as follows:

l. Flagging takes place through bending of the tapered

planform outlet of the flexible extension arm and
outlet.

2. heading and laggiqgris achieved by the bending of the

dog bone and is controlled by a damper.
3. Pitch is changed by the rotation of the dog bone on
the needle rollers around the outlet arm.
H. Centrifugal fogces are carried from the dog bone,
through the tie bar, and into the flexible extension
arm and cutlet.
5. The static positipn of the rotor is determined by
the stiffness of the outlet.

Articulated Rotor with One Hinge

The construction of the articulated rotor head with one

hinge is an intermediate stage between the articulated rotor head
and the hingeless rotor head. An example is the rotor head fitted
to the Hughes 369 series helicopters, which we shall now briefly
study. 4

Figure ll shows a general view and a sectioned view of this

head, which rotates between the upper and lower bearings (l2) and
(13) and is retained by the locknut (1) on the main rotor mast
(l8). The head is driven by the main rotor drive shaft (17).
Dust and foreign objects are kept from the hearings by the flexible
boot (19), whose lower end is attached to the rotating star
assembly, which is driven by the scissor crank through two lugs (lH)

.555/d/6
 _ 15 W

Operation; The blade operation of the Hughes 369 series rotor

head is as follows:

1. Flapping takes place by the bending of the laminated

strap assembly (7) between the hub and its outboard
attachment on the pitch housing (3).

2. Qeading and lagging are facilitated by the movement

of the blade about the lead~lag pivot bolt (H).
The movement is not free but is progressively slowed
by the blade damper (6).

~ 3. Pitch change is effected by loading the laminated

strap assembly (7) in torsion. The strap is twisted
between the hub and its outboard attachment on the
pitch housing.
H. Position at rest is controlled by the droop restrainer
and roller Z115 and the droop»stop ring (l5).
5. gentrifugal gorges are contained by the laminated
strap assembly.

Thus, the laminated strap assembly is subject to torsional,

bending, and centrifugal forces. The only hinge used is the
lead-lag pivot bolt.

555/3/6
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FIG. l§_ Laminated strap assemblies

F igure l2 shows the relationship of the strap assemblies

to the rotor hub and the pitch housings.

SUMMARY

The three types of rotor head in general use are

1. The semi—rigid,

I 2. The articulated, and '

3 3. The rigid, or hingeless,rotor head.

‘ The rigid, or hingeless, rotor head is, in fact,

very flexible.

The modern trend in rotor—head design is towards the

7 hingeless rotor.

555/3/8
 _ 19 _

PRACTICE EXERCISE A

State whether each of the following statements is

true or false;

l. A rigid rotor should more correctly be called a

hingeless rotor.

2. The drag hinge of a semierigid rotor doubles as

a blade retention bolt.

3. An elastomer is a rubber~like compound.

4. A hinqeless rotor does not give any damping action

to the rotor blade leading and lagging.

5. Blade flapping in an articulated rotor is hydraulically

dmged.

6. A semi—rigid rotor flaps as a complete rotor about a

central trunnion.

7. A hingeless rotor contains no bearings.

8. High hysteresis means having less than normal bounce,

9. Blade centrifugal forces may be contained by tension-

torsion springapacks.

10. Any general—purpose (GP) “aviation grease may be used

to lubricate a rotor head.

(Answers on page 37)

TAIL ROTORS

In Assignment 555~3~3, we examined the operation of a tail

rotor and some of the forces acting on it. We shall now look at
two types of tail rotor in common use.

l. The two~bladed delta~hinge type, and

2. The flapping—hinge type.

lhe Two-bladed De1ta—hinge Tail Rotor

Figure 13 shows an exploded view of this type of tail rotor

The yoke (1) is free to flap about the trunnion (2), which is
splined and rigidly attached to the tail rotor shaft by a
retaining nut. The angle between the axis of the trunnion
and the centre line of the yoke gives

565/3/6
the §§1ta—hinge effect, which we discussed in Assignment 555~3-3.

Each tail rotor blade (3) is mounted on two spherical bearings

(H) and is held between the ears of the yoke by two bolts. Blade
pitch is changed by moving the blades on the spherical bearings.
The direction of rotation LDOR) of this tail rotor is clockwise
when viewed from the side on which it is mounted, and the direction
of the normal air flow in forward flight is from left to right on
the diagram.

when blade A is in the position shown in Fig. 13, it will try

to generate more lift than blade B due to the differing air
velocities felt by the blades. As a result, the whole tail rotor
assembly flaps about the trunnion axis, with blade A moving
outboard and blade B moving inboard. This flapping reduces the
angle of attack of blade A and increases that of blade B. Thus,
symmetry of lift across the disc area is maintained.
0

The yoke Q1), which is an aluminium alloy forging, is

supported on the alloy steel trunnion (2). The bearings are
lubricated by grease and are the only parts of the tail rotor that
need lubrication.

555/3/6
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_ 22 _

Operation; The delta~hinge tail rotor affects blade

operation as follows:

l. Flapping takes place about the trunnion longitudinal

axis.
2. Centrifugal forces are passed into the yoke through
the spherical bearings (H) and the retaining bolts (5).
3. Drag forces are absorbed in the blades and yoke. No
lead~lag hinge is used or needed.

A static stop, fitted to limit the amount of flapping, is

necessary because, when the rotors are stationary or turning
slowly,a gusting wind could cause the tail rotor to flap violently.
Without the static stop, damage to the tail rotor and the helicopter
structure could occur.

Two-bladed Flapping-hinge Tail Rotor

In this type of tail rotor, each blade is attached to a yoke,

which is mounted in turn on a hub that is splined and rigidly
attached to the tail rotor drive shaft. Each blade and yoke
assembly is hinged on an axis parallel to the plane of rotation
and is free to flap independently. As a blade flaps, its pitch
angle is changed because of the mechanical relationship between
the pitchechange arm, the pitchechange rod, and the arm on the
blade.

In normal forward flight, when blade B is in the position

shown in Fig. 1n, it will try to generate more lift than blade A
because of the different air velocities felt by the blades. As
a result, blade B will flap outboard and blade A will flap inboard.
This flapping reduces the angle of attack of blade B and increases
that of blade A, and thus symmetry of lift across the disc area
is maintained. See Fig. ls.

V555/3/6
 - “.23

FL OW i‘ ROTATED 90°
FOR CLARITY
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Pitch change rod assembly
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LOW
N“? FIG. 14 Two--bladed flapping—hinge tail rotor

“Operation: The flapping-hinge tail rotor affects blade

operation as follows:

l. Flapping takes place about the hub.

2. ‘Centrifugaltforcei are passed from the blade, through
a tensionetorsion bar into the yoke, and then into
the hub.
¢ 3.
Drag forces are absorbed in the blades, the yokes,
and the huhi No leadelag hinge is used or needed.

Blade flapping is limited by the inboard and outboard stops,

555/8/6
 ...2Ll_

which prevent excessive flapping during start up and run during

gusty or side-wind conditions.

A The blade bearings are greased, and a light mineral oil is

used in the yokes.

Figure 15 shows the complete assembly mounted on the tail

rotor gearbox.

Oulboard stop/retaining nut

Pitch change arm
Pitch change rod
Blade and yoke assembly
Tension/Torsion bar boil
Yoke cover plug
. Blade attachment tension/lorsion bolt
m*‘9’.°‘:“f-“N.-‘ Tail-rotor gearbox

FIG. l5 Tail rotor installation

fifil i .02.’. Rfilfifi assets

The main ,@rer damper controls the leading and lefiylhfi Ydifi
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types are in use?

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 * 25 e

Mechanical or Friction Type

Figure l6 shows a mechanical rotor damper, which consists of

a stack of steel plates interspersed with bronze plates in a
housing full of hydraulic fluid. Each steel plate is splined to
a central operating shaft, which is connected to the trailing edge
of the rotor blade by a link arm. The bronze plates are splined
to the outer housing, which is attached to the main rotor blade-
pitch bearing assembly. The stack of discs is preloaded by an
adjustable nut tensioning a spring. The bronze discs (1), (2),
(3), and (H) have splines of different widths.

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6 Adjusting nut
Tensionlng spring
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09 1? Shaft assembly

‘Wr'~’,r>_.- _:, @ 12
13
Window
Housing
Cover assembly
14 Bolt assembly
ééia . 15 Filler plug

FIG. 16 Mechanical damper

555/3/6
 -9» _

When the shaft assembly (10) is turned on an assembled unit

by a small amount, the bronze discs Cl), whose splines are the
same width as those in the housing,will be held stationary, and
discs (2), (3), and (4) will turn. The damping action will be
effected by bronze discs (l) and their steel discs (5). With a
little more movement of the shaft assembly, the splines on discs(2)
will engage, and the damping action will be given by bronze discs
(l) and (2) and their steel discs (5). With a little more movement
again, bronze discs (8) engage and then, finally, bronze discs
(H). This arrangement allows a progressively increasing damper
action the further the shaft assembly is turned.

On installation'of the damper, the bronze discs must be

aligned so that, for example, the splines of discs (3) engage as
a unit and not before discs (2) or after discs (H). Aligning the
discs, called phasing, is done by moving the shaft assembly from
the lag stop to the lead stop and then back to the lag stop. The
shaft assembly is then moved slowly towards the lead stop until
a neutral position is reached. In this position, all-discs are
damping when movement toward the lead stop is made, but only
discs (1) are damping for the first small movement toward the
lag stop. The adjusting nut (7) is then tightened until a
stipulated torque is needed to turn the shaft assembly back
and forth in the range from the neutral position to where discs
(2) start to act.

Phasing is done whenever a damper is disturbed and whenever

the behaviour of the rotor head indicates that alignment of the
discs has been lost. The torque of the first stage [discs (l)]
is checked and reechecked at routine inspections and whenever
the behaviour of the rotor head shows a check to be necessary.

The discs operate in a bath of hydraulic fluid, which is

kept at a specified level by fluid added through the filler plug
(15) until the correct level is seen through the sight glass (ll).
A numbered scale cast on the housing (12) is used to position the
shaft assembly (10) when phasing the damper.

555/3/6
 ¢ 27 -

Hydraulic Type

Figure 17 shows a hydraulic rotor damper which consists of

a piston-and-shaft assembly moving in a closed cylinder filled
' an adjustable timing
with hydraulic fluid. A passageway housing
' "h 'des of
valve, a refilling valve, and a reservoir connects bot S1
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FIG. 17 Hydraulic damper

A rubber shock absorber is fitted at each end of the piston

th e damper should the
shaft to prevent internal damage to
‘
c Y linder reach the end of its ‘
travel. '
In this examp l e, the
cylinder is attached to the main rotor blade at the anchoring
spigot, and the piston rod is attached to the rotor head at the
attachment fork.

555/3/6
 — 28 —

The rate of the damper is set in a workshop by filling it

with the correct hydraulic fluid, applying a prescribed load to
the piston rod, and timing its travel over a certain distance.
Adjustment is made by turning the tapered timing valve.

To function correctly, hydraulic dampers must be absolutely

free of entrapped air, and so bleeding valves are fitted. However
modern dampers are usually selfebleeding to the extent that, after
the reservoir has been filled with fluid, the damper needs only
to be slowly operated through its complete travel three or four
times for all air to be expelled.

On some installations, instead of each damper having its own

reservoir, a common reservoir is fitted and connected to the
dampers by flexible hydraulic hoses.

ANCILLARY DEVICES

Besides the essential items of hinges, bearings, dampers,

and so on, many rotors have extra devices fitted to give smoother
operation or increased safety. we'll now briefly discuss the
more common of these devices.

Counterweights

Counterweights, often called Chinese weights, are used on the

Bell 47-series rotor head. They are adjustable weights mounted
on top of a long, sturdy bolt at the inboard trailing edge of
each main rotor blade. Their purpose is to relieve the loads in
the collectiveepitch control system. Due to centrifugal force,
an increase in weight tends to lift, and a decrease tends to lower
the collective—pitch lever. The weights are adjusted so that,
in cruise flight with the collective—pitch lever-friction control
off, the lever will stay where it is put, with perhaps a slight
tendency to creep down.

555/3/6
 _ 29 i

Flapping Restrainers

Flapping restrainers are sometimes fitted to articulated

hinged rotors and to semi~rigid rotors, one to each blade assembly
Their purpose is to "lock" the flapping hinge or yoke assembly and
prevent the blades from flapping violently during gusting wind
conditions at very low rotor rev/min when the rotor is being
stopped or started. The restrainer is centrifugally operated
to unlock the hinge,and spring~returned to lock it.

Droop Stops

Droop stops are fitted to prevent the main rotor blades from
passing close to the ground during start—up and shut—down of the
rotor. They contribute greatly to the safety of people approach-
ing the rotating rotor. In operation, the droop stop reduces
the static droop angle of the blade and automatically disengages
at a very low rotor rev/min. Do not confuse its operation with
that of the flapping restrainer, which stops the blade from
flapping.

Vibration Absorbers

Vibration absorbers are installed on the main rotor head,

one to each blade, and are designed to cancel certain natural
harmonic vibrations from the blades. One type commonly used is
called a Bifilar damper. The name is taken from a vibration-
absorbing pendulum, which is supported on two parallel vertical
wires. These dampers make the rotor head much smoother in
operation and help to prolong its working life. A similar
device can be fitted to the tail—rotor assembly of medium-sized
helicopters to prevent or reduce vibration.

555/3/6
 s 30 _

SUMMARY

A damper is used to control the lead/lag rate of a

main rotor blade.

The two main types of damper used are

l Hydraulic, and

2 Friction dampers.

Correct damper timing is important for smooth rotor~

head operation.

Droop stops and flapping restrainers contribute to

ground safety and to damage—free shut—downs and
start—ups of the rotor head.

PRACTICE EXERCISE B

State whether each of the following is true or false:

Phasing is a term used for setting a friction-

type damper.

Air entrapped in a hydraulic lead/lag damper will

slow the damping rate.

A flapping restrainer prevents the blades from

moving up and down about the horizontal hinge at
low rotor rev/min.

Droop stops prevent the blades from lagging at low

rotor rev/min.

Correct timing of lead/lag dampers is important

for smooth_operation of the rotor head.

A friction—type lead/lag damper must be bled of

air to ensure its smooth operation.

All tail rotors pivot about a central delta hinge.

A tail rotor must turn in a clockwise direction.

Tail rotors do not have lead/lag hinges.

A static stop is fitted to a tail rotor to limit

the amount of flapping when the tail rotor is not
turning. .

(Answers on page 37)

555/3/8
 1 31 —

MAIN AND TAIL ROTOR BLADES

Nearly all of the power developed by the power plant is

absorbed by these blades, with the main rotor blades getting the
lion's share. All rotor blades, although very strong for the
job they are designed to do, can be easily damaged during
ground handling and routine maintenance work.

when main rotor blades are removed from the helicopter,

they should be either placed in padded storage racks designed
for that type of blade or stored in their blade boxes. A tail
rotor is usually removed as a complete unit and should also be
either placed on a rack designed for it or stowed in its own
box. Tailerotor blades, when separate from the hub, should be
kept in their special box.

when repair work is to be done on main rotor blades, they

should be taken off the aircraft and placed on padded trestles
for support. For the smaller tail»rotor blades, a smooth,
wooden—topped workbench should be used for support.

Main Rotor Blades

The main rotor blades of early helicopters were made of a

metal spar, ribs attached to the spar, a wire trailing edge was
added, and the assembly was covered with doped fabric. The blade
was virtually a long, thin, fragile aeroplane wing. Blade
design and manufacture has progressed through the metal—sparred
wooden blade to the modern all~metal blade and the glassefibre
blade.

A metal rotor blade consists of an extruded hollow aluminium

alloy spar section, which may include the leading»edge section
—— see Fig. 18,

555/3/6
 FIG. 18 Main rotor blade spar extrusion

Two aluminium alloy sheets form the top and bottom skins,
meeting at a shaped trailing-edge strip. The cavity between
the two skins aft of the spar section is filled with aluminium-
alloy honeycomb. At the inboard (root) end of the blade,
aluminium alloy doublers and a steel forging transfer the blade
loads to the rotor head. A fairing is fitted to the blade tip
to seal off and streamline the blade and to provide a removable
access plate to the blade spanwise balance weights attached to
the spar. A trailing edge tab may be fitted near the outboard
end of the blade to give fine adjustments to the blade's
behaviour.

All parts are bonded together, and the complete blade is

balanced statically and dynamically during manufacture. Figure
l9 shows two kinds of allemetal blade.

555/3/6
 _ 33 _

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- ' . Gflp plate
. Doubiers
a 6 Tr§m tab
. Spar
. Skin
. Core

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FIG, 19 Metal main rotor blades

The planform of most main rotor blades is rectangular. That

is, the blade has a constant chord and thickness throughout its
span. washout is provided in an attempt to evenly distribute the
lift generated along the span of the blade —— the blade main
spar is twisted during manufacture so that its pitch decreases
from the root end to the tip.

NOTE I

washout: A decrease of the angle

of incidence towards a wing tip.

555/3/6
 -. -

Blade airfoil sections are usually symmetrical, although

asymmetrical sections specially developed for helicopter use
are being investigated,

Metal main rotor blades vary in construction from one

manufacturer to another. For example, one manufacturer may use a
complete wraparound skin to enfold an extruded spar section.
One type of blade may be very light, and another type may be
heavily built and have tip weights fitted to increase the inertia
of the blade. Generally, the blades fitted to an articulated
rotor are more lightly built than those fitted to a semierigid
rotor, as we discussed in the assignment Basic Rotors.

After manufacture, all blades are balanced and referenced to

a master blade or blades, Each blade is assigned its own serial
number and, possibly, other identifying marks. Using these
numbers, you can get together a set of matched blades that will
ensure a smooth and efficiently operating rotor head. Information
on blade numbers and blades is given in the helicopter maintenance
manual, which must be consulted before you replace a blade or
blades. D

Main rotor blades have a limited service life. The manufact-

urer, on the basis of calculations and tests, has decided on a
safe life of just so many flying hours for his rotor blade. When
a blade has nearly reached the end of this safe life, it must
be retired from service.

A safety feature of one type of metal main rotor blade is the

sealed and inert—gas pressurised hollow-extruded main spar section
A pressure te1l—ta1e,or gauge, is fitted at the root end of the
blade, where it can be easily seen and is not susceptible to
damage. A pressure loss is an indication of serious damage or
cracking of the spar, thus further flight will be hazardous.
A refinement of this system is an electrical monitor maintained
on the pressure in all blade spars during flight. A loss of
pressure is shown as a warning light on an instrument panel in
full view of the pilot.

555/3/6
 +35.-

To protect the blade from abrasion by dust, sand, and

water, hard anodising or a special hard—wearing plastic tape may
be applied to the leading edge. The plastic tape covering is
widely used and has the advantage of being easily replaced as
it becomes worn. Some manufacturers form the leading edge from
a corrosion-resistant steel and then use the plastic tape as
a further abrasion barrier.

Tail Rotor Blades

Early tail rotor blades were made of wood, with metal root-
end fittings and leading edges, These blades were light and
resilient, but they could absorb moisture from the air and become
distorted and unbalanced. Modern tail rotor blades are made from
metal or fibreglass or a combination of both materials.

The construction of the tail rotor blade is similar to that

of the main rotor blade, the metal blade being bonded together
and few, if any, rivets being used. Each manufacturer has his
own method of construction, and some of the construction details
will be found in the maintenance manual of the helicopter
concerned.

Tail rotor blades are usually supplied as a matched set so

that, when one blade becomes unserviceable, all blades are then
replaced. The oid blades can be returned to the manufacturer
for repair and/or rematching.

Nearly all blades have provision for sparwise balancing,

and some for chordwire balancing so as to make possible the final
balancing of the complete tail rotor assembly. The blade's
leading edge may have a layer of special plastic tape for
abrasion resistance, and the entire blade will have special
paint markings so that, when turning, it can be easily seen.

A tail rotor blade, like a main rotor blade, has a limited

service life, The blade must be retired from service before or
when the limit is reached. This service life must not be
exceeded.
__H“wwww

555/3/6
 SUMMARY

Main and tail rotor blades are easily damaged. They

must be handled with care both off and on the
helicopter.

Both main and tail rotor blades have limited service

lives, which must not be exceeded.

PRACTICE EXERCISE C

State whether each of the following is true or false:

l. The angle of incidence of a rotor blade decreases

towards the blade tip.

2. when a main rotor blade has been removed from the

helicopter, it must be laid flat on the hanger
floor for safety,

3. An extruded hollow spar section is filled with

aluminium honeycomb to give stiffness.

4. Metalvtoemetal bonding is used in the construction

of metal rotor blades.

S. Main rotor blades usually have provision at their

tips for chordwire balance weights.

6. washout is the decrease of the angle of incidence

towards a wing tip.

7. Weights may be fitted to the tips of a main rotor

blade to increase its inertia.

8. Blades are balanced and referenced to a master blade

9! All blades in a set have the same serial number.

10, The service life o£»a rotor blade may be exceeded

by 10%.

(Answers on page 38)

555/3/6
 _ 37 _

ANSWERS TO PRACTICE EXERCISES

EXERCISE A

Statements 1, 3, 6, 8, and 9 are true.

2. False. The blades on a semi-rigid rotor do not

lead and lag. Thus, there is no need for a drag hinge
M. False. Some type of blade damping is needed to slow
down the lead/lag rate and can be provided by layers
of elastomeric material or by hydraulic dampers.

S. False. The blades are unrestrained in their movement

about the flapping hinge.

7. False, although the bearings used are not the

conventional ball, roller, or metal type.
10. False. The lubricants to use in a rotor head are
specified by the helicopter manufacturer. If these
specifications are not followed, the result will be
increased wear and decreased reliability of the rotor
head.
EXERCISE B

Statements 1, 3, 5, 9, and 10 are true.

2. False. Air can be compressed, and so any air

trapped in the damper will compress and expand
as the blade leads and lags. The result is a
spongy damper, that is, a damper with a
fast and erratic timing rate.

4. False. The blade dampers control leading and

1aS8}n8- DPOOP $YOps prevent the blades from
passing close to the ground at low rotor rev/min,

5. False._ The frictionetype lead/lag dampers use

the friction betmeen flX€d and moving plates to
provide the damping force.

7. False. _Some tail rotors pivot about a central

delta hinge. Other tail rotors use a fixed
central hub carrying individual blades, each on
its own flapping hinge.

8. False. The direction of rotation of a tail rotor

varies from one type of helicopter to another.

555/3/6
 e 38 —

EXERCISE C

Statements 1, H, 6, 7, and 8 are true.

2. False. when a main rotor blade is removed from a
helicopter, it should be placed on a shaped
storage rack or a padded trestle for safe-keeping.

3. False. An extruded hollow spar may be pressurised

with an inert gas. Aluminium honeycomb may be
used to stiffen the top and bottom skinning aft
of the spar.

5. False. The small weights at a blade tip are

used for adjusting the spanwire balance.

9. False. Each blade has its own serial number,

which is not duplicated on any other blade.

10. False. *NeVer‘exceed the service life on any

aircraft part or component,

TEST PAPER 6

1. How do the functions of a flapping restrainer and

' v
a droop stop differ.

2. In this assignment, two types of lead/lag damper

and a third form of lead/lag damping have been discussed
Name and briefly describe each type of damping.

3. List the advantages of the hingeless rotor over

articulated and semierigid rotors.

4. What is the main difference between the two types

of tail rotor? What great advantage has one type
over the other?

5. Make a schematic sketch.of a main rotor head lead/lag

damper.

The damper must have

Ca) A reservoir,
Cb)- A timing valve, and
Cc) A replenishment valve or valves.

‘ -\.?-4%?-A
555/3/5
 He Wharekura-tini
Fiaihautu olflotearoa

THE OPE N
POLYTECHNIC
OFNEW ZEALAND

e
e

‘
\\

Helicopter Transmission
Systems
555—3—7
 He Wharekura-tini
Fiaihautu olflotearoa

THE OPE N
POLYTECHNIC
OFNEW ZEALAND

e
e

‘
\\

Helicopter Transmission
Systems
555—3—7
 V’ CONTENTS

Transmission Systems

Transmission Components

Clutches
\»,

Engine-driven Clutch

Freewheel Unit

Gearboxes
Types of Gears Used

Main Rotor Gearbox (Single-stage Reduction)

Main Rotor Gearbox (Two-stage Reduction)

Tail Rotor Gearbox

Driveshafts
Main Driveshaft
Tail Rotor Driveshaft

Driveshaft Couplings

Other Components
Intermediate Gearbox

Universal Joint

Rotor Brake

Oil Cooler Fan Unit

555/3/7
 AIRCRAFT ENGENEERKNG

HELICOPTERS ASSIGNMENT 7

TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS

The arrangement of drive shafts, gearboxes, and clutches that

transmit the power developed by the engine to the rotor blades is
often called the transmission or transmission system and, sometimes,
the power train. In this assignment, we shall discuss the
transmission components of various types of helicopter generally
used in New Zealand.

The type and location of the engine determines the transmission

components used in the power train. The smaller piston—engined
machines have the engine mounted immediately underneath the main
rotor drive shaft, which is approximately the mid-point of the
centre-of~gravity range of movement. Fuel is carried in saddle
tanks (Hughes 269 and Bell 47 e and J series) or within the fuselage
immediately below the engine (Hiller UH 12 E series). Passengers
and pilot are carried in a small cabin forward of the engine, and
cargo is carried on external racks or on a cargo hook underneath
the fuselage at the ideal c. of g. position. This arrangement means
that the centre-of—gravity movement due to fuel usage is kept to a
minimum and the helicopter itself has a compact shape.

The large piston—engined machines had the engine mounted in

the nose, the main rotor gearbox mounted above the passenger cabin,
the fuel carried in a bath—tub section under the passenger cabin,
and the pilot and copilot carried in a separate cockpit sited above
and behind the engine. This arrangement provided a large cabin for
passengers and cargo and kept the centre—of—gravity movement due to
fuel usage to a minimum.

3/8lI5é 555/3/7
 _ 2 _

The gas turbine engine, because of its smaller size and mass,
is usually mounted on or near the cabin roof close to the main rotor
gearbox, and the fuel is carried in a bathtub section beneath the
cabin. This arrangement gives a compact helicopter and a very good
seating position for the pilot.

Figure l shows the power—plant locations for four types of

helicopter used in New Zealand. Note how the relatively heavy
piston engines are installed equally about the centre line of the
main rotor driveshaft. The much lighter turbine engines are
positioned so that roomy cabin and baggage spaces can be dispersed
evenly about the mid centre of gravity position. This gives greater
passenger comfort and easier cargo loading.

TRANSMISSION COMPONENTS

Each helicopter manufacturer designs components to suit his

own helicopter and, while the function and operating principle of
a component will be the same from one type of helicopter to another,
its constructional details are usually very different. In the
following pages, we shall describe the components of the power train,
using, where needed, two varieties of each component as examples.

The essential components of a transmission are

l. An engine-driven clutch (on piston-engine

helicopters),

2. A freewheel unit,

3. A main rotor gearbox,

H. A tail rotor gearbox, and

5. Driveshafts from the engine to the main

rotor gearbox and from the main rotor gearbox
to the tail rotor gearbox.

555/3/7
 _3..

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’ f a_“;%=n§ \\l , M
tLl=wi" P““ ‘ a. \

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FIG. l Engine locations

555/3/7 ‘
 _ 4 -

The engine-driven clutch is necessary only on piston-engined

helicopters and, rarely used now, on turbine-engined helicopters,
which employ a direct mechanical drive between the compressor and
the helicopter transmission. The clutch is fitted to allow the
engine to start without turning the transmission at the same time.
Two basic types of clutch are used. The first type engages
automatically once the engine has reached a low rev/min, and the
second type is controlled by the pilot, who can select clutch
engagement or disengagement as he wishes. Advantages of the second
type are that the engine can be started and warmed up and passengers
can enter and leave the helicopter with the engine running and
without the rotors turning.

A freewheel unit, also called a one-way sprag clutch or,

simply, the sprag clutch, is fitted between the engine (or the
engine and clutch combination) and the rest of the transmission.
See Fig. 2. It allows the main rotor to turn at a higher equivalent
rev/min than the engine. This condition occurs during autorotation
or when power is substantially reduced for a steep approach to a
landing site. If this unit were not fitted, the main rotor would
try to drive the engine_during autorotation, which would cause a
rapid loss of main rotor rev/min and a very high and uncontrollable
rate of descent.

The main rotor gearbox OP main transmission reduces the engine

rev/min to the low rev/min needed for efficient operation of the
main rotor head and blades assembly. This gearbox often has an
external drive for the tail rotor and drive—mount pads for a
generator or alternator, an hydraulic pump, and a tachometer
generator. The other components that may be driven from this
gearbox are an engine cooling fan, for piston engines, and an oil
cooler fan for cooling the lubricating oil, which is circulated
through the gearbox by its own oil pump. The carcass of this
gearbox is often used to carry flight loads from the main rotor
head into the airframe structure and to provide rigid attachment
points for servo control units. The gearbox is vented to the
atmosphere.

555/3/7
 _ 5 _

The tail rotor gearbox changes the direction and rev/min of

the tail rotor driveshaft to suit the requirements of the tail
rotor. This gearbox consists of an input and an output gear,
meshing in an oil bath inside a sealed casing, which is vented to
atmosphere. The tail rotor assembly is mounted on the tail rotor
driveshaft. The casings of this gearbox carry flight loads from
the tail rotor into the airframe structure and provide attachments
for the tail rotor pitch—change mechanism.

é
Driveshafts run from the engine to the main rotor gearbox and
from the main rotor gearbox to the tail rotor gearbox.
e

Alternatively shafts may run directly from the engine to both

the main rotor gearbox and to tail rotor gearbox. However the
system is laid out, the main rotor is always mechanically connected
to the tail rotor so that one rotor cannot turn without the other
turning.

The drive shafting consists of aluminium alloy or steel tubing

supported on grease-lubricated ball or roller bearings. It is
connected to the gearboxes and the engine by drive couplings, which
provide for some degree of malalignment due to movement of the
engine on its flexible mounts and for the twisting and expansion
and contraction of the airframe.

Some further transmission components that may be found in

helicopters are
l. An intermediate gearbox between the main rotor
gearbox and the tail rotor gearbox,

2. A universal joint between the two gearboxes,

3. A rotor brake,
M. An oil cooling fan unit, and

5. An engine cooling fan used on piston—engined

helicopters.

The intermediate gearbox, placed in the run of the drive

shafting between the main rotor gearbox and the tail rotorbox,
changes the direction of the drive to the tail rotor. The gearbox
consists of an input and an output gear meshing in an oil bath
inside a sealed casing, which is vented to atmosphere.

555/8/7
 _ 5 _

The universal joint, or Hardy Spicer coupling, is used, like

an intermediate gearbox, to change the direction of the drive
between the main and tail rotor gearboxes. This joint is not used
in the larger helicopters or where the change in direction is large.

The rotor brake, is usually fitted close to the main rotor

gearbox on the drive shafting to the tail rotor gearbox. It provides
a means of quickly stopping the rotors after the engine has been
shut down.

The oil cooling fan unit, sited close to the main rotor
gearbox, is driven by the main driveshaft or the tail rotor
driveshaft. This component provides a means of cooling the main
rotor gearbox lubricating oil.

The engine cooling fan, used on piston-enginedhelicopters,

supplies air to cool the engine and the engine oil cooler. It can
be driven directly by the engine or from the main transmission.
The drive to this component is arranged so that it turns and
delivers air whenever the engine is running.

555/3/7
 ..7-.

I Refer brake
O
Main - roior gear-box
. WTT
Frge -wheel um? 1- »
~
Di \
Drive.-shaft .
Universal dnve
Cluich
Tai I rotor
gear box
Engine ~cao(:'ng - Engine 5
€an

(a) Vertical piston engine

Fra.-wheel uni?
Main rotor _ O
gar-be-X /
Drive. - shaff Tai;- shsfi gear-box
\
Clutch
El’\glfl€ I I

Engine-cooling Fan

(b) Horizontal piston engine

Free -whul unit

Drive. 5hafl'\‘
Main V070!‘
gear ~ box
E\ Oil cooling uni? \
Tail roinr
gear -box
Engine

(c) Gas turbine engine

FIG . 2 Power trains

555/3/7
 -8-

SUMMARY

A clutch must be fitted if the engine is mechanically

connected to the power train. Thus, §§§_piston—
enginedhelicopters have a clutch, but gas turbine
engines usually do not.

A freewheel unit is fitted in all power trains so that

the engine can turn more slowly than the main rotor.
This ensures that the main rotor cannot drive the engine.

Gearboxes are used to change the direction of the drive,

to speed it up, and to slow it down to suit the needs of
the main and tail rotors.

Ancillaries can be driven from the main rotor box and from
the driveshafts.

PRACTICE EXERCISE A

State whether each of the following statements is true

or false:

l. A freewheel unit allows a piston engine to be

started without all of the power train turning.

2. The main rotor gearbox increases the rev/min of

the engine to suit the requirement of the main
rotor. .

3. "Sprag clutcH'is another name for a freewheel unit.

4. The only drives taken off the main rotor gearbox

are the rotor tachometer and the tail rotor.

5. To provide a quick warm up, the engine cooling fan

turns only when the main rotor turns.

6. A clutch is fitted to allow the engine to be

started without the transmission being turned at
the same time.

7. An intermediate gearbox is situated between the

engine and the main rotor gearbox.

8. The tail rotor always turns when the main rotor

turns.

9. The freewheel unit is fitted in the power train

between the engine and the main rotor gearbox.

l0. Drive couplings provide a rigid connection between

the drive shafts and gearboxes.

(Answers on page 43)

555/3/7
 _ 9 _

CLUTCHES

Engine-driven Clutch

Two main types of engine-driven clutch are used. They are

l. The centrifugal, and

2. The belt drive.

The large piston-engined helicopters having powers of 600

b.h.p. and upwards used an oil-operated hydro-mechanical clutch
very similar to an automotive fluid flywheel. The lower—powered
piston-engined helicopters use either the centrifugal or the belt-
type clutch, the belt type being particularly reliable and trouble
free.

Centrifugal clutch: As the name suggests, the clutch is

operated by centrifugal force. Splined to a drive ring bolted to
the engine crankshaft is a spider, and freely pivoting on this
spider are four massive steel shoes with brake lining material
riveted to their outer surfaces. On the input shaft of the main
rotor gearbox is splined and secured a sturdy steel clutch drum,
which encircles the spider and shoes assembly. Immediately the
engine is turned, the shoes are flung outward by centrifugal force,
contact the clutch drum, and slowly start to turn the main and
tail rotors. As the engine fires and its rev/min build up, the
shoes are held more firmly against the clutch drum until, at about
70% engine rev/min, the clutch drum rev/min become nearly the
same as those of the engine. No further increase in engine rev/min
will decrease the remaining slippage. The engine rev/min are
now reduced for a moment and then slowly increased and, from the
time the engine rev/min equal those of the clutch drum, no further
slippage takes place and the drive between the engine and the rest
of the transmission system is complete.

The reason for the initial constant slippage is that the

coefficient of sliding (kinetic) friction is slightly less than
that of static friction. Once the shoes are slipping, as they
must at initial startup, they will want to keep slipping. when we
reduce the engine rev/min below that of the clutch drum and then

555/3/7
 _ 10 l

restore them, a time comes when both rev/min are the same (the
clutch drum slowing down due to friction and drag in the
transmission and the engine rev/min increasing). At this moment,
the higher value of static friction takes effect and no more slippage
occurs.

Figure 3 shows a centrifugal clutch assembly. The drive

from the engine is through the splines(1HJ of the spider (5),
the four heavy clutch shoes (8), and into the drum (l). The splines
(13) of the drum engage on the splines of the transmission lower
sun gear, and the complete clutch assembly is secured to this
shaft by a large nut. The hearing (15) locates and supports the
spider centrally in the drum.

1. Clutch drum
2. Bolt - bearing retainer l ..
3. Retainer u©u A \
4. Bearing _ ~
5. Spider “ a
6. Lock ring
7. Pivot pin
8. Clutch shoe assy
9. Bushing
10. Shoe
11. Plate
12. Lining
13. Clutch drum drive splines
14. Spider drive splines
15. Drum - spider bearing

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FIG. 3 Centrifugal clutch

555/3/7
 _ 11 _

This clutch is sprayed with engine oil to cool the finned

drum and to lubricate the clutch shoe pivots and the drum-spider
bearing. The oil supply is part of the transmission lubrication
system and is tapped from the engine lubrication system. It
flows all the time that the engine is running.

Belt clutch: This type of clutch consists of a driving

pulley connected to a driven pulley by a slack belt or belts.
To make a positive drive between the two pulleys, the slack belt
is tensioned by a lever-operated jockey pr idler pulley. This
type of drive is mechanically efficient, and if the diameters of
the driving and driven pulleys are different, a reduction or an
increase in rev/min of the driven pulley can be effected.

The belt clutch used on one type of helicopter has eight

belts to take the drive from the engine-driven pulley to the
slightly larger diameter~driven pulley so that the first stage of
reducing the engine rev/min to those needed by the rotor head is
made in the clutch. The belts are tensioned by a pilot-controlled
linear actuator connected to the idler pulley arm by a cable and
spring assembly, the final tension on the belts being determined
by the tension applied through a cable_and spring assembly. The
linear actuator is electrically driven and controlled by a three~
way guarded switch in the cockpit marked engage, hold, and release,
and its travel is determined by two internal limit switches. The
wiring circuit is arranged so that the engine starter motor cannot
be energised with the clutch engaged, as could happen if the engine
had been shut down with the clutch engaged.

Figure H shows a belt—driven clutch assembly with its eight

matched V belts. When the clutch is engaged, the linear actuator
contracts and pulls the idler pulley assembly downward, compressing
the springs in the clutch-control spring assembly. These springs
determine the pressure exerted by the idler pulley on the V belt
set. when the clutch is released, the linear actuator extends
and tension comes off the clutch control spring assembly. To help
the idler pulley remove its pressure on the V belt set, a return
spring is fitted to its pivot shaft.

555/3/7
 -12-

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FIG. 4 Belt clutch

555/3/'7
 -13-

All three pulleys are mounted on grease-packed heavy-duty

ball bearings, and the upper pulley contains, within its hub, a
sprag clutch (freewheel unit). The belt-drive frame is steadied
at its bottom end by a strut assembly from the airframe, and
the complete belt drive assembly is enclosed by a detachable
guard assembly. Any heat generated during clutch engagement and
during engaged running is dissipated by the free movement of air
within the guard assembly.

Freewheel Unit

Two types of freewheel unit are used. They are

l. The cam and roller bearing type, usually called a

freewheel unit,and

2. The sprag type, called a sprag clutch.

The word sprag means "a device to prevent a vehicle from

running backward". This suggests that a sprag will allow forward
movement but will lock and prevent rearward movement.

Figure 5 shows the arrangement of driving member, driven

member, and sprags in their retainer. Engine power is applied to
the driving member, which causes the sprags to try to roll to an
upright position. This action locks the driving and driven
members together and completes the drive from the engine to the
transmission. To help the sprags in this action, a circular spring
is fitted to hold them in light contact with the driving and
driven members.

When the engine is throttled back, the driving member

immediately slows down and the driven member turns faster than
the driving member. The sprags roll away from their locking
contact with the two members, and the transmission freewheels.

555/3/7
 _ 14 _

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FIG. 5 A sprag clutch

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Figure 6 shows a cam-and-roller type freewheel unit in

diagram form. The driven member has a series of cams cut on its
outer surface, and the driving member has a smooth inner surface.
Between the two is a set of rollers with one roller to each cam.
Engine power is applied to the driving member, which, as it turns,
carries the rollers forward until they lock by wedging between
the cams and the driving member‘s inner surface.

When the engine is throttled back, the driving member

immediately slows down, the rollers run down the cams to unlock the
driving and driven members, and the transmission freewheels.

555/3/7
 . 9‘ DRIVING MEMBER

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DRHNNG FREEWHEEUN6

FIG. 6 A cam and roller unit

The roller s may be located in a ca g e or they may be free.

One manufacturer uses a spring and nylon pack at each roller to
lightly bias the rollers to the locked position.

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555/3/7
 _ 15 _

Figure 7 shows a sprag clutch assembly and its fitment into

a helicopter transmission. In this installation, the sprag clutch
forms the hub of the belt—driven clutch upper pulley and makes a
compact and easy—to—service assembly.

This unit functions by the metal-to-metal contact of the

sprags with the driving and driven members. To prevent damage to
these parts during freewheeling, that is, when they are sliding
over each other, the unit is filled with an oil, which is checked
for quantity and changed at intervals specified by the helicopter
manufacturer. The aft cap has removable sealed bolts, which
provide access into the unit for oil filling and draining.

In the sectional view shown in Fig. 8, the drive comes from

the drive belts into the upper pulley, through the driving and
driven members of the sprag clutch, and into the input pinion
shaft. The input pinion shaft is part of the main rotor gearbox,
and the tail rotor driveshaft is splined on the aft end of this
shaft. Thus, the tail rotor driveshaft is directly connected to the
main rotor gearbox, and the main and tail rotors can turn with
the upper pulley and engine stationary.

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FIG. 8 Sectioned view of sprag clutch and pulley

555/3/7
 -17..

The cam-and-roller type freewheel unit shown in part

section in Fig. 9 takes the drive from the engine through the
flanged ring gear (l), the drive head and gear wheel (2) the
5

rollers (M), the driven cam (5) and, finally, on to the stub
shaft (6). The unit is connected between the stub shaft (6) and
the main rotor gearbox by two flexible couplings and a robust
drive shaft.

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FIG. 9 A cam—and-roller freewheel unit

The unit is sealed and contains its own supply of

lubricating oil, which is checked for quantity and changed at
specified intervals through the hole normally blanked by the cap
screw (7).

555/3/7
 -18..

SUMMARY

The two types of clutch in general use are

l. The centrifugal type, and

2. The belt type.

They are usually needed by and used with piston engines

only.

The two types of freewheel unit in use are

l. The cam—and—roller type, and

2. The sprag type.

Both types perform the same function.

PRACTICE EXERCISE B

State whether each of the following statements is

true or false:

l. The centrifugal clutch starts to engage immediately

the engine fires up.

2. When a belt-type clutch is engaged, the starter motor

cannot be energised.

3. A sprag clutch locks in a clockwise direction, and

a cam and roller clutch locks in a counterclockwise
direction.

4. Both types of freewheel unit are lubricated with oil.

5. Clutch—drive belts are unmatched and may be

replaced one at a time.

6. A centrifugal clutch is selected to engage with

a linear actuator.

7. Air is circulated around the belt-type clutch to

dissipate heat.

8. The idler pulley assembly applies tension to the

drive belts.

9. A centrifugal clutch may be disengaged by running

the engine at idle RPM.

l0. A sprag clutch performs the same function as a cam

and roller clutch.

(Answers on page 44)

 _ 19 _

GEARBOXES

Types of Gears Used

In helicopter gearboxes, three types of gears are widely used

See Fig. l0 (a), (b), and (c). The spiral bevel gear is always
used in preference to the straight bevel gear, and the spur gear
is used more often than the helical gear.

Recently, a fourth type of gear has been developed by

Westland Helicopters. This is called a conformal gear, which is
combined with a helical pattern. See Fig. l0 (d), This gear will
transmit very high powers, is quiet in operation and, because of
the high strength of the tooth section, a larger reduction in
speed can be had from a smaller driving gear than usual.

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FIG. 10 Types of gears

555/3/7
 _ 29 _

Main Rotor Gearbox

(Single-stage Reduction)

A simple, compact, single~stage reduction main rotor gearbox

is shown in exploded form in Fig. ll. It consists of a spiral bevel
input pinion (1) driving a spiral bevel ring gear (2) to give a
speed reduction of approximately M.5 to l. The ring gear is
carried on the drive shaft coupling (3), which is splined internally
at its top end for the mating external splines of the main rotor
drive shaft. The driveshaft coupling is also splined internally
for the lower driveshaft (H) to the oil pump and tachometer
drive (5). The input pinion and driveshaft coupling assemblies are
mounted on heavy-duty tapered and plain roller bearings.

This gearbox is completely self-contained, with all parts

and the oil supply being housed in the upper and lower housings (6)
and (7). An oil pump (8) supplies oil at a low pressure to an oil
jet at the top of the upper housing. This jet sprays oil on to
the driveshaft coupling upper bearing. Oil is also sprayed to
the disengaging teeth of the input pinion and bevel ring gear to
cool and lubricate the teeth and it is fed to the aft bearings of
the input pinion to ensure positive lubrication and cooling of
those heavily loaded bearings.

Oil is added through a filler cap that incorporates a filter

screen. The oil level is checked by a ball-locked dipstick.

A magnetic drain plug and self-closing valve unit is

installed in the lower housing. -All oil must pass over the
magnetic plug, and so any magnetic material that may have been
worn from the gears and bearings is deposited on the plug. This
plug can be easily removed for inspection and cleaning.

A removable fine mesh gauze filter is provided in the oil

way to the input pinion aft bearing. -A screen (9) is fitted in
the centre of the coupling assembly (3) to prevent debris from
passing down the hollow main rotor driveshaft and into the gearbox.

555/3/7
 -21..

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FIG. ll Main rotor gearbox with single—stage reduction

555/3/7
 -22..

Oil pressure and temperature are monitored by transmitting

units, which control warning lights in the cockpit. The complete
gearbox assembly is vented to atmosphere through a special fitting
in the top of the upper housing. Air flow around the casings keeps
the assembly cool.

Figure 12 shows this gearbox assembled and in part section.

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FIG. 12 Assembled gear box in part section

The gearbox is braced to the helicopter centre frame by three

struts, and, through two shock mounts, it supports the driving
end of the engine.

The main rotor mast and the main rotor driveshaft are not
thought of as part of the main rotor gearbox. However, they join
the gearbox to the main rotor head, so we shall discuss them briefly

555/3/7
 -23-

The main rotor mast is attached at its base to the upper

housing of the gear box. At about its mid»height position, it is
secured by rivets to a cabin—section beam and by three support
struts to the centre frame. See Fig. l3.

TAIL ROTOR
TRANSMISSION

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transmission

555/3/7
 _ Qu _

The main rotor driveshaft is housed in the mast. At its

lower end, it engages with the driveshaft coupling of the gearbox.
At its upper end, it carries the main rotor head assembly. This
driveshaft is held in the mast by a heavy-duty thrust bearing and
thrust nut.

Lift and thrust forces in the rotor head pass from the
rotating driveshaft and thrust bearing, through the thrust nut,
into the stationary mast. The forces are then led through the
support struts and gearbox struts into the centre frame.

The complete assembly of gearbox and mast provides attachment

points for the cyclic and collective controls.

Main Rotor Gearbox

(Two-stage Reduction)

Figure 1% shows a transmission with a two-stage speed

reduction. The first reduction occurs between the main input
pinion (1) and the main input spiral bevel gear (2), with a
reduction of about 3 to 1 being obtained. The second reduction
is between the planetary assembly (8) and the planetary ring gear
(R), with a reduction of about 5 to l. The total reduction, the
product of the two ratios, is about l5 to l.

The gear ratio of a planetary system may be found from the

equation

. No. of teeth on sun gear + No. of teeth on ring—gear

Ratio = r r
No. of teeth on sun gear

The drive from the engine arrives at the main input pinion
adapter (5): and passes through the first stage reduction gears (1)
and (2) to the main input gear shaft (6). From the internal splines
in (6), the drive passes to the planetary sun gear (8), the planet
gears and planetary ring gear (9) and (R), to the planetary spider
(l0), and then through splines in (10) to the main rotor mast (ll).

555/3/7
 Main input pinion
Main input spiral bevel gear
Planetary assembly
Planetary ring gear
Adapter main input pinion
Main input gear shaft
Support assembly, lower mast bearing
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Main rotor gearbox with two-stage reduction

-
 _ 25 _

The main rotor mast is located at its lower end by the lower
mast bearing support assembly (7) and is secured in the top case
assembly (12) by the mast thrust bearing and seal assembly (13).
Lift and thrust forces from the rotor head pass down the rotating
mast through the thrust bearing (13), and into the top case (12).
From there, the forces pass into the airframe through two pylon
support links that attach to each side of the main case assembly
(15) ~— see position A for the left—hand pylon support attachment.

The gearbox can pivot fore-and-aft on the pylon supports.

This movement is restrained by the drag pin assembly (17) of
Fig. 15, which links the gearbox to a rubber isolation mount
attached to the fuselage. A positive mechanical restriction is
provided for the gearbox movement if the isolation mount fails.
This mounting arrangement tends to dampen or remove any residual
vibration from the rotor head and thus provides a smooth flight
for the airframe.

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555/3/7
 n 27 *

The accessory drive gear (16) drives a small oil pump for
the lubrication system. It also drives the rotor tachometer
generator and the hydraulic pump that powers the servo controls
used in the main and tail rotor controls. The hydraulic pump
unit and the tachometer are attached to the external mount face
of the oil pump (16).

See Fig. 1M for parts list.

Figure 15 shows the assembled gearbox in part section.

It is clearly a compact and simple unit.

This gearbox has its own lubrication system, which it shares

with the freewheel unit mounted on the engine accessory case. The
system, shown schematically in Fig. 16, consists of a simple
circuit supplying pressure oil to jets in the gearbox and a
restricted supply to the freewheel unit. All oil drains to the
bottom of the main case assembly, which acts as the oil tank for
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The oil is cooled in a thermostatically controlled oil

cooler, which is supplied with cooling air by a fan unit driven
by the tail rotor driveshaft.

Drain plugs, magnetic or electric chip detectors, temperature

and warning switches, inlet and outlet filters, and an adjustable
oil pressure relief valve are used to control and monitor the
system.

Oil is added to the system through a combined filler cap,

breather, and strainer assembly, and the oil quantity is easily
seen through the oil-level sight glass.

Figure 17 shows the main gearbox in relation to the rest

of the power train. In this example, the drive from the freewheel
unit goes forward into the main gearbox and aft to the tail rotor
gearbox. Both drives are connected mechanically at the freewheel
unit so that, when the main rotor turns, so does the tail rotor.

Tail Rotor Gearbox

The tail rotor gearbox is a simple gearbox with an input .

gear and an output gear. A speed reduction/increase may be
arranged between the two gears to suit the need of the tail rotor.
The gearbox is usually mounted, with no vibration-absorbing
devices, directly on to the aft end of the airframe.

555/3/7
 -39..

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6. Ball bearing 13 Attachment points (four)
7. Ball bearing 14. Drain valve and chip detector

FIG. 18 Tail rotor gearbox

555/3/7
 -31..

Figure 18 shows a tail rotor gearbox in exploded form. The

drive from the tail rotor driveshaft passes through the driven
spline (l) into the input level gearshaft assembly (2). It then
passes through the input and output bevel gears (3) and (M) to
the output gearshaft (5). The input shaft assembly is supported
on two ball bearings (6) and (7), and the output gearshaft is
supported by a roller bearing (8) and a duplex ballthrust bearing
assembly (9). The complete assembly is attached to the airframe
by four studs at (13).

The gearbox contains its own oil supply, the gears and
bearings being splash-lubricated by oil being thrown around as
the gears turn. The gearbox is filled through a breather/filler
assembly (10), with the oil level being easily seen through the
liquid level plug window (ll). The oil is cooled by the air flow
over the housing assembly (12). A drain valve and magnetic chip
detector (lq) is provided at the bottom of the housing to trap any
magnetic debris from the gears and bearings. This plug may be
removed for inspection without the oil being drained.

SUMMARY '

Main rotor gearboxes of modern helicopters have their own

oil supply and lubrication system.

The main rotor gearbox will be used to drive at least

r l. A rotor tachometer, and

5 2. An hydraulic pump.

i Gearbox casings may be used to dissipate heat to

‘ circulating air.

Magnetic plugs are used in all gearboxes to trap magnetic y

debris.

555/3/7
 - 32 _

PRACTICE EXERCISE C

State whether each of the following statements is true

or false:

l. The oil level in a modern gearbox is checked by a

dipstick or through a sight glass.

2. All main rotor gearboxes have at least two stages

of speed reduction between the input and output
shafts.

3. A gearbox is vented to atmosphere to prevent a

buildup of air pressure inside the casings.

4. The number of teeth on the planet gears determines

the speed reduction in a planetary gear system.

5. The output gearshaft of a tail rotor gearbox must

be able to accept thrust from two directions.

6. A magnetic drain plug will trap all metallic

particles in the lubricating oil.

7. You can usually remove magnetic chip detectors from

a gearbox without first draining the oil.

8. A tail rotor gearbox must give a speed reduction

to the tail rotor.

9. A heavy duty thrust bearing is used to transfer

the flight loads from the rotor head to a non-
rotating part of the helicopter.

10. The tail rotor gearbox is usually directly attached

to the airframe structure.

(Answers on page 44)

DRIVESHAFTS

Main Driveshaft

The main driveshaft is a substantial but hollow shaft made

from aluminium alloy or steel. It is attached at each end to the
engine and main rotor gearbox by special couplings that allow some
degree of malalignment due to flexing of the airframe and movement
of the engine on its mounts.

555/3/7
 _ 33 _

Some main driveshafts are balanced during manufacture,

and extra care must be taken with these shafts to ensure that
they are fitted correctly. Item 3 of Fig. l7 shows a main drive-
shaft with its couplings.

Tail Rotor Driveshaft

This assembly may consist of either one long driveshaft

and its support bearings or two or more shafts coupled together.

These shafts may be made from steel or from aluminium alloy,

and because they transmit far less power than the main rotor drive-
shaft, they are of a much lighter construction. At each end of
the shaft is a special coupling that allows for flexing of the
airframe. Because of the length of the shaft, it is supported at
regular intervals by bearings mounted in bearing hangers attached
to the airframe. These bearings are lubricated with grease.

Because correct alignment of this driveshaft is important

to the life of the shaft and the bearings, provision is made for
adjustment of the bearing hangers. Thus, the shaft may be moved
in any direction as desired to obtain an accurate alignment between
its input and output ends. The shaft or shafts may be balanced,
and they may also have to be assembled with a particular angular
relationship to the main rotor gearbox and the tail rotor gearbox.

Items(5)to(l2)of Fig.l7 show the assembly of the various

components of a tail rotor driveshaft.

Figure l9 shows in some detail the tail rotor driveshaft

of a light helicopter. This figure should be viewed with Fig. l7.
Note that item (9) of Fig. l7 becomes item (l) of Fig. 19.

555/3/7
 _ 3 L; ..

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FIG. l9 Tail rotor driveshaft assembly

555/3/7
 _ 35 _

Driveshaft Couplings

Couplings are used to connect the driveshafts to the

engine, to the gearboxes, and to each other. The amount of
power being transmitted determines the size of the coupling.
Whatever their size, all couplings have the ability to allow for
some small degree of malalignment and relative movement between
one transmission component and another.

Three types of coupling in common use are

l. The rubber coupling,

2. The Thomas, or disc, coupling, and

3. The splined coupling.

These types are shown in Fig. 20, 2l, and 22.

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FIG. 20 Rubber couplings

The rubber coupling consists of two metallic plates with

vanes formed on one face of each plate. The coupling is assembled
with the vaned faces towards each other and rubber blocks
interposed between the vanes.

The driving plate transmits the drive to the driven plate

through the rubber blocks, which are bonded to the vanes. This
type of coupling can be used to transmit high powers.

555/3/7
 _ 35 _

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SECTION A-A

FIG. 21 A Thomas, or disc, coupling

The Thomas, or disc coupling, consists of a pack of thin

steel discs. The steel used is made with its grain structure
running in parallel lines, which makes the steel easier to flex
along the grain than at 90° to it. The pack is assembled with
the grain of each disc at 90° to that of the disc above and below
it. This ensures that flexing can take place evenly in all
directions.

The discs have a series of bolt holes in them and are

secured to opposing flanges by alternate bolt holes. Thus, if a
coupling has six bolt holes at 60° to each other, it will be
secured by three bolts at l20° to each other to one flange and
by the other three bolts to the other flange.

555/3/7
 -37..

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FIG. 22 A splined coupling

The splined coupling shown in Fig. 22 consists of a steel

inner spherical coupling (3) bolted to the driveshaft (l).
Surrounding the inner coupling (3) is the steel outer spherical
coupling (Q), which is bolted to the drive flange of the engine
or main gearbox. The coupling is packed with grease and is sealed
by the plate (5), the seal (2), and two O rings. A spring is
fitted inside the coupling to hold the driveshaft (l) in about _
its mid travel. One of these couplings is fitted at each end of
the driveshaft. This type of coupling is used to transmit high
powers.

Of the three types of coupling, the splined coupling permits

most movement of the driveshaft, the shaft being able to slide
in and out, tilt up and down, and move from side to side. This
type of coupling is needed to connect the main driveshaft to a
main rotor gearbox that is not rigidly attached to the airframe.

OTHER COMPONENTS

Intermediate Gearbox

This gearbox is used where an abrupt change in the direction

of a tail rotor drive is needed.

Figure 23 shows an intermediate gearbox. It consists of two

spiral bevel gears supported on heavy-duty roller bearings in a
housing containing a bath of oil. As the shafts turn, oil is
thrown by the gears up the oil feed pipe to positively lubricate
the output shaft upper roller bearing. The other bearings are

555/3/7
 _ 38 _

lubricated by splash oil. Fins on the main housing dissipate

heat to atmosphere, and duct stream air around the gearbox.
The assembly has an oil filter and breather, a drain plug, which
can be a combined drain valve and magnetic chip detector, and an
oil level window that is easily seen from outside the helicopter
The gearbox is rugged l y b ui'lt and is firmly attached to a strength-
ened part of the airframe.

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555/3/7
 _ 39 _

Universal Joint

The universal joint, or Hardy Spicer coupling, may be used

in the tail rotor driveshafting where only a small change in the
direction of drive is needed. It is an efficient substitute for
costly intermediate gearbox. .

Figure 2H shows a typical universal joint.

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These joints are used only in the smaller helicopters.

The Rotor Brake

This component is not essential for the functioning of the

helicopter transmission and, for many helicopters, it is supplied
only as an optional.kit. The rotor brake provides a safe method
of rapidly bringing the rotors to rest in an emergency. It may
be very desirable for certain types of surveying and for the
safety and peace of mind of passengers entering or leaving the
helicopter.

555/3/7
 ..L{.Q...

The rotor brake consists of an aircraft-type brake unit,

a hydraulic accumulator or relief valve, a hand~operated master
cylinder/reservoir assembly, and connecting flexible hoses and
pipelines. A rotor brake 0N warning light may be fitted to the
instrument panel. The oil used is normally a mineral hydraulic
fluid.

The brake drum or brake disc is bolted to the main driveshaft

or tail rotor driveshaft and is sited as close as possible to the
main rotor gearbox. The housing containing the brake pads or
brake shoes is bolted to a reinforced part of the airframe
structure. The capacity oi and the pressure in, the hydraulic
accumulator govern the maximum force that can be exerted by the
master cylinder. Alternatively, a relief valve bleeding excess
pressure back to the master cylinder is used. The master cylinder/
reservoir assembly is located within easy reach of the pilot and
is usually operated by his left hand. Provision may be made for
locking the rotor brake in its ON position.

011 Cooler Fan Unit

Most main rotor gearboxes have their own lubricating oil

systems, and an essential part of this system for all but the
smallest helicopters is an oil cooler or a positive means of
cooling the oil.

The oil cooler is needed because a large amount of heat is

generated by the meshing gears. Unless this heat is removed, it
will overheat metallic parts, destroy the gearbox oil seals and
packings, and impair the quality of the lubricating oil.

The oil cooler on a fixed-wing aircraft has cooling air ducted

through its matrix, the airflow being obtained from the forward
speed of the aircraft. The helicopter, however, cannot rely on its
forward speed to supply the airflow. AS when hgveringaitg airspeed
is nil.

To provide a cooling airflow, a fan driven off the main rotor

gearbox or the tail rotor driveshaft is used. Air from outside

S55/3/7
 ..L(.]_..

the helicopter is ducted to the fan and then from the fan to the
oil cooler matrix. In some installations, the fan and cooler
may be joined together as one assembly.

In Fig. 1?, an oil cooling fan unit is shown as item (8)

and consists of a squirrel cage type impeller driven by the tail
rotor driveshaft. The engine oil cooler is mounted on the fan
unit, and cooling air is ducted to the main gearbox oil cooler
(l3) and around the finned hydraulic system reservoir.

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FIG. 25 Oil cooler fan unit

555/3/7
 ...L{.2..

The oil cooler fan unit in Fig. 25 is belt driven off the
main rotor driveshaft. Cooling air enters through two ram air
scoops, is ducted around the main rotor gearbox casings, and
passes into the fan unit. The fan unit outlet air is ducted
through the engine oil cooler matrix and to various places around
the engine. The air flow over the main rotor gearbox casings keeps
the gearbox at a safe working temperature. Because of the fan
unit, the cooling air flows while the helicopter is hovering.

SUMMARY

Driveshaft couplings allow for some malalignment

between transmission components.

An oil cooler fan unit is often used to supply the

essential cooling air for transmission and engine oil
cooling.

PRACTICE EXERCISE D

State whether each of the following statements is true

or false:

l. The main purpose of an oil cooler fan unit is to

supply cooling air for the engine and
transmission oil systems.

2. Tail rotor driveshaft bearings are lubricated with

grease.

3. Because of their strength, straight bevel gears

are always used in place of spiral bevel gears.

4. A rotor brake is fitted as close as possible to

the engine.

5. A Thomas coupling consists of a stack of thin steel

discs.

6. A splined coupling will permit very little axial

movement of a driveshaft.

7. A universal joint is normally used in the tail

rotor driveshaft run when a small change in the
direction of the drive is needed.

555/3/7
 ....2l3...

8. Of the Thomas, rubber, and splined couplings, only

the splined coupling must be lubricated.

9. An intermediate gearbox is used when the direction

of rotation of the tail rotor driveshaft must be
changed.

lO. A rotor brake system has a device fitted to prevent

excessive pressures being applied to the brake
disc.

(Answers on page 44)

ANSWERS TO PRACTICE EXERCISES

EXERCISE A

Statements 3, 6, 8, and 9 are true.

l. False. A freewheel unit is fitted to allow the power

train to keep turning when the engine stops
or slows down.

2. False. The main rotor gearbox decreases the rev/min of

the engine.

H. False. Other components that may be driven by the

main rotor gearbox are an alternator/generator and a
hydraulic pump.

5. False. The engine cooling fan will turn whenever the

engine is running.

7. False. The intermediate gearbox is situated between

the main rotor gearbox and the tail rotor gearbox.

l0. False. Drive couplings are designed to be fairly

flexible to allow for malalignment of power train
components.

555/3/7
 _ nu _

EXERCISE B

Statements l, 2, H, 7, 8, and l0 are all True.

3. False. Both types of clutch can be designed to lock

in either direction.

5. False. Clutch-drive belts are supplied as a matched

set and must be installed as a matched set.

6. False. A centrifugal clutch engages because of the

rev/min of the engine. A linear actuator is used to
tension the belts of a belt-drive clutch.

9. False. With the engine at idle RPM, enough centrifugal

force is generated to keep the clutch engaged.
The only way to disengage a centrifugal clutch is to
stop the engine.

EXERCISE C

Statements 1, 3, 5, 7, 9 and 10 are all True.

2. False. Main rotor gearboxes can have one or more

stages of speed reduction.

H. False. The speed reduction is determined by the

number of teeth on the sun and ring gears.

6. False. A magnetic drain plug will trap only magnetic

material.

8. False. Depending upon the manufacturer, the tail

rotor gearbox may give a reduction, an increase, or
no change in rotational speed.

EXERCISE D

Statements l 9
2 9
5 3
7 9
8 and l0 are all True '
3. False. Spiral bevel gears are always used because they
are stronger and quieter in operation.

555/3/7
 _ ug _

H. False. A rotor brake is fitted as close as possible

to the main rotor gearbox.

6. False. A splined coupling is the coupling used when

axial movement of the driveshaft is needed.

9. False. An intermediate gearbox is used to change the

direction of the tail rotor drive.

TEST PAPER 7

A main rotor gearbox has its first stage of speed reduction

through two spiral bevel gears with 25 and HO teeth
respectively. Its second stage reduction is through a
planetary system whose sun gear has AH teeth, and ring
gear, 1H3 teeth. Make a diagram of this gear train and
calculate the total speed reduction.

Sketch, in reasonable proportions, a roller-and-cam~type

freewheel unit. Show the power input going to the inner
member 5 the power takeoff from the outer member 9 and the
power being transmitted in a clockwise direction.

State the differences in purpose and operation between

an engine-driven centrifugal clutch and a one-way sprag
clutch.

What ancillary components could be driven by the main rotor

gearbox? What ancillary component must be driven by
this gearbox? Give reasons for your answers.

Sketch a driveshaft and coupling assembly that would be

used to join an engine to a main rotor gearbox that rocks in
a fore and aft direction. Give reasons for your choice of
coupling.

Why must an oil cooler fan unit be fitted to most helicopters?

State two reasons for having a rotor brake fitted in the

power train.

555/3/7
 ...L}§_

Draw a diagram of a power train for a piston-engined

helicopter. Include in your drawing

(a) An intermediate gearbox,

(b) An oil cooler fan unit, and

(c) A rotor brake.

/‘*

.*.
¢
5

N-8
,MW,

555/3/7
 He Whareleura-tin i
Kaihautu 0 Aotearoa

THE OPE N
P0|.YTE(HN|(
OF NEW ZEALAND

§>‘\ \
t
L
\
R
g

o
Q

Vibration Effects and

Control in Helicopters
555—3—8
 He Whareleura-tin i
Kaihautu 0 Aotearoa

THE OPE N
P0|.YTE(HN|(
OF NEW ZEALAND

§>‘\ \
t
L
\
R
g

o
Q

Vibration Effects and

Control in Helicopters
555—3—8
 CONTENTS

Vibration

The Effects of Vibration

Principles of Vibration
Sources of Vibration
Aerodynamic Sources
Mechanical Sources

Methods of Reducing Vibration

Resonant Mass
Nodal Beam
Counterweights

Types of Vibration

Low-frequency Vibration
Medium-frequency Vibration
High-frequency Vibration

Measurement of Vibration
The Hand Vibrograph
Electronic Vibration Measurement
The Vibration Signature Analyser
Analysis of Vibration

Main and Tail Rotor Balancing

Main Rotor Tracking and Balancing

Main Rotor Blade Tracking

Main Rotor Balancing

Tail Rotor Tracking and Balancing

Tail Rotor Balancing

Tail Rotor Blade Tracking

Drive Shafts and Cooling Fans

555/3/8
 AIRCRAFT ENGINEERING

HELICQPTERS ASSIGNMENT 8

VIBRATION

g‘ In this assignment, we shall discuss the various kinds of

vibration that affect helicopters, together with their more
N» common causes and remedies.

A dictionary definition of vibration is

To shake, to tremble, to oscillate, to swing, to

change to and fro, especially rapidly, to resound
or ring, to tingle

Chambers Twentieth Century Dictionary

With the possible exception of "to resound or ring", this

definition fits the response of a helicopter to the various
vibrations that can develop in its rotating components.

Even a perfectly balanced shaft vibrates at all rev/min,

but at certain well—defined rev/min ~— for that particular shaft
i —~ the vibration becomes severe. This is a material effect that
cannot be avoided, but it can be minimised by avoiding those
= critical rev/min or by accelerating and decelerating through
these rev/min without any delay. Most of the vibrations
experienced in a helicopter are not natural ones but are the
result of a rotating component or components becoming unbalanced
The severity of the vibration will depend upon the amount of
"out~of~balance" and the speed of rotation of the component.

5/8“/~15 ssa/3/s
 _ 2 _

The Effects of Vibration

To the flight crew and passengers, the vibration of a

helicopter can cause physical and mental effects, ranging from
slight worry and annoyance to definite pain and distress. To
the pilot, these effects can lead to an impaired ability causing,
say, a poorly made landing at the end of a flight. To the '
passengers, these effects may cause such a deep distrust of the
helicopter that they will refuse to fly in one again.

Of equal, or greater, importance are the effects of all

vibrations to the helicopter. These effects include

1. Accelerated wear
(a) In the bearings, control rod ends, cables,
pulleys and fairleads, and bellcrank
attachments of flight control systems;

(b) In the bearings of all rotating parts;

and

(c) In all instruments.

2. The cracking of fuselage skins, frames, and
stringers (especially near the tail rotor).

3. The loosening of rivets and of the attachments

for component parts, which in turn leads to
fretting and to corrosion.

H. Internal damage to electronic equipment.

5. The reduction in "life" of lifed components.

The "life" reduction of lifed components, which is especially

dangerous, is brought about by the forces that cause the
vibration changing the point of failure of the component on its
S/N curve.

Figure 1 (a) shows a stress cycle fatigue curve ~— S/N curve

—— that does Q93 represent any particular component or material.
On this curve, Eg is the endurance limit for failure after 108
stress cycles. If, because of the forces causing the vibration,

S55/3/8
 _ 3 l

the stress is raised to Eg+ [Fig. 1 (b)], then the failure will
occur earlier, at 207'? stress cycles. This is a considerable
reduction in the number of stress cycles before failure. If
this S/N curve were for a part of a main rotor head turning at
333 rev/min and each revolution gave one stress cycle, then
failure in Fig. 1 (a) would occur at

108'? (333 X 60) = gggé hours of running

ZOMPG

FTHTI

Stress scoet
m 81- _____________ ___ 55+ --_---~-----__

6' io9N or-- Q

QJ logN 6%-—- 1|it
Sc0m:6nvnflO' »
(e> (s)
FIG. 1 S/N Curve

Failure in Fig. 3 (b) would occur at

107'? % (333 X 60) = £§Q§:hours of running

This is almost a 50% reduction in the time before failure.

In practice5 a Factor of safety is used by the designer to allow
for such factors as variations in the material used and overloading
This allowance will cater for vibration in the short term.
However, for safety of flight and the economics of helicopter
operation, all vibration should be reduced to its lowest possible
level as soon as Possible after it has started.

555/3/8
 _ u _

Principles of Vibration

The speed at which vibration takes place is known as freguencg

and is expressed in hertz (Hz). One hertz is a frequency of
1 cycle per second, where a cycle consists of movement in one
direction followed by movement in the opposite direction and
then a return to the starting point.

The amplitude (range of movement) of the displacement that

takes place during vibration is usually measured from the mean
or equilibrium position, but it may be measured on a peak-to-
peak basis. The units used for this measurement are inches,
mils (1 mil =' 0.001 inch), or millimetres. Because it is
difficult to measure amplitude directly, the related function
of velocity expressed in inches per second or millimetres per
second (in/s or IPS and mm/s) is often used. Because the
velocity is not constant, the figure used is the velocity of
the point being measured as it passes through the mid-position
of its oscillatory motion. Figure 2 (a) shows the terms
cycle and amplitude as they are used for vibration.

, 1 Cycle
\

ll. — W ~ e t W ,;"‘: Time

D
spacement
_____ ____ __ Amplitude
\ (A) DAMPED VIBRATION

~~:W \u[>mm
D
acspéinent

(B) mvsneem" v|an/mom

FIG. 2 .Forms of vibration

555/3/8
 _ 5 _

The velocity of vibration may be related to actual displacement

at a given frequency by using the formula

D = _!l
Zwf

where D is the displacement amplitude in inches o

millimetres (i),

V is the velocity in inches per second or

millimetres per second,

f is the circular frequency (Hz), and

TEV
Y Hz is the *T- X 60 (cycles/second)
min

Example: What is the displacement (D) of a tail rotor with

a vibration velocity (V) of H IPS at 3000 rev/min” (This 1S a
severe imbalance)

D2 “X.
Zflf

iL_
2w5O

0.0127

Qlgéiaa

The displacement is 0.013" each side of the mean or a

peak-to-peak movement of 0.026" (2 X 0.01

Example: What is the displacement (D) of a main rotor

with a vibration velocity (V) of 38 mm/s at 315 rev/min°

D: _Y_
Zflf

__%i__
mH5.2&

iakififi

555/3/8
 _ 5 _

The displacement is 1.15 mm each side of the mean or a peak

to peak movement of 2.30 mm (2 X 1.15 mm).

Another term met when dealing with vibration is resonance.

Any object that is flexibly mounted has a natural vibration
frequency. This is the frequency at which it will naturally vibrate
when stimulated by an outside source. For example, if a thin _
wooden ruler overhanging a desk is struck at its end, it Will
vibrate at a frequency that depends on how much of the ruler
overhangs the desk. If a small weight is now fixed to the end
of the ruler, the natural frequency will be lowered; the force
used to strike the ruler will not alter the frequency of vibration,
but it will alter the amplitude; and the vibration of the ruler
decays as the stimulation is removed [Fig. 2 (a)1. However,
should the stimulation continue in phase (in time) with the
natural vibration, the amplitude of the vibrations will increase
Efig. 2 (b)] to the point where the strength of the ruler is
exceeded and it breaks. Ground resonance is an example of this
form of vibration, as we shall discuss later in this assignment.
Rotor
Figure 3 shows the dynamic
behaviour of a helicopter ~
-<—i— Spring (A) structure in greatly simplified
form. in Fig. 8 (a), a spring
A and weight B form a system
t <w--—-VVmght(B) suspended from a rotor that
excites the system. The main
(a) excitation frequency (Hz) will
Rotor
be given by the number of rotor
blades multiplied by the rev/sec
'-s-——-—-—-—-—-- Spring (A) of the rotor. Weight B responds
to this excitation in a way that
depends on the value of the
L -e---—— Weight (B) weight and the natural resonant
frequency of the weight/spring
as- Spring (0) system. This response could
be naturally damped (attenuated)
+ 4--i—*—--Weight (C)
or it could be divergent
(b) (amplified). If a weight C is
FIG.&§ Dynamic response to vibration

(:1 (rs (J1 /3/8

 _ 7 _

hung on weight B by another spring D [see Fig. 2 (b)], then the

original response to vibration by weight B will be modified.
Weight C will respond in opposition to the exciting force from
weight 8 and tend to reduce it - or cancel it if the natural
frequencies of the two weight/spring systems match each other.
The structural response will now be zero. That is, the vibration
has been absorbed.

In practice, the absorption of vibration in a helicopter is

a very complex matter. Because the structure is not a single
mass of uniform material, because the rotor speed varies, and
because the main rotor is only one of several sources of vibration,
it is not possible to eliminate all vibration from a helicopter.
However, careful maintenance with special attention to rotating
components and accurate rigging and balancing will keep a helicopter
to its design standard, and vibration levels will then be
acceptable.

Sources of Vibration

The two sources of vibration are

1. Aerodynamic, and

2. Mechanical.

Aerodynamic Sources

The primary sources of aerodynamic vibrations are the main

and tail rotor blades. Bach blade is of airfoil section and
provides lift, or thrust, or both, and aerodynamic disturbances
will cause vibrations of a frequency depending on the speed of
rotation and the number of blades in the rotor. For example,
a two—bladed semi—rigid (teetering) rotor will have a normal
vibration of 2/rev, and a five—bladed rotor will have a normal
vibration of 5/rev. (These normal vibrations pass almost
unnoticed because of good design.) However, differences relating
to one blade only, such as minor damage or natural ageing, will

555/3/8
 - 3 _

cause the blade to develop more or less lift and drag and thus
produce an additional 1/rev vibration. In an articulated rotor 7
variations in blade spacing (blade phase) will cause similar
vibrations, and if only one blade is affected, the additional
vibration will be a 1/rev. A variation of track of one blade,
on any rotor, will also produce an additional 1/rev vibration.
if two blades are out of track, there will be an additional -
2/rev vibration. The same is true of a tail rotor, except that
the vibration frequency will be higher because of the higher
rotational speed of the tail rotor.

Under some conditions, a disturbed airflow can cause the

vibration of elevators, stabilisers, cowlings, and access doors,
but more often these will vibrate in sympathy with some other
source if their attachments are loose or worn.

Mechanical Sources

Mechanical sources of vibration are, simply, rotating parts

They are conveniently divided into transmission sources and
powerplant sources.

Transmi§siQn sources: ‘Sources in this group can be listed

ELSZ

1. -Rotors: A rotor will vibrate as a result of

any out-of—balance condition or because of
wear in its control linkage.

2. Drive shafts: These shafts may have to be balanced

and=specially assembled on to the shaft couplings
to keep the balance of the.whole assembly.
Misalignment of a shaft can cause vibration as
a result of the slight flexing motion produced.
Wear in support bearings and coupling splines
are further sources of vibration.
3. Gearboxes:These devices have components running
at.different speeds and supported on different
kinds of bearings that provide sources of vibration
at several frequencies. Also, due to the
accumulation of manufacturing and assembly
tolerances, gear teeth may vary slightly in
position, shape, and mesh at different positions

555/3L8
 _ 9 _

on the gear, which results in vibration. Varying

loadings due to changes in helicopter attitude and
airspeed are transmitted through the rotor mast,
its support and thrust bearings, and the drive
gear train bearings to give changes in vibration.
ln addition, many main gearboxes provide drives
for such accessories as generators, hydraulic
pumps, and tachometers, and each of the components
has its own characteristic vibration, which may
vary with differing operating conditions.

4. Ancillary equipment: Cooler fan_units that supply

cooling air for the main gearbox oil cooler and,
sometimes, for the engine oil cooler may be driven
through a belt drive by the tail rotor drive shaft.
This unit may vibrate due to defective bearings,
damaged fan blades, or defective drive belts. A
rotor brake device may act on the tail rotor drive
shaft and can give rise to vibrations if its
brake disc or pucks are damaged.

Powerplant sources: Powerplants fall naturally into the two

divisions of piston engine and turbine engine, each having totally
different vibration characteristics.

1. Piston engine: The piston engine, with its one

power stroke per cylinder for every two revolutions
of the crankshaft, is a prime source of vibration,
the severity of which depends on the number of
cylinders ~— the greater the number of cylinders,
the smoother the running of the engine. The
vibration is transmitted not only through the
engine mounts but also as a torsional vibration
through the crankshaft into the helicopter
transmission. For this reason, many piston-engined
installations use a flexible coupling between the
crankshaft and the transmission, and the_crankshaft
itself usually embodies counterweights to absorb
torsional vibration. This last reason is why only
the speeified engine model may be fitted to a
helicopter, as seemingly similar engines may be
very different in their vibration characteristics.

2. Turbine engine: Although the turbine engine is

naturally smooth running, its higher rotational
speeds mean that the effects of any imbalance are
magnified as much as ten times compared with a
piston engine. Ingestion damage to compressor
blades, creep damage to turbine blades, and wear
on bearings and seals are all causes of abnormal
vibration. As with the helicopter main gearbox,
all engine—driven accessories can produce noticeable
characteristic vibrations, which, on the piston
engine, are hidden by its usual clatter.

555/3/8
 _ 19 _

Methods of Reducing Vibration

If good maintenance practices and attention to detail are

followed during all maintenance and repair of a helicopter, then
vibrations will be kept.to an acceptable level and the helicopter
will fly safely and well. .However, there will always be a
certain degree of vibration natural to the design of a helicopter
We shall discuss below some of the ways that manufacturers dampen
these natural vibrations.

Resonant Mass

The principle behind this vibration damping method is shown

in Fig. 3 and explained on page 6. One type of helicopter
uses its 2H d.c. battery and mount assembly supported by three
cantilever springs, as the resonant mass. [This is weight c
in Pig. 3 (b).] The spring length, which is adjustable, is set
during construction using special equipment. The assembly is
tuned to allow for any variation in battery weight by adding or
subtracting weights, weight being added to lower the resonant
frequency.

Another application of this principle is used in the cyclic

controls of a helicopter to prevent vibration being transmitted
through the control runs. See Fig. M.

555/3/8
 _ 11 _

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FIG. 4 Vibration dampers in a control system

The damping is adjusted by repositioning the weights on

their slotted arms.

A further application of the same principle is in the vibration

damper installed on the main rotor head of a light helicopter.
See Fig. 5. Being mounted on the rotor head, the vibration damper
SPFHNG
absorbs most of the excitation
g|_
{ONE OF THREE EQUALLY SPAGED AROUND A505)

at its source before it can be

F1 transmitted to the rest of the
MiM17
"Q WEIGHT
helicopter. In this design, a
weight is supported in the rotor
head by a ball-joint that lets
i MAIN
it move in any direction in a
ROTOR
HEAD
plane parallel to the rotor head.
| SUPPORT TUBE
The weight is restrained by three
MAI N
sown
wxsr equally spaced springs, which
BALL JOINT
Id-LL’ U control its movement and form a
_1§1s. 5 Spring~loaded main rotor damper

585/3/8
 _ 12 _

tuned system. This system is excited by the vibratory loads

developed in the rotor head and responds in opposition, thus
reducing these vibratory loads. -

Nodal Beam

The principle of a nodal beam can be demonstrated with

a long, thin piece of wood. If you hold the wood at its mid-
point and shake it up and down, the ends, because of the
flexibility of the wood, will move in opposite directions to
the mid-point. That is, they will be out of phase. This will
occur when the induced vibration is near the natural vibration
frequency of the piece of wood. The positions on the wood
where the motion changes from one direction to another are
known as nodal Qoints. Here, there is no movement. If a beam
arrangement is built up, see Fig. 6, and a helicopter fuselage
is attached at these points, with the gearbox and rotor attached
to the centre of the beam, then the fuselage will not be
subjected to the vertical vibration induced by the rotor.
vnamvrme component . '
moron AND ssaneoxl _
/~ FLEXIBLE /X
,__/ ‘‘I I MEMBER Q
A ,\
'~J\ ""
\ __\ f ,’
s‘ ‘ ,I
c -. a
\,_ , _, ,/
“'~ , 4"
. ~,_‘ _,- ‘

F_ _ _ _ __'

‘ NODAL
. POINT

ATTACHMENT
INSRTIA
WEIGHT

//////.4./..(
/////
T //// _
FIG. 6 Principle of nodal beam damping

In a helicopter, the beam consists of flexible members with

inertia weights attached at their ends. These flexible members
may be formed from glass fibre with a low Young‘s modulus of
elasticity (it is quite an elastic material) and high allowable
stress that is fairly easy to form into complicated shapes.

555/3/8
 M 13 _

The mounting to the airframe is through elastomeric bearings,

and the response of the system is adjusted by tuning weights mounted
OI1 arms

Elastomer: A rubber—like substance

Figure V shows an inservice version of a nodal beam damping

assembly. Compare this system with the one in Fig. 6.

a-ww*\m
¢a,q§sEJ;“ "Q

E P?
& - V. ‘V J. )6
w_i_.¢-- > 4/

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/i%§" ‘e5§§§§§%5’ 'aau§ \ aQz:iEt\\ ‘\$' , 1

~‘§Z?_»>-,
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1. Transmission to nodal system 3. Glass fibre flexures
links
4. Fuselage mounting points
2. Tuning weights

FIG. 7 A nodal beam damping assembly

Counterweights

One type of vibration damper that does not have springs, used
in at least one model of helicopter, is generally known as a
pendulum dynamic vibra t ion
damper . A vibration absorber assembly
is attached to each main rotor blade so as to rotate in the same

555/3/8
 ....j_l.§._

plane as the rotor. It consists of a support bracket that carries

two pendulums loosely mounted and free to move within the
restriction imposed by the support bracket. Figure 8 shows a

t5~
vibration absorber installation.

,,_
BRACKEI

¢>‘ * y
5'“
///F \\\\ ‘I’ , .} U
,/“ |~ /' -
i‘
§_* s % /i “L-Ay 1
‘iii ‘ . 5 - P ER REVOLUTION
PENDUKUM

~\
e"9e
l\\

é
l “\t
‘—m\17' 3'PER REVOLUTION
, /PENDULUM

FIG._§_ Vibration absorber

This vibration damper uses the inertia forces generated by

the in~p1ane pendular dynamic weights to oppose the forces
generated by the rotor. Because the weights are subject to
centrifugal force, which varies with rotor speed, the damping
provided by this type of absorber is effective throughout the
operating speed range.

Types of Vibration

Vibrations in<1he1iccpter can, for practical reasons, be

conveniently put into three ranges:

1. LOW frequency —— 'i TO 7 h(~‘(*1j7,,

2. Medium frequency —w 16 to 30 hurts, and

3. High frequency —— 30 hart; and upward.

S55/3/8
 _ 15 _

This classification is rough and ready, but its use is a

help when diagnosing the cause and source of a vibration.

Low-frequency Vibrations

Abnormal vibrations in this category are nearly always

associated with the main rotor. The vibration will be of some
frequency related to the rev/min and the number of blades of
the main rotor. It is very often referred to as a "1 per rev",
"2 per rev", and so on. A "1 per rev" is usually slow enough
to be counted without any help,but a "2 per rev" can be impossible
to count without resorting to a vibration measuring instrument.
For example, a helicopter with a rotor speed of M20 rev/min and
a "2 per rev" vibration will have a vibration frequency of
is hertz. You calculate the frequency by finding the product
of the rev/sec and the vibration per rev. Thus:

420 (rem) X Z_(vibrations), = 14 (vibrations)

60 (second) 1 (féfil 1 (second)

= _.L.%..5s

A 1s—hertz vibration is too fast to count unaided.

The frequency and strength of a low frequency vibration

will cause the pilot and passengers to be noticeably bounced or
shaken laterally or vertically or in a combination of both
movements. '

A vertical vibration is usually caused by a main rotor blade(s)

being out of track, and a lateral vibration by an out~of-balance
condition of some kind in the main rotor head and blades assembly.
These vibrations may change in strength with rotor rev/min, with
airspeed, and with power-on and power~off flight. Specific
instructions for these vibrations will be found in the maintenance
manual for the helicopter. However, in using these instructions,
you must be prepared to find and rectify a cause that they may
not mention.

555/3/8
 -16-‘

Ground resonance: This is a form of low-frequency vibration

found only in a helicopter on the ground that has

1. An articulated main rotor head (whose blades

are controlled in their movement about vertical
hinges by lead-lag blade dampers), and0

2. An undercarriage system with a sprung undercarriage.

If either of these two conditions are removed, then ground

resonance cannot occur. For example, neither a helicopter with
an articulated main rotor head, mounted on floats or skids, nor
a helicopter with a semi~rigid main rotor head, mounted on a
sprung undercarriage can get ground resonance.

The vibration is started when one or more blades move on

their vertical hinges to become unevenly spaced in the rotor disc.
See Fig. 9. This uneven
spacing means that the centre of
Ollploced blade
gravity of the assembly does
not coincide with the centre of
rotation of the head. The
Olaplncod \ head then tries to rotate about
CMG ‘ Contra of mum ‘
¢ the centre of gravity and,
1’ ‘~ as a result, the fuselage rocks,
a low—frequency vibration,
from side to side.

§E§L_g Displaced blade

when the period of the fuselage vibration coincides with the

natural vibration frequency of the undercarriage, the rotor-
induced vibration amplifies the undercarriage vibration and vice
versa. The result is a very quickly growing vibration amplitude,
that, if unchecked, will cause the helicopter to roll far enough
for the blades to touch the ground. The helicopter usually ends
up on its side on the ground, destroyed. Figure 10 shows,
simplified, the development of ground resonance.

555/3/8
 _ 17 _

Ground resonance can occur

~7L\ 1. As you are bringing the

main rotor up to operating
rev/min from a standstill;
a--~_¢$' 2. During taxying over rough

or uneven ground;

“ 3. If the undercarriage oleo

I5 ‘ y struts and tyres are
:ii_ - o rial __ U- _ incorrectly inflated; or
H. If, during landing, the
cyclic control is moved
\ suddenly as a main wheel
touches the ground.
if
-,/,¢¢¢aI§r¢,',,,,
“ The'immediate
ground resonance is cure for
to lift
the helicopter off the ground,
1

pi @_ T whereupon the rocking motion

swiftly dies down. if liftoff
is not possible, then the
rotor must be slowed down and
. stopped as quickly as possible.
§%5x:x\ Use the rotor brake, if one is
vg» fitted, to do this.

<Jqék‘fiiip §§5$

FIG. 10 Ground resonance

The rocking movement of the helicopter in ground resonance

is violent and develops very rapidly. The pilot must be secured
by lap straps and a shoulder harness in his seat so that he can
regain control of the helicopter before it destroys itself.

555/3/8
 ....j_8...

NOTE

Because of possible ground resonance, it is

usual for a helicopter with an articulated
main rotor head to be ground run only by a
qualified pilot.

Medium~frequency Vibration

These vibrations are too fast to be counted unless an

instrument is used. In some helicopters, their source will be
the tail rotor and its associated drive—shaft.

High-frequency Vibration

These vibrations are too fast to be counted unless an

instrument is used. Their usual source will be the engine, but
on some helicopters in which the tail rotor rev/min is nearly
equal to or greater than that of the engine rev/min, the
source could be the tail rotor. In this case, a means of
positively identifying the source will have to be devised.

SUMMARY

Vibration causes accelerated wear of components,

cracking of skins, and frames, loosening of rivets,
and internal damage to electronic equipment. It
\ also reduces the "life" of lifed components.

Careful preventative maintenance will keep vibration

levels to an acceptable standard.

Sources of vibration are either aerodynamic or

mechanical.
\
\

The sources of aerodynamic vibration are the main

rotor blades and the tail rotor blades. T

Mechanical vibration is caused by any rotating part

that is in an out—of—balance condition.

555/3/8
 _ 19 _

Three design methods used to reduce natural vibrations

are

1. Resonant mass,

2. Nodal beam, and

3. Counterweights.

Vibration frequency is measured in hertz (Hz).

Vibration amplitude can be given in inches, mils, or

millimetres, but it is usually given as a velocity in
inches per second (IPS) or millimetres per second (mm/sec)

PRACT ICE EXERCISE A

In each of the following, choose the option that correctly

completes the statement, writing A, B, C, or D as your
answer.

1. The natural vibration from a three~bladed main

rotor would be a low frequency:

A. 1 per rev

B. 3 per rev

C. 4 per rev

D D. 6 per rev

' 2. The probable cause of a low frequency 1 per rev

vertical vibration is

A. A main rotor blade out of balance

B. A tail rotor blade out of track

C. Nothing unusual

D. A main rotor blade out of track

3. A tail rotor turning at 3000 rev/min has one blade

out of track (to give an impossible to count
1 per rev vibration). This vibration will have a
frequency of

555/3/8
 _ 29 _

A. 3000 Hz

B. 60 Hz

C. 50 Hz

D. 30 Hz T

4. The peak-to~peak displacement of a main rotor turning

at 420 rev/min with a vibration velocity of 6 IPS is:

A. 136.4 mils

B. 68.2 mils

C. 273 mils

D‘. 546 mils

NOTE: 6 IPS gives an unacceptable level of

"“*“* vibration.

(Answers on page 50)

Measurement of Vibration

An assessment of the level of vibration is often all that is

needed to know that something is wrong, or going wrong, with a
helicopter. However, knowing that a level of vibration is
unacceptable does not tell you its cause. Some faults have
obvious and well defined symptoms, but many can be hard to locate
and careful and systematic thought and actions are necessary to
identify them. To do this efficiently, you must measure the
frequency and velocity of the vibration. Three instruments that
may be used to measure vibration are:

1. The hand vibrograph,

2. The electronic vibration measurer, and

3, The vibration signature analyser.

555/3/8
 _.2j_...

The Hand Vibrograph

This instrument consists of a steel reed with a weight at

one end. Varying the length of the reed will vary its natural
vibration frequency, the length being calibrated in hertz.

To pick up the maximum amplitude, vibration measurements

should be made in the flight conditions where the vibration is
most noticeable —— but only if it is safe to do so - with the
hand vibrograph placed against the aircraft structure as close
as possible to the suspected source of vibration. Remember that
vibration may be found in both vertical and lateral places, and
so readings should be taken in both positions. From the vibration
frequency given by the instrument, the source of the vibration
can, with some detective work, be found. A different form of this
instrument gives a readout in the form of a graph. Figure 11
shows a trace, with diagnostic additions, from a hand-held
vibrograph.
i um time
1<——1 Rev of rnoin rotor —-|

+ 3 “ '
..
‘Y
It.1i“\ t I‘ !"‘\\>'urJ’
. t \»‘~\»J'J“\\
' . 0‘, l!m\)r1"! \\*'-1,4
’
‘ \l‘\“p{ \),;\vJ *!\\J' Q,‘-‘An

I 4~ -+
in .a»- _ .1» _~
Y%sQl§§%Efi$ag§gw _.,@\\ ‘Qwfi‘§%¥flAaE$g “
'
.iy!

in."
sex
FIG. ll
J" vi’
Vibrograph trace
be
2g§i~ >t 21 "=:(_
..I

555/3/8
 _ 22 ,

Electronic Vibration Measurement

In this system, an accelerometer is mounted in the helicopter

in either a lateral or vertical position, and its signals are
fed to an instrument that electronically processes them and then
displays them on a meter. Some forms of this system use two
accelerometers, both reading at the same time, and whose signals
can be selected as needed. Besides the accelerometer(s) a '
magnetic pickup is fitted to the main rotor to provide a phase
reference of 1 signal per revolution of the rotor. This signal
is fed.into a display that shows the phase relationship between
the rotor and the vibratory motion and is used to determine the
location of any balance weights that may be needed. In the
case of the main rotor, this display ~— the .__._-_.--____..................._.....
clock angle We is
in the form of a circle of 2% lights giving such positions as
"ten o'clock", "half past two", and so on. For a tail rotor,
the clock angle is shown by a reflective target or by special
paint fixed to a blade that is lit up by a strobe light slaved
to flash in time with the vibration-

Many helicopters have magnetic switch actuators permanently

fitted to each push—pull rod attachment on the rotating star.
All that needs to be added to make a vibration check is the
magnetiC piCkuR from the instrument kit. This pickup is
installed, as a temporary fitment, on the fixed star. See Pig. 12

555/3/8
 -23..

.
fail
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i_____ ADJUSTMENT ;. O |'\J

Y i NUT % !
_ sum --—-~
o.n2sm.
as‘
%%: MAGNHWC t ”’@e$%@%T@ mnk eat?‘
_ ..;i
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em» PICKUP if A
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CABLE \ I
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FIG. 12 Magnetic switch indicators and magnetic pickup installation

when carrying out a fault diagnosis of a main rotor, first

check the blade track and, if necessary, correct it before you
do any rotor balancing. Blade tracking involves

1. The adjustment of individual blade angles to

ensure that all blades "fly" in the same
plane, and

2. Where applicable, rectification to ensure that

all the blades "fly" equally spaced within the
rotor disc.

Blade tracking is discussed later on.

For main rotor balancing, install the accelerometer(s)

and magnetic pickup in their correct positions in the helicopter
and head the helicopter into the wind on flat, level, firm
ground. Avoid operation in gusty conditions or in windspeeds
above 15 knots as these conditions may mask faults. Run the
rotor on the ground at its nominal speed and rough—tune the

555/3/8
 6

_ gu _

electronic equipment to a frequency corresponding to a 1/rev

vibration of the rotor being checked. For example:

Main rotor rev/min = 450

450
.I Frequency of a 1/rev vibration = YET

= Zaifié

Hover the helicopter, and fine tune and check the equipment,
using its own internal test facility.

If the rotor is correctly tracked, two readings may be

taken:

1. Phase. Note which clock angle light is on.

2. Amplitude. Note the reading on the meter scale.

After the helicopter has landed and been shut down, these
values are plotted on the correct ggyogram for the helicopter.
Prom the nomogram, you can find the number and size of balance _
weights and the position where to fit them to achieve balance.
See Fig. 13. c a

In this example:

Meter reading = 0.15 IPS

Clock angle e 5.30

These twp readings are plotted as position M on the nomogram

Two lines drawn from M at right angles to the nearest scales
give the blade location and amount of weights to be added to
achieve balance. when corrections have been made, repeat the
balance check until you obtain good balance. Acceptable balance
limits are given by the helicopter manufacturer, but, the closer
the balance gets to being perfect, the better it is for the
helicopter. If you can read a definite clock angle, then the

555/3/8
balance can still be improved As the balance approaches
perfection, the clock angle does not remain constant but moves
around at random, becoming jlttérg

I K ,Polnt M on Chartji
BALANCE
MEASUHEM 1 2 3
at5psjnAcmNs Z qsab
a CLOCKANGLE 5“ 30 7 if
§

7*‘it/r—
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IQ
1: 4’HEDBLADE 4* j"
E
.- e|_:_ was _ 5:20 _ _
LUE os_ it
Cnrrne E BLACKBLADE*

fig’
at

QQ/\
66:9 9
YELLOW

Q
all \,'o~§, /$0‘!
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‘aces
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e W’ s
waluht Required apt 0 Q1; NOTES W "'
on Rad mad \ wn In Table
E25 grammas Balnnc1ng to

FIG 13 Nomogram for a 4 bladed rotor

 -26.-

This electronic equipment may be used for tail rotor

balancing and for locating the unknown sources of vibration. To
locate a source,mount the accelerometer in the area where the
vibration is most noticeable and tune the equipment slowly
through its ranges until the meter reading peaks. This gives
the frequency of the vibration. By reference to drive speeds
in the helicopter, you should then be able to pinpoint the
source of the vibration.

The ¥fibration Signature Analyser

This is a-very useful diagnostic tool, especially when

used at regular intervals, for example, before a 100-hour
inspection. The analyser is a self-contained piece of equipment
that measures vibration frequency against peak velocity and
automatically makes a record of the test in the form of a graph.
The output from the accelerometer is processed electronically by
a tuneable band pass filter that separates vibrations on the
basis of their frequency. The filter automatically scans
through the selected frequency range, and a pen records the
result on a card. This card should be kept as a part of the
helicopter maintenance records. This analyser is not an
alternative to the electronic vibration measurement equipment
but is a supplement to it. Figure 1H shows a card from this
type of instrument.

555/3/8
 _ 27 _

AIRCRAFT TYPE:
... r t — W" ' ""

i
.1
i ‘ ,__
REGETHAHON:
7 ‘ ‘issues . T
U as to ttt "a *
‘ H2 MODE: sPEED:
-_- ER — —— ' — ~——

1 0,6 ‘i7:L::77 I I 7 ll ii’ W 7

l"l I o W""t* y
“ “ Wmmhn M 1
9,4 TTHCQ :i V . aw e,,,,,, as i'*'i _ ‘i i
EL
RANGE
FREQUENCY TY
PL
VELOC
MULT VQCTY'nfsecPK

I; i I T 1
mu '_ iii \:' .
.
;
—. '
o

N
‘
1
0'2

'\
I
_\
:I—
\
lb /
.
! 7
W ”";":: ’
I I if
\
i r if ii
‘ \

‘
i ‘

_§, _ 1 ' '1" -_ 1-~' "iii";;?;:;i:':‘;i*—'c:"'"—=*1'—‘—'=—*;r‘—* * —\.‘_\

‘ 0 10 20 so 40 so so vo so so 100
Equipment
gamma: FREQUENCY‘ ‘'

; I3lQ+¢= 1T -= ‘Tcaii v“o‘l-or

FIG. 14 Vibration signature record card

' Use the same location each time you use the accelerometer,
so as to keep the readings comparable. Normally, both lateral
and vertical, and sometimes fore and aft, signatures would be taken
in each frequency range. Any significant peaks are then analysed
and the faults, if any, corrected. In this way, a complete
vibration history can be built up for a particular helicopter
and the information can also be used to form the basis of a data
bank for that type of helicopter. '

Calibration: As with all measuring tools, the value of the

information given by vibration measuring equipment and the
analyser depends upon the instruments being properly used and
their being calibrated at regular intervals. You should record
the calibration results so as to build up a history of the
instrument and adjust the calibration period to suit the conditions
of that instrument.

555/3/8
 - 23 ,

Analysis of Vibration

Measurement of a vibration will give you the two values of

freguencg and amplitude (Or velocity). Knowing these tW@ Va1ue5
allows you to locate the source and determine the severity of the
vibration. »

Frequency and Speed Relationships

To be able to relate the frequency of the measured vibration

to the speed of different rotating components, you need an
intimate knowledge of a particular helicopter. You can relate
a vibration of 1/rev to the speed of rotation by multiplying the
measured frequency (F) in hertz, by 60, to give the speed in
revolutions per minute. Thus: ‘

rev/min = F(Hz) X 60

A 1/rev vibration is typical of an out—of-balance condition

affecting a rotating component. For example, one blade out of
balance on a main rotor turning at 203 rev/min gives a vibration
frequency as follows.

_ rev/min
F " so

_ 203
T so

Q? 3@f.?.4

In a case affecting, say, five blades in a rotor, the

frequency would be

F = rev/min
,_ .,. X">>
No. of, blades
. . . _.
60

203 X 5
= “_YiT'
= 16.9 Hz

‘H 2*50 ‘m N
—-- ~==

555/3/8
 _ 39 _

In the same way, you can find the frequency produced by

the meshing of gear teeth in a gearbox if you know the number
of teeth on the gear and its nominal speed. In this way, you
can make up a table of vibration orders for a specific helicopter
model. Some manufacturers publish such a table in the maintenance
manual. Table 1 is a list of vibration orders from which, if
you know the vibration frequency, you can find the component
producing it.

TABLE 1

ical Vibiation Order Table

" \

l Frequency (Hz) i Rev/Min Component

g 3.4 ?; 203 Main rotor (1/rev)

15.7 7; 939 Main bevel gear (MG B)
17.0 l 203 Main rotor (5/rev)
20.7 I 1243 Tail rotor (1/rev)
\ 50.5 3031 Tail rotor drive sh aft
.
\
~ 53.2 .1 3195 Input bevel gear (MGB)
or Rotor brake disc V

; 101.0 6060 Oil cooler fan (MGB ) 1

A
i 140.0 8410 Tail take off free wh 881
\ \ unit
1‘ \
:1 1;
T 316 .0 J Nos 1 and 2 input
Pinion gears
325.0 j Engine
832.0 1! Meshing, tail-rotor
gearbox (M.TRG)

To identify the different orders, abbreviations are often

used. Some examples are

555/3/8
 - 39 _

1R = 1/rev main rotor

5R = 5/rev main rotor i

1T = 1/rev tail rotor

1E =' 1/rev engine output shaft

MGB = Main gearbox

TRG = Tail rotor gearbox

The letter M, used as a prefix, shows that the vibration

comes from the meshing of the gear identified. In Table 1,
the last item gives the frequency generated by the meshing of
the gears in the tail rotor gearbox. It is usual to quote vibration
orders based on speeds related to 100% main rotor speed.

Vibration Levels

Once you find the source of a vibration, you then have to

decide whether the vibration is normal or excessive. In the
cases of the main and tail rotors, a maximum acceptable vibration
amplitude gig be specified by the manufacturer, but if nothing
is specified, then the opinion of the pilot must be seriously
considered. In general, a gentle and almost unnoticeable vertical
or lateral 1/rev is acceptable for flight, although if the helicopter
is to be used for photography, then even this may not be acceptable.

If possible, a component should not be rejected solely on the

result of one set of vibration measurement readings. If you
make a series of vibration measurements on a regular basis,
you should see a trend in the amplitude of the various frequencies.
A steadily worsening trend would show the need for careful
monitoring but would not mean the need for an immediate component
change. However, a sudden and large increase in the vibration
level from, say, a tail rotor gearbox would call for an immediate
investigation. In practical terms, this would mean replacement
of that gearbox.

555/3/8
 _ 31 _

Remember, all vibrations have different sources, and a

combination of sources can amplify a specific reading. Remember,
too, that a particular vibration may only be felt in a certain
stage of flight or when certain equipment is fitted.

Correction of Excessive Vibration

Medium- and high-frequency vibrations are usually corrected

by replacement of the component concerned. This means of dealing
with the problem returns the helicopter to service in the
shortest time. You can then investigate the component and repair
it in a workshop. As well as replacing or repairing the component,
you must inspect the structure and fitments nearby to ensure
that there is no cracking or looseness of bolts and rivets.

If you have traced a vibration to the tail rotor, inspect

all parts for wear and damage. Items requiring special attention
are the pitch change bearings, the pitch change links, the tail
rotor control cables, the tail rotor hub, and the gearbox
attachments. If you find that mount bolts are slack, you will
need to decide whether the slackness is the cause or an effect
of the vibration. The rectification work will involve inspecting
the mounting faces for fretting and replacing the attachment bolts
and nuts, and checking holes and locking devices for wear and
damage. Make sure that your inspection covers a wide enough area
to discover any symptoms of secondary damage, such as cracking
of the tail pylon structure. -

Don‘t try to correct any vibration coming from the main rotor
head unless you are certain that the blade track is correct and,
with an articulated head, that the lead~lag dampers are operating
properly. As with the tail rotor, inspect the pitch change
bearings, the pitch change links, and the security of attachment
of the hub to the'drive shaft and rectify all faults before
balancing.

555/3/8
 - 32' _...

\ \

SUMMARY

The electronic vibration measurement equipment,

together with a strobe light and blade reflector
kit, will help you to rapidly pinpoint the source
of a vibration and to accurately balance and
track rotors. ~ '

Any equipment fitted.for the flight test of a

helicopter must be installed to an airworthy standard.

i Vibration signature analyser cards should be kept as

, part of the maintenance history of the helicopter 0 \
0

PRACTICE EXERCISE B

State whether each of the following is true or false.

1. An accelerometer must be fitted in a vertical

position. ‘

2. A magnetic pickup provides a phase reference for

main rotor balancing and blade tracking.

3. The frequency of a 2 per rev vibration from a

5~bladed rotor turning at 360 rev/min is 6 Hz.

4. Different vibration frequencies occurring

together will not affect the amplitude of any
one vibration.

5. Replacement of a defective comonent that is a

source of vibration is all that is needed to
return the helicopter to service.

6. The main rotor blades must be in track before

any rotor head balancing is done.

7. Magnetic pickup actuators may be permanently

fitted to each rotor blade.

8.. Main rotor balancing should not be done when the

windspeed is above 25 knots.

9. A pinion with 19 teeth turning at 6000 rev/min

will have a vibration frequency of 1900 Hz.

10. Acceptable vibration levels are always specified

by the helicopter manufacturer.

(Answers on page 50)

555/3/8
 _.f-13..

MAIN AND TAIL ROTOR BALANCING

Main rotor balancing is usually taken to include

1. The adjustment to the angles of individual blades

to bring them into track;
2. The adjustment to the timing rate of the lead/lag
dampers (if fitted); and
3. The addition/subtraction of balance weights
to individual blades.

Tail rotor balancing includes

1. The addition/subtraction of balance weights.

2. The adjustment —— on some types —~ of individual
blade angles to bring them into track.

Main Rotor Tracking and Balancing

The main rotor hub assembly is symmetrical, and if it is

assembled properly, it will be very nearly in perfect balance.
Any imbalance in the hub assembly, because it is small and acts
at a small radius and at a fairly low rev/min, will not be a
cause for worry as it will be corrected during the subsequent
balancing of the hub and blades assembly.

After manufacture, a main rotor blade is balanced to a

master blade and is then given its own serial number, and often
a type number. when fitting main rotor blades, you must be
careful to use blades that are compatible with one another.
Reference to the manufacturer's manual will often tell you
which blades may fly together, the blades being identified by
serial number or blade type. If some old but serviceable
blades of the correct type are to be used, better balancing results
will be had if the flying hour ages of the blades are nearly the
same. That is, do not fit a blade, say, 608 flying hours old
into a rotor whose three other blades are each around the 2000

555/8/8
 _ 3u _

flying hour mark. You will not have an unserviceable rotor if

you do this, but you may not be able to balance the assembly to
as high a standard as you wish.

Main Rotor Blade Tracking

when the rotor has just been installed, the blade trim tabs
will have been set to their neutral (trail) position and the rotor
head will have been rigged. If you are about to undertake
corrective blade tracking, then first inspect the rotor and
blades assembly for any defect that could cause the blades to
go out of track and rectify that defect. Typical defects are

i. Slightly damaged blades, and

2. Pitch control arm push—pul1 rod—end wear.

The track of rotor blades can be checked by

1. The stroboscopic (strobe) light/reflected image

method,

2. The flag method,

3. The tracking stick method, or

H. The reflector method (rarely used now).

Of these methods, the most satisfactory is the first.

However, if the right equipment is not available, then either the
second or the third method can be used, depending upon the shape
of the blade tips. Whichever method is used, the helicopter
must be on flat, level ground headed into wind that must not
be gusting or have a speed greater than S knots (15 knots for the
strobe method).

An experienced helicopter pilot should be at the controls

because, during the tracking procedure, the helicopter is very
close to becoming airborne (in the strobe method, it will be
airborne), and unforseen events could require the helicopter to
become airborne.

555/3/8
 _ 35 _

The strobe lightjreflected

ifiage method: In this method,
a special tracking reflector is
attached to the tip of each
blade. Each reflector is
different, either in colour or
jg ,- 1 a“\
@~¢, in markings, so that it can be
easily identified when the.strobe
light flashes as the rotor is
turning. See Fig. 15.

1 \ A magnetic pickup is
installed under the rotating
star, which has a magnetic
EBLLJ YEL. RED
2-"IF;
IIIIII
Juli;
III‘II
actuator installed at each
inn ;
c5EEEE? AI
III‘Ill5.
JII ‘III ""=! III III
III‘IIII‘III
“R! push-pull rod position. Figure
FIG. 15 Blade tip reflectors 12 shows a_magnetic pickup and
actuators installation. The actuators may be bent a little to
provide a spread of the reflected image. The strobe light is
connected to the helicopter d.c. power supply and to the magnetic
pickup.

CAUTION

Install this equipment securely, and leave

adequate clearances between moving parts.

To track, ground run the helicopter at a low power setting (flat

pitch) and note the track of the blades. To make changes to
the blade track, shut down the helicopter engine, stop the rotor,
and alter the lengths of the blade pitch change (push~pull) rods.
When the low-power track is satisfactory, make a high power track.
Adjust the track at this condition by bending the blade tabs
—— a tab is bent downgtg_ lpweréa blade and up to raise it.
See Fig. 16

ass/3/a
 ....36..

TH: PAYH PLANE . ~- -- C'-

.-F _ _._ i --
I (’ _*‘“ "' "' -_-_ . Q
‘\~ e ‘~~ _ Kr?’-—-?+>’ “flu
Q Au mamas IN TRACK L.
f
/__
1 "=—\=~=~aa-.\-,\
. - -
~ K
“l“i:~—" _->"—“ ' -\“%
‘Q ONE BLAD£ APPROX 1/2 IN. HFGH
mimvs
f
— couomow C __
. '_ c — _--I A NONEREQWRED
\; ~ - .;_-_—.¢.?;:._s-
’
-_-W
——‘__ B LENGTHEN PiTCH CONTROL
_ I :3" ROD {ZND OR YELLOW BLADE)
c LENGTHEN PITCH coumot _
ROD emu on vcuow sums;
0NEBLADEA9PROX1/2iN.H!GH SHORTENCONTRQLROD
G one sums APPROX 1 nu. LOW BRD OR RED BMDH
FIG. 16 Strobe tracking

with both the low power and the high power tracks satisfactory,
the manufacturer may recommend that the track be checked in flight
at various speeds and flight manoeuvres.

WARNING

When a pitch change rod is adjusted, its safety

locking must be restored to its original
condition before the track is re—checked. Failure
to do this can result in a wrecked helicopter.

Finally, you mgst check the autorotation rev/min of the

helicopter. Changes to blade angles during blade tracking can,
if superimposed on previous blade angle changes, lead to an
unacceptable change in the autorotation rev/min. If these
rev/min are too high or too low, then the collective pitch controls
may have to be re-rigged.

when you are strobe light blade tracking a helicopter with

an articulated rotor head, you can also see how each blade
lead/lag damper is performing. Any change in the spread of the .

555/3/8
 _ 37 _

reflected images will be caused by a change in a blade position

about its vertical (drag) hinge. Figure 17 shows a typical
strobe track result for a four bladed rotor.

REFLECTORS AS VIEWED i INTERPRETATION

T ii’ i 1 ’ '”i”"" “ H
:?TnAcK-soon 1;
\
{I}- ._ ... 5 \
I é I T DAMPERS»GOOD
TRACK - 2 HIGH, 3 LOW

i “ — _:,__
_—$°__ DAMi'»‘EFlS--GOOD

, I 1 1 'r§=1Acr< - soon

| I Ii ii DANWERS -— 3 LAGS
\

, ' | 1 * TRACK - 2 Low

i Q Ci: i: I aamweas-atass

' FIG. 17 Reflectors as viewed by strobe light and spread for

identification

You can either replace a defective damper with a serviceable

one or adjust it. In each case, re—check the track to ensure
that the blades are behaving properly.

The flag method: This tracking method can be used only if

the blades have smoothly contoured or rounded tips and if any
optional balance weights, washers, or screws are removed from the
tips for the tracking procedure. For blades with square-cut tips
the tracking stick method should be used.

The "flag" used may be either bought from the helicopter

manufacturer or made locally from thin—walled steel tubing
(automotive exhaust tubing is suitable), bungee rubber, and a
lightweight canvas. The base of the flag should be weighted,
which makes it easier to handle. The crayons used to mark the
blade tips should be good quality, fairly soft, wax crayons,
and the colours used should be red, yellow, blue, black and,
if needed, white. To give accurate results, the crayons should
be applied to the blade tips in as thin a line as possible.

The tracking procedure is different for each type of

helicopter, and so you must refer to the maintenance manual of
the helicopter type concerned before you do any tracking. However,
a general procedure is as follows:

555/3/8
 _ 33 _

Mark each blade tip with a wax crayon whose colour

corresponds with that on the blade pitch housing.

Place a strip of 25 mm (1") wide masking tape or

white surgical tape along the forward edge of
the tracking flag to record tracking marks.
Identify the top of the tape, and make sure that
the flag is taut on the_j@3nmg.
Head the helicopter into the wind. A light,
non—gusting wind is acceptable —~ if it does
not exceed 5 knots.
Start and warm up the helicopter.

With the collective pitch stick fully down and

with the cyclic pitch control column "leaning"
into wind, carry out a low rev/min (2000 engine
rev/min) l0w~power blade track.
At a signal from the pilot, lift the flag up in a
counterclockwise direction —— see Fig. 18 —--and
move it very slightly into the rotor disc until
each blade tip touches the flag, leaving a
coloured mark on the canvas. The sound made by
each blade tip touching the flag is distincitve,
and with a little practice, just one set of
contacts can be had.

Shut down the engine, stop the rotor, and then

adjust the blade pitch change rod lengths to
reduce the blade track spread (see Pig. 18)
to less than 6 mm (%"). Clean and re-mark the
blade tips,'and check the track again.

When the track at low pitch and 2000 engine

rev/min is satisfactory, make a track at low
pitch and take-off rev/min using the same
technique. Make any correctionto the blade
track at this stage by bending the blade
trailing edgegtabs (UP to raise a blade and
DOWN to lower a Blade). A blade spread of not
more than Q mm (%") is acceptable.
Make a power track at take-off rev7min and
with enough power to make the helicopter
"light on its skids". You may need to add
ballast to enable a high power setting to be
used without the helicopter becoming airborne.
The blade track spread should not be more
than 9 mm (%"). Adjust it by altering the
lengths of the blade pitch~change rods.

when the power track is acceptable, test fly

the helicopter to check the vibration level
and the autorotation rev/min.

555/3/8
 _ 39 -

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m__ h_ .-"===Ir. Allmerizs 5 ,

I‘ I ,1 _ 7, 0V0rlflpplng\!% A

\:;._.-=¢/
2 -- *
= E, ,- -__.__*’_.__________ El
"*‘- i
r ES‘: Q“

_ ..-___ ‘.‘§"~_‘,_A 3

. F FLAG TRACKING ‘
Yellow mark
l2mm hEqh\,

Blue and red /. -_

mark: overlapping ‘ '
it B

Track j Action 5
\ .
\ \ L
A 1 None i

* B T Lower the yellow blade * \

Yellow mark
C Lower the yellow blade and mmmnmh
raise the red blade C
Blue moi'k center,
*"*"" re ea" Rd R
Zgmgcigv.-/r

.L.

FIG. 18 Flag tracking

The tracking stick method: In this method, a-tracking

stick is carefully lifted up to make a light contact with the
underside of the rotor disc fairly close to the blade tips. Marks
left on the underside of each blade show which is the low blade.

The tracking stick consists of a light wooden pole“with a

piece of 6 mm (%") thick by 25 mm <1") wide sheet rubber bound
firmly on one end with a tongue about 50 mm (2") long extending
beyond the end of the pole. The end of the tongue is coated with
a white spirit soluble and nonedrying paint. A suitable paint
is red lead or enamel paint, of any colour, mixed with lubricating
oil to stop it drying.

555/3/8
 ...L|.[]...

Tracking requires a pilot to operate the helicopter and one

man t 0 use the tracking stick.

1' Find out the power settings to be used for the

tracking from the maintenance manual for the
helicopter type.
2. The tracker must stand under the tip path plane
in clear view of the pilot and face in the
direction that the rotor turns while holding the
tracking stick slanted upward in the same
direction.

3 Head the helicopter into wind (not more than

5 knots) and warm it up.

H n At a signal from the pilot, he should raise

the tracking stick carefully until the rubber
tongue just contacts the blades. A further
track or two, may be made immediately inboard of
i the first track as checks on the first trackl
5Q After the engine has been shut—down and the
rotor stopped, examine the blades for the
track marks and adjust them to suit.

6 I Make another track to check the adjustments

made and then test fly the helicopter to check
for vibration level and the autorotation
rev/min.

Figure 19 shows this trackihg procedure and the blade track

marks 0

555/3/8
 _ 41 _

j_'7' _ _ _:ff_7eTj*_' i ._____ ;V__;__ _V'; T7; _ 7—— _ __ _ 47 7.77 _V 7 Wj '

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ii —;_ ~
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\ K K K K KK
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(Closest trolling edge} (furthest from trolling edge)

FIG. 19 Tracking stick tracking

The rgflegtor method: This method uses the principle of

"persistency of vision“, which occurs when you look along a
beam of light that is being intercepted by two light reflectors.
One reflector is installed at the tip of each blade. The
surface of one reflector is plain white and the surface of the
other is white with a horizontal black stripe painted across its
centre. The reflectors are illuminated by a hand~held powerful
light from the cockpit of the helicopter. A perfect track will
be seen as two equal»width white bands separated by a black band.
A track with a thin white band on top will mean that the blade
with the all~white reflector is flying low.

The actual tracking procedure used is similar to the tracking

flag method, except that the final tracking may be checked while the
helicopter is airborne. .

The object of blade tracking is to get a vibrationless rotor.

Some combinations of rotor blades may give higher levels of V
vibration as they are brought into a close track. In this case,
the lowest level of vibration should be accepted even though the
blade track may be outside its specified tolerances.

555/3/8
 ....L[.2_-

As we have seen, the strobe light tracking method will

pinpoint an unserviceable lead-lag damper, which is the usual
source of low~frequency lateral vibrations of an articulated
rotor head. The flag method cannot do this, and so a process
of inspection for defects and elimination of causes will have
to be used. The rotor head and blades assembly-should be
inspected for

1. Damaged blade tips and missing tip fittings.

2. Such damage to lead»lag dampers as fluid leaks,
low reservoir levels, and insecure attachment
to blade or rotor hub. '

If no defects can be seen then the dampers must have their

timing rate checked and, if necessary, adjusted. This is
followed by a hovering and then a flight check. If the lateral
vibration persists, then the rotor blades are out of balance
and need to be replaced.

Strobe light tracking, with its electronic vibration

measurement counterpart, can, in a few minutes, tell you how
to get the blades in to track, which damper is unserviceable,
and where and how much balancing weight is needed.

Main Rotor Balancing

We discussed the balancing of a main rotor using electronic

vibration measuring equipment on page 24. The rotors of all types
of helicopter can be balanced (as can propellers) using this
equipment, providing the right nomogram is used. If this
equipment is not available, a persistent lateral low~frequency
vibration from an articulated rotor will show that the rotor
blades need to be removed and rebalanced. This usually means
returning the blades to the manufacturer.

The semi—rigid, two—bladed rotor is balanced after its

assembly by being placed on a special balancing mandrel set,
that permits the rotor to pivot about its centre point and,
usually, hold each blade grip in a definite position. The rotor
is balanced:
555/3/8
 ....L1,3....

1- Chordwise; and

2. Spanwise.

Figure 20 shows the directions for these two balances.

ab , 'I
\G“QQ 3 8/

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my

aw
itl 3. I
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~./¢<?L‘“"r-~
4/J» ' 3' fixh
.' J \ *1¢
c“m““'“m"‘ FIG. 20 Spanwise and chordwisebalance

Chordwise balaqge is made by firstly aligning the blades

in their grips and then moving a blade aft in its grip until
the assembly lies level in a chordwise direction.

sganwise balance is made by adding or subtracting balance

weights from the blades until the assembly lies level in a
spanwise direction.

If a lateral vibration develops in a helicopter with this

type of rotor head and an inspection has determined that the
rotor head is serviceable, then the rotor can be balanced
without removing it from the helicopter by

1. Adding a small known weight to any blade and

hovering the helicopter to see whether the
vibration is better or worse.

2. If the vibration is better, add more weight

until the vibration has gone.

555/3/8
 _ an -

3. If it is worse, take away the added weight,

install it on the other blade, and check the
result. Add more weight as needed. -

If adjusting the spanwise balance does not affect the

vibration or only makes it worse, then

H. Move one blade aft in its grip by a small

measured amount and hover the helicopter.

5. If the vibration is less, move the same blade

a little more aft until the vibration has
gone.

6. If the vibration is worse, return the blade

to its original position and move the other
blade aft by a small measured amount until
the vibration has gone.

This sequence of balancing is only a general guide. You

must always read and follow the directions given for balancing
in the maintenance manual for the helicopter.

It is sound practice to write down the detail of each

adjustment that you make as you make it. Do not rely upon your
memory.‘ You must always make good all locking devices and
torque all nuts/bolts after making each adjustment.

Tail Rotor Tracking and Balancing

Even a small degree of imbalance in a tail rotor, either of

weight or of blade track, is unacceptable because of the high-
frequency vibration it can generate. Before you begin any
tail rotor balancing or tracking, you must closely examine
the complete installation for damage and wear. (See page 31,)

555/3/8
 _ 45 _

Tail Rotor Balancing

Tail rotor blades may be supplied as a matched set, as

individual blades balanced to a master blade, or as individual
blades that you will have to balance to the existing blades.
How they are supplied varies from manufacturer to manufacturer,
although the matched set seems to be the most popular way.

After you have assembled the tail rotor, you can balance
it on a balancing fixture. The two—bladed rotor is usually
balanced, like the semi~rigid main rotor, in both chordwise
and spanwise directions. However, some tail rotors are balanced
on the helicopter, in which case, great care must be taken
during the first run—up that an excessive vibration does not
develop and cause damage.

Tail rotors may be balanced using the electronic vibration

measurement equipment. See page 22 and Fig. 21, where the angle
read from the protractor assembly and the vibration level in
mils from the vibration analyser dial are put into a balance
weight location chart supplied by the helicopter manufacturer.
You then fit the balance weights indicated and check the result.

Zero angle Ilne ix Qygiiagiawed on

‘ / Biuebiude

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mi. i

19¢
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Protroctor
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0

‘I Strobe llqhl box ‘

ZQVDC P0wer ~~
euppiy‘ _

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FIG. 21 Tail rotor balancing

555/3/8
 _ 45 i

As with main rotor balancing, you must always follow the

directions given for tail rotor balancing in the maintenance
manual for the helicopter.

Tail Rotor Blade Tracking.

Tracking of tail rotor blades is now almost a thing of the

past. At one time, the blades were tracked by the "tracking
stick" method, where the tracking stick was brought to the
side of-the blade disc nearest to the tail boom. This prevented
the operator from falling into the disc, and the tail boom made
a convenient rest for the tracking stick. However, unless
this tracking was done with the greatest of care, you were likely
to get damaged tail rotor blades or tracking marks that were of
no use at all.

when a tail rotor is out of track, you will see a "fuzzy"

tip when viewing the turning rotor from directly in front or from
behind. You will also feel a high-frequency vibration in the
airframe. If you are unsure of the vibration, you can observe,
or feel, the trailing edge of the nearby horizontal stabiliser,
or else you can increase the tension of the tail rotor control
cables for the duration of a test hover and feel the tail rotor
pedals for abnormal vibration. If the tail rotor has only two
blades and adjustable pitch change links, then altering the
length of one link will move that blade either further out of
track or else back into track. Should the fuzzy tip appear
thicker, then the blade is further out of track, and the pitch
change link should be reset to its original length, plus a little
extra in the opposite direction. Adjustable pitch change links
are usually altered in "half turns" of a rod end, making it easy
to keep a check of the exact adjustment made. when you have
completed tracking, test fly the helicopter and check the vibration
level and the response of the tail rotor.

Many tail rotors do not have adjustable pitch change rods,

so an out-of-track condition will be due either to an accumulation
of tolerances in the control linkages to the blades or to the
blades themselves.

553/3/8
 _ u7 _

Finally, tail rotor blade tracking is done at the same time

as tail rotor balancing, as both are closely related, and the
job must be done strictly according to the instructions in the
maintenance manual for the helicopter type concerned.

DRIVE SHAFTS AND COOLING FANS

All drive shafts and cooling fans are potential sources of

high-frequency vibration. The causes of the vibration can be

1. An out-of-balance condition of a drive shaft

or a cooling fan,

2. Defective drive shaft bearings,

3. Misalignment of a drive shaft,
H. Looseness of attachment, or
5. Rarely, a foreign object, such as a piece of
rag rotating,with the fan or drive shaft.

An outeof-balance condition: This can be found by using

electronic vibration measuring equipment, although you must be
careful not to confuse a high-frequency vibration with one from
the tail rotor.

Defectjygfdriye shaft bearings: A defective bearing may

run hot and may be noisy. Carefully feeling each bearing for
heat and listening to each one, with a sounding rod, while
the helicopter is running will often pinpoint a poor bearing.
The condition of the grease in a greased or grease—packed bearing
will often give an indication of the condition of a bearing.

- Misalignmentiofma drive shaft: Misalignment can often be

seen quite easily-by looking along the shaft. Structural
damage of the airframe can cause misalignment, and a thorough
visual inspection of the airframe should be made if this defect
is suspected.

555/3/8
 - we --

Looseness of attachment and the presence Qfjforeign objects

can be found by visual inspection and by checking the torque
of securing bolts and nuts.

Components that are out of balance will have to be either

rebalanced or replaced.‘ Defective bearings and » misaligned drive
shafts will have to be aligned using the methods specified
the helicopter maintenance manual.

If a component has worked loose, you must look for any

damage caused by its looseness and determine whether the looseness
caused the vibration or vice versa. Remove foreign objects and
check for damage. For example, a piece of rag can score a drive
shaft

‘ SUMMARY

Do not use together rotor blades with greatly different

flying hour ages, even though they may be of the
correct type.

Always follow the manufacturer's instructions for rotor

tracking and balancing.

An experienced pilot should be at the controls during

bladeitracking and balancing.

Strobe light/reflected image is the preferred method

of'blade.tracking.

Autorotation rev/min must be checked after blade

tracking is finished.

Control rods must be safetied after they-have been

adjusted and*before a blade track is made.

PRACT ICE EXERCISE C

In each of the.following, choose the option that

correctly completes the statement; writing A, B,
C or D as your answer.

555/3/8
 _L|.Q...

Flag tracking should not be done when the wind

speed is in excess of

A. 5 knots

B. 10 knots

C. 15 knots

D. 20 knots

The object of tracking a main rotor blade is to

give

A. All blades flying in the same path

B. The smoothest running rotor

C. The correct autorotation rev/min

D. The best performance from the rotor

The tracking method that will show up improperly

timed blade dampers is

A. The tracking stick method

B. The reflector method

C. The strobe light method

D. All of A, B, and C

A semi-rigid rotor is balanced:

A. Spanwise

B, Chordwise

C. Spanwise and tracked

D. Spanwise and chordwise

5. An out-of—balance tail rotor can be indicated

by:

A. A high frequency vibration

B. A fuzzy appearance of the blade's tip paths

C. A high frequency vibration felt in the tail

rotor control pedals

D. All of A, B, and C

(Answers on page 50)

555/3/8
 _ 50 _

ANSWERS TO PRACTICE EXERCISES

EXERCISE A

1. Answer B is correct . See page 7.

2. Answer D is correct . See page 15. -

3. Answer C is correct . See page 15 for method

4. Answer c is correct . See page 5 for method.

EXERCiSE B

Statements 2, 5, 8, and 9 are True.

1 is False, Page 22 refers.

8 is False, page 28 refers.
H is False, Page 31 refers.

5 is False, Page 81 refers.

7 is False>
fig 12 refers.

10 is False, page 30 refers.

EXERCISE C

1. Answer 5 is correct . See page 3%.

2. Answer § is correct . See page H1.

3. Answer Q is correct . See page H2.

H. Answer Q is correct . See page H3.

5. Answer Q is correct . See page H6.

555/3/8
 _ 51 _

TEST PAPER 8

NOTE: Questions 1 to 10 in this test paper can be answered in

no more than 50 words for each answer.

What damage does vibration do to a tail rotor control

operated by a cable and push rod system?

What single word is used for "the speed of vibration",

and what SE unit is used to represent it?

Name three different units of measurement used to

give the amplitude of a vibration.

Give the two general sources of vibration in a

helicopter.

Why does misalignment of a drive shaft cause_vibration?

What are the three ranges of vibration of a helicopter

called? Give one cause of vibration in each range.

What are the two possible choices of action available

when a helicopter enters ground resonance? State
when each choice should be made. '

The main rotor head lead~lag dampers are serviceable,

and yet the helicopter gets into ground resonance
easily. What components would you suspect as being
unserviceable, and what would you expect to find wrong
with them?

Explain why autorotation rev/min should be checked

after adjustments have been made to the track of
the main rotor blades.

558/3/8
 _ 52 _

During a blade tracking procedure, why must a rotor

blade pitch change be safetied after it Eas been
adjusted and before any test flight?

Refer to Fig. 13. >The clock angle light is on at

"quarter past nine" on the 0.25 IPS circle. What
balance weights should be used, and where should they
be fitted to achieve balance?

Make a freehand sketch, showing clearly the directions

for spanwise and chordwise balance of a two—blade rotor

Make a freehand sketch showing a three—bladed rotor

strobe track with one blade low in track and another
blade lagging.

Refer to Fig. 1H.

(a) What is the frequency of the O.H IPS vibration?

(b) If the rotor has two blades, what are its rev/min
if the vibration in (a) is a "1 per rev"?

TABLE 2

4%‘ Sp§eds_(rev/min) _

Main Rotoi Tail Rotor Engine T/R Drive Shaft

24 1654 6600 4300

From the drive speeds given in Table 2 for a helicopter

with a semi-rigid, two-bladed main rotor and two~bladed
tail rotor, calculate the vibration frequency of

Ga) A main rotor "1 per rev"

€b) An out-of~balance tail rotor

555/3/8
 _ 53 i

(c) The normal engine vibration

(d) A vibration from the tail rotor gear—box input pinion

that has 5 damaged teeth.

-&""‘3-?"@'A~

555/3/a
‘_‘i_’§_; _4‘fl____

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 He' Whareleura-tini
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THE OPE N
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OF NEW ZEALAND

\\

He//copier Gas
Turb/ne lnsta/laz‘/ans
555—3—9
 CONTENTS

Helicopter Gas Turbine Engine Installations

Engine Mounting

Engine Alignment with Transmission

Drive Coupling Engine to Transmission

Checking Run—out of the Main Transmission Coupling

Engine Air Intake and Exhaust System

Cowlings and Pairings

Systems Related to the Power Plant

Anti-ice System

Fuel and Oil Systems

Engine Drives

Designation of Speeds

Engine Controls

Transient and Static Droop

Control Systems

Controls N1 N2 and Anti—icing

Fuel Control System

The Fuel Control

The Governor

Separate Units

Understanding the System

Control Adjustments

Large Computerised Fuel Systems

Fuel System Cleanliness

Purging the System

Fire Detection and Prevention

555/3/9
 AIRCRAFT ENGINEERING

TRADE THEORY AND PRACTICE ATRFRAMES - ASSIGNMENT 9

HELICOPTER GAS TURBINE ENGINE INSTALLATIONS

The usual gas turbine engine in light helicopters is the

Model 250»C2O turboeshaft internal—combustion engine, manufactured
by the Detroit Diesel Allison Division of General Motors.

As with piston engines, manufacturers may locate the engine at

various angles and places in the airframe.

The Model 250—C2O engine is usually aft of the mast above the
passenger compartment. This location simplifies the drive system,
improves the inlet exhaust arrangement, reduces cabin noise, and
reduces the danger to the aircraft, crew, and passengers in an
accident.

The Model 250-C20 is of modular construction. Figure l shows

the four serialised and easily changeable units of the engine. ‘

The power plant comprises the following:

l. Engine

(al Single combustion chamber,

Cb) A sixastage axial flow and a onesstage centrifugal

compressor coupled to a two-stage gas—producer
turbine,

Cc) A two~stage power turbine (free turbine), and

Cd) An accessory gearbox incorporating the.main

power and accessory-drive gear—train.

2. The gear case, which provides the structural support

for the engine.

3. A pneumatic or hydraulic fuelecontrol system comprising

the gas producer fuelecontrol unit, power turbine
governor, engineadriven fuel pump, and accumulator.

2/snug 555/3/9
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_FIG.____I_L_ Components of 250—C2O engine

The power plant installation comprises the following:

l Engine mounts (Bipod system),

2 I Engine intake and exhaust system,

3 c Cowlings,

H 0 Fuel system (external),

5 O Oil system,
¢

6 0 Electrical system, and

4%

7 0 Engine controls N1 and N2, and antieicing.

In Figa 2, the systems related to the turbine engine are

numbered as follows:

555/3/9

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1. ignition exciter, 2- $f8f’leFQ6I'l9Ffil0f, 3. N, control cable and bracket,

4. Turbine rightenglne mount, 5. Electrical ground cable 6, |n|etdu¢¢,

mil

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Tail rotor drive shaft , 8. Anti-ice cable, 9. Burner drain valve,

Main transmission coupling assembly, 11- TQIQUQ llllessuie line» 12. Turbine left engine mount
Turbine lower engine mount, 14. Exhaust ejectors, 15_ Uppgflifflng pad,
N, control cable, 17. lgnitor plug lead.

FIG. 2 Turbine engine installation

555/3/9

%
 Engine Mounting

As shown in Fig. 3, engine mounts on most turbo engines are

simpler than those of reciprocating engines.

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FIG. 3 Typical engine mounts

In a light helicopter, as shown in Fig. H, the engine is

supported on the service deck by three bipod mounts on the.
right, left, and lower side of the engine.

Engine Alignment with Transmission

This alignment is by bonded shims as shown in detail A in

Fig. H. They are individually ground and bonded in place when
the aircraft is manufactured. If, for repair purposes, they have
to be removed, index them and replace them in the same position.

555/3/9
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FIG. 4 Engine mount (Alli son 250) x

Some helicopters have the engine mount located through

machined fittings as shown in Fig. 5. These are placed between
the tubing and machined ste el brackets
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All tubu lar mountin gs are mad 6 of H130 steel tubing.

555/3/9
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FIG. 5 Engine mount

Drive Coupling Engine to Transmission

Figure 6 shows a typical main transmission coupling.

The assembly is instal led first to the engine coupling shaft

and then to the transmission coupling s haft
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Figure 7 shows the m ain transmission coupling (shaft) in

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FIG. 7 Main transmission coupling in position

Checking Run-out of the Main Transmission Coupling

When installing the main transmission coupling, and after

vibration is reported, check the run-out of the coupling. Attach
a dial test indicator and fixture at a suitab le location, and
check run-out at both the engine and the transmission ends of the
main transmission coupling, rota t e the shaft against the dial
test indicator. The run-out should be within the manufacturer's
limits.

After vibration is reported, also check

l. Lubrication level of drive, and

2. The installation of the main transmission coupling
to the drive shafts at both engine and transmission
ends.

Engine Air Intake and Exhaust System

The air induction system sometimes includes an inlet duct

and screen assembly with alternative air doors, as shown in Fig. 8
Any blockage of the inlet duct makes the doors operate
automatically thus preventing l oss of air induction to the
compressor.

555/3/9
 --8...

If the air intake is to be removed, cover the engine

compressor inlet immediately afterwards.

If the aircraft has the intake incorporated into the

cowling, cover the engine compressor intake immediately after
removing the engine cowling.

The exhaust system shown in Fig. 8 includes left and right

exhaust ejectors that are clamped to the engine exhaust collector

In Fig. 8, components of the air intake and exhaust system

are numbered as follows:

l l. Inlet duct and screen assembly,

2. Alternative air doors,
3. Coupling assembly,
4. Duct assembly,
5. Right exhaust ejector,
6. Left exhaust ejector,
7. Exhaust clamps (both sides),
and
8. Engine exhaust collectors
(both sides).

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555/3/9
 e 9 e

Cowlings and Fairings

In Fig. 9, which shows a typical set, the cowling and

fairings are numbered 1, 2, 3, and N.‘ Section 3 is the engine
cowl, and the exhaust stacks are shown in place.

The construction is of aluminium alloy, fibreglass, and

honeycomb material.

The engine cowling in Fig. 9 houses the engine air filter,

the inlet bellmouth, and the forward fire wall. Below the engine
is a titanium floor that acts as a drip pan and also gives
insulation from heat. The clearance between the engine and the
pan is enough to allow the removal of engine accessories.

Access panels have snapeopen fasteners. The cowling is

readily removable to enable engine and transmission changes.

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555/3/9
 — 10 e

SUMMARY

The most common gas turbine engine in light helicopters

is the Allison 250+C20.

The engine is mounted on a bipod tubular frame attached

to the aircraftls main deck.

A drive shaft (main transmission coupling) transmits

engine power to the input coupling shaft of the
transmission unit.

In some installations, cowlings and fairings are

fitted over the power plant section.
l

PRACTICE EXERCISE A

l. Is the engine usually positioned forward or aft

of the mast?

2, Name the main changeable components of the engine.

3, What material is the engine mounting tube made of?

4. After the main transmission coupling has been

replaced, the pilot reports vibration. What
checks should you make?

5. Name the four main sections of the cowling—fairing

assembly.

(Answers on page 35)

SYSTEMS RELATED TO THE POWER PLANT

Anti-ice System

The only engine components with antieicing provision are

the compressor inlet guide vanes and the front bearing support,
as shown in Fig. lO. ,

555/3/9
 e ll e

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FIG. 10 Antieice actuator and shut—off valve

The antieice system comprises an air shut=off valve, actaptor,

piping, and fittings.

The shut—off valve and actuator are mounted on top of the

engine as shown in Fig. l0. On the front face of the compressor
scroll, air is tapped from the compressor discharge and is
controlled by the shuteoff valve and actuator.

When the valve is open, hot air is directed, from the

compressor discharge take~off, through the valve to the compressor-
inlet guideevanes and front—bearing supportehub, thus preventing
icing at the compressor inlet.

555/3/9
 ... 12 ._-.

Fuel and Oil Systems

We shall discuss typical systems. In some aircraft, the

components are arranged differently but meet the same requirements

External fuel system: As shown in Pig. ll, the external fuel

system comprises

l. Engine-driven pump and filter,

2. Shut—off valve,

3. Electrical auxiliary pump,

H. Bladder fuelecell (bag tank), and

5. Instrumentation, which includes fuelequantity and

fuelepressure gauges.

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FIG . ll Fuel system

Oil system: The oil is in a dry—sump system, As shown in

Fig. l2, the supply tank is externally mounted, and the oil cooler
is located on the top aft section of the fuselage‘

555/3/9
 _ 13 -

Oil flows from the tank to a gearetype pressure and

scavenge pump mounted within the accessory drive gearbox.

Return oil is routed from the engine oil outlet port to the
oil cooler and from the cooler to the tank.

For checking the quantity of oil in the tank a dip stick is

mounted on the filler cap, and/or a sight gauge is provided.

The tank has outlets and inlet ports for engine supply,
return, and venting

Cooling air is supplied to the oil cooler by a blower

mounted on the tail rotor driveeshaft. In some aircraft, the fan
and cooler are mounted differently.

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Packing Oil supply tube

Drain valve Reducer
Packing Packing
Tank drain hose Bypass valve
Tank support Drain valve
Scupper drain hose Duct
Screw Oil return hose
m\lO3<J'l-!>(0l‘O-* Temperature bulb Oil tank
External oil system

555/3/9
 e 1H Q

Engine Drives

The following units are coupled to the gear train of the

gas~producer turbine (compressor turbine);

l. Fuel pump and filter assembly, located at the centre

rear cover of the gearbox;

2. Gaseproducer tachometer generator, located at the front

of the gearbox on the rightehand side;

3. Gas—producer fuelecontrol unit, located at the rear

of the gearbox on the rightehand side; and

H. Oil pumps, located within the gearbox.

The power turbine gear train drives

l. Power turbine governor, located at the rear of the

gearbox on the upper leftehand side;

2. Power turbine tachometer generator, located on the

leftehand pad at the front of the gearbox;

3. Transmission and rotor system; and

H. Torquemeter.

Designation of Speeds

As shown in Pig. 13, the speedsof the various drives are

given a letter and a number. Memorise the following letters and
numbers, which we shall often use when discussing engine controls
and the fuel system.

l. N1 (sometimes called N 1 denotes compressor and gas

producer turbine speedg
2, N2 (sometimes called Nfl denotes free power turbine
speed.

3. N3 (sometimes called NP) denotes main rotor speed.

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FIG. l3_ Turbine speeds

REMEMBER
To understand the fuel system and the controls, which
we shall discuss next, you must know why a free turbine
engine is so called.

The Allison 250—C20 engine has no direct mechanical

coupling between

l. The gas producer turbine, which drives the compressor;

and

2. The power turbine, which drives the helicopter rotor

through a gear reduction unit.

The two turbines are connected only in terms of gas flow.

This fluid coupling arrangement permits the.turbines to
operate at different speeds. To manage fuel flow to
the engine for all flight and power requirements, the
fuel control system must be sensitive to the speeds of
bothlturbines.

In this engine, the gaseproducereturbine speed is

designated as N1 and the power—turbine speed as N2.

PRACTICE EXERCISE B

1. Name the components for which antieicing is

provided.

2, How is cooling air supplied to the air cooler?

3. Does the oil system have a separate oil tank?

4. which gear train drives the gas producer fuel

control unit?

555/3/9
 Q 16 V

5. What does N1 denote?

6. What does Nr denote?

(Answers on page 35)

ENGINE CONTROLS

Helicopters with gas turbine engines usually have an automatic

system to control rotor speed N3 Cor Nrl in powered flight.

The desired rotor speed is selected before takeeoff. The

fuel flow is then automatically regulated by the power turbine
governor N2.

The unit senses power and hence fuel requirements and sends
messages to the gaseproducer fuelecontrol unit N1 to maintain
the selected rotor speed within a correct and safe range.

This selection is maintained despite changes of collective

pitch.

The pilotls main selection unit for rotor speed is the

twist grip, located on the end of the collective stick. The
selections on the gaseproducer fuelecontrol unit are as follows:

l. 90° (flight idle) gives lOO% free power turbine

speed N2.

2. 30° (ground idle) gives 60e62% gas producer turbine

speed N1. ~

3. 5°sQ° is the cuteoff speed.

A special detent button is installed on the end of the

collective sticki The twist grip can not be operated from ground
idle to cuteoff until the button is depressed. The throttle
cannot, therefore, be inadvertently closed in flight.

Refer to Fig. IQ as you read on.

555/3/9
 _ 17 _

The twist grip located at the end of the collective stick

is connected through rods, levers, and/or push-pull controls to
the lever on the gas-producer fuel-control unit N1.

When the pilot raises the collective stick, thus increasing

the angle of attack and pitch angle of the main rotor blades, he
is also operating a separate engine interconnected control.

This control links the collective stick, the linear droop

actuator (droop compensater control N2) and hence to the power
turbine governor N2. The raising of the collective stick thus
resets the power turbine governor. This increases the fuel flow
to the engine and restores Np rotor speed within the manufacturer’
limits. Operating the collective stick downwards has the opposite
effect on the power. L

Figures 1H, l5, and 17 show a fail—safe device in the form of

a weak section of an intermediate bellcrank operating shaft.
In the event of the seizure of the power—turbine governor—unit,
failure of the shaft at the weak point allows the continued
operation of the collective stick.
O I 0 I

Rotor blades_

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Gas turbine engine

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Gas producer
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FIG. 14 Engine controls

555/3/9
 v 18 —

Transient and Static Droop

After the pilot increases collective pitch within the normal

range, the rotor speed falls, despite the automatic increases in
fuel flow and power. The condition is called transient droop
and is caused by certain design features of the free turbine type
of gas turbine engine.

Partial recovery takes place due to the power—turbine

governor~correction, this restores power to give an improved rotor
speed, less than that originally selected. The difference between
this underspeed and the original rotor speed is called static
droop or negative droop.

Static droop is corrected when the pilot operates a governor

switch (beeper), as shown in Fig. l5. '

This action operates the linear droop actuator positioned

between the collective stick and the power turbine governor,
as shown in Fig. 14. When operated in one direction, the switch
increases fuel flow and NP rotor speed, and when operated in the
opposite direction, reduces fuel flow and NP rotor speed.

When the linear droop actuator is operated to correct static

droop,(a negative drooplthe actuator rod's length alters,
adjusting the position of the power-turbine governor-lever, to
restore power by increasing fuel flow to the engine. This
increases NP rotor speed to the original.

Positive droop is a condition where NP rotor speed is

greater than 100%. Correct this condition by operating the
governor switch, beeping to reduce NP rotor speed to the
original setting.

Control Systems

We shall discuss the control systems in a general way. We

shall not detail any particular system. Either Bendix or
Chandler Evans Company (CECO) fuel—control units and governors
are fitted to the Allison 250-C20,

555/3/9
 ._]_Q...

When rigging controls, you must consult the maker‘s

manual. In this assignment, we deal with the
controls only in general terms, These maintenance
procedures do not constitute a maintenance
instruction.
2
1

The collective stick: This must be rigged before the engine

controls, and the droop compensator control before the power
turbine governor.

The throttle control: This may be rigged at any convenient

time. After the engine control rigging has been completed,
the fuel adjustments may be made.

Droop compensator N2 rigging: Refer to Fig. 15 as yOu read

on.

l. Set rod 5 to its correct nominal length, and connect

A it to bellcrank 7.
2. Adjust the stroke of the linear droop actuator 9
by adjusting screw 12 to give correct rod travel,
from fully extended to fully retracted.
3. Operate the governor switch l. Beep to full decrease
(rod fully extended). Adjust rod end l8 to give
the nominal length specified.
H. Connect the rod end l3 to the governor lever 1%.
This completes the rigging of the droop compensator.

gowerjturbine governor rigging: Refer to Fig. l5 as you read

OTI-

l. Set the collective stick to the position fully up

or down as specified by the manufacturer.

2. Operate the governor switch. Beep until the linear

droop actuator is in the extreme position specified
by the manufacturer.

3. As shown in Fig. l5(a), position lever 14 to

governor shaft 20 in the position specified by the
manufacturer.

H. Back off the stop screws l6 and l8 by the specified

amount.

555/3/9
 ..2[]..

Rotate the lever 1% to the extreme position,

as specified by the manufacturer.

Hold lever 1H in position. Adjust and connect

the rod end l3 to it. '

Select the collective stick fully up to obtain

maximum and fully down to obtain minimum stop
positions, adjusting the governor switch (beeper)
as laid down by the manufacturer, and adjust the
stops.

Select the collective stick to full up and trim

(beep) the linear droop actuator to full increase
(maximum). Check the clearance between the stop
arm and screw 18.

Select the collective stick to the full down

position, and trim (beep) the linear droop actuator
to the full decrease position (minimum).Check the
clearance between the stop arm and screw l6.

555/3/9
 - 21 ~

‘_ Nominal length :

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Governor switch ll. Jamnut

Detent button 12. Strokeadjustment screw
Throttle twist grip 13. Actuator rod end
Torque tube 14. Governor lever
Rod 15.
Retainer 16. Maximum stop screw
Bellcrank l7.
End fitting l8. Minimum stop screw
Linear droop actuator 19. Stop arm
P-‘ D\.O O\10U1»I>~<.ul\>i—' -QI IOI OIQ Washer 20. Governor shaft

FIG. 15 Droop compensator control N2 and turbine governor

rhegtwistegrip {throttle-control) rigging: The limits are

established by mechanical stops. When, for example, the twist
grip is moved to the full open position, the fuel control pointer
must contact the maximum throttle stop at or before the limit of
twistegrip travel.

555/3/9
 _ 22 _

Refer to Fig. 16 as you read on.

1. Depress the pilot’s flight idle detent button as

required to enable full—range operation of the control.

2. Select the gas producer fuel control to the ground

idle position 30°, by operating the throttle twist
grip, and install the rigging pin, locking this
selection.

3, Set Cgntpglex pod to the bellcrank, and set the vertical

tube to the operating lever. This lever being previously
positioned on the gas-producer fuel-control unit—shaft
in the correct relationship as specified by the
manufacturer.

H. Remove the rigging pin from the gaseproducer

fuel—control unit.

5. Fully rotate the twist grip, press the detent button

as required, and check that the maximum stop is _
contacted at flight idle position, and that the minimum
stop is contacted at the cut—off position.

6. Ensure that the gaseproducer fuel~control~unit pointer

positions at 30°, each time you rotate the twist grip
to ground idle from either fully open or closed, even
when moving the control rapidly.
7. The gas—producer fuel-contro1~unit pointer must remain
in the same position as selected, irrespective of
changes of position of the collective stick. Check
this by operating the collective stick to ensure that
this is so.

8. Make final adjustments after engine run.

Remember that the rigging of the linkage must be such that the
stops restrict the travel, so that adjustments of the stops are
effective in altering the range of movement and the settings of
this control.

A'nti‘f-»,icii1_9'p c'0'nt’r'ol :

1. Operate the actuator to the off position. Ensure

that the actuator shaft turns counter—clockwise when
viewed from the end.

2. Move the anti—ice valve lever to the full forward,

position.

3. Install the splined end of the lever on the actuator

shaft.
H. Check the control for.full free and correct movement,
and check all lockings.

555/3/9
 -23..

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Maximum throttle stop ldl e screw adjustment
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Controls N1N2 and Anti-icing

To see how the parts fit in a typical system layout, study

Fig. l7, which shows the complete control run with engine in
position.

SUMMARY

Transient droop is a fall from original rotor speed

when the collective pitch lever is operated.

Static droop is the difference between a partially

recovered rotor speed and the original rotor speed.

The three engine controls are

l. Power lever (throttle) to the gas~producer

fuel—control unit N1;

2. Power turbine governor. This control is connected,

from the collective stick through the linear droop
actuator (droop compensator N2), to the power
turbine governor; and

3. Antieicingcontrol from the linear actuator to the

shut-off valve.

PRACTICE EXERCISE C .

l. Which control is the pilot's main rotor—speed selector?

2. To what fuel control unit is the collective stick linked?

3. which control relates to N2 speed?

4. Is the travel of the linear—droop actuator—rod

mechanically adjusted?

5u Does correction of static droop (negative droop) by the

€
pilot cause an increase or decrease of rotor speed?

6. What prevents the pilot from selecting the closed

throttle position in flight?

(Answers on page 35)

555/3/9
 v 26 ~

FUEL CONTROL SYSTEM

To understand the fuel system and its adjustments, you must

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A typical engine fuel system is the Pratt and Whitney

PT6@pneumatic with manual reversion.

In this assignment, we shall study another typical system

in a general way, the Allison 250~C20 —— pneumatic or hydromechani-
cal. Think of the system as a series of computers, as shown in
Fig. l8. To control the Allison 250-C20 engine, the Model MC-H0
system does all the management of the fuel.

Fuel Control

The fuel control is mechanically connected to the pilot's

twist grip and also, through.the accessories gear train, to the
gas producer turbine. It senses compressor discharge pressure
through an air line.

The function of the fuel control is to provide the right

amount of fuel to the engine throughout the start cycle, at ground
idle, and for all of the requirements of powered flight. Because
the fuel control is sensitive to and controls the speed of the
gas producer turbine it is called the N1 control.

The Governor

Remember that the power turbine governor is mechanically

connected to the pilot's collective pitch control through a linear
actuator. The actuator is electrically operated by the governor
trim switch and allows the pilot to make minor adjustments
Qapproximately 5% total) in N2 to compensate for aerodynamic and
ambient conditions.

The governor is also mechanically coupled, through the output

gear train, to the power turbine and also senses compressor
discharge pressure through an air line.

555/3/9
 27

A helicopter is designed to operate with a constant rotor

speed in flight. The function of the governor is to maintain the
power turbine speed constant (at 100% N2) under varying load
conditions as established by the collective pitch. Because the
governor senses and controls powe r turbine speed, it is called
the N2 control.

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FIG. l8 Fuel system

Separate Units

Separate units are required, as shown in Fig. l9. They must

be installed at different locations on the engine gearbox.
The fuel control has a splined sh aft that engages in the
accessories gear train and is connected to the gas producer
turbine. The splined shaft on the governor engages in the output
gear train, which is connected to the power turbine. This arrange-
ment is necessary to pick up and sense the two operating speeds
N1 and N2 found in a free turbine engine such as the Allison
250~C20.

555/ 8/9
 e 28 —

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FIG. 19 Control units

Understanding the System

Think of the'operation of the system in terms of fuel flow,

considering both the gaseproducer fuel—control and the power
turbine governor as valves with builtein computers. Both the
fuel control and the governor have builtein computers, but these
are hydromechanical rather than electronic.

In the first stage of fuel management, as shown in Fig. 20,

the gaseproducer fuelecontrol receives the total flow from the
fuel pump. This fuel flow l is greater than the amount the
engine requires under any normal operating condition. The fuel
control senses or receives data input from the engine compressor
discharge pressure PC, the gas<producer—turbine speed N1 and the
twist grip position - cutoff, ground idle, or maximum power.
From the data input, the fuel control computes the amount of fuel
the engine requires to sustain the gas producer turbine and
satisy the maximum requirement of the power turbine. This amount
of fuel 2 is sent to the power turbine governor, with the excess
Z returned to the inlet side of the fuel pump.

555/8/9
 _ Q9 l

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"DATA" INPUTS

. FIG. 20 Gas producer fuel control unit

The fuel flow from the fuel control to the governor, as

shown in Fig. 2l, is based on the gas producer turbine needs and
maximum power turbine requirements. This fuel flow may be greater
than the amount required to meet actual power requirements at any
given moment. The governor senses or receives data input from the
engine compressor discharge pressure PC, the power turbine speed N
and the collective pitch control setting. From the data input,
the governor computes the amount of fuel the engine requires to
meet actual power requirements and maintain N2 at 100%, at the
same time sustaining gas-producer~turbine operation; This amount
of fuel 3 is sent to the engine, back through the fuel control.
Excess fuel Z is returned to the inlet side of the pump.

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FIG . 2 l

555/3/9
 - 3Q _

Figure 22 shows that the purpose in directing fuel flow from

the governor back through the fuel control on its way to the
engine is to provide fuel cutoff as the last stage in the fuel
control system. The pilot's twist grip is connected to the fuel
control throttle lever, which is in turn linked to the fuel
control cutoff valve.

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GAS PRODUCER
FUEL CONTROL
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FIG. 22

Control Adjustments

The only adjustments you may make are as follows:

l. The maximum PC stop of the gas-producer fuel-control
. unit, which. is adjusted only on replacement of
the unit;

2. Maximum throttle stop;

3. Cuteoff stop;

H. Idle trim adjustment;

5. Light off; and

6. Start enrichment.

Other adjustments are made by the manufacturer. Because

the adjustment points may look alike, always consult the maker's
manual before making adjustments. We shall now consider the
adjustments in general terms.

Maximum thr0ttle~stOp: A set screw on the gaseproducer fuel-

controleunit is set to give a maximum power setting of l0H% N1.
The throttle must be against the stop when the twist grip is

556/3/9
 e 31 »

rotated to the maximum. Always check the control rigging before

making an adjustment.

Cuteoff stop: A set screw on the gas—producer fuel-control

unit limits the travel of the throttle lever in the minimum 0°
direction. Its effect is to establish the cuteoff position of
the throttle N1 speed. Check the control rigging before making
a fuel adjustment.

idle trim adjustment; Use the idle trim adjustment to trim

idle N1 speed when the fuelecontrol-throttle pointer is at 30°
position. The adjusting screw is located on the gas—producer
fuelecontrol unit. The adjustment is necessary only when N1 idle
speed is outside the specified limits, with the generator turned
off. Idle speed is based on the 30° fuel control quadrant
setting. Check the control rigging before making a fuel adjustment
by turning a hexagoneheaded screw positioned on the gaseproducer
fuel—control unit. .

Lightsoff adjustment: The light-off adjustment on the gas-

producer fuel-control unit is a hexagon screw. If the light-off
adjustment is too low, the engine may not have enough fuel to
start, and if too high, the starting temperature may be too high.

Start enrichment adjustment. During start from approximately

25% Ni to approximately H0% N1, temporary fuel derichment, or a
dip in fuel flow is required to provide starting performance.
When fuel flow is plotted against N1, this dip in fuel flow
looks like a notch on the graph and so is called a notch.

The duration and width of the notch is controlled by the

start derichment adjustment.

If the notch is too narrow, excessive turbine outlet

temperatures result, and this defect must be corrected.

The adjustment provided is positioned on the gas—producer

fuelecontrol unit.

555/3/9
 _-.32..

Large Computerised Fuel Systems

In Fig. 23, we again see the need to think of the fuel

control and governors as computers. '

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FIG. 23 Computerised fuel system

Fuel System Cleanliness

Cleanliness is essential in all fuel systems.

Figure 2% shows the general procedure for inspecting and

cleaning the gaseproducer fuel»control filter.

l. With the engine installed in the aircraft, you may

have to remove the starter generator to gain access to
fuel control inlet. '
2. Disconnect the fuel line from the fuel control inlet
fitting l.’ Cut the lockwire, and remove fitting and
packing 2, Discard the packing.

555/3/9
 -33-

3 Remove filter 3 and spring H, and check for

contamination.
4. If necessary, clean the filter and spring in an
ultrasonic cleaner with trichlorethylene for
approximately l5 minutes. If you cannot clean them
in an ultrasonic cleaner, use a saturated solution of
l litre of sulphuric acid and 20 grams of sodium
dichromate for l minute. Rinse thoroughly in clean
water and dry with compressed air.

5 Hold filter up to the light and check for contamination

between inside and outside screens. Repeat cleaning
procedure if necessary.
6 Pit spring M into cupped end of filter 3. Keep parts
together (use a dab of petrolatum if necessary), and
install in fuel control. Press in on filter, compressing
spring, to check bypass action.

7 Install fitting l with new packing 2. Torque to the

specified figures and lockwide-.

8. Attach fuel line to inlet fitting and torque tube nut

to the specified figures while holding fitting.

9 Purge air from the fuel system as required.

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FIG. 24 Fuel filter

Figure 25 shows the general procedure for inspecting and

cleaning the power turbine governor filter.

l Disconnect fuel line from governor inlet and filter

fitting l. Cut lockwire and remove inlet and filter
fitting and packing 2. Discard packing.

2 Check inlet and filter fitting for contamination.

3 If necessary, clean inlet and filter fitting in an
ultrasonic cleaner with trichlorethylene for
approximately l5 minutes, or if you cannot use such
a cleaner, in a saturated solution of l litre sulphuric
acid and 20 grams of sodium dichromate for l minute.
Rinse thoroughly in clean water and dry with
compressed air.

555/3/9
 _ gu _

H. Check the filter for contamination, and repeat

the cleaning procedure if necessary.

5. Install the inlet and filter fitting l with new

packing 2. Torque to the specified figure, and
lockwire.

6. Attach the fuel line to inlet and filter fitting

and torque tube nut to the specified figure.

7. Purge air from the fuel system as required.

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FIG. 25 Power turbine governor

Purging the System

Purging is required whenever the fuel system is opened up

for maintenance or when air gets into the system. '

Purging consists of breaking the system-connections at

various places in sequence and pumping fuel through from the
booster pump or an external fuel~pump source. Always pull the
ignition circuit~breaker before starting, and use an auxiliary
power unit or battery.

Fire Detection and Prevention

Fire detectors are provided in many helicopters in such

numbers and locations as to ensure rapid detection of fires.

Where gas turbine engines are installed, detectors and

indicator lights show the area for which extinguisher action
should be taken. Fire detectors do not operate fire extinguishers

The pilot decides when the fire bottles should, under normal
flight and ground conditions, be set off. 2

555/3/9
 _ 35 _

In a crash landing, the bottles are automatically set off

on impact by an inertia switch.

SUMMARY

Fuel systems are electrohydraulic, mechanical, or

pneumatic, and some have manual reversion.

Think of the fuel system as computerised, the computers

in the Allison 250—C2O engine being the gas-producer
fuel—control unit and the power—turbine governor.

Fuel flow passes from one unit through the next and
back again.

You may make some adjustments to fuel flow, but

other adjustments are made by the manufacturer and
must not be tampered with.

PRACTICE EXERCISE D

l. What does the power—turbine—governor sense?

2. At what stage does the fuel flow through the cut—off

valve?

3. Are all fuel system adjustments permissible?

4. How is the drive made between the gas~producer

turbine and the power turbine?

5. What does the term notch mean?

(Answers on page 3H

ANSWERS TO PRACTICE EXERCISES

EXERCISE A

l. Aft

2. Ca) Combustion section,

Cb) Turbines,

Cc) Compressor, and

Cd) Power and accessories gearbox.

3. SAE H130

555/3/9
 ,.

4. (a) Run-out check of main transmission coupling

(b) Oil level check of the main transmission coupling

(c) That the main transmission coupling (shaft) has
been correctly installed
5. Ca) Forward fairing,

(b) Induction fairing,

Cc) Engine cowl, and

(d) Aft fairing.

EXERCISE B

l. The COmpP€SSOP inlet guide vanes and front bearing

support

2. Cooling air is supplied to the oil cooler by a blower

mounted on the tail rotor shaft.
3. Yes _

4. Gas~producer turbine gear train

5. Gas-producer-turbine speed
6. Rotor speed

EXERCISE C

l. The throttle (twist grip), situated on the end of

the collective stick

2. Power turbine governor

3. The droop-compensator and powereturbine-governor

control

H. Yes. By an adjustment of a screw on the actuator

5. An increase to the originally selected speed

6. The unpressed detent button positioned on the end of

the collective stick

555/3/9
 _-.37?

EXERCISE D

l. Compressor discharge pressure PC, collective, pitch

control setting, and power turbine speed N2

2. Just before delivery to the engine fuel nozzle

3. No, some are bench adjustments made by the manufacturer

and are not to be adjusted in the field.

H. By a gas link

5. A derichment to the fuel supply between about 25%

N1 and 40% N2, which has the appearance of a notch
on the graph and is so called

TEST PAPER 9

l. List

(al Pour main components of the engine, and

Cb) The power plant systems.

2. Ca) List four advantages of positioning the engine aft

of the mast.

Cb) Describe two ways by which engine alignment may be

achieved.

3. Showing complete control runs, make a diagrammatic sketch

of the throttle control N1 and droop compensator N2
and the power turbine governor controls,

H. Referring to Fig. l6, briefly describe the rigging checks

of the throttle control N1.

5. List the three items sensed by the gas-producer fuel-

control unit.

6. Referring to Fig. l5 briefly describe four steps in

rigging the droop compensator N2.

7. List six fuel-system adjustments, and state the purpose

of each adjustment.

555/3/9
 e 38 e

Briefly describe a fire detection and prevention system

and how the fire bottles are operated.
NIW

What is meant by the following terms?

(a) Transient droop, and

Cb) Static droop (negative)?

Copyright

This material is for the sole use of enrolled students and may not
be reproduced without the written authority of the Principal, TOPNZ.

,
555/3/9
 He Whareleura-tini
Kaihautu 0 Aotearoa

THE OPE N
POLYTECHNIC
OF NEW ZEALAND

1- f
k

\§

5 Bas/0 He//copier
Aerodynamics
555—3— 10
 He Whareleura-tini
Kaihautu 0 Aotearoa

THE OPE N
POLYTECHNIC
OF NEW ZEALAND

1- f
k

\§

5 Bas/0 He//copier
Aerodynamics
555—3— 10
 CONTENTS
%
E
Basic Helicopter Flight Aerodynamics 1
2

Hovering = 1
Transition from Hover to Forward Flight 3
Translational Lift 4
Transition from Forward Flight to Hover 5
Power Required 7
Power Available 9
Forward Flight 12 x

Dissymetry of Lift 12
Limits of Forward Speed 15
Stability 17
Cyclic Control Forces 18
Vortex Ring 19

Control on the Ground 23

Ground Resonance 23
Taxying 25
Blade Sailing 26

Centre of Gravity 26

Autorotation 28

Autorotative Force 29
Forward Speed 32
All-up Weight 3%
Altitude 35

Range and Endurance 35

'32
Copyright
This material is for the sole use of enrolled students and may not
be reproduced without the written authority of the Principal, TOPNZ.
555/3/10
 AIRCRAFT ENGINEERING

HELICOPTERS ASSIGNMENT 10

BASIC HELICOPTER FLIGHT AERODYNAMICS

Hovering

when the helicopter is at rest on the ground with rotor

rev/min set at the normal take—off figure, the lift resulting
without collective pitch is negligible. In this condition, the
only effective force acting on the aircraft is that of gravity
acting on the mass. The only reason that this unbalanced force
does not produce movement is because the ground supplies an
equal and opposite reaction.

As collective pitch is applied and the rev/min kept constant,

so the lift is increased and the weight is taken off the wheels.
The reaction from the ground is reduced, but there is still no
movement of the aircraft. when the lift exactly balances the
weight, a new state of equilibrium has been created, with the
aircraft at rest and with no reaction from the ground.

As pitch is further increased, lift exceeds weight and the

excess force creates an acceleration upwards (F = Ma). That
is, the aircraft will now climb vertically, given perfect
still-air conditions. As the fuselage starts to move, parasite
drag results and must be added to the weight. A new stage of
equilibrium will be reached at the climbing speed, where
parasite drag is equal to the excess of lift over weight.

To achieve hover, pitch is reduced until the lift again

equals weight. The parasite drag then decelerates the rate of
climb,at the same time, itself reducing to zero. A new state
of equilibrium is then reached, with lift equal to weight and
the aircraft stationary at the required height.

10/9i
555/3/l0
 _ 2 -

This, then, represents the perfect hover, assuming no

outside interference, wind, and so on, with lift exactly balancing
weight. Ideally, there should be no further movement of the
collective, cyclic, throttle, or tail rotor controls to maintain
a constant position. In practice, however, small control
corrections must constantly be made to keep an accurate hover.

If power is now reduced, the aircraft will descend as a

result of excess weight over lift. The descent will again be
an acceleration until the parasite drag from the fuselage once
again equates the forces. The descent is then at constant speed.

Ground effect: As a slowly descending helicopter nears

the ground, its rate of descent reduces, and it may even come
to a hovering attitude ——-even though no changes to the collective
and throttle controls are made. This phenomenon is caused by
ground effect.

The effect is brought about by an increased pressure area

being created between the rotor disc and the ground as a result
of the normal downward flow of air through the disc being
slowed by the ground immediately below the rotor. The effect
is sometimes called ground cushion because the impression is of
the aircraft "sitting" on an air cushion.

The closer the rotor is to the ground, the more the air
will tend to be trapped and slowed and therefore "cushion"
the aircraft. That is, the closer the aircraft is to the
ground, the greater will be the ground effect and therefore the
lesser the power required to hover. Because ground effect
decreases with height above the ground, it is not easy to
state positively a height at which the effect will be negligible.
For practical purposes, the ground cushion is taken as the rotor
height above ground equivalent to the length of one rotor blade
or one half of the rotor diameter. Thus, the larger the rotor,
the thicker the ground cushion.

555/3/10
 _ 3 _

The second factor affecting ground effect is the nature of

the ground itself. Because the effect depends upon the slowed
air maintaining a streamline flow, the smoother, firmer, and
more level the ground is, the greater the effect will be. Thus,
a level stretch of tarmac or concrete will give maximum effect.
Long grass, small bushes, or uneven ground tend to break up the
smooth flow of air and reduce the effect. Sloping ground causes
an inequality of ground effect round the disc and hence some
tendency for the aircraft to "slide" down the slope. A similar
result will occur if the disc is not parallel to the ground,
for example, when hovering in a wind or in the transition from
the hover to translational flight. A wind tends to displace
the "cushion" downwind of the helicopter.

Re-circulation: Some energy is lost by the spillage of air

around the tips of the blades. This can be aggravated when
hovering near the ground, particularly if some
obstruction fairly near to the rotor, such as a hangar door
or a high building, which causes the air, after passing through
the rotor, to re-circulate down through the rotor again. This
detracts from the ground effect and, when the obstruction is only
on one side of the rotor, causes an inequality of lift around
the disc so that the aircraft tends to "creep in" towards the
obstruction.

Transition from Hover to Forward Flight

This transition, which will be made nearly every time the

helicopter is flown, is usually accomplished as the helicopter
is climbing from its take-off site. However, it can be a
manoeuvre during flying training, and so we'll consider the
theory from the point of view of keeping the lift factor
constant.

' In Fig. l, the centre line shows the flight path. The
parallel dotted lines show that lift is equal to weight so that
a constant height is maintained.

555/3/l0
 - u _

Figure l (a) shows the helicopter in a perfect hover (still

air) within the ground cushion. The lift is shown as a combination
of power and ground effect.

To achieve forward flight from hover, you need to tilt

the disc forward with a forward movement of the cyclic stick, and
so create a thrust force in the required direction. See Fig. l (b)
You then need to increase the size of the useful force to keep
the lift component equal to weight. The tilting of the disc
also causes some loss of ground effect, requiring yet more
power to compensate. In fact, power is normally increased to
maximum to ensure no loss of height. This can be a hazard
operationally if the power margin is small. It may be possible
to hover, as the result of ground effect, when at nearly full
power, but the sink caused by the change of disc attitude may be
such that not enough power is left to prevent the aircraft
sliding off the ground cushion and so striking the ground.

The thrust force created by tilting the disc now causes

the fuselage to accelerate in the direction of disc tilt, that
is, forwards in this case. Acceleration will continue until
the parasite drag of the fuselage balances the thrust component
—— Fig. l (c). An equilibrium state is established, and speed
will now remain constant. The speed at which this occurs will
depend on the amount the disc is tilted and whether there is
enough power to provide the necessary useful force at this disc
attitude.

Translational Lift

As speed increases, power may be reduced as a result of

translational lift. This is additional lift created by the
rotor, at given pitch and power settings, when moving forward,
as a result of the increased mass flow of air now passing
through the disc in a given time. Less power is required to
produce a given force if a large mass is given a small
acceleration compared with a small mass being given large
acceleration. If power is not reduced but level flight is
maintained by moving the stick forward, not only will the forward

555/3/10
 _ 5 _

speed increase, but the rotor rev/min will also increase as a

result of the extra power available. Any further increase in
speed will require a disproportionate increase in power to
compensate for parasite drag, which rises as the square of the
speed —— Fig. l (d). 1

GE—wsroonde§kxi P—Power 'T—Tlwost 'TL~T?onQdhonc\hFi

PD —~ Parasite drag
--~a,~—— -~—.»s-- ~ —--nr"""‘"TK\"'
P P P

T* T PD .. T PD

(on (bl 01) Oi)

FIG. l Transistion from hover to forward flight

Transition from Forward Flight to Hover

Figure 2 shows the change of rotor attitude from forward

flight condition to induce rapid deceleration called a flare.
The effects of the flare are:

l. An increase in the useful force as a result of

the increase in the angle of attack of the disc
(forward movement is maintained). This is
comparable to the increase in angle of attack of
a fixed—wing aircraft in a steep turn or pulling
out of a dive.

2. A reversal of the direction of the thrust component,

causing rapid deceleration.

3. Some tendency to cut off the inflow of air,

hence partly offsetting the effect described in
l.

4. An increase in rotor rev/min. This is surprising

because an increase in angle of attack would
suggest an increase in drag and therefore a
decrease in rev/min. However, the important
factor is the relationship of the direction of total
reaction to the plane of rotation. Figure 2
shows that, as a result of the flare, total
reaction has moved forward relative to the plane
of rotation, thus causing an increase in rotor
rev/min.

555/3/10
 _ 5 -

RA — Rclaiive, airflow’ PR - Plal/H2. of roiaiion RPD — Rotor profiie drag

L — LIFT‘ L TR TR - Total FQQCIIOH
A — Pitch angle \
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an Forward powered Fhqhi (bl FlQY6d

' FIG. 2 Effect of flare

In forward powered flight, the relative airflow enters the

rotor disc from above the plane of rotation. During a flare,
it enters from below.
\

TO return to a state of hover from a cruise state, you

could just move the cyclic control back to tilt the rotor disc
to the hovering attitude. The aircraft would then lose speed
as a result of parasite drag. However, a more rapid deceleration
is usually required so the helicopter is normally flared.

As the result of the temporary increase in angle of attack,

the aircraft will tend to climb unless power is reduced. You
may also need to throttle back to prevent the rotor from over-
speeding due to the increase in rev/min. However, the air
inflow soon becomes stabilised, and translational lift decreases
as the aircraft decelerates rapidly as a result of both parasite
drag and reverse thrust. Power must then be increased
considerably as the aircraft is coming to rest so as to prevent
it from sinking. At this stage, you must maintain rotor rev/min.
Finally, as all forward speed is lost, you need to restore the disc
to the correct hovering attitude to prevent the aircraft from
moving backwards and you should reduce power again, not only
because of the disappearance of the thrust component but
also because of the re—establishment of the ground cushion.
See Fig. 3.

555/3/10
 _ 7 _

NOTE: We have assumed throughout the transition that

there is no wind effect. In practice, the
transitions will normally be made into wind.

GE»<&r und eFfecl' P- Power T- Thrusl TL- Translational lift PD-Parasilz drag
RT- Reverse. thrust FF.-"Flare effect
TL /FE
\i'/ \é TL
/ TL
T as

(oi (bl (c) (<1)

FIG. 3 Transition from forward flight to hover

Power Requ ired

Large changes of power must be made to maintain level flight

with varyi ng forward speeds.

In practice, only one change of power is made, by either

collective lever or hand throttle or both, while in theory, the
power required for level flight can be divided into three
components ¢
¢

l. Rotor profile power: The component Of total

reaction acting in the plane of rotation,
called rotor profile drag, must be overcome
if rotor rev/min are to be maintained. The
power to do this is called rotor profile
power.

2. Induced power: TO create lift, you need

to cause a flow of air through the rotor by
applying pitch, that is, giving the air an
induced velocity. The power needed to
cause this airflow is called induced power.
As pitch is increased, the rotor profile
power will also increase. Provided enough
power is available to produce lift and
still maintain rotor rev/min, the helicopter
should be able to hover. The factors of
power needed to drive the tail rotor and the
cooling fan are included in the total of
rotor profile power.

555/3/l0
 _ 3 _

3. Parasite power: When the helicopter moves,

the airflow over the fuselage meets a
resistance to its passage. This is called
parasite drag, and the power needed to
overcome this drag is called parasite power.

Figure H shows the variations

of these three components of power
required through the speed range.
\\\
Q0
Although the buildup of forward
ouman <9“
a speed causes complications of
ERRE
~a”»“§ the airflow relative to the
POW

mgggwua rotor disc, the total effect on

v W“ ““"-_ rotor profile drag is not
v MKP5“E
FWWMDWHD pronounced until the higher speeds
are reached. Because of this,
FIG. 4 Components of power required rotor profile power is shown as
a slight curve, gradually increasing with speed.

As forward speed is increased, a greater mass of air will

pass through the rotors. Because a large mass of air needs
less acceleration to provide effective force than a small mass,
the induced power can be decreased. In other words, as forward
speed increases, rotor efficiency also increases. In the
transition stage, however, more induced power is needed to supply
the required thrust force and to compensate for the loss of
ground effect.

Parasite drag tends to increase in ratio to V2. For

example, if we have one unit of drag at 20 m/s (V), we would have
four units of drag at HO m/s and nine units at 60 m/s. Thus,
parasite power is shown as an ever-increasing curve with speed
increase.

Figure 5 shows the total power required for level flight.

The power required curve shows the initial demand for induced
power in the transition from the hover, the subsequent decrease
as forward speed is built up, and the rapid increase of
parasite drag with higher speed.

555/3/10
 _ 9 _

Power
Power requked
required
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___ __ __ P2_"“_°" ' Power
“mam POWER
*--—"" "“t&m@m

POWER
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H' .
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FORWARD SPEED » ‘E

Ia) Lightly loaded helicopter (b) Heavily loaded helicopter

FIG. 5 Comparison of power required with power
available

Power Available

with fixed-wing, piston—engined and turbine~engined air-

craft, the power available curve rises to a maximum and then
falls or keeps rising respectively. with the helicopter's
constant induction manifold pressure or fuel flow, rev/min,
and altitude, there is no variation of power available through-
out the speed range. Hence, it appears as a straight line.

More important is its relative vertical position in terms

of the power required curve, that is, whether the availability
meets the requirement. This may be regarded as one of the
essential factors in all helicopter operations (the power/weight
ratio). If you compare the two curves in Fig. 5, you can see
that if the power available is above the power required throughout-
Fig. 5 (a)-—-thennot only are hover, transition, and full speed
possible, but a climb is also possible at any speed, the rate of
climb being determined by the excess power and the weight of the
aircraft. If, however, the power available curve cuts the
power required curve—Fig. 5 (b)-then it is not possible to
hover, and you may need to make a "running" take—off or its
equivalent,that is, make use of translational lift, to compensate
far the pgwep shortage, The maximum forward speed will also be
reduced.

555/3/10
 _ 19 _

Overpitching: Where power may be marginal, during take-off,

hover, or transition, overpitching may occur. This means that
so much collective pitch has to be applied to produce the required
lift that not enough power is left to overcome the high rotor
profile drag. As a result, the rotor rev/min will fall in spite
of the hand throttle being fully open, and the aircraft will
start to sink. The application of more pitch would obviously
only aggravate the situation, and the only remedy is to lower
the lever, keeping the throttle fully open, and accept the
resultant sink until correct rev/min are recovered. You may
even have to put the aircraft back on the ground and reduce
weight.

NOTE: True overpitching occurs only when the throttle

is fully open, though similar symptoms can result
from a rapid lever movement without adequate
throttle lead, for example, in the transition
to the hover. In this case, the remedy is to
open the throttle.

The factors governing power available and power required are

l. Altitude, temperature, and humidity: These

three factors can be dealt with under one
heading because the basic problem is one of
air density. The reason for applying pitch
to the rotor is to accelerate a mass flow of
air through the rotor. A given pitch setting
at constant rev/min will, however, accelerate
a given column of air, and the mass flow
will therefore depend on the density

mass = volume X density

Any reduction in air density will therefore

reduce its mass flow and the resulting lift,
so requiring an increase in pitch and,
consequently, power to balance the weight.
An increase in altitude, temperature, or
humidity will, in each case, cause a decrease
in density and therefore in the performance
of the rotor.

555/3/10
 _ 11 _

Each of these factors also affects the engine

performance resulting in a decrease in the
power available at the same time that the
power required is increasing. The humidity
used is the specific humidity, that is,
the actual amount of water vapour present,
as opposed to relative humidity.
2. Wind effect: The effect of moving the rotor
disc through the air is to increase the mass
airflow through the rotor and so decrease the
power needed. Wind blowing through the
rotors will have much the same effect as
rotation of the rotors.
3. A11—up weight: Because more pitch must be
applied to supply an increase in lift (assuming
constant rev/min), the factor most affecting
power required is all—up weight. Thus, the
ratio of weight to power is of great importance
in all helicopter operations.

SUMMARY

Ground effect, or ground cushion, is said to extend

vertically upward to a rotor height above ground of
half the rotor diameter.

Power may be reduced once translational lift is gained.

Parasite drag increases very rapidly with increasing

air speed.

In forward—powered flight, the relative airflow

enters the rotor disc from above the plane of
rotation. when flared it enters from below.

PRACTICE EXERCISE A

State whether each of the following statements is true

or false.

l. In a hover in still air, lift = weight, and

thrust = drag.

2. The type of ground surface has a great influence

on the strength of the ground cushion.

3. Translational lift will increase parasite drag,

and so more power will be needed.

555/3/l0
 _ 12 _

4. Induced power required increases with forward

speed.

5. When the power available is just enough for

hover, a transition to level flight is safely
possible.

6. An increase in AUW will lower the maximum forward

speed.

7. Air density affects power available but not

power required.

8. Wind effect increases the mass airflow through

the rotor.

9. In level flight, the relative airflow enters

the rotor from below the plane of rotation.

10. Ground effect extends vertically to a rotor

height above ground of one rotor diameter, and
the ground cushion extends to one half-rotor
diameter.

(Answers on page 39)

Forward Flight

As soon as forward speed is gained, the effect of dissymetry

of lift is felt. This effect, which has an important bearing
on the cyclic control of the helicopter, also imposes a limit on
the forward speed.

Dissymetry of Lift

When the aircraft is moving forward, a rotor blade in the

180° of rotation from the tail cone to the nose is said to be
advancing, and this side of the rotor disc is called the advancing
gigg. From the nose back to the tail cone, the blade is said to
be retreating around the retreating iide of the disc. If a
two-bladed rotor is considered, the maximum effect of the forward
speed will be experienced with the blades athwartships (Pig. 6).
On the advancing blade, the relative airflow is the sum of the

555/3/10
 _ 13 -

effects of rotational velocity and forward speed (V1 + V2).

On the retreating blade, it is the difference between the two
(V1 — V2). Because airflow affects lift, then, given equal pitch,
the advancing blade has more lift than the retreating blade, and
the disc therefore tends to roll to the retreating side. The
formulas are

Lift (advancing blade) = CL kc (V1 + V2)2 S

Lift (retreating blade) = CL tp (V1 - V2)2 S

This is known as dissymmetry of lift.

azvxz/tvsnc//ZWLXk\AovANc|Ms

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FIG. 6 Relative airflow on advancing and retreating blades

In fact, the disc would not roll to the retreating side

because the blades have been given freedom to move about either
a gimbal ring (two-bladed rotor) or flapping hinges (three or
more bladed rotor). As soon as the dissymmetry of lift occurs,
it causes flapping to take place, the advancing blade flapping
up with increase in lift, and the retreating blade downwards
due to decreased lift. This movement about the flapping hinge
causes a further element of relative airflow either up or down,
thus altering the angle of attack to compensate for the effect
of V2 and so restoring equality of lift (Fig. 7). The flapping
caused by dissymmetry of lift will also cause a change of disc

555/3/10
 _ lu _

attitude, which will be maximum 90° on from the athwartships

position (phase lag), that is, fore and aft, the advancing blade
rising in front and the retreating blade falling at the tail. This
tilting back of the disc as a result of forward speed is called
flap—back. See Fig. 8. ,
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( ) Pm" upping Downward Flopping

FIG; 7 Change of angle of attack due to flapping

If flap-back is allowed to occur, the direction of useful

force will change, as will the components of lift and thrust,and
equilibrium in forward flight would be impossible. To maintain
a steady forward flight attitude, you therefore need to prevent
flap—back from occurring because of V2.

The equality of lift between advancing and retreating blades

is achieved by a cyclic pitch change. When the cyclic control
is moved forward to begin forward flight, you must move the
stick further forward as soon as the effect of V2 becomes apparent
This means that pitch is reduced where (V1 + V2) is maximum and
increased where (V1 - V2) is minimum.

' Thus, an equality of lift is effectively maintained

throughout, so preventing any flapping from taking place. There
is now an angular difference between the plane of the control
orbit and that of the rotor disc, which corresponds to the angle
of flap—back of the disc when flapping was allowed to occur.
See Fig. 8. This means that the correction for V2 has been made
by feathering and not by flapping.

If the speed is such that the forward limit of cyclic stick

is reached, then it is impossible to prevent flap-back resulting
from any further increase in speed. This could represent a
limitation of forward speed.

555/3/l0
 _ 15 _

Disc “~~_ _ Q /

i /

..\( /(K
/
/
Control _//
, orbit - " /., \

Stick

Miiial movement Flapbock resulting From Fldpbdck corrected ht!

of shok forward speed further movement of shck
<;====FoRmmRD
‘ FIG. 8 Flapback

Limits of Forward Speed ‘

The factors limiting the maximum forward speed of the

helicopter are

1. Limit of cyclic control,

2. Reversal of airflow,

3. Stalling of the retreating blade,

H. Compressibility,

5. All-up weight, and

6. Altitude.

Limit of cyclic control: When the forward limit of the

cyclic control is reached, it is no longer possible to counteract
flap-back, and so any further increase in forward speed is
prevented. Offset flapping hinges, a stabiliser at the tail,
and a delta hinge effect incorporated in the pitch operating arm,
have all been used to overcome cyclic control limits, with the
result that, under normal conditions, the cyclic control is
unlikely to run out of movement before other factors impose their
own limits.

555/3/10
 _ 15 _

gr “ Reversal of airflow: In
“'1 ewe considering dissymmetry of lift,
we compared rotational speed (V1)
and forward speed (V2). However,
' this comparison is true only at
, any one station along the blade
96 _ £2? _ W@i because V1 varies along the span,
whereas V2 is constant for the
Reversed ‘
awflow whole blade. Towards the root of
I the retreating blade, the relative
airflow (V1 — V2) can become very
small, and at a high V2, a negative
imoo quantity. The area of the blade
FIG 9 Reversal of airflow affected in this fashion spreads
from the root as V2 increases.
Figure 9 shows the exaggerated
effect.

Stalling of the retreating blade: Probably the most important

factor limiting forward speed is the stalling of the retreating
blade by the cyclic pitch applied to prevent flap-back. Because
this cyclic pitch change is added to the collective pitch already
applied to provide lift, it is easy to reach the critical angle
of the blade and so cause it to stall.

The symptoms and effects of this stall are similar to those

of the usual fixed-wing stall, that is, judder, loss of lift,
and an increase in drag. No two helicopters react to blade
stall in exactly the same way. Usually, the onset of vibration
and erratic cyclic control forces signals the start of the
condition. As stalling continues to move inward from the tip
area, vibration increases, followed by a partial loss of control
and a nose-up pitching tendency. Severe stalling may result
in large rolling tendencies and complete loss of control.
Retreating blade stall imposes a limiting V2 on all helicopters
for any given conditions.

555/3/10
 It

_ 17 _

Compressibilitg: The upper limit for rotor rev/min is

5‘
reached when the advancing blade tip speed reaches the
compressibility region, with vibration and loss of efficiency.

To provide a given amount of lift, either a small rotor may

rotate quickly, or a large rotor rotate slowly, the latter being
normally the more efficient. In either case, the tip speed will
be similar, and compressibility is usually inevitable when the
forward speed (VQ reaches about 200 knots.

All—up weight: The higher the all-up weight of the helicopter,

the greater must be the collective pitch applied to lift that
weight. The greater the collective pitch applied, the less
cyclic pitch can be used before the stall angle on the retreating
blade is reached. That is, the higher the all-up weight, the
lower the limiting speed V2.

Altitude: As the rotor rev/min must remain more or less

constant, the helicopter will lift less as the altitude increases
because of the reduced air density, and so a greater pitch angle
is needed to lift a given weight. Thus, the higher the altitude,
the greater the collective pitch for a given weight and the lower
the limiting speed at which the critical angle will be reached,
that is, the lower the IAS for retreating blade stall.

For the same reasons, the cyclic control movement at

altitude becomes less effective in terms of disc movement. To
counteract the flap-back arising from a given forward speed (IAS)
at increased altitude, you need to make a larger forward control
movement. Consequently, the limit of forward control will be
reached at a lower limiting speed.

Stability

If an aircraft in flight tends to return to its original

% position after being disturbed, it is said to be stable. If it
remains in its new position, it has neutral stability, and if it
~§
departs farther and farther from its original patch, it is
unstable. The helicopter is unstable in flight so far as changes
of discattitude are concerned because a change of attitude (flare)

555/3/10
 _ 18 _

of the disc causes a change in the useful force in both magnitude

and direction. This will, in turn, have a further effect on the
disc. In general, the discattitude must be controlled by the
pilot at all times to prevent the helicopter from going out of
control.

Cyclic Control Forces

In forward flight, a lateral force, arising from the reaction

of the control orbit to the forces acting in the pitch operating
arms whenever the control orbit is displaced from the perfect
hover attitude, can cause the aircraft to roll.

Forward flight implies that the control orbit is tilted

forward, and so the maximum forces being exerted in the pitch
operating arms to cause a pitch change are more or less on the lateral
axis of the aircraft. Because there is a downwards force on the
advancing side and an upwards force on the retreating side, the
equal and opposite reaction from the control orbit will tend to
tilt it towards the retreating side, which would cause the air-
craft to roll in that direction. To prevent this, the pilot
would need to push the cyclic control in the opposite direction.
See Pig. l0.
MAX
In aircraft with manual
M‘
CONTROL ORBIT TILTED FORWARD control, this load can be
FOR FORWARD FLIGHT
MAX react relieved with an adjustable
Down spring loading in the control
I system to hold the control column
I
I
-REACTION-UP in a given position. The amount
HUN “ MAX ROTATION
REA8T|OPf-- DOWN
of spring loading needed to
l relieve the load will vary with
I
l the forward speed. Another way
MAX;-FORCE
UP
of preventing these loads being .
FIG. 10 Control orbit reaction in felt by the pilot is to use
forward flight
irreversibles in the fore and
aft and lateral control runs.

555/3/10
 _ 19 _

In aircraft with servo controls, the load is not normally

felt by the pilot because the forces cannot be fed back through
the servo jacks. In the event of a hydraulic system supply
failure, however, the load is felt suddenly and the helicopter tends
to roll violently to the side of the retreating blade. One
helicopter maker used lock—load valves on the servos to prevent
those feedback forces being felt, but other helicopter makers
relied on the pilot reducing speed to where the forces became
acceptable. To prevent or reduce the effects of a hydraulic
failure, a duplicate servo system may be provided and powered by a
different hydraulic system.

Vortex Ring

Another name for vortex ring is settling with power. Both

names are freely used to describe the same condition.

In normal powered flight, there is an induced flow of air

downwards through the rotor. In the event of a fuselage movement
normal to the rotor disc, it is possible to set up an airflow
relative to the disc directly opposed to the induced flow, which
therefore causes a very confused pattern of flow round the rotor.
This movement of the air on rotor blades at high angles of attack
will stall the blades at the hub. This stalling can move outward
along the blade as the rate of descent increases.

In particular, a turbulent vortex called a vortex ring, is

created around the periphery of the disc. See Fig. ll. The
combination of conditions in which a vortex ring is likely to
occur are during

l. Powered flight with induced flow through the

rotor,

2. Movement of the aircraft causing a relative

flow normal to the disc from the opposite
direction, and

3. Relatively still air conditions.

555/3/l0
 _ 29 _

The first example in which

.. A the conditions could be met is
\ a vertical descent with power.
_,// *'*'\ _‘:f4;}t Vortex ring is unlikely to occur
§;_ ‘~”* ‘ \::? in normal conditions until the
/~\ rate of descent exceeds 300 ft/min.
\ As a safety margin, a rate of

~——>-**;;§:£i §}
.\\\"’fijK\\:F“i‘///
e__-
C_:\(’ 250 ft/min should not be exceeded
in a vertical descent in still air.

FIG. ll_ Vortex ring

The second example is in a fairly steep flare, where the

aircraft is also being allowed to descend. If power is applied in
this condition, vortex ring can result.

Another example is when power is applied in recovery from an

autorotation. If the path of movement is normal to the disc, for
example, during descent in autorotation, and power is applied
without a change of disc attitude, then vortex ring can result.

In all cases, the question of wind must be considered. A

head wind of 10 knots or more will normally be enough to prevent
a vortex state from being reached. Remember, however, that it
is possible to lose this headwind component quickly, for example,
descending into a clearing or below high buildings when a vortex
state may result if the rate of descent is too rapid.

Conversely, it is possible to be descending downwind with

ground speed clearly apparent, but with the rotor descending
in relatively still air and therefore subject to vortex ring.

The effects of vortex ring are similar to those of a fixed-

wing aircraft in a stalled condition. Initially, the disturbed
flow may result in buffeting and vibration, but these may
disappear in a complete vortex state. There will be a considerable
loss of lift, which will result in the aircraft accelerating in
its original direction of movement, and a large increase in
drag, which will cause loss of rotor rev/min and possible loss

555/3/10
 _ 21 _

of directional control. Finally, the high rate of descent may

have enough weathercock effect on the tail cone to cause sharp
nose—down pitching, which will, in fact, destroy the vortex
condition.

As the vortex condition arises from the confused pattern

of airflow, the introduction of a new component of airflow will
help to remove the vortex state. This is most easily achieved
by a change of disc attitude, that is, by a cyclic control
movement. In practice, the control column is normally moved
forward to induce translational flight, but if this is impossible
a lateral or backward movement can be used. As soon as the
disc attitude is altered, full power may be applied to minimise
loss of height. Power should never be increased before the
control column is moved because this may aggravate the vortex
condition and so increase the rate of descent.

It would also be possible to change the flow by lowering

the lever and autorotating, but the loss of height in effecting
recovery in this way would be considerable. Correct recovery
from a full vortex state will require approximately 300 feet.
Thus, vortex ring below this height is very dangerous, although,
in practice, it is at such heights that the danger is most
likely to arise, for example, descending into confined space,
"quick stop", recovery from autorotation, and so on. It may
be compared with the stall on the approach at low altitude in
the fixed-wing aircraft.

SUMMARY‘

Dissymetry of lift occurs imediately a horizontal

airflow passes across the rotor disc.

Dissymetry of lift is countered by blade flapping

plus cyclic feathering, which restores equality of
lift.

Flap-back, which occurs because of blade flapping,

is controlled by moving the cyclic control column
forward.

555/3/10
 -22..

Forward speed is limited by

l. Range of movement of the cyclic control,

2. Reversal of airflow in the rotor disc,

3. Retreating blade stall, V

4. Compressibility at the rotor blade tips,

5. All—up weight, and

6. Altitude.

The helicopter is unstable in flight and must be

controlled at all times.

A vortex ring state is an unsafe condition of flight.

PRACTICE EXERCISE B

State whether each of the following statements is true

or false.

l. An advancing blade of a helicopter in forward

flight experiences a decreased airflow over
its surfaces.

2. Reversal of airflow occurs on the advancing

half of the rotor disc.

3. An upward—flapping blade has a decreased angle

of attack because of the flapping motion.

4. Blade stall does not affect the limit of the

forward—flight speed.

5. Compressibility at the advancing blade tip

will limit the rotor rev/min.

6. Because the air is less dense at altitude, the

helicopter will experience less drag and
will have a higher limiting speed.

7. Because the helicopter is "suspended" from its

rotor, it has natural stability.

8. Vortex ring state is likely to occur if the

rate of descent is more than 300 ft/min.

9. Flap—back is corrected by a slight increase in

collective pitch.

sss/s/10
 ...23...

10. When the all-up weight of the helicopter is

increased, the limiting speed is reduced.

Lanswers on page 40)

CONTROL ON THE GROUND

When the helicopter is on the ground with its rotors turning

several serious problems can arise. Chief among them, for
helicopters with articulated rotor heads, is ground resonance,
which, if left unchecked, will cause the complete destruction
of the helicopter in a few action—packed seconds.

Ground Resonance

Ground resonance is a severe low-frequency vibration

resulting from a forced or self-induced vibration of a mass
in contact with the ground. In the case of the helicopter (the
mass), the vibration can originate either as a disturbance in
the rotor transmitted to an undercarriage in contact with the
ground, or in the undercarriage itself due to mislanding,
rough ground, and so on. In either case, an element of sympathy
must exist between the original vibration and the natural frequency
of vibration of the other system.

Rotor vibration can arise from any basic unbalance of the

rotor, for example, blades of unequal weight or with their
centres of gravity unequal distances from the centre of the
rotor, or blades producing unequal lift or with their centres
of lift unequal distances from the centre of the rotor. However,
before being mounted on the helicopter, a set of blades is
usually balanced, and so the most likely cause of rotor vibration
is faulty drag dampers. Drag dampers are incorporated to
control the rate of movement about the drag hinges. If they
are set incorrectly, the blades will move about the drag hinges
at different rates and so cause blade unbalance. See Fig. 12.

555/3/10
 - gn -

1Z0‘ |1Qo 110'

120- - \ g
\
,
I
\
Q oasc c. ,4 c.

uusumcen roac: moment ARM NIL I

3 :4‘ uunuucso roac: uouzur AIM

t
._Q
__g
iii-
>
-g
___ X‘
x-..\ § I
4
7*’4.
A

Ea

(<1) (b)
' FIG. l2 Vibration from disc unbalance

A likely cause of rotor vibration is mishandling of the

cyclic control by the pilot. "Stirring the stick" while the
wheels are on or very near the ground should therefore be
avoided. A similar effect can result from an inexperienced
pilot trying to be too careful about his landing and only
succeeding in touching first one wheel and then the other, so
setting up a "padding" of the undercarriage.

It is easier for a vibration to be set up in the under-

carriage, when there is no weight on the wheels, that is, when
the collective pitch is quite high. This state should be
avoided as much as possible by lowering the collective lever
as soon as the wheels touch on landing, and by making a smooth
progressive increase in pitch when taking off, to take the
aircraft well clear of the ground.

555/3/10
 _ 35 _

The nature of the ground that the helicopter is resting on

can influence ground resonance. For example, on landing, one
wheel may slip into a concealed hole or rut, and even this
small movement might set up the required initial vibration.
Forward movement over rough ground would naturally increase the
risk of vibration, and landing across sloping ground can also
have the same effect, particularly if the pilot is unaware of
the slope when landing.

Because the sympathetic frequency of vibration of the

rotor and the undercarriage is an essential feature of ground
resonance, designers choose undercarriage systems that minimise
the possibility of such a sympathy being set up. If oleo
extensions and type pressures are kept to the correct figures,
ground resonance becomes less likely.

In the event of resonance occurring, the best recovery

action is to take off immediately to hover, where the vibration
should die out quite rapidly. To allow for immediate take-off,
keep the rotor rev/min up to the take-off figure all the time
there is any possibility of ground resonance. Should it be
impossible to take off, then the sympathy between rotor and
undercarriage should be destroyed by reducing the rotor rev/min
as quickly as possible, that is,collective down, throttle closed,
switch off, rotor brake on.

Taxying

The thrust for-taxying is provided by the main rotor, with

the lift component kept to a minimum to avoid ground resonance.
Aim to have the best thrust/lift ratio without having
an exaggerated forward attitude of the disc and the possibility
of the blades striking their lower stops. Keep rotor rev/min
at the flight figure and steer by using the wheel brakes.
Keep taxying speed down to a walking pace, and avoid rough
ground.

555/3/10
 _26_

Blade Sailing

Blade sailing occurs when the rotor is either starting up

or slowing down in strong, gusty winds. In this event, a
dissymmetry of lift is experienced between advancing and
retreating blades similar to the effect in forward flight. The
advancing blade flaps up at the front and the retreating blade
down at the rear. If this motion becomes exaggerated (particularly
if it becomes in phase with the natural frequency of vibration
of the blade), it can result in damage to the fuselage. In
extreme cases, blades have been known to strike the ground.
The flapping can be countered to some extent by a small forward
movement of the stick, but be careful, particularly in gusty
conditions, because a sudden reduction of wind might cause the
blade to flap down in front to a dangerous extent.

Because the blades pass nearest to the fuselage when

crossing the tail cone and the blade will be at its lowest
point downwind, it may be advisable to turn the aircraft H5°
out of wind, so that the blades pass their lowest point well
clear of the tail cone.

Most helicopters incorporate droop stops, which are held

out of position by centrifugal reaction above approximately
100 rotor rev/min but fall into position below this figure
and restrict the downward droop of the blades. Many helicopters
also have flapping restrainers, which prevent the blades from
flapping up or down below a fixed rotor rev/min. However,
even with droop stops and flapping restrainers, be careful when
engaging and disengaging rotors in a high or blustery wind.

CENTRE OF GRAVITY (c.e.)

The centre of gravity of an aircraft is the point through

which the total of weight forces act. It is normally calculated
by reference to the moments of the various weight forces around
a given datum, which in the case of the helicopter, is usually
the centre line of the rotor. The position of the c.g. is then

555/3/10
 _ 27 _

quoted as so many inches or centimetres fore or aft of the datum.

In the helicopter, the relationship between the useful force and
the weight will affect the behaviour of the aircraft in all stages
of flight.

So far, we have assumed that the centre line of the rotor

passes through the c.g. and that the useful force directly
opposes weight. If, however, the c.g. lies either fore or aft
of the datum, then the resulting couple will cause the aircraft
to adopt a nose-up or nose-down attitude. The disc has to be
maintained in its correct position in space by movement of the
cyclic stick until the line of useful force passes through the
new c.g. and a new state of balance is reached. See Fig. I3.

. /ll
,’ I C.¢;¢_//65 t

(a) forward
. .
(b) aft
/ ,/

53
‘\_,

FIG. 13 Fuselage attitude with extremes of c.g.

Two results follow from this. First, the range of movement

of c.g. may be limited by the amount of cyclic stick control.
Secondly,an incorrect position of c.g. will limitinanoeuvrability
in a given direction, for example, limitation of forward speed.

Centre-of-gravity Limits

The theoretical limit of movement of c.g. will be governed

by the extremes of disc attitude because it must be possible
for the line of useful force to pass through the c.g. if
control is to be maintained. See Pig. lH. In the case of the
twin—rotor helicopter, the range lies midway between the rotors
and is longer than in the single-rotor type.

555/3/10
 - Q8 _

The limit increases with the distance between the rotor head
and the c.g. That is, the lower the load and the higher the
rotor head, the wider the limit. A similar effect is achieved
by the use of offset flapping hinges, which give a more
effective disc response in terms of stick movement and therefore
increase the c.g. limits. The practical range laid down by the
designer is naturally much less than the theoretical limit in
order to ensure manoeuvrability and is specified for each type
of aircraft in terms of the datum.
*. ,. ... I
\ .§
\ \ /
_ . -\ i.» \ /
_ I. I \\ ///, /*

\
'* V“

‘
(a) Lateral range .
(b) Fore and aft range

FIG. 14 Limits of c.g.

AUTOROTATION

Autorotation is the condition of flight where the rotor is

being driven by aerodynamic forces derived from an induced upwards
airflow through the rotor as a result of the aircraft descending
with no power applied to the rotor shaft. It is the safety
factor in the event of engine failure and is similar to the
ability of the fixed-wing aircraft to glide by maintaining a
given airflow over the aerofoils.

In the event of an engine failure, the rotor profile drag

must be reduced as rapidly as possible, and the angle of attack
must be adjusted in terms of the new relative airflow caused by
the aircraft descending. Both these requirements are met by
lowering the collective pitch lever to its low pitch stops
immediately power is lost. Further alterations to the collective
pitch will have to be made once autorotative rev/min have been
established as the helicopter descends.

555/3/10
 -29..

Autorotative Force
if
The autorotative force is the component of total reaction
acting forward in the plane of rotation,which opposes rotor
a
profile drag. It depends on the direction of total reaction
relative to the perpendicular to the plane of rotation. See
Fig. l5. .

\ TOTAL \
\ ?3E>' P-I01>-_-_-lf"'Q Z REACTION \\
‘\ \
\
\ \ .
\ \
Ow ‘ . a1- \ AUTO-ROTATIVE
FORCE
R aumva
_ MRFL
9*’ , ROTOR
PROHLE Hm““ \
“ \ DRAG “E 0? \’*° ‘
pflig v new mo \\ ‘M n \9~a \\
V‘ \ \Y
g$ \\
\ {Na
vfi“
(a) normal flight (b) autorotative flight
FIG. 15 Autorotative force

The angle of attack (the angle formed between the chord

of the blade and the relative airflow) determines the direction
of the total reaction. On a rotor blade, it depends on

l. The rate of descent of the helicopter,

2. The forward speed of the helicopter,

3. The rotational speed of the blade, and

H. The collective pitch applied.

Figure l6 shows these four factors.

=€

555/3/10
 ...3Q_

Pfich
l _ angle
L inflow
\ \ angle gpqle

Plane of rotation if T‘ \
ok mow

9“”\OkNe descent

<_
Rotational speed Forward
speed

' FIG. 16 Angle of attack in autorotation

Three of these factors are common to the whole blade, but

the fourth, the rotational speed, varies with the span, with
a consequent variation in angle of attack. Thus, the auto-
rotative characteristics will alter and must be summed up for the
whole blade in order to arrive at its overall autorotative
performance. There is usually an autorotative section of the
blade corresponding to the area of highest L/D ratio, the force
from which will balance the rotor profile drag from the remainder
of the blade and so maintain constant rev/min. Figure 17
compares the forces acting at three different stations along
the span of a blade.

- TOTAL
|_|r1' "2 _REACTl0I
1 ‘~
E
Pm: \_ -
ANGLE - ~,. 12> mus
mm: or ROTATION \
Lo“ an: or ‘-/D
RAT0
,1 nu? usscenr CU U’ O

ROTATIORAL svzzo FORWARD ‘mg-qQ1A'(|yf_

5955“ secnoa
. AUTO-ROTATIVE
.rl--- react at
‘A ANGLE OF ATTACK
(B) \E.~ (C) ‘-

Z____!
i
€

‘FIG. l7 Comparison of forces acting at three different stations along the

span of a blade _

555/3/1O
 ..3]__.

M An alternative method of deciding the autorotative section

is by comparing the angles between lift and the perpendicular
to the plane of rotation LA, and lift and total reaction LB.
e See Fig. 18. The effect on rotor rev/min is as follows.
l. If LA is greater than LB, then rotor rev/min
will increase.

2- If LA is equal to LB, then rotor rev/min will

be constant.
3. If LA is less than LB, then rotor rev/min will
decrease.

Z CD -'lF7‘!

UFT T-FL: T‘ [_A=lNFLOW ANGLE

LA / = AN eta OF ATTA ox-
g1~-/ PITCH

if
‘ |'// tan LB. - 2.L
x HTCH / ’,,*'
DRAG
PLANE OF ROTATTON
lNFLOW\\pAg§ ml
vetI~““E'

FIG. 18 Comparison of angles between lift, total reaction, and the perpendicu—
lar to the plane of rotation

The blades are rigged to give normal rev/min under given

conditions of flight, namely, a known all—up weight giving a
certain rate of descent, a given forward speed, and collective
pitch setting. Under these conditions, the autorotative section
will correspond to that shown in Fig. l7 (b) and I9 (a). This is
not the most efficient autorotative state, which would be
achieved with the autorotative section closer to the tip of the
blade, but it provides a safety factor. In the event of
external forces tending to slow the blades down, the angle of
T attack is increased, hence, the autorotative section moves out,
speeding up the blade to the original rev/min. Should the
. blades tend to speed up, angle of attack is decreased, auto-
rotative efficiency decreases, and rev/min return to normal.

555/3/lO
 ...:-32...

I I
/ I

Vb mmmum
/\ C3 \/
sAFsnevhmn
I
' LEVER RAISED.
. I RPM nsoucao
(m rsasoamucs
I I I MPROVED
<a> AUTORDTATIVE
~~@R~~"n/-'~
SECTION
¢ AN6L.£ OFATTACK

FIG. l9 Variation of autorotative rev/min with collective control lever

This increased efficiency can be achieved by increasing the

collective pitch. In practice, the pilot can control the rotor
performance with the collective control. However, this is
limited by the danger of reaching the peak of autorotative _
efficiency beyond which rev/min will fall off-rapidly. Minimum
permissible rev/min in autorotation are therefore governed by
this factor, subject to possible coning angle limitation and an
added safety factor. -

Forward Speed

As in powered flight, where the transition into forward

flight produces translational lift and enables the power to be
reduced, so in autorotation, increased mass flow through the
blades improves performance, and results in a reduction in
rate of descent. The graph of rate of descent in terms of
forward speed compares very much with the power curve in level
flight, the initial gain being offset by the sharp increase in
parasite drag as speed increases. See Fig. 20.

There is a small increase in rate of descent initially

as a result of reducing the effective disc area to the relative
airflow when tilting the disc forward. The optimum speeds for
minimum rate of descent and maximum distance over the ground
can then be found from the graph shown in Fig. 21. In the
latter case,

555/3/10
 -33..

Rate of descent
Tan 9 = velocity
u

Thus, when minimum, it gives a maximum ratio of speed to

rate of descent, which is equivalent to distance covered from
any given height.

RATE OF
DESCENT

RATE BF amzcr or
°5$°5"T PARASITE DRAG

ISPEED FOR
I IMAX. DIST
EFFECT OF £9
mcnusso mss now _ SPEED FOR Mm‘
V FQRWARD 5PEE_D RATE OF DESBENT V 533;?“
FIG. 20 Effect of forward speed on FIG. 21 The optimum speeds for
rate of descent minimum rate of descent
and maximum distance

In theory, when using either of these speeds, maximum

performance would be obtained by setting the lower figure of
rotor rev/min, but in practice, the higher figure of rev/min
is maintained at the lower speed. Additional speed can, to
some extent, be converted into rev/min by the use of the flare.
This relatively large change of disc attitude has already been
discussed when dealing with transitions in powered flight and
the basic effects remain the same:

l. An increase in useful force as a result of

increased angle of attack;

2. Change in inflow (in the autorotative case,

this is increased as a result of increasing
the effective disc area);

3. Reversal of thrust component; and

H. Increase in rotor rev/min.

555/3/IO
 ...3I.I_

The first two factors result in an increase in lift and

therefore decrease the rate of descent to some extent. The
amount by which rate of descent decreases varies considerably
with aircraft type. The reversal of thrust causes a rapid
decrease in forward speed just before touchdown. The increase
in rev/min appear surprising in view of the increase in angle of
attack and lift, which implies an increase in drag. However, the
important factor is the relationship of total reaction to the i
plane of rotation as shown in Fig. 22. Because total reaction
moves forward relative to the perpendicular to the plane of
' rotation, the autorotative force is increased, causing a rise
in rev/min.

TO T4 l
. LR EA C T]

J/2
FORCE
‘*s‘5nTgi=LQTAm/E ./254213
r0 ég;g§o1A1Ivs
LARGE
_.--74'"""
Q“
._»-

,..
urr "~§" '
Anon PITCH “eh ._,.-__ , P‘4”€ X /
HTDH'
PLANE OF Rm nmow A or4 .
AIR?)-ow ' 7/04 /
P.etAi\\I‘5- _.'_ _ ,.-no- _
INFLOW _ /
_ >>> /
~ /
Blade Section in FIare
(a) Blade section in autorotation (b) Blade section in flare
FIG. 22 Increase of rev/min in flare

AII—up weight

The effect on autorotative performance of an increase in

all-up weight is to increase the rate of descent, thus
increasing the mass flow and so causing the rev/min to rise.
This increase in rev/min must be controlled by increasing the
collective pitch, which will restore the descent to a normal
rate.

555/3/lO
 _ 35 _

Altitude

The problem of autorotation at altitude is the reduced

density. As in level flight, because the rev/min have to remain
constant, lift will be reduced and therefore the rate of descent
increased. The more important factor is the considerable
increase in rev/min due to the decrease in drag, which must be
controlled by use of the collective lever.

If a helicopter base is sited at a high altitude, you may

need to re-rig the collective control and to reset the collective
pitch/low pitch stops to a higher pitch angle to get efficient
flight at that altitude. If this is done, the low pitch stops
mast be reset before a flight is made to a lower altitude to
ensure that normal autorotative rev/min are available at that
lower altitude.

NOTE: If autorotation is being continued from high

altitude to sea level, rev/min are controlled
by a gradual lowering of the lever as density
increases.

Safety Height

Should the engine fail during hover, there will be a loss

of height of approximately 300 feet before a full autorotative
airflow can be established.

Allowing another lOO feet to make a safe landing, it is

unsafe to be hovering below MOO feet, except that, up to
about IO feet from the ground, a safe landing should be made
simply by cushioning the impact by raising thecollective
lever. Forward speed will help to establish the inflow, so
this safety height can be reduced as speed is increased, until
at approximately H5 knots, you should be able to make a safe
landing from any altitude. Don't, however, fly too low at
high speeds because, in the event of an engine failure, the
aircraft might strike the ground before the speed could be
reduced by flaring.

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400'

/ .
HEGHT
‘
O 45 K. B 5 K.
FORWARD SPEED

FIG. 23 ‘Safety height and speed

RANGE AND ENDURANCE

The factors influencing range and endurance are similar

to those for fixed-wing aircraft.

Work = force X distance

work
.1 Distance =
force

To obtain maximum distance, if work is constant, force

must be minimal. The speed (V) to achieve this is obtained
from the power curve, Fig. 24.

Because

POWEI
Tan 6 = ————~r-— ...
velocity

and

Power = force X velocity .. (2)

Combining (1) and (2), we get

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 -37..

force X velocity
Tan 6 = velocity

= Force

Thus, when tan 6 is a minimum (tangent to the curve), force

will be minimum and we have the best speed to give the greatest
range.

V; = Max endurome speed

Va = Max range speed

ed

rzqur

Power

‘D
_. _.- (:5 <_-. N 5peed

FIG. 24 A power curve (exaggerated)

To get the greatest endurance, the work available must be

spread over the longest possible time.

work
POWGI = .
tlmé ‘

. . work
. Time = ——————
power

If the work is regarded as constant, power must be minimal

to ensure maximum time. The forward speed to obtain this is
immediately under the lowest point of the power curve.

In Fig. 2H, VI shows the speed for greatest range, and Ve,
the speed for maximum endurance.

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SUMMARY

Ground resonance is a vibration caused by the

interaction of an unbalanced articulated rotor head
and its undercarriage.

Blade sailing is controlled by flapping restrainers.

Autorotation is the helicopter’s equivalent of a

fixed—wing aircraft's gliding.

Autorotation rev/min increase with altitude.

PRACTICE EXERCISE C

State whether each of the following statements is true

or false.

l. Faulty dampers often give rise to blade sailing.

2. Ground resonance can rapidly lead to the destruction

of the helicopter.

3. The position of the centre of gravity will have no

influence on the effectiveness of the cyclic pitch
control.

4. Autorotation is to the helicopter as spinning is

to a fixed-wing aircraft.

5. If the collective pitch control is raised when the

engine power decreases, the rotor rev/min will
increase.

6. An increase in forward speed in autorotation

results in a reduced rate of descent.

7. Flaring results in a marked decrease in rotor rev/

min.

8. Autorotation rev/min decrease with decreasing

altitude.

9. Oleo leg extensions have no effect on ground resonance

10. The higher the AUW, the greater the rate of descent
and the higher the autorotation rev/min. f

(Answers on page 40)

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ANSWERS T0 PRACTICE EXERCISES

EXERCISE A

Statements 2, 6, and 8 are True.

1. False: In a hover in still air, there is no

drag other than rotor profile drag because neither
the aircraft nor the air surrounding it are
moving.

3. False: Greater efficiency is had from the rotor

at translational speed due to the increased
mass of air flowing through the rotor. This
means that less power is needed, although
parasite drag will have increased by a small
amount.

H. False: The increased mass of air flowing

through the rotor means that induced power
required will decrease as forward speed
increases.

5. False: To move forward, the helicopter needs

some thrust. If this thrust is taken from
the power available, that is just enough for
hover, the helicopter will descend.

7. False: When the air density decreases, the mass

flow of air through the rotor disc decreases and
so the lift also decreases. To maintain the
lift, the collective pitch must be increased,
which calls for more power.

9. False: In all powered flight, the relative

airflow enters the rotor from above the plane
of rotation.

10. False: Ground effect, which is another name

for ground cushion, is taken to extend to a
rotor height above ground of one half of the
rotor diameter.

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EXERCISE B

Statements 3, 5, 8, and 10 are True. e

1. False: An advancing blade experiences an

increased airflow. That is, it has V
F rotor
+ Vfimwmrd flight over its surfaces.

2. False: Reversal of airflow occurs on the

retreating half of the rotor disc.

H. False: Stall of the retreating blade because

of the cyclic pitch used to prevent flap-back
places an upper limit to the forward speed.

6. False: Because of the decreased air density,

an increase in collective pitch will be needed
to maintain lift. This will cause the stalling
angle of the retreating blade to occur at a
lower forward speed.

7. False: Any change in the rotor disc attitude

produces an immediate change in the useful force
in both size and direction. This has a further
effect on the disc, and so the helicopter is
unstable in flight.

9. False: A slight increase in collective pitch

will affect all blades in exactly the same
way. A forward movement of the cyclic control
will correct flap-back.

EXERCISE C

Statements 2, 6, 8, and 10 are True.

l. False: Faulty dampers cause the blades to move

erratically about their drag hinges to give
rotor imbalance. A low rotor rev/min in a gusting
wind will cause blade sailing.

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3. False: If the c. g. is too far forward or too

far aft, the cyclic control will run out of
aft—and—forward movement sooner than normal.
An incorrect c. g. position thus reduces the
effectiveness of the cyclic control.

4. False: Gliding is the fixed—wing equivalent

of helicopter autorotation.

5. False: Raising the collective control

increases the pitch on all of the blades. If
this is done with decreasing engine power, the
rotor rev/min will quickly decrease.

7. False: The increased angle of attack in the

flare causes an increase in the autorotative
force and this, in turn, increases the rotor
rev/min.

9. False: Incorrect oleo leg extensions will

allow the fuselage to rock from side to side
in unison with an out-of-balance rotor head.
This rocking motion is ground resonance.

TEST PAPER 10

Make a sketch of a helicopter blade section in

autorotation showing

(a The plane of rotation and a perpendicular to

the plane of rotation at the trailing edge of
the blade section,

(b) The pitch angle,

(c The inflow angle,

(d) The angle of attack,

(e The total reaction,

(f) The lift vector,

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 _ ug -

(g) The rotor profile drag vector, and

(h) The autorotative force vector.

With the aid of a sketch, describe the airflow through

the rotors in a vortex ring state. Explain how the
helicopter can enter and recover from this state and
why it is a hazard to flight.

The power needed by a helicopter for horizontal flight

can be considered in three parts. Name these parts,
and state the use of each power vector.

What is flap-back, and how is it controlled?

What is translational lift, and why does it occur?

What are the effects of a c.g. position that is

(a) Outside of the forward limit, and

(b) Outside of the aft limit.

(a) What is airflow reversal?

(b) When does it occur, and

(c) What will it do to the helicopter when it becomes

large?

What is ground resonance? Does it affect all types

of helicopter? When is it most likely to occur, and
what must be done when it does occur? What
maintenance work can be done to lessen the possibility
of ground resonance occurring?

555/3/10
 -143-

What factor has the most effect in limitin g th e f orward

speed of the helicopter? What will happen if this
% facto r is
' '
ignored? '
List two other factors that also
limit the forward speed.
%
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‘SSW

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555/3/10
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