TREES for

gardens, orchards and permaculture

Martin Crawford
 Trees

for gardens,
orchards &
permaculture

Martin Crawford

Permanent Publications
Published by
Permanent Publications
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The Sustainability Centre
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© 2015 Martin Crawford

The right of Martin Crawfordto be identified as the author of this work has been asserted by him in accordance with the
Copyrights, Designs and Patents Act 1998

Photographs © Martin Crawford, unless stated otherwise in photograph acknowledgements on pp.228-229

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Contents

Index of Latin Names — v CHINESE QUINCE, Pseudocydonia sinensis — 62

Foreword — vii CHINKAPIN, Castanea pumila — 63
About the Author — x HARDY CITRUS & CITRANGE, Citrus and Citrus hybrids — 65
Introduction — xiii CORNELIAN CHERRY, Cornus mas — 68
CRAB APPLES, Malus species — 72
DATE PLUM, Diospyros lotus — 75
PART 1: THE TREES
ELDERBERRY, Sambucus nigra — 77
ALDERS, Alnus species — 2
EUCALYPTUS species, hardy — 79
ALMOND, Prunus dulcis — 4
FIG, Ficus carica — 81
AMERICAN PERSIMMON, Diospyros virginiana — 11
GINKGO, Ginkgo biloba — 85
APPLE, Malus domestica — 15
GOLDEN CHINKAPINS,
APRICOT, Prunus armeniaca — 18 Chrysolepis and Castanopsis species — 88
ASIAN PEARS, Pyrus pyrifolia & P. ussuriensis — 21 HAWTHORNS, Crataegus species — 90
AUTUMN OLIVE, Elaeagnus umbellata — 24 HAZEL, Corylus avellana, C. maxima — 94
BAY, Laurus nobilis — 27 HEARTNUT, Juglans ailantifolia var. cordiformis — 97
BEECH, Fagus sylvatica — 28 HICKORIES, Carya species — 100
BENTHAM’S CORNEL, Cornus capitata — 31 HIMALAYAN SEA BUCKTHORN, Hippophae salicifolia — 102
BIRCHES, Betula species — 32 HONEY LOCUST, Gleditsia triacanthos — 104
BLACK LOCUST / FALSE ACACIA, Robinia pseudoacacia — 36 JAPANESE PLUM, Prunus salicina and hybrids — 107
BLACK WALNUT, Juglans nigra — 39 JAPANESE RAISIN TREE, Hovenia dulcis — 110
BLADDERNUTS, Staphylea spp. — 43 LIME / LINDEN, Tilia species — 112
BLUE BEAN, Decaisnea fargesii — 45 LOQUAT, Eriobotrya japonica — 117
BUARTNUT, Juglans x bixbyi — 46 MAPLES, Acer species — 120
BUFFALO BERRY, Shepherdia argentea — 48 MEDLAR, Mespilus germanica — 124
BULLACE / DAMSON, Prunus domestica insititia — 50 MONKEY PUZZLE TREE, Araucaria araucana — 126
BUTTERNUT, Juglans cinerea — 52 MULBERRIES, Morus species — 128
CATHAY QUINCE, Chaenomeles cathayensis — 55 OAKS, Quercus species — 132
CHE / CHINESE MULBERRY, Cudrania tricuspidata — 57 PAPER MULBERRY, Broussonetia papyrifera — 137
CHERRY PLUM / MYROBALAN, Prunus cerasifera — 58 PAWPAW, Asimina triloba — 139
CHINESE DOGWOOD, Cornus kousa var. chinensis — 61 PEACHES & NECTARINES, Prunus persica — 143

CONTENTS iii
PEAR, Pyrus communis — 147
NORTHERN PECAN, Carya illinoinensis — 150
PEPPER TREES, Zanthoxylum species — 153
PERRY PEARS, Pyrus nivalis — 156
PERSIMMONS, Diospyros kaki & hybrids — 160
PINE NUTS, Pinus species — 164
PLUM YEWS, Cephalotaxus species — 169
PLUM & GAGE, Prunus domestica — 171
QUINCE, Cydonia oblonga — 174
ROWAN & SERVICE TREE, Sorbus species — 177
SEA BUCKTHORN / SEABERRY, Hippophae rhamnoides — 180
SERVICEBERRY / JUNEBERRY, Amelanchier species — 184
SIBERIAN PEA TREE, Caragana arborescens — 186
SNOWBELL TREE, Halesia carolina (H. tetraptera) — 188
SOUR CHERRY, Prunus cerasus — 189
STRAWBERRY TREE, Arbutus unedo — 192
SWEET CHERRY, Prunus avium — 194
SWEET CHESTNUT, Castanea species — 197
TOON, Toona sinensis — 202
WALNUT, Juglans regia — 204
WAX MYRTLES, Myrica species — 209
WHITEBEAMS, Sorbus species — 211
WILLOWS, Salix spp. — 213

PART 2: CHOOSING TREES

Climate types — 216
Choosing trees for different climates ­­— 217
Supplier list — 225

Photo acknowledgments — 228

iv CONTENTS
Index of Latin Names

Acer species — 120 Hovenia dulcis — 110

Alnus species — 2 Juglans x bixbyi — 46
Amelanchier species — 184 Juglans ailantifolia cordiformis — 97
Araucaria araucana — 126 Juglans cinerea — 52
Arbutus unedo — 192 Juglans nigra — 39
Asimina triloba — 139 Juglans regia — 204
Betula species — 32 Laurus nobilis — 27
Broussonetia papyrifera — 137 Malus domestica — 15
Caragana arborescens — 186 Malus species — 72
Carya illinoinensis — 150 Mespilus germanica — 124
Carya species — 100 Morus species — 128
Castanea pumila — 63 Myrica species — 209
Castanea species — 197 Pinus species — 164
Cephalotaxus species — 169 Prunus armeniaca — 18
Chaenomeles cathayensis — 55 Prunus avium — 194
Chrysolepis and Castanopsis — 88 Prunus cerasifera — 58
Citrus and Citrus hybrids — 65 Prunus cerasus — 189
Cornus capitata — 31 Prunus domestica — 171
Cornus kousa var. chinensis — 61 Prunus domestica insititia — 50
Cornus mas — 68 Prunus dulcis — 4
Corylus avellana, C. maxima — 94 Prunus persica — 143
Crataegus species — 90 Prunus salicina and hybrids — 107
Cudrania tricuspidata — 57 Pseudocydonia sinensis — 62
Cydonia oblonga — 174 Pyrus communis — 147
Decaisnea fargesii — 45 Pyrus nivalis — 156
Diospyros kaki & hybrids — 160 Pyrus pyrifolia & P. ussuriensis — 21
Diospyros lotus — 75 Quercus species — 132
Diospyros virginiana — 11 Robinia pseudoacacia — 36
Elaeagnus umbellata — 24 Salix spp. — 213
Eriobotrya japonica — 117 Sambucus nigra — 77
Fagus sylvatica — 28 Shepherdia argentea — 48
Ficus carica — 81 Sorbus species — 177, 211
Ginkgo biloba — 85 Staphylea spp. — 43
Gleditsia triacanthos — 104 Tilia species — 112
Halesia carolina (H. tetraptera) — 188 Toona sinensis — 202
Hippophaë rhamnoides — 180 Zanthoxylum species — 153
Hippophae salicifolia — 102

INDEX OF LATIN NAMES  v

vi
Foreword

Martin Crawford is Mr Tree, and what he doesn’t know about nurture. Like any good arboriculturist (or tree-man, if you like),
these sentinels in our landscape is hardly worth knowing. he has an emotional connection to trees and an infectious
I’ve reaped the benefit of his root-and-branch expertise myself: sense of awe at their sheer magnificence. But this book is really
he helped me establish my modest Devon nuttery and forest about their importance as the bedrock of a sustainable ecology.
garden, and my flourishing chestnuts, hazels and autumn olives Martin celebrates the sheer practical value of trees and explores
(to name just three) are a testament to his generous advice. the uses we have found for them, past and present, that makes
But what’s really inspiring and persuasive is Martin’s view of trees them not just things of beauty, but icons of resilience,
as a vital and sustaining life force that we need to recognise and resourcefulness and regeneration.
Hugh Fearnley-Whittingstall
multi-award-winning writer and broadcaster
widely known for his uncompromising commitment
to seasonal, ethically produced food

FOREWORD   vii
Martin’s new book is an utterly indispensable guide to growing Tree crops are the most powerful tool we have for
trees, no matter how limited or expansive your space. There are agricultural carbon sequestration. Trees for Gardens,
the usual edible and otherwise useful trees – apples, pears, Orchards and Permaculture provides a detailed inventory
nitrogen fixing alders, etc. – as well as the best of the less of nuts, fruits, tree vegetables and agroforestry species for
familiar – Japanese plums, gingkos, Siberian pea tree among temperate climates. Crawford is not only a world expert
them. The book is full of Martin’s unique knowledge and on useful plants, but also propagates, cultivates, harvests,
experience – the best cultivars, how to care for each species, processes and consumes the species profiled in his book.
and a wealth of other useful and perfectly laid out information. His experience and knowledge makes this an essential book
Martin’s writing is lively and the design and photography for carbon farming in the 21st century.
superb. I’m one of many who are grateful to Martin for blazing a
Eric Toesnmeier
trail and sharing what he discovers. An essential for tree lovers.
permaculture teacher and author of
Mark Diacono
Perennial Vegetables, Edible Forest Gardens
experimental gardener, journalist and Paradise Lot
and author of The New Kitchen Garden

Every orchardist, agroforester, and permaculturist will find this

It’s always a delight to read new work by Martin Crawford. The book invaluable. Its comprehensive listing and descriptions
accuracy of his research is unparalleled, and this new volume of useful trees, advice for cultivation and recommendations
follows the trend he has created over many years. It’s also very for edible and other uses make it a must-have resource for all
up to date. I was delighted to see that Professor Barry Juniper’s gardeners living in temperate climates.
work on the real genetic origins of domestic apples is included.
The range of trees Martin has chosen to cover is extensive, Toby Hemenway
and there is useful information about climatic zones to help author of Gaia’s Garden: A Guide to Home-Scale Permaculture
the reader avoid expensive mistakes in trying things beyond
their local range. There is a wealth of useful information to
guide the reader into some of the trickier areas of cultivation,
management and usage. Exquisite photographs complete this
valuable addition to any enthusiast’s library. Detailed research Martin Crawford’s knowledge of plants and forest gardening
and information is an important part of bringing this young is second to none, the fruit of decades of observation,
movement to maturity and that’s Martin’s speciality. experimentation and meticulous research. How lucky we are to
see this wisdom distilled and shared in this beautiful book!
Graham Bell
Graham Burnett
creator of the oldest food forest in Britain,
permaculture teacher and author of permaculture teacher, forest gardener
The Permaculture Garden and author of The Vegan Book of Permaculture

viii TESTIMONIALS
I first became aware of Martin Crawford through the brilliant I’m always excited to see a new book by Martin. This time
film, A Farm for the Future. Martin is the consummate food forest the focus is upon trees and within he combines common
practitioner. At this point I have all of his publications and I refer species with those far less known, giving emphasis to the
to them for much of my temperate climate design work. I also added importance of diversity in a changing climate. Each tree
recommend his work highly to all of my students. Martin, again, includes all you need to know and where Martin has experience
with this book about trees, offers us an astounding array of the growing different cultivars he recommends his favourites. His list
most pertinent functions and utility of trees and how to apply of trees for different climate zones and difficult microclimates
them to the creation of thriving and diverse forest gardens or are especially useful, as are the lists of recommended UK and
agroforestry systems. It all begins and ends with our long-term US suppliers for both trees and seeds. This is another fine book,
woody species and here is the consummate palette from which useful to anyone working with trees.
to choose. Trees for Gardens, Orchards and Permaculture is a
Aranya
must for every designer’s reference library.
permaculture designer, practitioner
Wayne Weiseman
and author of Permculture Design: A Step by Step Guide
co-author of Integrated Forest Gardening:
the Complete Guide to Polycultures and Plant Guilds
in Permaculture Systems

Martin Crawford introduces us to trees as if they were his

close friends. He fills us in on their tastes and habits, their
idiosyncratic behaviours and talents. Decades of curiosity and
pioneering research has resulted in a rich and intricate seam of
expert knowledge. His limitless passion for the subject beckons
us further and further into the fascinating world of forest
gardening, one tree at a time.
Sarah Pugh
Shift Bristol

TESTIMONIALS   ix
 About the Author
After a brief spell messing about with computers, Martin Crawford
has spent the last three decades on the land, starting with
organic horticulture but soon becoming entranced by the
beauty and potential of trees and perennial plants. He founded
the Agroforestry Research Trust in 1991 and has been the
Director since, setting up one of the best established temperate
forest gardens and experimenting with tree, shrub and
perennial crops on 8 hectares (20 acres) of land in Devon, UK.
The Agroforestry Research Trust (ART) is a non-profit-making
charity that researches into temperate agroforestry and all
aspects of plant cropping and uses. Martin runs the nursery
at ART which propagates and sells a wide range of perennial
plants and trees.
Martin has published multiple journals through ART on
fruit and nut trees, useful plants and agroforestry and
offers consultancy for orchards, forest gardens and other
agroforestry techniques. He is also the author of three
bestselling books: Creating a Forest Garden, How to Grow
Perennial Vegetables and Food From The Forest Garden.

x  ABOUT THE AUTHOR

 Dedication
To Sandra, Rosie and Tom.

Acknowledgements
Thanks to the Permanent Publications team for being
a pleasure to work with.

DEDICATION & ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS  xi

xii
Introduction

This is a book of useful trees for using in many different • As rows within arable fields (‘alley cropping’ systems) to
situations. It includes, of course, common fruit trees like apples diversify monocultures
and pears, but includes many other less well-known trees with • As scattered trees in pastures (‘wood pasture’ systems) that
edible fruits, nuts, leaves, sap or other parts; spice trees; trees can also benefit stock.
with medicinal parts; also trees for nitrogen-fixation to help
Although the emphasis of this book is trees that are useful to
fertilise other trees and plants.
people, planting trees will have much wider benefits, for the
As you will see, there are many different trees we can plant in neighbourhood, for wildlife and for the planet. The problems
our gardens, farms and orchards. It is particularly important the planet faces can seem overwhelming on an individual level,
now to consider a much more diverse selection of trees than but planting a tree is an empowering act that everyone can do.
has been the norm in the past, particularly because of climate
change which is both changing weather patterns and increasing Hardiness systems
climate extreme events. Plant diversity is one of the main ways I have used two different systems to give a rating of plant
we can make our garden or farm systems more resilient in the hardiness. The first is the USDA Zone system that is widely used
face of floods, droughts, new pests and diseases and warming in North America and also applicable to much of continental
temperatures. Europe. The second is the newer RHS hardiness rating system,
which is better suited to British conditions where the great
Even the smallest garden has room for trees. Some of the trees
variability of winter temperatures and generally cooler summers
described in this book are leaf crops and are best maintained
means the USDA system does not work so well.
as a coppiced or pollarded tree that may only reach a height
and spread of 2m (6ft). And dwarf fruit trees can be even smaller USDA hardiness zone system
than that. This system has simply divided zones into areas with average
Forest gardens are a kind of agroforestry system that are minimum temperatures within a 10°F range. Initially defined as
inherently diverse, and can range from tiny (50m2 or 60yd2) to 10 zones (1-10) this has recently been expanded to 14 zones, and
large (6 ha/15 acres). You can think of a forest garden as a kind also with subdivisions a and b (so zone 5a, 5b, 6a, 6b etc.) which
of garden or orchard with the planting extended above the fruit each cover a 5°F range. The USDA has published a zone map for
trees and below them too. Almost all the trees in this book are the USA using this new scale at www.planthardiness.ars.usda.
well suited to forest garden conditions. gov however for most other parts of the world the original 10
zone system is still used and that is what is used in this book.
Forest gardens are frequently described as one kind of
permaculture. Permaculture started off as ‘Permanent The zones are defined as:
Agriculture’ but has developed into a framework and practical
Zone number Min average Min average Equivalent RHS
method of developing ecological, efficient, productive systems temp (°C) temp (°F) rating
for food, energy, shelter etc. As a design philosophy it often
1 -51 to -46 -60 to -50 H7
draws inspiration from natural ecosystems. There are clear
overlaps between agroforestry and permaculture. 2 -46 to -40 -50 to -40 H7
3 -40 to -34 -40 to -30 H7
Orchards are being planted these days both commercially and
4 -34 to -29 -30 to -20 H7
by community groups. Instead of planting apples, pears and
plums I would highly recommend a greater diversity of tree 5 -29 to -23 -20 to -10 H7
species. The character of an orchard can still be retained. 6 -23 to -18 -10 to 0 H6 to H7
7 -18 to -12 10 to 0 H5 to H6
On a farm scale there is good potential for some of the trees
here to be used 8 -12 to -7 20 to 10 H4 to H5
9 -7 to -1 30 to 20 H3 to H4
• As a bonus crop planted within hedgerows
10 -1 to 4 40 to 30 H2 to H3
• As windbreaks themselves with additional uses

INTRODUCTION   xiii
Maps showing USDA hardiness zones in the USA, Canada,
Europe, Australia and Japan are also available online.*
These maps should be used as a guide to which plants will
survive where you are, however in urban areas, near buildings
and on a sheltered southern hillside you main ‘gain’ a whole
hardiness zone; whereas in hollows, valleys and northern
hillsides you may ‘lose’ a zone of hardiness. Plants near rivers
that do not freeze benefit from the extra warmth, worth up to
half a zone of extra hardiness.
Plant hardiness in any particular year is also affected by seasonal
conditions – a dry autumn leads to better hardening off of
growth and greater winter hardiness than a mild wet autumn.
RHS hardiness ratings
As well as being based on minimum winter temperatures, this
hardiness rating system also takes into account temperature
swings, especially in spring and autumn, which are common
in Britain and other temperate maritime regions. Hence the
common damage associated with late spring frosts, and in
autumn the problem of new growth being cut back by frosts
before it ripens properly. The ratings are H1 to H7 (H1 and its
sub-ratings are not included here as all are very tender).

Rating Min average Min average Category Definition

temp (°C) temp (°F)
H2 1 to 5 34 to 41 Tender Tolerant of low temperatures, but will not survive being frozen. Except in frost-free inner-city areas or
coastal extremities, requires glasshouse conditions in winter, but can be grown outdoors once risk of
frost is over.
H3 -5 to 1 23 to 34 Half hardy – Hardy in coastal/mild areas, except in hard winters and at risk from sudden (early) frosts. May be
mild winter hardy elsewhere with wall shelter or good microclimate. Likely to be damaged or killed in cold
winters, particularly with no snow cover or if potted. Can survive with artificial winter protection.
H4 -10 to -5 14 to 23 Hardy – Hardy through most of the UK apart from inland valleys, at altitude and central/northerly locations.
average May suffer foliage damage and stem dieback in harsh winters in cold gardens. Some normally hardy
winter plants may die in long, wet winters in heavy or poorly drained soil. Plants in pots are more vulnerable.
H5 -15 to -10 5 to 14 Hardy – cold Hardy in most places throughout the UK even in severe winters. May not withstand open/exposed
winter sites or central/northern locations. Many evergreens suffer foliage damage, and plants in pots will be
at increased risk.
H6 -20 to -15 -4 to 5 Hardy – very Hardy across the UK and northern Europe. Many plants grown in containers will be damaged unless
cold winter given protection.

H7 < -20 < -4 Very hardy Hardy in the severest European continental climates including exposed upland locations in the UK.

* http://jelitto.com/Plant-Information/Plant-Hardiness-Zones/

xiv INTRODUCTION
xiv 
PART 1|THE TREES
ALDERS, Alnus species
Deciduous
Nitrogen fixing, Windbreaks
European alder, Alnus glutinosa, Zone 3, H7
Grey alder, Alnus incana, Zone 2, H7
Italian alder, Alnus cordata, Zone 6, H5
Red alder, Alnus rubra, Zone 5, H5/6
Sitka alder, Alnus sinuata (A. viridis ssp. sinuata), Zone 4, H6

Origin and history Uses

The alders are a family of vigorous deciduous trees and shrubs Although the timber has been used for many different purposes,
originating from northern regions from the Mediterranean to the it is not durable out of water. The main traditional uses include
far north of Europe and from most of North America. They are those where immersion in water maximises benefits – river and
moisture-loving plants, best known as riverside trees, and they pier piles for example.
have a long history of use, mainly for the timber that is durable
All the alders make excellent windbreaks. Most will of course
in water. Their use in productive tree-based systems is usually
become very large in time so shading needs to be considered
as nitrogen-fixing trees.
when using them. European alder is often used in England as a
Description windbreak around apple orchards with the trees topped at 6m
(20ft) or so. Italian and red alder are preferable species to use as
Alders are not legumes (like Acacias), but they belong to the they remain narrow and upright and do not sucker out of the
other group of nitrogen-fixing plants called the actinorhizal windbreak line.
plants. Other members of this group include Elaeagnus and
sea buckthorn (Hippophae). The nitrogen-fixation occurs in However in the context of this book, the most useful feature
much the same way as with legumes but utilising different of the alders is their deliberate use as nitrogen-fixing plants
species of bacteria (Frankia species), which are more tolerant to feed other trees/plants. By using them either in hedges
of wet and cool conditions. or scattered through a garden or orchard, very significant
quantities of nitrogen are supplied into the system. Large
Because of their nitrogen-fixing abilities, alders are very fast hedges of unpruned trees may be best sited to the north end
growing trees, often growing 1m (3ft) per year or more. They are of the land where they shade the least. For scattered trees
pioneer trees that will quickly colonise damp areas in the wild through a system, Italian or red alder are best, which are narrow
and are able to tolerate substantial competition as young trees. and upright. Prune the side branches off as the trees grow as
Like other pioneers they tend to be relatively short lived (60-100 this lets in more light beneath the canopies for other plants.
years typically). (To prune like this, take off the side branches up to about half
Of the species listed here, all but Sitka alder are single-trunked the height of the tree every year or two.) A single tree can supply
tall trees, sometimes reaching 30m (100ft) high. Sitka alder is enough nitrogen to feed several fruit trees.
much smaller and shrubby in form, rarely reaching more than Another way to use alders as a fertility tree is to regularly
9m (30ft) in height. Grey alder is known for its suckering nature pollard or coppice trees and drop the branches onto the ground
but the others do not sucker. Italian and red alder are more (or even shred them if you are keen).
narrow and pyramidal in shape (about 6m/20ft in diameter),
whilst European alder becomes rounded with age. Alders are often used in forestry as nurse trees (interplanted
with the main crop and removed before they start to
Alder leaves are mostly oval in shape (heart shaped on A. cordata) overshade them).
and remain high in nutrients when they fall, which is one of the
two main ways nitrogen is returned into the system for other Most species have traditional medicinal and dyeing uses.
plants to use (the other is via annual root turnover). Leaves In addition several, including Italian and red alder, can be
typically contain about 3% nitrogen plus significant phosphorus tapped for the edible sap in late winter (like maples for maple
when they drop late in the autumn. syrup). All species are good riverbank stabilisers.
Flowers are catkins borne in early to mid spring. They are European alder bark is high in tannins (16-20%) and
followed by small cones that contain many small flattish seeds, traditionally used for tanning leather and fishing nets.
which are released from autumn through the winter.

2 Alders
 Varieties/Cultivars
There are a few ornamental cultivars of European and grey
alder but none of particular use.

Cultivation
All alders are sun demanding and like a moist but well-drained
soil of any pH. Italian alder tolerates drier summer soils than the
other alders described here so if your soil does dry out a lot in
summer then that might be a better choice.
All species also tolerate wind exposure – even maritime exposure.
Most alders coppice and pollard well (Italian alder less so as it
gets older).
Propagation is almost always by seed. Seed is either not
dormant (Italian alder) or only slightly dormant – for the latter a
short period of pre-chilling improves germination (4-6 weeks at
fridge temperature mixed with moist sand). First year growth is
20-40cm (8-16ins).

Italian alder windbreak Pests and diseases

Alder phytophthora is a fungal disease that can attack roots,
spreading into the lower part of the trunk that will often ooze
black ‘ink’. This fungus mostly spreads via water and waterside
Italian alders scattered in the ART forest garden trees are much more susceptible than trees in gardens and
orchards.
Grazers like rabbits and deer don’t like alder foliage much.

Related species
Green alder (Alnus viridis) is a mainland European shrubby
species smaller still than Sitka alder.

European & North American suppliers

Europe: ALT, ART, BHT, PHN, TPN*
North America: Obtain from forest tree nurseries (many states
have their own nursery).

*  See suppliers list on p.225

Alders   3
ALMOND, Prunus dulcis
Deciduous, Zone 6-7, H5
Edible seed

Origin and history Uses

The almond has been cultivated for its edible seed since Almonds are a concentrated source of energy, supplying
ancient times. From its centre of origin in central Asia, it was significant amounts of fats, protein and fibre. The nuts are
disseminated to all ancient civilisations in Asia (2000 BC), used in sweets, baked products and confectioneries. Nuts are
Europe (350 BC) and North Africa (700 AD). Almonds were available in-shell, shelled, blanched, roasted, dry roasted, as a
introduced into California in the Spanish Mission period, but paste (marzipan), a butter and cut into various shapes.
significant plantings made there only after the Gold Rush.
Almond oil from the kernels is sweet and scented, valued for
Today, commercial production is dominated by California, marinades and cooking, also used as a flavouring agent in
with the Mediterranean region also producing large quantities. baked goods, perfumery and medicines, and used for cosmetic
Modern varieties are often disease-prone and older varieties are creams and lotions. Sweet almond kernels contain 44-55% oil,
sometimes more suitable for home growers. Growing almonds 67% of which is unsaturated oleic.
in Britain is a challenge, as they don’t like the humid cool
Green almonds – whole fruits picked in early summer before
climate very much.
the shell forms and in which the kernel is very soft and tender
Description – are popular as dessert in almond-growing countries. They
are sometimes preserved in sugar or the young fresh kernels in
The almond is a small deciduous tree growing 6-10m (20-33ft)
spirit (eau-de-vie).
high (occasionally more), upright when young, of bushy habit
with a broad crown when older. It is part of the Rosaceae family, Milk of almonds (Sirop d’orgeat) is a refreshing drink made from
which includes plums and peaches. crushed almonds in France, and regarded as having medicinal
properties.
Leaves are long-pointed and finely toothed, light green above
and shiny. White or pink flowers are produced singly or in pairs The seeds and/or the oil have long been used in traditional
with or (usually) before the foliage, and are 2-5cm (1-2ins) medicines, and the oil is often used as a carrier oil in aromatherapy.
across. Because of the low winter chilling requirement, almond Bitter almonds are used for the production of almond oil and
flowers very early (January to March or April, depending on the almond essence for flavouring only; the bitterness is due to high
selection and locality). levels of hydrogen cyanide. The kernels contain 38-45% oil, and
The fruit is oblong, 3-6cm (1.2-2.5ins) long, consisting of a kernel a majority of the almond oil used comes from bitter almonds,
within a pitted shell, which itself is within a leathery hull; the as this is a cheaper source.
hull is downy, and the tough flesh splits at maturity to expose The dry fibrous hulls left over after nuts are hulled are a valuable
the pitted seed. The seed can be thick or thin shelled, and is livestock food – they contain 25% sugars.
flattened and brown. Within the shell is a single flattened kernel.
Fruits occur mainly on short spurs. The oil from seeds is an excellent lubricant and is still used in
delicate mechanisms such as watches.
Almonds are fairly cold hardy – about as hardy as peaches:
normally regarded as hardy to zone 7 (-15°C, 5°F) but in some Various dyes can be obtained: green from the leaves; dark grey-
selections, temperatures as low as -20°C (-4°F) may be tolerated green from the fruit; and yellow from the roots and leaves.
when fully dormant (zone 6); the limiting factor in growing it It is an early bee plant – particularly bumblebees in Britain –
is the frost-sensitivity of the flowers and young fruit. Almonds being a source of nectar and pollen.
need only 100-700 hours of winter chilling (i.e. below 7.2°C, 45°F),
hence come into flower very early in spring. Varieties/Cultivars
Sweet almonds, the type normally grown for fruit, are from var. Only a small number of cultivars are described here of the
dulcis. Bitter almonds, from var. amara, have nuts that are bitter hundreds that exist.
to the taste and poisonous to eat; they are mostly grown for oil Almond cultivars fall into specific groups (‘pollen incompatibility
production. groups’) within which cross-pollination does not occur. If a group

4 AlMOND
number is given in the variety description, that variety will not
pollinate others with the same group number.
In Britain, the most promising cultivars are those that flower
late but mature early season. Many of the recent French
selections and some of the older types too show the best
promise, including ‘Ai’, ‘Ardechoise’, ‘Belle d’aurons’, ‘Ferraduel’,
‘Ferragnes’, ‘Ferralise’, ‘Lauranne’, ‘Mandaline’, ‘Rabasse’ and
‘Steliette’. Some peach-almond hybrids (Prunus x persicoides)
that grow and crop just like almonds are also good in Britain Unripe almond fruits
including ‘Ingrid’ and ‘Robijn’.

Cultivar Origin Description Cultivar Origin Description

‘Ai’ France Tree bushy, hard to prune, a regular ‘Ferragnes’ France Nuts hard shelled; kernels large, elongated,
producer, resistant to Monilinia (see p.10). light coloured, somewhat wrinkled. Tree
moderately vigorous, upright, precocious,
‘Aldrich’ California Nut soft shelled, well sealed; kernel small-
productive, resistant to peach leaf curl
medium. Tree large, moderately upright.
and Monilinia. One of the most important
‘All-in-One’ California Shell soft, well sealed; kernel medium cultivars in new European plantings.
size. Tree semi-dwarf, precocious, heavy Flowering group 8.
cropping. Self-fertile tree bred for home
‘Ferralise’ France Nuts hard shelled; kernels small, elongated,
gardeners.
smooth. Flowering group 8.
‘Ardechoise’ France Nuts soft shelled, kernels elongated,
‘Ferrastar’ France Tree vigorous, resistant to some fungus
moderate quality. Tree very erect,
diseases.
productive, highly resistant to fungal
diseases. ‘Fritz’ California Nuts semi-hard shelled; kernels relatively
small. Tree upright, vigorous, heavy
‘Butte’ California Shell semi-hard; kernels relatively small.
blooming and yielding.
Tree spreading, moderately vigorous, high
yielding, susceptible to brown rot. ‘Garden California Nut soft shelled; kernel medium size.
Prince’ Self-fertile tree bred for home gardeners –
‘Carmel’ California Paper shell; kernel small, elongated, light
a genetic dwarf to 3m (10ft) high.
coloured. Tree upright, medium sized,
precocious, productive. Susceptible to ‘Hashem II’ California Nuts soft shelled; kernels large, long, flat.
brown rot. Flowering group 5. Tree upright, productive.
‘Chellaston’ Australia Nuts soft shelled; kernel small-medium, ‘Ingrid’ Netherlands Peach-almond hybrid. Tree self-fertile,
flat. Tree semi-upright, compact, medium quite resistant to peach leaf curl.
vigour.
‘IXL’ USA Nuts long with a pronounced keel towards
‘Cruz’ California Nuts medium size, soft shelled, well sealed; the tip, shell soft to paper; kernel medium-
kernel roundish, medium size. Tree upright, large, light coloured. Tree upright with large
medium size, open; heavy and consistent leaves, shy bearing. Flowering group 1.
producer.
‘Jordanolo’ California Nuts soft shelled; kernels large, light
‘Davey’ California Shell soft; kernel medium size, light coloured, of good quality. Tree upright,
coloured. Tree vigorous, upright, slow to vigorous, precocious, productive.
bear, low productivity, hard to harvest.
‘Kapareil’ California Nut paper shelled; kernels small.
‘Dehn’ USA (Utah) Nut hard shelled; kernel large, plump. Similar to ‘Nonpareil’ in most aspects.
Tree productive, cold hardy. Flowering group 6.
‘Ferraduel’ France Nuts hard shelled; kernels large, flat. ‘Lauranne’ France Hard shelled; kernel small, light coloured.
Tree vigorous, precocious, productive, Tree spreading to drooping, moderately
resistant to peach leaf curl. One of the vigorous, precocious. Self-fertile.
most important cultivars in new European
plantings – used to pollinate ‘Ferragnes’.
Table continues overleaf

Almond   5
Cultivar Origin Description Cultivar Origin Description
‘Le Grand’ California Tree vigorous, upright, partially self-fertile. ‘Peerless’ California Used for in-shell nuts, shell semi-hard;
Susceptible to brown rot and shothole. kernels of mediocre quality, quite light
coloured, some doubles. Tree medium size,
‘Livingston’ California Nut thin shelled, well sealed; kernel vigorous, spreading, moderately upright,
medium size. Tree medium size, semi- moderate cropper.
upright. Flowering group 5.
‘Phoebe’ Netherlands Self–fertile tree with some resistance to
‘Lodi’ California Nut soft shelled, well sealed; kernel peach leaf curl. Ornamental pink flowers.
medium-large, broad, slightly bitter.
Tree medium size. ‘Plateau’ California Nut soft shelled, well sealed; kernel large.
Tree semi-upright, medium sized.
‘Macrocarpa’ UK Long grown in Britain, with large fruits and
nuts. Flowers are large. Tree resistant to ‘Price’ California Nuts soft shelled; kernels good quality.
peach leaf curl. Tree quite vigorous, somewhat spreading.
Has a tendency to crop biennially and
‘Mandaline’ France Good quality nuts from recently released heavily. Flowering group 3.
self-fertile tree. Tree resistant to fungal
diseases. ‘Rabasse’ France Nuts small, round, hard shelled. Tree highly
productive.
‘Merced’ California Nuts paper shelled; kernel medium sized,
light coloured. Tree upright, small-medium ‘Robijn’ Netherlands Peach-almond hybrid, nuts with a soft shell.
sized. Precocious, yielding well from young
‘Ruby’ California Nuts hard shelled. Tree small, upright,
trees, susceptible to worm damage and
productive.
fungi. Flowering group 3.
‘Solano’ Kernels of high quality, resembling
‘Mission’ USA (Texas) Nuts semi-hard shell; kernels medium
‘Nonpareil’. Flowering group 6.
sized, dark, many doubles. Tree upright,
vigorous when young, decreasing later; ‘Sonora’ California Kernels large, elongated, smooth and light
very productive. Susceptible to mallet skinned; nut thin shelled. Tree roundish,
wound canker. medium sized, precocious, heavy bearing.
Flowers are quite frost resistant.
‘Monarch’ California Nut fairly hard shelled, well sealed;
Flowering group 6.
kernel large, plump. Tree large, upright.
Flowering group 5. ‘Steliette’ France Nut semi-hard shelled; kernel large, light
coloured. Tree precocious, moderately
‘Monterey’ California Kernel large, elongated. Tree vigorous,
vigorous. Self-fertile.
spreading, very productive.
‘Thompson’ California Nuts soft to paper shelled; kernels small,
‘Ne Plus California Nuts easy to harvest, paper shell.
plump, slightly bitter. Tree upright,
Extra’ Kernels very large, quite light coloured,
medium sized, precocious, productive.
many doubles. Tree vigorous, spreading,
Flowering group 4.
precocious, moderate cropper, difficult to
train. Susceptible to frost, fungus and worm ‘Titan’ USA Nuts thin shelled, well sealed. Very hardy
damage. Flowering group 3. tree, large and well-branched, resistant to
peach leaf curl.
‘Nonpareil’ California Nuts paper shelled; kernels medium
sized, light coloured. Tree large, upright- ‘Tuono’ Italy Nut hard shelled; kernels large, light
spreading, vigorous; a consistent heavy coloured, many doubles. Tree self-
bearer; relatively resistant to frost damage. fertile, moderately vigorous, spreading,
Leading Californian cultivar. productive, low susceptibility to pests and
Flowering group 1. diseases.
‘Padre’ California Nuts hard shelled; kernels relatively ‘Wood California Nut fairly soft shelled, well sealed; kernel
small. Tree upright, of moderate vigour, Colony’ medium size, plump. Flowering group 4.
productive.

Unshelled
almonds. Those
from almond-
peach hybrids
like Robijn look
like peach seeds.

6 AlMOND
Flowering and harvesting times
Flowering: Time of flowering is divided into six: Early (E),
Early-Mid (EM), Mid (M), Mid-Late (ML), Late (L), Very Late (VL).
Flowering period can vary by about six weeks, so each of these
categories lasts about one week. ‘E’ roughly corresponds to
late January/early February; ‘VL’ to mid March or later. Varieties
in the same group or an adjacent group will overlap and
cross-pollinate satisfactorily unless they are in the same pollen
incompatibility group.
Harvesting: Indicates harvest period. Almond ripening can
be spread over about 60 days (two months). The ripening of
‘Nonpareil’ is taken as Day 0.
E = Early (0-7 days) EM = Early-Mid (7-15 days)
M = Mid (15-25 days)
ML = Mid-Late (25-40 days) L = Late (40-60 days)
FLOWERING HARVESTING FLOWERING HARVESTING
E EM M ML L VL E EM M ML L E EM M ML L VL E EM M ML L
‘Ai’  ‘Lodi’  
‘Aldrich’   ‘Macrocarpa’
‘All-in-One’   ‘Merced’  
‘Ardechoise’  ‘Mission’  
(‘Texas’)
‘Butte’’  
‘Monarch’  
‘Carmel’  
‘Monterey’  
‘Chellaston’  
‘Ne Plus  
‘Cruz’    Ultra’
‘Davey’  ‘Nonpareil’  
‘Ferraduel’   ‘Padre’  
‘Ferragnes’   ‘Peerless’  
‘Ferralise’   ‘Plateau’  
‘Ferrastar’  ‘Price’  
‘Fritz’   ‘Rabasse’ 
‘Garden  ‘Robijn’  
Prince’
‘Ruby’ 
‘Hashem II’   
‘Solano’  
‘Ingrid’  
‘Sonora’  
‘IXL’  
‘Steliette’  
‘Jordanolo’  
‘Thompson’  
‘Kapareil’  
‘Titan’ 
‘Lauranne’  
‘Tuono’  
‘LeGrand’   
‘Wood  
‘Livingston’   Colony’

Almond   7
Cultivation honey fungus). Trees are shallow rooted and poorly anchored,
producing trees of moderate vigour dwarfed to about 65% of
Almonds, like olives, are adapted to drought and poor soils,
trees on almond or peach stocks. Poorly adapted to drought
and until the last 150 years orchards were grown on marginal
but tolerant of waterlogging. Not all almond cultivars are
soils without irrigation because they could survive and produce
compatible, including ‘Ferraduel’ and ‘Nonpareil’.
under these conditions. Initial Californian plantings copied these
tactics, with trees grown on drought-tolerant almond seedling
rootstocks, and orchards planted on hillsides without irrigation. Other plum rootstocks
Growers soon found that almonds grew well on fertile, deep, Many plum stocks have reasonably good compatibility with
well-drained soil, and responded to irrigation and fertilisation almond, but are rarely used in dry summer areas because of
so that yields increased by 100-200%. Of course, more intensive lack of drought tolerance. In wetter areas though, like Britain,
cultivation entails much more work, makes trees more they are probably the best choice of rootstock. Plum rootstocks
susceptible to pests and diseases, and uses water resources do make almonds hardier. Selections used include: ‘Damas’,
and fertilisers (usually oil-based). Ends do not always justify the ‘Ishtara’, ‘Myran’ and ‘St Julian A’.
means, and in dry regions almonds can be grown as a very low-
Almonds tolerate most well-drained soils, but are most
maintenance crop as long as lower yields are tolerated.
productive on loamy, deep, uniform soils. They need a sunny
Almonds are best not grown near peaches, as they can site to crop well, although they will tolerate partial shade.
hybridise and produce bitter nuts.
Spacing of trees depends on several factors, most importantly
In arid areas of the Mediterranean and the Caucasus, almonds the vigour of the cultivar/rootstock combination, the fertility
were traditionally sown as seed nuts, and later budded in situ of the soil and the growing region. Wider spacing is used for
with improved selections. This method is still carried out today, vigorous combinations, and on fertile irrigated soils.
as it produces better-rooted plants that are well adapted to the Generally, fertile soils require spacings of about 7.3m (24ft) or
dry, rocky, calcareous soil conditions. more, while on less fertile soils 6m (20ft) is appropriate.
Orchard plantings are usually square or hexagonal (triangle or
In most other regions, seedling or clonal rootstocks are
diamond). A hexagonal planting has all trees equally distant
desirable. The most commonly used are:
from each other and allows for about 15% more trees per unit
Almond seedling area, and increased production in the early years.
Produce vigorous, deeply tap-rooted trees requiring a
Planting on a north slope may be desirable, as this will delay
well-drained soil. Well adapted to drought and calcareous
flowering for 1-2 weeks. All frost susceptible areas must be
conditions. Poorly adapted to wet and waterlogged conditions.
avoided.
‘Mission’ seedlings are sometimes used in California because of
the general uniformity and vigour of the seedlings. Many commercial orchards are managed by allowing annual
weeds to grow as a ground cover, which is mown regularly.
Peach seedling
Other options are to grow a nitrogen-fixing cover crop like clover
Peach seedlings are the dominant rootstock in California and
(white or subterranean) that is mown. A 2m (6ft) wide weed-free
several other regions where irrigation is used and where soils
strip around the trees is the norm, and mulches can be used
are slightly acidic. Produces vigorous, somewhat shallow-
instead of the usual herbicides.
rooted trees with more fibrous roots; productive at an earlier
age than almond rootstock. Well adapted to moist (irrigated Commercial orchards are heavily fed with soluble sources of
if necessary) but well-drained, slightly acidic soils. Poorly nitrogen and other fertilisers to maximise nut yields; however,
adapted to drought and calcareous soils. Seedlings of ‘Lovell’, this can lead to many other problems, including excessive
‘Nemaguard’ and ‘Nemared’ (red leaved) are used in California. sappy growth, which is susceptible to pests and diseases. It is
worth noting that nut yields with no added nitrogen can reach
Peach-almond hybrids
50-60% of those of heavily fertilised trees – almonds are well
These have very vigorous root systems, deeply rooted and well
adapted to poor and impoverished soils. Additions of compost
anchored. They are well adapted to drought, and calcareous
and mulches should suffice on a small scale.
soils; are long lived and precocious. Trees are vigorous,
larger, and yield more heavily than trees on almond or peach Irrigated commercial orchards are supplied with a total of about
rootstocks. Best used where trees are not to be irrigated, although 1m (39ins) of water, with most applied between June and
‘GF 677’ is better adapted to wet soils. Selections include September. Water-stressed trees yield less and smaller nuts,
‘Adafuel’, ‘GF 557’, ‘GF 667’, ‘Hansen 536’ and ‘Hansen 2168’. and the nuts are more susceptible to hull splitting, so it may be
worth watering trees during prolonged dry periods.
Marianna plum
Three clones, ‘Marianna 2623’ and ‘Marianna 2624’ in California, Formative pruning and the pruning of bearing trees is standard
and ‘GF 8-1’ in Europe, are used as almond rootstocks practice in commercial orchards. In damp climates like Britain,
particularly in heavy, poorly-drained soils or to replant in honey pruning is probably best minimised to avoid fungal diseases
fungus infected spots (the latter two selections are resistant to and bacterial canker, and pruning in winter avoided completely.

8 AlMOND
Almond orchard in California

Any large cuts should be treated with a protective paint. hull continues to open, exposing the nut inside.
Formative pruning consists of selecting three main branches
Time of harvesting in a warm climate can vary over a period
to form the framework of the tree. Once the head is shaped,
of 2.5 months (mid July to early October), depending on
occasional thinning, and removal of dead and crossing wood,
the cultivar. In Britain most viable cultivars ripen in early to
should suffice. Any pruning is best carried out in August,
mid October. To determine when to harvest, shake a branch
September or October after harvest.
with your hands and if nearly all nuts fall, then harvest
Almonds flower early in the year and are susceptible to frost immediately (as long as the weather is dry). The nuts in the
damage. From flowering time onwards, temperatures below centre of the tree are last to ripen. Nuts left on the tree after
-3°C/26.5°F can seriously affect many cultivars. Cross-pollination harvest can harbour pests like the navel orangeworm and
is essential for most cultivars. Several self-fertile cultivars are fungal diseases.
available, more suited to home production than commercial
Cropping usually begins by about the fourth year after planting,
cultivation. Pollination is heavily dependent on bees; in the UK
with full crops by 12-15 years. Full yields vary from 5-18kg (11-40lb)
bumblebees. Artificial pollination, by hand using a camel-hair
per tree depending on the cultivation system.
or rabbit tail brush, may be needed in cool regions; all flowers
should be pollinated if possible when attempting this. After harvesting and hulling (if necessary), nuts for drying are
usually dried in a blown air stream at 54°C (130°F) for 6-10 hours
The traditional harvesting method is to shake trees over canvas
to achieve a nut moisture of 7%.
sheets. The first sign that the nut is maturing is an indented ‘V’
followed by a split along the suture of the hull. Harvesting is Almond cultivars are either budded or grafted onto a suitable
usually 30-45 days after this point, during which time the split rootstock; any of the common methods is applicable.

Almond   9
Pests and diseases and rain splash spread the spores. Occurs in most regions,
worst when rains or fog are frequent during flowering. To avoid
Susceptibility to pests varies with the cultivar; in particular hard-
using fungicides in damp regions, resistant cultivars should be
shelled cultivars are much more resistant than soft or paper-
grown if possible.
shelled cultivars.
Shot hole (Stigmina carpophila or Wilsonomyces carpophilus)
Navel orangeworm (Amyelois transitella)
A fungus that causes lesions on leaves and fruit, leading to holes
A principal cause of wormy kernels in North America, and the
in leaves. Occurs in most regions, worst when there is frequent
most serious pest in California. Adult moths lay eggs on fruits or
and prolonged spring rainfall. An early infestation may lead to
nearby twigs, and the larvae infest developing nuts, which they
heavy shedding of leaves and fruit drop. Not usually serious
can totally consume. Susceptibility varies between cultivars. The
enough for action to be taken, though a copper fungicide in
most important control measure is to remove mummified nuts
early spring can be used.
in winter, as these are the sites of overwintering. Two parasitic
wasps also provide some control in California. Bacterial canker and blast (Pseudomonas syringae)
A bacterium that can affect most Prunus species. Causes
Peach twig borer (Anarsia lineatella)
isolated cankers that cause branch death; canker is more
Another serious pest of almond (and peach), causing wormy
serious on trees grown in light sandy soils, on weak growing
kernels. Found in North America, Europe and the Mediterranean
trees, on young trees (trees over 7-8 years old are somewhat
area. Adult moths lay eggs on fruits and leaves, and the larvae
resistant) and in wet regions. Blast causes flowers to blacken
feed on leaves, buds and shoots. Peach twig borers overwinter
and young shoots to die back. Blast (found independently of
as hibernating larvae, usually under the thin bark in limb
canker) is associated with cold or freezing temperatures at
crotches on 1-3 year old wood. Commercial control is usually
flowering time.
via powerful organophosphate insecticides. Safer control
can be achieved by using the biological control BT (Bacillus Scab (Cladosporium carpophilum)
thuringiensis) sprayed at pink bud and again at full flower. A fungus causing spotting and blotching on leaves, fruits and
twigs; can result in premature leaf fall. Favoured by wet weather.
Squirrels
Occurs in most regions. Not usually serious enough for action
May seriously damage growing and mature nuts. Control by
to be taken, but a copper fungicide can be used in spring (2-5
trapping or shooting is most sound. In Britain this applies to
weeks after petal fall). Cutting out diseased shoots can also be
grey squirrels – reds are protected.
carried out.
Birds
Hull rots
Crows, magpies, starlings, blackbirds and woodpeckers may all
Several moulds that attack fruits and fruiting wood, including
eat almonds and damage trees. Bullfinches can be a problem
Rhizopus stolonifer, Monilinia fruticola and M. laxa. Occurs in
in Britain, but they only take a small proportion of the crop.
most areas, most severely on vigorous growing, soft-shelled
Frightening by using sound or visual cues is most appropriate.
cultivars like ‘Nonpareil’. Lower leaves and spurs are killed a few
Leaf curl (Taphrina deformans) weeks before harvest and hulls are attacked both outside and
Well known as peach leaf curl, this fungus affects leaves that (if split) on the inside. Minimise damage by harvesting as soon
curl and distort, falling off to be replaced with new leaves often as hulls split, and by minimising nitrogen input to reduce vigour.
unaffected. You can apply copper fungicides as leaves swell
and just before leaf fall to control the disease; a better strategy Related species
is to choose resistant cultivars. Growing trees against a wall and Almond is related to peach, nectarine and plum, and shares
protecting from rain for two months in spring prevents infection. some diseases with them.
Brown rot blossom blight (Monilinia laxa)
European & North American suppliers
A fungus which infects flowers in damp weather, causing them
to wither, and then spreading to the shoot or spur where a Europe: ART, BUC, CCN, COO, OFM, PLG
canker is formed; the shoot often dies back to this point. Wind North America: BLN, OGW, RRN, RTN, STB, TYT

10 AlMOND
AMERICAN PERSIMMON, Diospyros virginiana
Deciduous, Zone 4, H7
Edible fruit

Origin and history ripening, becoming yellow or orange as they ripen; they are
round, and become sweet and edible (often after the first frosts),
One of the few very hardy members of the ebony family, the
though before they ripen they can be very astringent (just like
American persimmon is a tree well known in North America,
kaki persimmons/Sharon fruit). Like other persimmons, they
and which deserves to be better known in Europe. Not only
bear a persistent four-lobed calyx. When fully ripe the pulpy fruit
does it produce large crops of edible fruits with very little
has a delicious flavour. Fruits often persist on the tree well into
attention, but it also has valuable timber and bears flowers
winter, then making the tree very ornamental. Fruits contain up
that produce good bee forage.
to six or more large brown seeds, though several cultivars set
The persimmon is native to the eastern United States from seedless fruits. Fruits ripen between September and November,
Florida to Connecticut, and its culture has been extended to depending on the cultivar.
southern Canada and westwards to Oregon in the northwest.
Diospyros virginiana naturally develops very strong, deep
It is so prolific in parts of America that it is sometimes
taproots and few lateral and fibrous roots. Wild trees often
considered a weed on account of its suckering habit.
sucker vigorously.
Other common names for this stately North American tree
There exist two races, a 90-chromosome ‘Northern’ race (earlier
include common persimmon, eastern persimmon, butter wood,
ripening, more cold hardy, pubescent leaves and shoots, larger
possumwood, possum apple and Virginian date palm.
fruit) and a 60-chromosome ‘Southern’ race (smooth leaves and
Description twigs, smaller fruit), which do not cross-pollinate. Most cultivars
have been selected from the ‘Northern’ race.
The persimmon is a spreading deciduous tree, occasionally
growing to 30m (100ft) high but more usually to 12-20m Uses
(40-65ft). It has a rounded crown and outspread or pendulous
The fruits are edible and delicious when ripe, often after a frost;
branches. The bark on older trees is very distinctive, fissured in
before then they are astringent. The astringency is caused by a
a four-square pattern into rectangular blocks of sooty grey.
compound, leucodelphinidin, which bonds to proteins in the
The branches end in markedly zig-zag twigs, because shoots
mouth.
lack well-defined terminal buds.
Ripe fruit is pulpy and very soft, usually too soft to be
The alternate leaves are glossy deep green above and lighter
transported commercially (the main reason why it has hardly
beneath, on a short downy stalk. In the autumn they turn into
become a commercial crop). Ripe fruits have a soft, smooth,
spectacular colours of yellow to crimson before falling at the
jelly-like texture, a honey-like sweetness, and a richness “akin
first frosts.
to apricot with a dash of spice”. Persimmon fruit are softer and
Tiny white male flowers (1cm, 0.4ins long) are borne in clusters drier than kaki/oriental persimmons, but have a richer flavour.
of 1-3, usually in the leaf axils or on very short downy stalks. When ripe, the skin is almost translucent and the calyx (the
Female flowers are larger, solitary, greenish-yellow. Flowers are green cap to which the stem is attached) separates readily
borne on one-year-old wood near the branch tips. Both sexes from the fruit.
are bell shaped, with four petals. Flowering occurs in early
Ripe fruits contain on average 35% total solids, 0.88% protein,
summer (June to July in northern areas and UK) and most
20% sugars and 1.4% fibre. They are also high in vitamin C.
trees are dioecious (i.e. bear male or female flowers only).
The sex of dioecious trees can only be determined by examining Frosts are not essential to ripen the fruits, with early ripening
the flowers. Some trees bear both sexes of flowers, and on selections often ripening their fruits during the autumn before
male trees, occasional bisexual flowers occur. Pollination is via any frosts. Ripening continues after light frosts but ceases at
insects, including bees; insects may cross-pollinate trees up to temperatures of -4°C (25°F).
50-100m (150-300ft) apart.
Fruits can be ripened artificially, but the fruit must already
Fruits are typically 2.5-3cm (1ins+) wide, though often larger be nearing ripeness on the tree – hence the importance of
(up to 5cm, 2ins) on named cultivars. They are green before choosing appropriate cultivars. Near-ripe persimmons will

AMERICAN PERSIMMON   11
 American persimmon

ripen stored in a warm place in the kitchen; to accelerate Drying removes persimmon astringency naturally and preserves
ripening, put the fruits into a plastic bag with a ripe apple for the fruit for winter use. Native Americans extracted the pulp
about a week, or sprinkle fruits with a spirit (e.g. whisky) and by rubbing the fruit through a sieve, then formed the pulp into
seal them in a plastic bag for 1-2 weeks. sticks that were dried in the sun or in an oven. Alternatively,
fruits can be squashed and dried whole (but watch out for
Fresh fruits can be stored for about two months at a
seeds). In dry autumn climates, fruits of some late-ripening
temperature just above freezing.
cultivars can be left hanging on the tree into winter, when they
turn sweet, dark and dry, resembling dates.

12  AMERICAN PERSIMMON

 Cultivar Origin Description
‘Campbell #10’ Canada Early season, very cold-hardy selection.
‘Celebrity’ USA Excellent flavoured fruits, few seeds.
‘Dooley’ USA Mid season, medium-sized fruit of excellent
flavour.
‘Early Golden’ USA Early-mid season, precocious tree, produces
Freezing near-ripe fruits also removes astringency; frozen fruits male flowers; medium-large fruits of very good
are delicious in themselves, slightly softened like ice cream – flavour.
the pulp can be pre-mixed with cream if desired. To freeze pulp, ‘Early Jewel’ USA Very early season, precocious tree, heavy
simply rub through a colander into bags and put straight into cropping; large fruits of excellent flavour.
the freezer. Some cultivars are noted for retaining their flavour ‘Garretson’ USA Early-mid season, precocious compact tree,
good cropper, produces male flowers; large
after freezing, including ‘John Rick’, ‘Lena’ and ‘Morris Burton’. fruits of excellent flavour.
Persimmons can also be cooked into pancakes, pies, cakes ‘H-120’ USA Mid season, precocious tree, heavy cropping;
and biscuits; and made into jams, preserves and molasses. large fruits of excellent flavour.
Native Americans used them in gruel, cornbread and puddings. ‘John Rick’ USA Early season, precocious tree, produces male
Spiced fruit bread remains a popular use in North America. flowers; very large fruits of excellent flavour.
Recommended cultivars for cooking include ‘Beavers’, ‘John ‘Meader’ USA Early-mid season, precocious upright tree,
heavy cropper, produces male flowers;
Rick’ and ‘Morris Burton’. Any astringency still present in the medium-sized fruits.
fruits is accentuated by cooking, but can be removed by the
‘Miller’ USA Early-mid season, precocious tree.
addition of 0.5 teaspoon of baking soda for each cup of pulp.
Cast iron utensils shouldn’t be used, or the pulp will turn black. ‘Morris Burton’ USA Late season, bears good crops; medium-sized
fruits of excellent flavour.
Persimmon bread is made by simply adding persimmon pulp
‘NC-10’ USA Very early season; small-medium fruits of
to the flour/yeast mix. good flavour.
Like other fruits, persimmons can be fermented. Native ‘Pipher’ USA Tree of low vigour; medium-large fruits of good
Americans made an alcoholic beverage from persimmons and flavour.
honey locust pods; in the American South, persimmons have ‘Prairie Star’ USA Large fruits of excellent flavour.
been mixed with cornmeal (maize) and brewed into ‘simmon ‘Prairie Sun’ USA Large fruits of excellent flavour.
beer’. No doubt vinegar could also be made as it is with oriental ‘Ruby’ USA Late season, bears good crops; medium-sized
persimmons. fruits of good flavour.

The fruits have good potential as a self-feeding fodder crop for ‘Runkwitz’ USA Early-mid season, bears good crops; medium-
sized fruits of good flavour.
livestock. All livestock, particularly pigs and poultry, but also
cattle and horses, relish the ripe fruits as they fall from trees. ‘Sweet Lent’ USA Very late season, spreading tree produces good
crops; medium-large fruits of excellent flavour.
Different selections drop their fruit between September and
‘Szukis’ USA Early season, heavy cropping tree, produces
February, making a succession possible. However unripe fruits male flowers; medium-large fruits of good
are high in tannins and toxic, especially to horses. flavour.
‘100-42’ USA Large fruits of excellent flavour.
Varieties/Cultivars ‘100-46’ USA Tree of moderate vigour, heavy cropper; very
Several cultivars have been selected and bred in North America, large fruits of excellent flavour.
and are still in demand as ‘home orchard’ trees. Breeding
programmes are still ongoing in the USA, notably that of Jerry Several of the better cultivars are grown commercially in Indiana
Lehman (‘Celebrity’). Some of his recent selections are still for fruit pulp canning, including ‘Early Golden’, ‘John Rick’ and
numbered (100-46, 100-42). Other recent selections from the ‘Pipher’.
Claypool breeding programme are the ‘Prairie’ series and H-118
(‘Early Jewel’) and ‘H-120’. Fruits noted for drying quickly on the tree into a date-like fruit
include ‘Dooley’ and ‘Sweet Lent’.
Several cultivars are noted as sometimes producing male as
well as female flowers including ‘Early Golden’, ‘Meader’, ‘Ruby’ Best recommendations for northern areas and short-summer
and ‘Szukis’. ‘Meader’ and ‘Szukis’ are known as particularly areas (like the UK) include ‘Early Golden’, ‘Garretson’, ‘John Rick’,
good pollinators. ‘Meader’, ‘Miller’, ‘Morris Burton’, ‘NC-10’, ‘Runkwitz’ and ‘Szukis’.

AMERICAN PERSIMMON   13
 Pruning can be undertaken in winter when trees are dormant.
The wood is brittle, so it is wise to build a sturdy framework of
branches while the tree is young. Train trees to an open centre
or modified central leader form. If the aim is to pick fruit by hand,
then trees can be kept low-headed and planted closer (5-6m,
16-20ft apart). Once bearing has commenced, some pruning
may be needed to stimulate new growth on which fruit will be
borne in the following season. The tree naturally drops some of
the branches that have borne fruits, so is naturally self pruning
to a degree. Suckers arising from rootstocks should be removed.
In warm areas, trees are susceptible to sunscald in winter, and
here the southwest side of trunks should be protected with a
Ripening American persimmon fruits tree guard of white latex paint.
Propagation
Seeds should be stratified for 2-3 months; germination takes
Cultivation about three weeks. Protect seedlings from strong sun for the
first few weeks.
Growth of young trees is fast, about 4.5m (15ft) in 10 years;
growth slows once fruiting commences. Budding: Shield budding with long heavy buds in summer is
sometimes recommended. Also successful are chip budding,
It prefers a deep, loamy, fertile, well-drained soil, but tolerates ring budding and patch budding.
almost any soil that is not waterlogged. It needs a sheltered
site (disliking exposure), and full sun (it tolerates part shade but Grafting: Whip grafting just below the ground surface on 1-2 year
does not fruit well there). A soil pH range of 5.8-8.0 is preferred. old seedling stocks is recommended. Also cleft grafting (on large
When planting, allow for a tree spread of 6-9m (20-30ft). The trees). Grafting is most successful if the rootstock leaves are just
tree is drought resistant. starting to unfurl (the scion is cut when fully dormant and kept
in a fridge until needed).
Most trees will set seedless fruits without pollination, however
pollinated trees tend to bear larger, seeded fruits. A reasonably Suckers: Dig and transplant if not from a grafted plant.
warm summer is required for fruits to ripen. They can be left Cuttings: Hardwood – from 2-3 year-old wood, 30cm (12ins)
on the tree to ripen after the leaves have fallen, and frosts long, seal ends with wax. Root cuttings take quite well – seal
will hasten ripening. In the UK they are usually harvested in ends also. Cuttings of half-ripened wood, taken in July to August
November. A 10-year-old tree can yield 20-45kg (50-100lb) of and given protection (e.g. in a cold frame) may also work.
fruit per year.
Layering in spring.
Because of its tap-rooted nature, persimmons are often difficult
to transplant. Container-grown or root-pruned plants are much Pests and diseases
more likely to transplant successfully. The roots are naturally Pests and diseases rarely pose a problem. In North America,
black, so don’t worry that they are dead. Because of their deep- black spot of the leaves (a fungal disease) is sometimes a
rooting nature, persimmons are well suited to interplanting with problem; several cultivars are notably resistant. Persimmon wilt
other, more shallow-rooted, species. can also be a problem in areas with long hot seasons.
Like many other fruit trees, a natural thinning (fruit drop) occurs
in summer. After this, hand thinning can be undertaken (where Related species
branches can be reached!) to increase fruit size and reduce Date plum (Diospyros lotus, p.75) and Persimmons (Diospyros
overbearing if it seems likely. Overbearing can lead to the tree kaki and its hybrids with American persimmon, p.160) are
becoming biennial in cropping. described later in this book.
American persimmons have not been highly bred, and good European & North American suppliers
fruiting trees are usually obtained from seedlings of cultivars.
Europe: ART, FCO, PDB, PFS
Seedling female trees start to bear fruit at about six years of age,
cultivars somewhat earlier than that: precocious selections 1-2 North America: AAF, BRN, CHO, EDO, GNN, HSN, NRN, OGW, STB,
years after grafting. Fruiting continues for 50 years or more. TYT

14  AMERICAN PERSIMMON

APPLE, Malus domestica
Deciduous, Zone 2-5, H5-6
Edible fruit

Origin and history Description

Malus domestica or more correctly Malus pumila, appears Cultivated apples are deciduous trees with mainly white
to have arisen from the wild apple Malus sieversii on the (occasionally pink) flowers in spring, followed by the familiar
northern slopes of the Tien Shan range, geographically fruits which can ripen from early summer through to late
spanning Uzbekistan, Khirghistan, Kazakhstan and the Xinjiang autumn or ripening properly in store through the winter
Province of China. Among the wild apples still remaining in this months.
region are fruits of the size, colour and sweetness suitable for
cultivation. It appears that M. sieversii did not hybridise with Uses
related Middle Eastern or European apple species. Apples are used in numerous ways as a fresh and cooked fruit,
Recent genetic analyses of apple now explains how these fruits as a juice and in juice mixtures, fermented to make cider, and
reached western Europe and beyond. M. sieversii is closely dried (apples rings) as a snack.
related to the Siberian crab, M. baccata, and it may have Varieties/Cultivars
originated from a trapped population of the latter as the Tien
Shan range rose upwards. Over a period of 7-10 million years There are thousands of apple cultivars (over 2,000 in the UK
the mammals, e.g. bears, selected the largest and juiciest fruits: alone) and many have adapted to a particular geographic
a small, bird-distributed cherry-sized fruit (Siberian crab) giving region. The best thing to do is to find out what grows well in
way to a large mammal-distributed one. your locale and what local cultivars there are (although with
climate change it is also worth looking at varieties from regions
By the time man began to occupy the area 5,000-8,000 years south of you by up to 100-200 miles). Commercial apples are
ago, the early evolution of the apple was almost complete and not usually the easiest to grow on a small scale and without
its migration, assisted by the now domesticated horse, was chemicals – ‘Cox’s Orange Pippin’ being a good example (it is
underway. In the late Neolithic or early Bronze Age, travellers on susceptible to almost everything).
the great trade routes carried apple pips west.
One thing you do need to ensure is that you have good cross-
Silk Road traders and their predecessors started the spread of pollination. Most apple cultivars are not self-fertile so you need
apples from there to other parts of the world, but the seeds to make sure a tree flowers around the same time as a second
they carried likely represented a narrow genetic sampling. (different) variety. Flowering time is unrelated to fruiting time, so
That’s probably why today’s American (and English) domestic two trees can flower together but ripen fruits at totally different
apples have a fairly narrow genetic base that makes them times. If you only have room for a single tree then make sure
susceptible to many diseases. you choose a self-fertile variety. If you are putting in more than
Grafting was probably discovered in Mesopotamia some 3,800 half a dozen apple trees then you’ll be very likely to get good
years ago. From there, the fruits and necessary technology pollination whatever they are.
passed through the Persians and Greeks to the Romans, who
perfected orchard economies. The Romans brought the whole
Cultivation
package to western Europe. Two thousand years more of There are numerous rootstocks used throughout the world
conscious and unconscious selection has led to the varieties to give resistance to soil pathogens, tolerance to different soil
in existence today. types, hardiness, and to control vigour. Apple trees grown on
these can vary from small 1.8m (6ft) to large 6m+ (20ft+) trees.
For most people the control of apple tree size is the main
feature they look for and other details of the actual rootstock
used are unimportant – indeed, many American nurseries
don’t even list which rootstocks they use.

APPLE   15
Apple flowers

In Britain the main stocks used are (from smallest to largest) Most apples are hand harvested off the tree when ripe, for
‘M27’, ‘M9’, ‘M26’, ‘MM106’, ‘MM116’, ‘MM111’, and ‘M25’. which reason most commercial orchards now use dwarf trees.
• Tolerant of alkaline soils: ‘MM106’ It is a slow and sometimes dangerous business to be up a
ladder picking fruits off a 6m (20ft) apple tree. So although
• Tolerant of heavy clay soils: ‘M27’, ‘M9’, ‘MM106’, ‘MM111’
vigorous trees have the advantage of being more resilient
• Tolerant of light sandy soils: ‘M26’, ‘MM106’, ‘MM111’ (less likely to be damaged by wind, less likely to suffer from
• Tolerant of wet soils: ‘MM111’ diseases because reinfection from fallen leaves is physically
Dwarfing rootstocks usually need permanent staking, semi- less likely due to their height), the disadvantage of access for
dwarf stocks need staking for a few years, vigorous stocks may pruning and harvesting can sometimes make them impractical.
not need staking at all, depending on the exposure. On the other hand, apples for juice and cider can be harvested
Apples are one of the tree crops more tolerant to adverse weather from the ground (as long as they haven’t been lying there for
conditions, however they always do better with shelter (especially long) and therefore larger trees are more practical. Indeed most
at flowering time). Dessert cultivars need more sun than cooking commercial cider apple trees still have large standard trees as
apples (full sun is required to manufacture most of the sugars) the norm. There are also some great hand tools for speeding
and of the dessert apples, later ripening varieties need more sun harvest from the ground called ‘apple wizards’ which save your
than early ripening ones. Pollination is mainly via bees. back from all that bending down.
Initial formation pruning of the main branches is usually Yields per tree from apple trees depend on the size of the tree
recommended over the first few years, after which annual and therefore the rootstock used:
pruning is the norm. Most apple varieties are spur bearers, • Dwarf (e.g. on M27) – 14-23kg (30-50lb)
bearing fruits on short spurs growing from the branches. Hence • Semi-dwarf (e.g. MM106) – 27-54kg (60-120lb)
it is easy to take off a proportion of the previous years’ growth
• Standard (e.g. M25) – 45-180kg (100-400lb)
(40-60%) from all over the canopy surface of the tree. However
tip bearing varieties flower and fruit on the tips of previous Pests and diseases
years’ growth, so these are either left unpruned or pruned less
The downside of having large fruits borne heavily on trees
frequently by cutting out a proportion of older growth.
is that the trees inevitably get stressed, and become more
If apples are left unpruned as they grow, the total fruit crop vulnerable to attack from pests and diseases. For apples there
(assuming the trees are being fed to sustain cropping) remains are many, sometimes serious, although sensible variety choice
about the same, but the size of fruits decreases. Sometimes this can reduce problems a great deal.
matters (if you want to sell apples or want large ones yourself
Scab (Venturia inequalis)
to eat) but sometimes it does not (for example where you want
A fungus that thrives in warm, moist climates (like Britain),
to make juice or cider, fruit size is irrelevant). So don’t be misled
causing damage to leaves, shoots and fruits. The fungus
into thinking apple pruning is always essential.
overwinters on fallen leaves. Good control is achieved by
Like all trees bred for heavy fruiting, apples will need feeding removing fallen leaves; alternatively, many cultivars show good
with nitrogen and potassium in particular to maintain cropping. resistance. Larger trees are less susceptible to reinfection.

16 APPLE
 Apples Ashmeads Kernel, Jonagold, Gravenstein

Canker (Nectria galligena) using pheromone traps in late spring, by encouraging predatory
Another fungus that causes lesions and cankers on stems that birds and bats, and by encouraging larvae to pupate in traps
can seriously damage trees. It is much worse on poorly-drained, tied to trunks. Only a few cultivars show resistance.
heavy soils in a moist climate. Affected branches should be cut
Bitter pit
out. Susceptible cultivars should be used with caution.
This causes brown spots to appear in the apple flesh and as pits
Mildew (Podosphaera leucotricha), (apple powdery mildew) in the skin. A calcium shortage or water shortage is thought to
Another fungus but which prefers warm, dry climates and is be responsible, and control is achieved by keeping trees well
worst in hot dry summers. It can cause significant damage to mulched; add fast-acting lime, e.g. wood ash.
leaves and shoots, and overwinters in buds so is not easy to
eradicate. It is worse where soils are low in organic matter or Related species
nutrients. Many cultivars show resistance. There are many crab apple species and varieties that share the
same pests and diseases of cultivated apples, though in general
Fireblight (Erwinia amylovora)
they are less susceptible.
A serious bacterial disease of North America that is sometimes
a problem in mainland Europe and southern England. It causes European & North American suppliers
dieback of shoots and branches, but doesn’t often kill apple trees
as it can do to pears. Warm moist conditions favour fireblight; Europe: ART, BUC, CBS, COO, DEA, FCO, KPN, OFM, THN
whitebeam (Sorbus aria) and hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna) North America: AAF, BLN, BNN, DWN, FCO, HFT, MES, OGW, RRN,
are susceptible and should not be grown near orchards. RTN, STB, TYT
Cedar apple rust (Gymnosporangium juniperi-virginianae)
This is a needle rust found in eastern USA, which can defoliate
trees and deform fruit. It is not present in Europe. The alternative
host is the pencil cedar (Juniperus virginiana) and these should
not be grown near orchards.
Brown rot (Monilinia fruticola)
This is a fruit rot that develops on fruits on the tree or more
commonly in store. A dark coloured rot rapidly moves through
the apple flesh. If you want to grow long-keeping cultivars,
check they aren’t susceptible to brown rot which may decimate
stored fruit.
Codling moth (Cydia pomonella)
A common pest of apples in Europe and North America. The
larvae burrow into young fruitlets and eat them as they grow.
The larvae pupate within cocoons in cracks and fissures within
the bark or under the tree. Some control can be achieved by

APPLE   17
APRICOT, Prunus armeniaca
Deciduous, Zone 5-6, H5-6
Edible fruit

Origin and history Varieties/Cultivars

The cultivated apricot originates from western China. The fruit There are many hundreds of apricot cultivars worldwide, and
moved westwards along the silk route to reach Italy by the first you should find out varieties that do well in your region.
century, England by the 13th century and North America by the
In England, early cultivars ripen in July, mid season ones in
17th. They are now cultivated in temperate climates throughout
August and late in September. The hardiest trees are ‘Alfred’,
the world; Europe, Turkey, Italy, Spain, Greece and France are
‘Hemskerk’, ‘Moorpark’ and ‘Shipley’s Blenheim’ that are happy
the main producers.
grown as bushes or standard trees in the southeast.
Description Cultivars with sweet kernels (sometimes called ‘Alpricots’)
The apricot is a deciduous tree, 4-7m (12-24ft) high, sometimes include: ‘Breda’, ‘Harcot’, ‘Moorpark’, ‘Robada’, ‘Sweet Pit’, and
gnarled and twisted, with a dark bark. Flowers are produced ‘Sweetheart’.
in early spring, before the leaves emerge. They are white, Where spring frosts pose a risk to the flowering trees, it is wise
occasionally tinged pink, and fragrant. Leaves are leathery, to choose cultivars with hardy flower buds and/or which flower
shiny and dark green. late; these are listed here:
Fruits are fragrant, sweet, 4-8cm (1.5-3.2ins) long, rounded or oval, Hardy flower buds: ‘Alfred’, ‘Chinese’, ‘Farmingdale’, ‘Goldcot’,
sometimes with flattened sides or pointed ends. Colour varies ‘Harlayne’, ‘Hargrand’, ‘Jerseycot’, ‘Moongold’, ‘Scout’, ‘SunGlo’,
from yellowish-green to brownish-orange – fruits are always ‘Sungold’, ‘Westcot’.
more deeply coloured on the sunny side. The fruits contain a
single stone (which may be free or clinging). Within the stone, Late flowering: ‘Alfred’, ‘Autumn Royal’, ‘Avikaline’, ‘Chinese’,
the kernel may be sweet or bitter. ‘Farmingdale’, ‘Goldcot’, ‘Golden Amber’, ‘Harcot’, ‘Harglow’,
‘Harlayne’, ‘Helena du Roussillon’, ‘SunGlo’, ‘Sweet Pit’.
Apricot trees are drought resistant, salt tolerant and less
susceptible to pests and diseases than many other fruits. Cultivation
Uses Apricots prefer a continental climate and break from dormancy
early in the season. They dislike humid conditions. An
Apricots are an attractive, delicious and highly nutritious fruit,
uninterrupted warm spring is ideal along with low humidity
a very rich source of vitamin A and containing more carbohy-
conditions (so cultivation in Britain can be challenging!).
drates, protein, phosphorus and niacin than the majority of
other common fruits. A deep, well-drained but moisture-retentive soil is best, neutral
to alkaline if possible, and as frost-free a site as possible to
The ripe fruits are used in many ways: it is an excellent dessert
avoid spring frost damage. Shelter is essential for when the
fruit; they are also canned, candied, frozen and dried. The fruit is
tree is carrying fruit as the wood is brittle. Annual rainfall of
processed into jam, juice (nectar) and other products. They can
about 1m (3ft) is sufficient. A site on a sunny wall is often
be made into wines and liqueurs.
recommended in Britain.
The kernels (about 34% by weight of the seed) are a valuable
Seedling peach rootstocks are adapted to well-drained acid soils
by-product. Depending on the cultivar, the kernel is either sweet
and irrigated dry soils; they are widely used in America but rarely
or bitter. Sweet kernels taste like almonds and can be used in all
in Europe as they are susceptible to nematodes and crown
the ways that almonds can. Bitter kernels are not edible but can
gall. Seedlings of specific cultivars are used which are known to
be used for oil extraction. Apricot kernel oil (up to 50% content)
produce uniform seedlings (‘Lovell’, ‘Nemaguard’, ‘Nemared’).
is an important commercial commodity that is similar to
Some apricot cultivars are incompatible with peach stocks.
almond oil in physical and chemical properties – both are high
in oleic and linoleic acids. This semi-drying oil has a softening Plum rootstocks are used on medium and heavier soils and
effect on the skin and so it is used in perfumery and cosmetics, wet soil conditions. In Britain, the usual stock used is the plum
and also in pharmaceuticals. stock ‘St. Julien A’, giving a tree of about 5m (16ft) in height and

18 APRICOT
 Apricot in full bloom

spread. Other plum stocks used include ‘Marianna’ and ‘Pixy’. A soil pH of 7.0 (neutral) is ideal, so a liming material may be
There is evidence that apricots on plum rootstocks are more added every few years to achieve this.
susceptible to canker than those on peach rootstocks.
Demand for soil water increases to a maximum just prior to fruit
Pruning depends on the climate, soil, cultivar, rootstock, ripening in August or September. In Britain there is not currently
planting density, tree age and harvesting method. In general, much need for irrigation but in drier summer areas it does
for hand-harvested crops, higher and earlier yields are achieved improve yields, although apricot is drought resistant. Irrigate
by allowing the tree to grow with a free complete crown rather especially when the fruits are swelling. Lack of soil water may
than to try and train trees into a vase shape (the latter is better contribute to dieback.
for mechanical harvesting though). Some initial pruning to train
Flowering is in early spring. Spring frosts during flowering can
the main framework branches is always worthwhile. In Britain
be very damaging, and any methods that delay flowering, such
trees are often grown as fans against walls and require specific
as growing in a site that does not receive much sun in early
training.
spring, can be useful. Most apricot cultivars are self-fertile, but
Traditional apricot orchards are usually planted at a spacing of cross-pollination always gives better fruit set. Bees (particularly
6 x 6m (20 x 20ft). In warm regions, higher planting densities are wild and bumble bees) are the best pollinators, although some
now recommended along with the adoption of training systems fruits set via wind pollination. In cool weather (common at
which control the size of the tree more effectively (palmette, flowering time), honeybees won’t be flying, so take measures
spindle, tatura) but these may not be so successful in northern to encourage wild and bumble bees. Hand pollination, gently
regions as the extra pruning required will make plants much brushing the flowers using a camel hairbrush, can help improve
more susceptible to fungal diseases. the fruit set in cold weather. Prolonged rain at flowering time
can lead to poor fruit set.
Apricots benefit from growing Allium species nearby, especially
garlic and chives. If fruit set is very heavy, fruits may require thinning (otherwise
the fruits will be small and the tree may become biennial;
Feeding with nitrogen directly or indirectly is important, as a
also, the branches are brittle and may break). Fruits should be
deficiency adversely affects fruit set and mature fruit yields;
thinned so they are 6-10cm (2.4-4ins) apart, with no more than
however, too much nitrogen has a negative effect on yield and
two fruits left on a spur.
frost-hardiness of flowers, it makes young growth sappy and
pest/disease-prone, and it delays fruit maturity. Potassium Commercial harvest takes place when fruits change colour from
application increases the growth, flowering, fruit size and yield. green to yellow and lose firmness, but before they are fully ripe
Phosphorus requirements are low. (by about a week) – hence the poor flavour one often finds in

APRICOT   19
 Gummosis or dieback (Eutypa lata)
A fungus causing the death of leaves and branches, most
commonly in mature trees. It often affects apricot, with large
branches suddenly dying back after leaves have wilted and
yellowed. A combination of trees stressed from drought or
other factors, and several fungal agents, are thought to be
responsible. Cut back until no discolouration is seen. Improve
growing conditions as above and minimise pruning operations.
Blossom wilt (Monilinia laxa)
Causes severe blossom and twig blighting: sudden withering
of the flowers occurs, then twigs die in large numbers for 3-4
weeks. Fruits can also be affected, with the same symptoms
as with brown rot. The fungus overwinters in twig cankers,
blighted flowers and mummified fruit. Such rotted fruit should
always be removed and destroyed. Severe infections can be
controlled by using Bordeaux mixture as the flowers begin to
Ripening apricot fruit open (and if necessary again at full blossom). Several cultivars
are resistant.
Bacterial spot (Xanthomonas campestris pv. pruni)
bought apricots. Fruits that ripen on the tree are delicious but A widespread and severe disease in North America. The bacteria
cannot be transported far because of their perishable nature. affect leaves and fruits, often rendering the fruits unmarketable.
Pick them with the stalk intact, and pick daily if possible. Ripe
Shothole disease
fruits store for about a week in a refrigerator. Several post-
This is caused by the fungus Stigmina carpophila, and is a
harvest fungal diseases can attack the fruits, but prompt cooling
serious problem in eastern Europe.
of harvested fruits helps control these; most commercial non-
organic fruits have been dipped in various fungicide solutions. Sharka disease
A serious viral disease caused by the plum pox virus. The
Apricot trees start bearing at the age of 4-5, with full bearing
symptoms are pale spots and blotches on the leaves, and fruits
reached at 8-10 years. Yields from mature fan-trained trees are
(which are useless) show uneven ripening and dark bands/
5-14kg (12-30lb) per year, while standard tree yields are 14-55kg
rings in the flesh. It is spread by the peach-potato aphid,
(30-120lb) per year. Trees remain productive for 30-40 years.
Myzus persicae, which lays its eggs on peaches and nectarines.
Pests and diseases Affected plants must be removed and destroyed. The disease
is serious in mainland Europe but less so in Britain, although it
Bacterial canker (Pseudomonas syringae pv. morsprunorum)
does exist. Several cultivars are resistant.
This causes elliptical cankers on trunks and scaffold branches,
sometimes spreading to girdle a branch or the whole tree. Anthracnose (Gnomonia erythrostoma)
The dormant buds of infected trees may fail to grow in the A leaf fungal disease.
spring. The disease is favoured by a moist climate, hence the
Perennial canker (Leucostoma cincta and L. persoonii)
importance in the damper parts of Britain of choosing cultivars
This is a serious contributor to tree death in northern regions,
that have some resistance. Other factors implicated in increased
both in Europe and North America.
canker susceptibility are lack of nitrogen and pruning at the
wrong time (in winter). Bordeaux mixture can give some control, Wasps and birds
applied monthly throughout the autumn. Infected limbs can These are often the main pests. Wasps can be deterred by
also have cankers burnt with a blowtorch. Improve growing using traps or by bagging fruits. Birds can be scared off for
conditions by feeding with compost or manure. a few days at a time by many different methods – keep
changing them.
Brown rot (Monilinia fructigena)
Causes fruits to rot on the tree. Dark brown circular spots rapidly Related species
spread over the fruit – these should be removed and burnt.
As part of the plum/peach/almond family, apricot shares some
The fungus can also affect the flowers. It overwinters usually
of their diseases.
in rotten mummified fruit on the tree or ground, but can also
survive on dead flowers killed the previous year. It is encouraged European & North American suppliers
by humid conditions and the severity is directly related to the
Europe: ART, BLK, BUC, CBS, COO, DEA, FCO, KMR, KPN, OFM,
amount of rainfall in the first seven days after flowering begins.
PLG, REA, THN
Severe infections may respond to treatment with Bordeaux
mixture. Several cultivars show resistance. North America: AAF, BLN, DWN, GPO, OGW, RTN, STB, TYT

20 APRICOT
ASIAN PEARS, Pyrus pyrifolia and P. ussuriensis
Deciduous, Zone 4-6, H6-7
Edible fruit

Origin and history Varieties/Cultivars

Asian pears, also known as Nashi (the Japanese for pear), There are numerous cultivars in Japan and China, a number of
Oriental pears, Chinese pears and Japanese pears, are derived which (mainly Japanese) have made their way into cultivation
from the Asiatic species Pyrus pyrifolia and P. ussuriensis. in other parts of the world (see table overleaf). The most widely
Japanese cultivars are selections of P. pyrifolia, while Chinese planted commercial cultivars are now ‘Hosui’, ‘Kosui’, ‘Nijisseiki’,
cultivars are hybrids between these two species and are ‘Shinseiki’ and ‘Shinsui’. Most of the Chinese cultivars have ‘Li’
somewhat hardier. at the end of the name (e.g. ‘Tsu Li’, ‘Ya Li’).
P. pyrifolia is indigenous to central and western China; Most resistant to fireblight: ‘Shinko’, ‘Tsu Li’, ‘Ya Li’.
P. ussuriensis is native to northeastern China and eastern Siberia.
Most resistant to scab: ‘Hosui’, ‘Tsu Li’, ‘Ya Li’.
This latter species is resistant to fireblight, and many of the hybrid
Chinese cultivars show moderate resistance to this disease. Cultivation
Until the last few decades, Asian pears were generally restricted
Asian pears require less winter chilling than European pears,
to Japan and China, where they have been cultivated and
and they require a warm, but not a long, summer to properly
grown commercially since ancient times; over 3,000 cultivars
ripen their fruit.
are grown in China at present. They were introduced into
the American west during the Gold Rush by Chinese miners Cultivation is generally similar to that of European pears.
who brought seeds with them. More recently, production is
Rootstocks used include:
spreading worldwide, notably in Australasia, western North
America, Central America and southern Europe. • Quince C – although Asian pears are generally incompatible
with quince rootstocks, unless an interstock (usually of
Fruits of Asian pears are rather different to European pears. ‘Beurré Hardy’) is used. Planting at 4m (13ft) spacing.
They are smooth and the shape is normally round (typical apple
• Other dwarfing stocks often used in North America are OHxF
shape). The flavour is more delicate, and the texture crisper
97 and OHxF 333. Where these are used, trees are much
and juicier, but less melting than European pears. Another
smaller, typically 50-60% of the height and spread of seedling
distinctive feature of Asian pears is that the fruits mature on
high-density plantings using this combination. These are
the tree and do not require ripening after harvest like many
planted at about 4m (13ft) spacing.
European pears.
• Seedling – including Asian pear seedlings, P. betulifolia,
Description P. calleryana and (favoured in Japan) P. pyrifolia. Growth on
Asian pears make quite decorative trees, with attractive these rootstocks can be vigorous, and trees tend to commence
white blossom, glossy green foliage and striking red autumn fruiting at quite an early age. Planting at 5-8m (16-26ft) spacing.
colouring; trees on seedling rootstocks can be very long lived See pears (p.147) for more details of pear rootstocks.
(200-300 years). Horizontal trellis systems (i.e. overhead pergola systems) are
Most cultivars grow naturally as upright trees with a central widely used in Japan (designed to support the crop during
leader. summer typhoon winds) and give excellent results, but require
much more labour in their upkeep and more capital to plant up.
Uses Planting in these systems is at 7.5-9m (24-30ft) spacing.
The fruits are used in all the same ways as European pears. In Trees grown as central leaders (i.e. vertical axis trees) commonly
Asia they are often used in salads as they have a crunchiness reach a height and spread of 4m (13ft) in five years and can
like apples which European pears lack. then be maintained at this size with regular pruning. This is the
recommended method of cultivation, as it utilises the natural
form of the tree to a large extent.

ASIAN PEARS  21
 Cultivar Origin Description
‘Chojura’ Japan Tree vigorous, spreading, with a somewhat drooping habit; a precocious, reliable
cropper, mid flowering, Sept/Oct ripening. Fruit moderately large, flattish, russet-
brown, thick skin; flesh very sweet, juicy, slightly gritty, good aromatic flavour –
sometimes strong. Skin is slightly astringent.
‘Hosui’ Japan Tree very vigorous, weeping, densely branched, lateral fruiting, heavy cropping; early
flowering, Aug/Sept ripening. Fruit large, round (often uneven), sweet, russetted –
less susceptible to skin damage than many cultivars, golden brown at maturity;
flesh tender, very juicy, sweet, refreshing. Susceptible to watery core if overmature.
‘Kikusui’ Japan Tree vigorous, spreading and slightly drooping; early bearing; mid flowering. Fruit
medium to large, greenish-yellow, smooth and tender skinned; flesh sweet, juicy, crisp,
acid, good quality. Skin slightly bitter.
‘Kosui’ Japan Tree vigorous, pyramidal shape, heavy cropping; mid flowering, Aug/Sept ripening.
The second highest rated Japanese commercial cultivar. Not pollen compatible with The ripening fruits turn
‘Shinsui’. Fruit medium sized, flattish, yellowish-green with golden-brown russet, mostly from brown-russet
very tender skinned; flesh tender, very juicy and sweet. Needs several pickings.
to golden-russet, but some
‘Kumoi’ Japan Tree pollen-sterile, late flowering. Fruit medium sized, russet-brown, thick skinned; fair Chinese cultivars turn from
flavour and quality.
green to a paler greenish-
‘Niitaka’ Japan Tree very upright, October ripening. Probably a triploid – poor pollen, mid flowering.
Fruit large, greenish with brown russet; flesh mild, sweet, crisp, juicy, average flavour.
yellow. Ripening of the earliest
cultivars commences in late
‘Nijisseiki’ Japan Tree very vigorous; fruit borne on spurs; mid flowering, Sept/Oct ripening. The most
(Syn. ‘Twentieth popular commercial cultivar grown in Japan. Fruit round, regular, small to medium midsummer, continuing
Century’, sized, turning yellow at maturity; flesh crisp, coarse, free of grit, very juicy, very mild through to early autumn for
‘20th Century’) flavour. the latest. Fruits ripen on
‘Shinko’ Japan Tree precocious and regular bearer; mid flowering, Sept/Oct ripening. Susceptible to the tree and can be eaten
codling moth. Fruit medium sized, golden russet-brown, thick skinned; flesh crisp, immediately on picking. If
sweet, rich – good flavour and texture.
possible, fruits should not
‘Shinseiki’ Japan Tree moderately vigorous and spreading, very precocious; mid flowering, Aug/Sept be picked immediately after
(‘New Century’) ripening. Fruit medium sized, greenish-yellow, smooth, very tender skinned;
flesh coarse, juicy, mild flavoured – average quality. Hangs well on the tree. heavy rain (when soluble solids
and sweetness decrease) but
‘Shinsui’ Japan Tree vigorous, upright, open and sparsely branched; mid flowering, July/Aug ripening.
Should not be pruned heavily as there are few fruit-bearing shoots. Not pollen 2-5 days later. Immature fruit,
compatible with ‘Kosui’. Fruit small to medium sized, russet-brown, flattish-round; once harvested, will not ripen
flesh crisp, slightly gritty, very juicy, very good sweet-acid flavour. Borne on lateral properly and tend to have poor
shoots.
flavour and texture.
‘Tsu Li’ China Tree large, vigorous; mid flowering, Sept ripening. Fruit medium to large, pyriform, light
greenish-yellow, thick glossy skin; flesh tinged yellow, sweet-acid, crisp, mild flavour. Fruit yields of the heavy
‘Ya Li’ China Tree large, upright, very vigorous, dense; mid flowering, October ripening. cropping varieties are similar
Good autumn leaf colouring. Fruit pyriform, large, smooth, light greenish yellow; to or slightly greater than yields
flesh crisp, moderately sweet, aromatic.
from European cultivars; large
trees can each yield an average
of 180kg (400lb) per year.
Asian pears require similar nutrients to European pears (see p.147). Fruits are very delicate and mark easily, showing friction marks
and bruising damage. They will keep for about two weeks at
Flowering occurs at the same time as with European pears
normal room temperature, but later-maturing cultivars can be
(which are suitable as pollinators). Asian pears are only partially
stored for up to five months at -1 to 0oC (30-32oF).
self-fertile, and a mixture of cultivars is advisable to achieve
adequate production. Without good pollination, few seeds Pests and diseases
develop and fruits are small and misshapen. As with other
pears, wet and cold weather at flowering time can adversely These are the same as for European pear (see p.147).
affect pollination. Related species
In trellis systems and hedgerows, pollinisers should be planted European pear (Pyrus communis) is described on p.147.
in each row, as bees tend to fly up and down the rows rather
than across them. European & North American suppliers
Fruit is borne mostly on two-year and older wood, with some Europe: ART, BLK, CBS, COO, DEA, KPN
on one-year laterals. A heavy fruit set may require thinning North America: AAF, BLN, CUM, DWN, GPO, OFM, OGW, RTN, STB,
to encourage fruit size; reduce fruits to one per cluster in TYT
May, about a month after flowering, with a further thinning if
necessary a month later.

22  ASIAN PEARS

 ‘Hosui’ fruits

‘Shinseiki’ fruits

ASIAN PEARS  23
AUTUMN OLIVE, Elaeagnus umbellata
Deciduous, Zone 3, H7
Edible fruit
Nitrogen fixing

Origin and history The flowers are small but produced in abundance, and are very
valuable to bees in early and mid spring. The nectar comprises
Autumn olive, native to China, Japan and Korea, is one of the
28% sugars.
better known of the Elaeagnus species, and is certainly one of
the most useful. It is regarded in some parts of the southern/ The fruits are juicy and edible, a rich source of vitamins and
mid USA as a noxious weed, however it does not exhibit any minerals, especially in vitamins A, C and E, flavanoids and other
invasive behaviour in Britain or northern Europe and can be bioactive compounds. They are also a fairly good source of
a tremendously useful plant. Other common names used essential fatty acids, which is fairly unusual for a fruit. The fruits
for Elaeagnus umbellata include autumn elaeagnus, Asiatic are astringent before complete ripeness, but the astringency
oleaster, umbellate oleaster, aki-gumi and Japanese silverberry. goes completely when the fruits are lightly cooked, so even
slightly under ripe fruit are excellent for making jams and fruit
Description leathers.
Elaeagnus umbellata is a fast growing, large deciduous shrub/
During ripening, tannins and acids decrease and the sugar
small tree, growing 4.5m (13ft) high and in spread in Britain,
content increases. The best method for determining fruit
sometimes larger in warmer climes. It does not spread by root
ripeness is taste testing, or watching for bird feeding in the
suckering.
upper branches. Ripe fruit can be processed into a number of
Branches are sparsely thorny; alternate leaves are bright green products including salsa, steak sauce, meat glaze, pie filling,
and silvery beneath. The young leaves (alternate) and branches ice cream topping, jams, leathers and preserves. Each fruit
are covered with silvery or brownish scales. contains a single seed that constitutes about 10% of the total
weight of the fruit. The seed is best removed from the pulp
The small, tubular white flowers are very fragrant, borne in
during processing as it is just too large for some people to eat
clusters from the leaf axils in April and May. They are pollinated
comfortably.
by bees and the plant is a valuable one for wild (bumble and
solitary) bees. Plants are not generally self-fertile, and two The fruit contains about 8.3% sugars, 4.5% protein, 12mg per
different selections are required for fruits to form. 100g vitamin C. In Japan, whole branches are sold with their
ripe fruits attached.
The fruits are 7-12mm (0.2-0.4ins) across (the larger in the
better-fruiting forms), mid to dark red, ripening between early The fruits contain high amounts of lycopene, a carotenoid
September and mid October, individual selections ripening pigment most commonly associated with tomato. Lycopene
their fruits over about a three week period. Each fruit contains content of autumn olive fruit averages about 40-50mg/100g,
a single seed a few millimetres long. compared with 3mg/100g for fresh raw tomato and 10mg/100g
for canned whole tomato. Lycopene is considered an important
Elaeagnus form a symbiotic relationship with Frankia bacteria
phytonutrient, and is thought to prevent or fight cancer of
in root nodules, much in the same way as legumes do with
the prostate, mouth, throat and skin, and to reduce the risk of
Rhizobium bacteria, which enable them to fix nitrogen.
cardiovascular disease. Because of the high lycopene levels
Uses in autumn olive fruit, and the potential health benefits of this
phytonutrient, there has been increased interest in commercial
Autumn olive is fast growing – 60cm (2ft) per year – and is an
fruit production. Lycopene is soluble in oil, but not water or
excellent windbreak and hedging plant, tolerating maritime
alcohol and therefore stays in the pulp and does not come out
exposure. It makes great hedges and windbreaks, either on its
in juice or wine.
own or mixed with other species. It is very tolerant of pruning.
The US Soil Conservation service aided many farmers in Medicinally, the flowers have been used, being astringent,
planting this for windbreaks, particularly on sandy, low-fertility cardiac and pectoral.
soils where it thrives.

24  AUTUMN OLIVE

 Autumn olive bush

Elaeagnus umbellata fixes large amounts of nitrogen, with Varieties/Cultivars

nitrogen accumulation rates (i.e. amounts made available to
There are several named fruiting cultivars:
other plants via leaf fall, root and nodule turnover) recorded
of up to 240kg/ha/year (100kg/ac/year; 24g/m2/year; 220lb/ Cultivar Origin Description
ac/year; 0.5oz/yd2/year). For this reason, autumn olive is an ‘Amber’ USA Bears large yellow fruits.
excellent companion plant; when grown in orchards at normal
‘Big Red’ UK Bears large crops of very large fruits.
spacing, it can increase yields significantly. Plants can also
‘Brilliant Rose’ USA Has large fruit of good flavour.
be used as the major source of nitrogen for other crops, by
interplanting a proportion of the crop area. Orchard crops such ‘Cardinal’ USA A hardy plant which fruits prolifically.
as apples and pears require similar-height Elaeagnus species ‘Charlie’s Golden’ USA Bears sweet yellow fruits.
at a proportion of about 3:1 Crops:Elaeagnus for their nitrogen ‘Late Scarlet’ UK Bears good crops of large fruits in October.
supply, while more demanding tree crops require about 2:1 ‘Delightful’ USA Has large fruit with a mild flavour.
Crops:Elaeagnus.
‘Ellagood’ USA Retains its fruits well into winter.
As well as being of great use in fruiting and forest gardens, ‘Elsberry’ USA A large plant with large fruits.
autumn olive is widely used in forestry as an ecosystem ‘Garnet’ USA Bears very dark, large sweet fruits and is
improver (e.g. as an N-fixing understorey beneath crop trees, reportedly self-fertile.
to reclaim degraded soils and as soil-improving nurse trees). ‘Hidden Springs’ UK Bears good crops of medium-large fruits.
They are often planted in alternate rows with a tree species, ‘Jazbo’ USA Early ripening with good flavoured fruit.
and don’t usually compete for light due to their shrubby form.
‘Jewel’ USA Medium-sized fruits of good flavour.
Interplanting of E. umbellata with black walnut (Juglans nigra)
has been shown to significantly increase the height, diameter ‘Newgate’ UK Bears heavy crops of large fruits.
and nutrient content of the walnut trees. ‘Red Cascade’ UK Produces heavy crops of medium-sized
fruits.
The wood is a good fuel. ‘Red Wing’ USA Bears large fruits that are especially sweet.
It can be grown as a biomass crop on a three-year rotation. ‘Ruby’ USA Bears large sweet fruits and is reportedly
self-fertile.
‘Sparkling Blush’ USA
‘Sweet-n-tart’ USA Has sweet/tart fruit.

AUTUMN OLIVE  25
 Commercial machine harvesters, similar to
those used for blueberries, are sometimes
used on commercial operations, with
plants spaced 3m (10ft) apart in the row,
with rows 3.6m (12ft) apart.
Yields from improved fruiting cultivars
can be 10kg (22lb) per plant or more.
The harvested fruit stores for about 15 days
at room temperature.
The seeds are marginally too large to
be comfortable to eat by many people.
To make jams or fruit leather it is easiest
to first liquidise the fruits then put them
Autumn olive fruits through a Moulinex sieve to remove the
seeds. The remaining pulp can be used
to make jams, leathers etc.
Autumn olive can be propagated from
Cultivation seed, by cuttings, and by layering:
In the USA you are advised to check with your local Department Seed requires about 16 weeks of cold stratification before it will
of Conservation before introducing this plant as it can be germinate. Seedlings grow 20-30cm (8-12ins) in their first year.
invasive in some situations.
Hardwood cuttings are easy to take. In October to November
Autumn olive likes full sun but tolerates part shade. It grows (or later in winter in cold climates) take cuttings of 20-30cm
well in any soil (include saline, acid and alkaline) apart from (8-12ins) long terminal shoots, placing directly into the ground.
waterlogged soils. It is drought tolerant and is resistant to honey New growth appears in March, and first-year growth can be as
fungus. much as 80cm (32ins).
Space plants 1-2m (3-6ft) apart in hedges, or up to 5m (16ft) Layering also works. Layer low branches in September to
apart in the open. Plants establish quite well in pasture grasses October and leave for 12 months before transplanting.
with no additional mulching.
Plants start to fruit 2-3 years from planting, very quickly building Pests and diseases
up to large crops. There are none of importance.
Fruits ripen in September and October, often turning dark red Related species
before fully ripe. If possible, fruits should be allowed to hang
Russian olive (E. angustifolia). There are several smaller shrubby
until completely ripe before picking, but if birds start to take
species including goumi (E. multiflora) and silverberry (E. commutata).
a lot then pick immediately. The fruits are abundant and the
quickest way to pick is to put a sheet or tarp on the ground European & North American suppliers
and either hand pick (allowing the fruit to drop to the ground
Europe: ART, COO
– they are firm enough not to burst), or beat the branches with
a bat or stick. North America: BRN, HSN, OGW, RRN

26  AUTUMN OLIVE

BAY, Laurus nobilis
Evergreen, Zone 7-8, H4-6
Edible leaves
Hedging
Medicinal leaves, essential oil
Essential oil used in food and fragrance industries

Origin and history Varieties/Cultivars

Bay (or bay laurel) is an evergreen large shrub from southern There are a few ornamental cultivars (with varying leaf markings
Europe, occasionally a small tree, growing up to 12m (40ft) high etc.) but none selected for improved leaf production.
and 10m (33ft) across. It is found in moist rocky valleys around
the Mediterranean. Cultivation
Bay tolerates most soils and part shade, though it prefers
Description sun, shelter and a well-drained site where it is likely to be
Bay is a familiar tree or shrub in Britain,
with its glossy green leathery leaves,
greenish-yellow flowers in spring and (in
warmer locations) black fruits. The plant is
dioecious, with male and female flowers on
different plants.

Uses
Bay leaves are well known as a seasoning
ingredient, especially in Mediterranean
dishes with meat and tomatoes.
It is used for hedging and screening in
locations with few frosts.
The leaves are antirheumatic, antiseptic,
aromatic, bactericidal, carminative,
diaphoretic, digestive, diuretic, emetic in
large doses, emmenagogue, fungicidal,
hypotensive, narcotic, parasiticide,
sedative, stimulant and stomachic. Annual
yields of plants grown commercially for
leaves (on a coppice system) are 5-12t/ha
(4,400-10,560lb/ac) – the higher yields for
irrigated crops.
The essential oil steam-distilled from the
leaves has narcotic, antibacterial and
fungicidal properties. It is greenish-yellow
with a powerful spicy-medicinal odour; it
largely contains cineol (30-50%). It is used as
a food and drink flavouring, as a fragrance
component in cosmetics, toiletries and
perfumes (especially aftershaves) and in
medicine. Yields can vary from 0.5-3.5% oil;
or 50-90kg/ha (44-80lb/ac) of crop.

Bay tree

BAY 27
 BEECH, Fagus sylvatica
Deciduous, Zone 5, H6-7
Edible leaves, seeds, oil from seeds
Valuable timber

Origin and history

The common beech is a large deciduous tree, growing to 30m
(100ft) or more, living up to 400 years or more. It is found mainly
in woods, throughout Europe (as far north as southern Sweden
and as far east as the Crimea) and the British Isles, although
only considered native to the south of England; it occupies
about 4% of the forest area in Britain. It is found both in pure
stands and in association with oak, firs, maples and spruces.
Beech leafs out relatively late and thus in early spring a rich flora
can develop beneath trees. It is very shade tolerant.
Bay leaves
Description
The bark is smooth and metallic grey. Buds are pale brown,
significantly more tolerant of cold winter temperatures. Plants long and pointed, arranged alternately on the twigs. Leaves
that are defoliated by cold winter temperatures in the UK often are oval, emerging in late April-May, when they are a bright
recover during the following growing season. translucent green, but darken after a few weeks. Leaves are
Very tolerant of clipping. high in potash, and turn bright yellows and reds in the autumn.
Leaf fall is in early November.
Cultivated commercially for the leaves in southern Europe
(Spain, Portugal, Turkey etc.) usually on a coppice basis. Trees Beech is monoecious, with male and female flowers borne
are planted at 3 x 3m (10 x 10ft) where irrigation is not used, on the same tree. Male flowers are in tassel-like heads; female
later thinned to 6 x 6m (20 x 20ft); two or three harvests per year flowers are borne in pairs. Flowers are borne at the same time as
are possible, cutting to 40-60cm (16-24ins) high. the leaves emerge. The fruit consists of 1-4 shiny brown, three-
sided nuts, enclosed by a scaly and slightly prickly green husk.
Plants can be grown from seed (not dormant) – each fruit When ripe the four segments of the husk open and the seeds
contains a single large seed. Semi-ripe cuttings in summer fall out, between September and November (earlier falls of seed
and basal hardwood cuttings with bottom heat in winter can mainly consist of empty shells). Nuts are 12-30mm (0.5-1.25ins)
both succeed. long. Beech trees only produce fruit every 2-8 years, but when
Pests and diseases they do fruit, each tree produces a huge quantity of ‘mast’ (seed).
Bay sucker (Trioza alacris) is a small sap-sucking insect that Uses
attacks foliage in the summer. Leaves curl downwards and turn
pale yellow. Greyish-white insects might be seen under the Edible parts include young leaves, raw in salads (a fresh, lemony
curled margin. Later the damaged parts of the leaf dry up and taste) for about three weeks in spring, and seeds (contain some
turn brown. Pick off infested leaves and in winter cut out badly oxalic acid, but may be lightly roasted, sprouted or roasted for
affected shoots. coffee). Seeds have a nutty taste, and should be collected soon
after they have fallen, otherwise mice and squirrels will take
Related species most of them. In a fruiting year, an average crop is 10kg (22lb)
The only other Laurus species is the tender L. azorica (Canary seed/tree and a heavy crop 20kg (44lb). Seed is best collected
laurel). by using close-mesh nets spread out beneath trees. The half
opened buds and the young leaves can be made into a liqueur,
European & North American suppliers ‘beech leaf noyau’.
Europe: commonly available The non-drying oil pressed from seeds is edible and makes an
excellent salad and cooking oil; it stores for a long time before
North America: FFM

28 BAY
 Young beech leaves in spring

becoming rancid. The oil is 17-20% by weight of the whole nut rabbits and domestic poultry: all relishing the oil-rich seeds
(40% of the kernel), rich in proteins (23%), saccharides (22%) which fall in a good mast year. The seeds are poisonous to
and minerals (3.5%, notably calcium); the major oil fractions horses. The beechcake has also been used as a torch fuel.
are monounsaturated oleic (48%) and polyunsaturated linoleic
Bees are attracted by the pollen in April and May on older trees;
(33%) fatty acids. The oil can be used to make ‘beechnut
they also collect honeydew from the leaves, secreted by aphids.
butter’ (traditional in France and in the USA with the American
Trees can take 50 years to flower and produce seeds.
beech nut from F. grandiflora). Freshly pressed oil should not
be stoppered for 6-8 weeks, after which it can be stored in a Beech is an excellent and commonly used hedging plant,
cool place for many years – oil stored for six years is considered being tolerant of regular trimming. Young trees and trimmed
‘best’. The oil has also been used for illumination (as a lamp trees have the habit of holding their dead leaves (to a height of
fuel) and as an ingredient to make soaps. about 2m, 6ft) all winter, only letting them drop just before the
new leaves emerge in spring; this increases their wind-resistant
The oil from seeds and the bark have been used medicinally, qualities. Large trees are not especially wind-firm.
as has the charcoal made from the wood – used to treat
phosphorus and alkali poisoning. The fresh wood is used in the Beech wood is fine and straight grained, light reddish-brown in
pharmaceutical industry for the production of creosote (tar) colour, of medium strength and heaviness, hard, not durable,
that is antiseptic in action and used in medicinal soaps and not shock-absorbent, and flexible. There is no pronounced
unctions for skin infections. difference between the sapwood and heartwood. Beech
timber works nails and screws well and is in high demand for
The pressed ‘beechcake’ residue, left after oil has been pressed numerous uses, including furniture (notably chairs), implements
from the seeds, and the mast can be used in silvopastoral (e.g. carpentry planes), wagons, chopping boards, flooring
agroforestry systems for feeding deer, pigs, cattle, goats, (parquet, block or strip), turnery, handles (e.g. file handles),

BEECH 29
mallets, charcoal, veneer and plywood (notably in eastern to early autumn and late spring frosts and can be very difficult
Europe). The wood (especially thinnings) also makes a good to establish on exposed sites without the use of nurse trees.
fuelwood and pulpwood. It is a traditional material for steam Once established, though, it tolerates exposure well although
bent work. While it is not decay-resistant, it is easily treated the crowns become deformed.
with preservatives and creosoted beech is sometimes used for
Beech is the dominant climax tree on chalk and limestone soils
fencing and railway sleepers.
in southern England, but it grows well on any well-drained soil;
Beech is a very good accumulator of potash, acting as a green waterlogged or infertile soils are unsuitable.
manure tree to benefit other nearby flora. The wood ash is also
Young transplants are more vulnerable to competition from
potash-rich and a good fertiliser.
grass and other ground vegetation than many trees; in addition,
Varieties/Cultivars growth is moderate and stem forms often poor. The trees thus
benefit strongly from shelter (especially on exposed sites).
There are a number of varieties and cultivars with ornamental
leaves. Young seedlings and transplants must be protected from
browsing from deer, which can both damage trees and
Cultivation encourage competing grasses.
Beech for timber is usually grown as single-stemmed trees (as it Trees are usually grown from seed. Sow seeds immediately,
only coppices very weakly) planted densely at about 2m (6.5ft) or stratify until early-mid March. Deep pots (e.g. Rootrainers™)
spacing and subsequently thinned. It is sometimes pollarded are very suitable for beech and can easily be kept off the
where animals are grazed beneath trees and this is a good ground where predation of the seeds by mice can be very
method of management for pannage systems where stock are severe. If growing in seedbeds, stratify and sow in March, taking
fed on mast. Pollarding consist of cutting the tree 2-3m (6-10ft) precautions against mice. Sow by broadcasting and cover with
above the ground and is a good method of producing fuelwood 12-25mm (0.5-1in) of soil. Young seedlings must be shaded
and small-diameter timber sustainably. from the sun to begin with. First year growth is 10-20cm (4-8ins).
Hedging trees can be planted at 30-60cm (1-2ft). Beech hedges Transplant seedlings to 10cm (4ins) spacing (i.e. 100/m2 or
can be trimmed to almost any height. 81/yd2) for a further year of growth before planting out in the
final position.
Beech is easy to grow, having exceptional climatic tolerance,
happy both in the continental eastern USA and in cool oceanic Pests and diseases
Scotland. It does require good rainfall (70cm+/year, 28ins+),
Grey squirrels can be very damaging to trees of 15-40 years of age,
and is happy in any pH soil as long as it is well drained but moist.
attacking the bases of stems in particular by gnawing away
It tolerates exposure except for coastal exposure. Young trees are
the bark. This introduces defects into the timber and can even
especially shade tolerant, older trees need sun or partial sun.
kill trees if a whole ring of bark is eaten. In Britain, squirrels
Beech prefers a moist, mild and sunny climate. Like many must be controlled in late spring for good quality beech timber
shade-tolerant trees which are found in forests, it is susceptible to be grown.
Stressed trees (especially on heavy soils) tend to suffer
from beech bark disease (the fungus Nectria coccinea),
often associated with infestations of the sap-sucking insect
Cryptococcus fagisuga. This can cause the death of trees up
to 60 years of age. The best control is to plant mixed-species
stands, where the build up of coccus populations is much
slower and the problem kept to a minimum. Other timber trees
associating well with beech include birch, cherry, sycamore,
Lawson’s cypress, western red cedar, Scots and Corsican pines
and Norway spruce.

Related species
The American beech, F. grandifolia, can be used similarly. It is
marginally hardier than European beech.

European & North American suppliers

Europe: ALT, ART, BHT, BUC, PHN, TPN
North America: Obtain from forest tree nurseries (many states
Roasted beech nuts have their own nursery).

30 BEECH
BENTHAM’S CORNEL, Cornus capitata
Evergreen, Zone 7, H5
Edible fruit

Origin and history

An evergreen small tree or large shrub from
Himalayan forests.

Description
Grows to 6m (20ft) high and wide in Europe,
but larger in its native habitat. Small cream
flowers in June and July are followed by large
lychee-like crimson fruits, 25-40mm (1-1.5ins)
across, which ripen in November, often after the
first frosts.

Uses
The fruits are edible. The flesh is usually sweet
and banana-like, though the skin is tough and
slightly bitter. The fruits contain a number of
seeds.
The wood is very hard and close grained but
warps when being seasoned. Used mainly for fuel.

Varieties/Cultivars
There are none in cultivation.
Fruit of Bentham’s cornel
Cultivation
Bentham’s cornel likes any soil and sun or part
shade, although fruiting is better in sun.
Propagate by seed. The seeds need about eight weeks of cold
stratification.

Pests and diseases

None of note.

Related species
Chinese dogwood (C. kousa var. chinensis) has similar but
smaller fruits also good to eat.

European & North American suppliers

Europe: BUR, CRU
North America: DDN

BENTHAM’S CORNEL  31
BIRCHES, Betula species
Deciduous, Zone 1-3, H7
Edible sap
Timber, medicinal

Origin and history

The birch genus (Betula) includes about 50 species of trees and
Sap flow
xylem tissue (i.e. from
shrubs, many from cold northerly regions. They have a long physiology beneath the layers of outer
history of use by people. Although there is variability between and inner bark).
species, it is clear that all species, especially the trees, can be Sap flow is the process
used similarly in terms of sap products, bark products and of transporting (mainly) Sap flow in birches can start
wood products. water through a tree. at any time, day or night,
Water is drawn up from when soil and wood average
Description the soil through roots day-night temperatures are
Birch trees are fast growing, often with peeling bark, and can and transported through above zero in spring. This
reach a diameter at breast height (dbh) of 20cm/8ins (the the stem to the leaves. differs from maples, where
minimum required for tapping) in 20-30 years. They usually Once in the leaves, the sap flow is better in a freeze-
mature in 60-70 years and rarely live more than 100 years. water evaporates into the thaw cycle with a large
atmosphere through the temperature fluctuation.
Birches are shade intolerant, and in mature forests are usually stomata (transpiration).
restricted to openings and edges. The collection period is 3-5
Water can either be pushed weeks, with sap starting to
Birch bark is thin and flammable (due to the presence of oils), up from the bottom by flow between mid March
and trees are susceptible to fire. Fire damaged trees often osmotic pressure at the and mid April, depending
regenerate by developing new sprouts around the base of the roots (normally only on location and weather
original stem. in spring before leaf conditions. Trees at lower
development) or is pulled elevations or on slopes
Uses up by transpiration. During with a southerly aspect will
Birch trees have been tapped since ancient times as a source transpiration sap flow, usually begin the sap flow
of sweetness. Birch sap is less sweet than maple sap and is enzymatic changes occur earlier.
produced about a month later. in the sap that makes it
Tapping continues
Fresh birch sap (‘birch juice’) is a traditional and refreshing unsuitable for human
until the sap becomes
spring tonic, and has been consumed for centuries in the Nordic consumption. Therefore
buddy, or milky-white, as
countries, central Europe, Canada, Japan and Korea. It is sold tapping only takes place
microorganisms begin
commercially in some of these countries and its uses are varied. when the sap is flowing
reducing the sugars. The sap
Birch sap has a hint of sweetness, sometimes with a slight because of root pressure.
may also have a fermented
minty, wintergreen flavour. In some countries it is pasteurised, Birch is tapped when the smell or bitter taste due to
bottled and sold as a health drink. buds are beginning to yeasts in the sap. Buddy sap
There is a long tradition, both on a home scale and expand. The sap is primarily is unacceptable to syrup
commercially (small scale), of making birch sap wine. (over 99%) produced from production as it has poorer
the flow in the sapwood taste and quality.
Wine can be made from raw sap, though the sugar content is
fairly low and producing a good wine without using additional
sugar is difficult. Wine can also be made from concentrated sap.
It does not need to be concentrated to the level of birch syrup
(see p.34) but could be concentrated to 5% or 10% sugar content.
Birch beer is made from the sap of Betula lenta (cherry birch,
sweet birch, black birch) in the eastern USA.

32 BIRCHES
Silver birches

BIRCHES 33
Birch vodka is made in Byelorussia using birch sap and high colour, and is straight and fine grained, lustrous, dense (average
quality grain alcohol. density at 15% moisture is 670kg/m³ or 1130lb/yd3), hard, quite
strong and porous. There is no obvious difference between the
Birch syrup is more challenging to make than maple syrup,
heartwood and softwood, and annual rings are only apparent
primarily because making maple syrup entails concentrating
as faint bands. It works, glues and stains well. It is not resistant
the sap by a factor of 40, while birch syrup requires concen-
to decay, but takes preservatives well. It has high bending and
tration by a factor of 80-120. There is also less volume of sap
crushing strength and has good steam bending properties.
flow than from maple trees.
Because it is liable to fungal attack, it must be dried very rapidly.
Birch syrup colour ranges from amber to dark reddish-brown.
Native North Americans traditionally use birch for making
The colour partially depends on the time of harvest and
baskets, mats, canoes, spears and bows, snowshoes and sleds.
exposure to heat during processing; lighter syrups are usually
obtained in the beginning of the season and are more subtle in The inner bark of many species has been eaten in times of
flavour. Early season syrups are often used on pancakes, waffles famine, and in North America was a regular dietary item of the
of crepes and are generally of higher value. Darker syrups are Native Americans. It is removed in the spring, ground up and
more full bodied with a stronger flavour. They are often used used as flour to make a bread.
with both savoury and sweet foods. The tree is well known as a long-term soil improver. The leaves
The carbohydrates in birch sap are different from those in sugar are high in nitrogen and phosphorus and the leaf litter rapidly
maple sap. Carbohydrates in sugar maple sap are primarily decomposes to improve soil conditions and increase soil pH.
sucrose, whilst in birch sap fructose is the main sugar.
Species
Sap yields are highly variable between individual trees and in The major species of use are:
different seasons, but 25-80 litres of sap per tree is common.
Larger diameter trees and healthy trees have higher sap yields. • Silver birch – Betula alba
• Cherry birch – Betula lenta
Birch bark has many medicinal uses. Research into the medicinal
effects of birch bark has been increasing over the last decade, • Paper birch – Betula papyrifera
however uptake of results has been slow from pharmaceutical • Downy birch – Betula pubescens
companies because birch bark, and betulin made from it,
are natural and cannot be patented. Also, betulin is very hard Cultivation
to produce synthetically because it contains about 1,000 Birch prefers lighter soils but will tolerate heavy clay, chalk
compounds. Products with betulin as their base are non-toxic. and limestone soils, with a pH range of 3.5-7. Soils very low in
phosphorus may lead to slow initial growth. Trees are light-
Betulin can be converted to betulinic acid, which is more
demanding, but they will grow as an understorey in open forest.
biologically active than betulin itself. Betulinic acid exhibits
Exposed sites are suitable as the tree is deep rooting and very
anti-malarial, anti-inflammatory and anti-HIV activity in addition
wind-firm (though growth form is poor on exposed sites). The
to having potential as a cancer treatment. Research has shown
species intercrops well with pine or spruce, with all species
that betulin and betulinic acid inhibit the growth of melanoma
benefiting.
cells and can provide therapeutic benefits to the skin. It has
also been shown to help wounds heal faster and to reduce Propagate by seed, which should be stratified or pre-chilled
inflammation. for at least four weeks before sowing in spring. Use a fine seed
compost or soil tilth, only just cover seed, and water to keep
Birch tar oil is distilled from the bark, being a thick, brownish-
moist until germination.
black liquid with a pungent, balsamic odour and an astringent
and counterirritant action. It is very similar in composition to Tapping sap
wintergreen oil. It is used in unctions for eczema and other skin
Begin tapping when enough sap is available to process quickly.
ailments.
Avoid prolonged sap storage while waiting for sufficient
Birch is a versatile hardwood tree. The wood is used for veneer, volumes to accumulate. Sap may start flowing sooner on the
plywood, OSB (Oriented Strand Board), pulp, tool handles, southern side of the tree, however the north side is a better
broom heads as well as furniture making cabinets, hardwood position for the spile and bucket as it is cooler and not so prone
furniture and ‘rustic’ furniture. The wood is also excellent to bacterial or yeast contamination.
firewood, and is used for toy making, flooring, shipbuilding,
The drill bit and spile (a spout) should be sterile before using on
utensils, wheels, boxes, wooden shoes, charcoal, pipes, wooden
the tree. The spile has three functions: to transfer sap from the
nails, turnery, clothes pegs (a traditional wood for this) and
tree to a collection container or into tubing; to hold a collection
fencing (if preserved). In the past it has been used for bobbins,
container or connect to tubing; and to seal around the taphole.
herring-barrel staves and gunpowder.
Spiles are available from maple equipment suppliers in North
Silver birch wood is a uniform off white pale pinky brown America or can be whittled out of a hollow twig.

34 BIRCHES
 Ensure that buckets have lids to avoid contamination from rain,
insects etc. Buckets can hang on spiles or sit on the ground,
either way with tubing directing the sap through a suitable
close-fitting hole in the side at the top of the bucket.
Collect sap daily, sometimes twice daily during high sap flow.
Although sap flow averages 4 litres/day, it can vary from zero to
20 litres/day. Avoid collecting sap that is off-colour and has an
odour. Clean tubing etc. used to transfer sap daily. Also check
spiles frequently in case they come dislodged or loose for any
reason.
Stop collection when the sap turns buddy.*
Remove spiles gently at the end of the sap-flow season. Wash
tapholes and plug with corks to reduce likelihood of infection.
As the tree heals, it will gradually force the plug out of the tree –
this takes a few years. The same tree can be tapped for 4-5 years
in succession, then it should be rested for 8-10 years.
Store sap (at temperatures below 5oC (41oF) and out of direct
sunlight) in food-grade containers that are easy to clean
Tapping a birch tree and process sap as soon as possible. While in the tree, sap
is sterile, but it begins to degrade as soon as it is exposed to
microorganisms in the air.
Select vigorous, healthy trees with a minimum dbh (diameter at Filter all sap through course, medium and finally a five micron
breast height) of 15-20cm (6-8ins). The tree bark adjacent to the filter to remove suspended solids.
taphole site should be cleaned. Install only one tap per tree. The The transformation of sap to syrup involves the concentration
taphole depth should be 3-5cm (1.2-2ins), angled upward at of soluble solids, primarily sugar, through the removal of water.
about 10°, at a convenient height from the ground, and at least This is achieved through evaporation or by reverse osmosis.
5-10cm (2-4ins) to the side and 15cm (6ins) above or below
previous tapholes or wounds. It requires 80-120 litres of birch sap to produce 1 litre of birch
syrup. With evaporation this takes considerable time (and
The drill bit should be an appropriate size for the spile, and energy). With all the boiling, the fructose in the sap caramelises
be sharp; avoid oval holes by maintaining a steady hand and as it comes in contact with the hot bottoms of the evaporation
drilling angle. American spiles are usually 7/16ins (12mm) or pans. Some caramelisation is necessary for flavour, but too
5/16ins (10mm). Hand drills with auger bits are fine for small- much results in an undesirable taste. Caramelisation begins at
scale operations. If the wood in the hole appears dark or about 93oC (199oF). The longer the sap is cooked once it attains
decayed, abandon the hole and plug it. Locate a new taphole a density of five degrees Brix, the darker the final product will be.
at least 5-10cm (2-4ins) from the abandoned hole.
Inspect the new hole – sap flow will probably begin Pests and diseases
immediately. Tapholes should be free of wood shavings, dirt Seedlings and saplings are readily browsed by deer, sheep,
and bark fragments – clean with a squirt of water or clean tool cattle and rabbits; also by squirrels, voles and wood mice.
if necessary. The species is very susceptible to honey fungus: do not plant on
Due to the acidic nature of birch sap, plastic or stainless steel susceptible sites!
spiles are best. Drive the spile gently into the tap hole (with a
mallet) deep enough for the spile to hold securely (with a full Related species
sap bucket resting on it if this is the system used). Other birch species can be used similarly.
The traditional way of collecting the sap, still used by most European & North American suppliers
small-scale operations today, is to use a bucket or plastic bag.
Europe: ALT, BHT, PHN, TPN.
Larger scale operations use plastic tubing leading downhill
directly to the processing building (sugaring hut). Use food- North America: Obtain from forest tree nurseries (many states
grade equipment for all items that come into contact with sap: have their own nursery).
spiles, buckets, tubing, collection tanks, and storage.
The tap and pail system uses a bucket or bag suspended on
the spile. *  See p.32 for an explanation.

BIRCHES 35
BLACK LOCUST / FALSE ACACIA, Robinia pseudoacacia
Deciduous, Zone 3, H7
Nitrogen fixing
Timber, Bee plant

Origin and history Despite large numbers of seeds, few seedlings emerge because
of the impermeable seed coat.
The black locust is native to open woods in eastern and central
USA, between latitudes 35°N and 43°N, where it is an important The root system is relatively shallow. Being a legume, the roots
colonising species. It was called ‘locust’ by early settlers in New have nodules containing nitrogen-fixing bacteria that supply the
England, who likened it to the biblical locust. plant with nitrogen. Robinia can sucker prolifically (especially
after cutting or coppicing) and then tends to form thickets.
The tree was introduced into Britain in 1636, and has become
a popular street, park and garden tree; in many parts of Europe Uses
(and elsewhere) it has become an important forestry species,
Edible parts include the flowers; the cooked seeds and young
and is the most popular leguminous forest tree currently planted
pods (raw seeds are not edible, being slightly poisonous); the
worldwide. It is naturalised in many parts of Europe and can
seeds are not particularly palatable, though.
self-seed vigorously in warm climates.
Medicinal parts include the bark (poisonous), leaves and flowers.
Description Dried flowers (‘Robiniae (acacia) flos’ in pharmacopoeias)
The tree is large, growing rapidly to 25-35m (80-110ft) high, contain laxalbumin glycoside and are used in herb teas, as a spice,
with a large, rounded, open crown. The trunks of many trees and in perfumery.
are bent and forked: improved varieties are available for
A blue dye can be obtained from the leaves.
forestry use. Trees in closed forest stands are more likely to
grow with straight, upright stems. The bark is pale grey-brown, Robinia is an excellent bee plant in June. Bees collect both
exceptionally thick, developing into a random meshwork of pollen and nectar, and may also collect honeydew from leaves.
deep spiral ridges and hollows. Buds are minute, singly borne, Bumblebees as well as honeybees utilise the plant. Several
with large triangular scars beneath them; below each bud is a varieties have been bred for good nectar production. Robinia
pair of sharp spines, each averaging about 10mm (0.4ins) long, honey is light yellowish, with a mild flavour, and does not
although they may be missing in some selections and rather crystallise very quickly. The flowering period is relatively short,
larger in others. 10-20 days. Research in Hungary has shown that the potential
annual honey yield from a hectare of Robinia forest of 6-25
Leaves are compound with 5-12 pairs of leaflets per leaf, less in
years of age is about 400kg (350lb/ac).
very young plants. The pairs of leaflets are very nearly opposite
each other. Leaves turn golden in the autumn and break up The leaves make excellent fodder, being high in protein. They
as they fall. Leaves emerge in late April or early May, and fall in are especially liked by goats and rabbits. The pods can also be
October or early November. They are high in nitrogen (2.8%), used for fodder.
potassium (1.2%) and calcium (3-6% calcium oxide); and
Black locust is an important erosion control species. It regenerates
average in phosphorus (0.18%).
rapidly from root suckers (and particularly well from exposed
Flowering is profuse, occurring in May to June (mid June in roots following soil disturbance) and is valuable in controlling
Britain) over a 10-12 day period. Flowers are conspicuous, white erosion on slopes and in gullies.
and pea-like, 2cm (0.8ins) long in dense hanging and tapering
It is also an excellent green manure tree. Litter decomposition
racemes. They are sweetly fragrant, the racemes being 10-20cm
is very fast, with 60-120kg/ha/year (52-104lb/ac/year) of soluble
(4-8ins) long. Pollination is by insects, mainly bees. Trees start
nitrates released that are then available to other plants. In
flowering at a young age, about 4-6 years.
16-20 year old forest stands (of pure black locust), nitrogen
Seeds are produced in long, slender, tough, hanging, dark enrichment of the top 50cm (20ins) of soil via N-fixing bacteria
red-brown or black seed pods 5-10cm (2-4ins) long and 12mm and leaf decomposition may amount to 590kg/ha/year (520lb/
(0.5ins) wide, each containing 4-10 kidney-shaped black seeds. ac/year). Other minerals accumulated in the leaf litter include
Seeds ripen in September and October. Seed crops occur calcium (stabilising the soil pH) and potassium. Trials have
most years, with heavy seed crops at 1-2 year intervals. proved the increased growth of other species (including black

36  BLACK LOCUST

walnut and ash) interplanted with black locust due to this coarse texture. It is extremely durable, more so than English oak:
nitrogen-enriching ability, which is greater than any other 80 years in open, exposed places, to 500 years in permanently
temperate forest tree. moist conditions and up to 1,500 years in permanently dry
conditions. It has a strong tendency to warp, and has excellent
The leaves have several pest-control properties: they have an
properties for steam bending. Its hardness means that machine
insecticidal effect on the forest tent caterpillar (Malacosoma
cutting edges are soon dulled. It is difficult to nail, and should
disstria) and various flies; and act as an antifeedant against the
be pre-bored; it stains and polishes well. The excellent durability
tortoise beetle (Cassida nebulosa) and the Colorado potato
means that it doesn’t need any preservative treatment.
beetle (Leptinotarsa decemlineata).
Robinia timber is similar in properties (apart from its greater
The bark contains 7% tannins and has been used for tanning
durability) to ash, and can be utilised in similar ways. Major
leather, as has the wood (which contains 3% tannins).
timber uses include shipbuilding (planking and wooden
A recent use is as a biomass energy crop, using logging residue dowels/trenails used to fasten planks to ship timbers), fencing
and specifically growing Robinia as a short-rotation crop. and posts, firewood (excellent, with a calorific value higher than
beech and oak), veneers, gates, weatherboarding, construction
Robinia is a valuable commercial forestry tree in many
and joinery, flooring (parquet), pit props, railway sleepers,
countries, notably (within Europe) in Hungary, Romania and
cooperage (barrels and staves), particle and fibre board and
France, where its broad site tolerance, excellent timber, nectar
vehicle bodies. Black locust laminates are used for large
of great use to bees, and fodder value make it a multipurpose
wooden construction projects, including bridges.
tree of great flexibility. The wood is greenish when freshly
cut, soon turning a golden brown. It has an unusually narrow Minor uses include tool handles, cart shafts, wooden platters,
sapwood (about 5mm/0.2ins). The timber is very tough, hard kitchen spoons, furniture/cabinet work, turnery, wheels,
and strong; it is moderately light, straight grained with a fairly barrows, boxes, bows and as a pulpwood.

Varieties/Cultivars
Timber selection and breeding
programmes have been going on for
some time in eastern Europe, notably
Hungary, where many useful varieties
are now available. Breeding for timber
yields, low or no spines, and increased
flowering for bee use have all been
undertaken. Because of the drawbacks
of vegetative propagation (in terms of
mass production of planting stock), seed
orchards are being established using
superior clones. Seed from these origins
is likely to give trees of excellent quality.
Ordinary seedling stock leads to trees
in yield class 6-7 whereas the improved
varieties reach yield class 10.
Several cultivars have been bred for their
superior flowering capacity, by having
an extended flowering period (i.e. 15-20
days) and/or having a greater number
of flowers. Average flowers produce
1.0mg/sugar in nectar per 24hrs during
flowering, whereas some varieties
produce nearly twice this.
Robinia pseudoacacia var. inermis is a
natural thornless variety that comes true
from seed. The tree form is generally
variable and poor though.
Robinia pseudoacacia var. rectissima
Black locust ‘Debreceni-2’ flowering (also known as cultivar ‘Rectissima’) was

BLACK LOCUST  37
the first promising forestry variety to be propagated. This variety,
called the shipmast locust, has a very straight stem that can be
followed through to the crown. It rarely flowers, though.
The best upright vigorous cultivars suitable for milling include
‘Appalachia’, ‘Egylevelu’, ‘Góri’, ‘Jászkiséri’, ‘Kiscsala’i’, ‘Kiskunsági’,
‘Nyirségi’, ‘Pénzesdombi’, ‘Röjtökmuzsaj’i’, and ‘Ülloi’.
Other upright cultivars suitable for pit props, fence posts, vine/
hop poles etc. include ‘Császártöltési’, ‘Ricsikai’, ‘Szajk’i’, ‘Váti-46’,
and ‘Zalai’.
Cultivars selected for bee forage (for improved flowering
period, number of flowers and nectar production) include
‘Debreceni-2’, ‘Debreceni 3-4’, ‘Halványrózsaszin’, ‘Mátyusi 1-3’,
and ‘Rózsaszin-AC’.

Cultivation
Black locust grows on a large variety of soil types but not ‘Debreceni-2’ flowers
on very heavy soils; the aeration and water regime of the
subsoil has the strongest influence on growth. It prefers loose,
structured soils, especially silty and sandy loams. Growth is Seed propagation is easy, although for forestry use a good
very slow where the subsoil is compact or where the site is seed source is essential. Seeds have an impermeable seed
excessively dry. It prefers soil on the acid side. It grows well on coat, common in many leguminous species. The best way of
free-draining land reclamation sites, and on dry and infertile ensuring good germination is to soak seeds in boiling water and
sandy soils low in nitrogen; the best growth, however, occurs on allow to soak overnight as the water cools before sowing. First
rich soils. Soils of pH 5.5-7.5 are most suitable. year growth can be up to 60cm (2ft). Seedlings are susceptible
Robinia is a sun-demanding species, which won’t survive in to chlorosis and damping off.
heavy shade. It is reasonably wind-firm (enough so to be much Vegetative propagation of superior selections is usually by root
used in shelterbelts in China). cuttings. Root cuttings 8-10cm (3.2-4ins) long taken in spring
It does prefer a continental climate, with hot summers; growth can be placed in pots or inserted directly into the soil – it is
in a maritime climate such as Britain’s is never as fast as (say) important to keep track of their alignment, as shoots appear at
in eastern Europe. the basal end of cuttings, and roots at the tip end.
Forestry rotations are quite short, 20-40 years generally, Pests and diseases
sometimes 50 years. The best trees can reach a breast height Robinia has few seriously damaging pests or diseases. The foliage
diameter of 60cm (2ft) in 50 years. Pole size is reached in 15-20 is extremely attractive to rabbits and hares that will browse it off;
years. Large, old trees are often rotten and hollow inside, young trees must be well protected.
making them susceptible to wind damage – another reason
for keeping rotations short. Trees should be planted at a spacing The tree is moderately susceptible to frost damage in late
of 2-2.4m (6-8ft) apart with the first thinning carried out after spring, and because of its thin bark and shallow root system is
15-20 years. Rotations of over 30 years will need a further very susceptible to fire damage.
thinning at around 30 years. In North America, locust borer and locust leaf minor can be
Growth is rapid, 8-12m (27-40ft) in the first 10 years. Growth significant pests.
continues at a rapid rate with trees soon reaching maximum
height. By age 30, heights of 25m (82ft) and diameters of 30cm Related species
(1ft) are achievable. There are some 20 other species of Robinia shrubs and trees.
All can be used for the nitrogen-fixing ability although none are
Black locust coppices and pollards strongly, even from old
as useful as black locust for timber.
trees. Rotations of 10-20 years would be suitable for production
of fencing posts. Short rotation coppice (5-10 year rotations) European & North American suppliers
is suitable for firewood and energy production, with biomass
Europe: ART, BUC, PHN
yields of 90-140m3/ha (47-73yd3/acre) possible over a 10-year
rotation. In fact, the black locust produces more biomass over North America: Obtain from forest tree nurseries (many states
a 10-year rotation than any other temperate species, producing have their own nursery).
nearly twice that of hybrid poplars.

38  BLACK LOCUST

BLACK WALNUT, Juglans nigra
Deciduous, Zone 4, H7
Edible nuts
Timber

Origin and history Leaves are compound, 30-60cm (1-2ft) long, with 15-23 ovate
leaflets that often have a very small or absent terminal leaf –
The black or American walnut, Juglans nigra, is one of the more
a good identifier of the species. The foliage is abundant, more so
neglected members of the walnut family, yet it is fast growing,
than the common walnut (J. regia).
bears edible nuts of good quality, and produces an excellent
timber of decorative quality that is much in demand. Male catkins are 5-10cm (2-4ins) long, developing from the
leaf axils of the previous year’s growth. Small female flowers
The tree is native to eastern North America (hence its alternative
occur in terminal spikes of 2-5 small green flowers borne on
common names of Virginian walnut, American walnut, eastern
the current year’s shoots. Flowering takes place in May or early
black walnut) as far north as the Canadian border, and has been
June in Britain, over a period of about 10 days. The flowers
cultivated for a long time in Europe, where it is now naturalised.
mature at different times on the tree, so that self-fertility is
Description usually limited. Flowering and fruiting of seedling trees begins
at about 12-15 years of age (half this for fruiting cultivars).
Juglans nigra is a large rounded tree, growing eventually up
Pollination is via the wind.
to a height of 50m (160ft) and spread of 25m (82ft) in eastern
North America, where it is native, but about half this size in Fruits are borne singly or in pairs, round, 4-5cm (1.6-2ins)
Britain. It is pyramidal when young, becoming spreading and wide, with a thick rough hull (husk) enclosing a single nut that
round crowned with age though usually with a long trunk. It has is irregularly and longitudinally furrowed, with rough edges.
brownish-black bark, deeply furrowed into diamond-shaped The husks turn from green to yellowish-green when ripe, and
ridges, and downy young branches (an easy way to tell it apart usually drop intact with the nut inside. The nuts are 25-40mm
from the common or English walnut, Juglans regia). (1-1.5ins) across (larger in some cultivars), thick shelled and
enclose an edible kernel. Fruiting often
tends to biennial, with heavy crops every
other year.
The root system typically consists of
deep taproots that might penetrate more
than 2m (7ft), with long lateral roots and
feeder roots that normally concentrate at
a depth of 10-20cm (4-8ins).
Black walnut forms mycorrhizal
associations with various species of
fungi, notably Glomus species.

Uses
The nut kernels are edible – they have a
fuller, richer, more robust flavour than
English walnuts, which is retained on
baking, hence many of the traditional
American recipes using it are for baked
foods including cakes, pies, breads etc.
Ice cream is another traditional use. The
kernels are high in polyunsaturated fats,
protein and carbohydrates, plus vitamins
Black walnut leaves and fruits A, B, C, and linoleic acid. They do not

BlaCK WALNUT  39
store well at room temperature for longer than a few months. Cultivar Origin Description
The only drawback is that black walnuts are hard to crack, ‘Beck’ Michigan Early leafing, self-fertile, early season,
and many conventional nutcrackers will not cope; several resistant to anthracnose. Medium-sized
specialised crackers/extractors have been designed and are nuts with large kernels.
available in North America. ‘Bicentennial’ New York Large nuts and kernels.

The oil expressed from the kernels is sweet and edible, used raw ‘Bowser’ Ohio Mid-late leafing, group B, resistant to
anthracnose. Medium-sized nuts with
or cooked; it does not keep for very long. large kernels.
The unripe fruits can be pickled in vinegar (husk and all) just like ‘Clermont’ Ohio Very late leafing, late season, resistant
common walnut. to anthracnose. Large nuts with large
kernels.
The sap of the tree is edible, tapped in the same way as maple ‘Cornell’ New York Early season. Medium-sized nuts with
sap; it can be concentrated to make a syrup, or used to make large kernels.
wine, beer etc. ‘Cranz’ Pennsylvania Mid-late leafing, group A, late season,
resistant to anthracnose. Medium-sized
The ground shells left over from removing kernels are used as nuts with large kernels.
an excellent abrasive (very hard, light, non-toxic, doesn’t pit or ‘Davidson’ Iowa Early leafing, group A, early season.
scar) on stone, metals and plastics, and also as the gritty agent
‘Emma K’ Illinois Medium-sized nuts with large kernels.
in some soap and dental cleansers; they are also used in paints,
‘Farrington’ Kentucky Late leafing, group B, early season,
glue, wood cements and as a filler in dynamite. resistant to anthracnose. Large nuts with
large kernels.
The husks (hulls) left over from husking machines are a valuable
resource as a pasture fertiliser. They are high in nitrogen ‘Grimo 108H’ Ontario Large nut with large kernel.
and phosphorus, and although they contain anti-germinant ‘Grundy’ Iowa Early leafing, group A. Large nuts with
chemicals that can be detrimental to annual crops, perennial large kernels.
grasses and clovers thrive with a husk mulch; earthworm ‘Hain’ Michigan Mid season, resistant to anthracnose.
populations are also stimulated. Each kilogram of husked ‘Hare’ Illinois Mid leafing, group B. Large nuts with large
walnuts yields about 2kg (4.4lb) of husks, hence large quantities kernels.
of husks can soon be generated. ‘Hay’ Missouri Mid leafing, group B.
‘Homeland’ Virginia Early season. Large kernels.
The bark, husks and leaves have all been used in traditional
medicine. All these parts contain juglone, which is a chemical ‘Krause’ Iowa Early leafing, group A, late season,
resistant to anthracnose. Very large nuts,
known to be antihaemorrhagic (used to stop bleeding) and moderate kernels.
fungicidal/vermifugal (the leaves and husks are used against
‘Myers’ Iowa Late leafing. Self-fertile, late season,
skin fungi like athlete’s foot and parasites like ringworm). An resistant to anthracnose. Medium-sized
extract from the heartwood is used in treating equine laminitis. nuts with large kernels.

Fast dyes are obtained from the husks, leaves, and bark. The ‘Ogden’ Kentucky Early-mid leafing, self-fertile. Large nuts,
moderate kernels.
husks readily stain the skin with a persistent brown stain, and
‘Ohio’ Ohio Early-mid leafing, group B, resistant to
have long been used to dye wood, hair, wool, linen and cotton. anthracnose. Medium-sized nuts with
The bark and fresh green husks dye yellowish-brown with an moderate kernels.
alum mordant; the leaves dye brown (alum mordant); the dried
husks dye golden brown (alum mordant), dark brass (chrome
mordant), coffee (copper mordant), caramel (tin mordant),
is mostly used for slicing veneer for decorative purposes
charcoal grey (iron mordant) and light brown (no mordant).
(cabinet work); other uses include rifle butts and high class
The black walnut is highly valued as a timber tree in many joinery, plus uses in aircraft and shipbuilding, musical
areas, including North America and Austria, France, Germany, instruments, clock cases, carving and plywood manufacture.
Hungary, Romania and (former) Yugoslavia in Europe; it is Some of the most attractive wood comes from the root crown
seen as a high quality replacement for diminishing tropical area from which fine burr walnut veneers are obtained.
hardwoods.
Varieties/Cultivars
The wood is a rich dark brown to purplish-black (with lighter
Over 100 named cultivars have been selected and are grown in
sapwood), coarse and mostly straight grained, quite heavy,
North America.
strong, very durable (resisting fungal and insect attack),
heavy and hard. It dries rather slowly, is easy to work with Because of the large shell, the actual percentage of the nut that
hand or machine tools, holds nails and screws well, and forms the kernel is relatively low – 30% is good (36% is the most
polishes to a high finish giving a satiny surface. recorded, 27% the average).
Good quality black walnut commands very high prices and Although using grafted cultivars is the most reliable method

40  BLACK WALNUT

Cultivar Origin Description of producing nuts, seedlings from good cultivars tend to
‘Peanut’ Ohio Mid leafing, group B, early season,
reproduce the qualities of the parent tree both in tree and nut
resistant to anthracnose. characteristics. Hence seedling trees are still of value and may
‘Pfister’ Nebraska Mid leafing, group A, early season. be desirable on cost terms.
Large kernels.
The cultivars rated most highly on a range of attributes by
‘Putney’ New York Early season. Large nuts with large American nut growers include ‘Emma K’, ‘Hay’, ‘Myers’, ‘Ohio’,
kernels.
‘Rowher’, ‘Sparrow’ and the ‘Sparks’ selections. Selections
‘Rowher’ Mid leafing, group B. Large kernels. recommended for the UK, which ripen their nuts with the least
‘Snyder’ New York Early season. Medium-sized nuts with summer heat are ‘Beck’, ‘Bowser’, ‘Davidson’, ‘Emma K’, ‘Hare’,
large kernels.
‘Krause’, ‘Myers’, ‘Ohio’, ‘Pfister’ and ‘Sparks 127’.
‘Sol’ Indiana Resistant to anthracnose. Medium-sized
nuts with moderate kernels. In most trees male flowers and female flowers are ripe at
‘Sparks 127’ Iowa Late leafing, group B, early season, different times. Group A trees in the table have male flowers
resistant to anthracnose. Medium-sized preceding females; group B have female flowers preceding
nuts with large kernels. males. Some trees are self-fertile, otherwise it is good to mix
‘Sparks 147’ Iowa Mid-late leafing, self-fertile. Medium-sized group A and group B trees together especially if they are grafted
nuts with large kernels.
trees. Seedling trees are likely to be more variable and a mixture
‘Sparrow’ Illinois Group A, early season, resistant to of several is likely to be satisfactory. Early season trees ripen
anthracnose. Medium-sized nuts with
moderate kernels. their nuts earlier in the season hence are better for cooler
climates.
‘Stabler’ Maryland Mid leafing, self-fertile. Medium-sized
nuts.
Cultivation
‘Stambaugh’ Illinois Self-fertile. Medium-size nuts with large
kernels. Black walnut needs a site that is not susceptible to late spring
‘Thomas’ Pennsylvania V late leafing, late flowering, self-fertile, frosts; good light is also necessary. An ideal would be mid slope
mid season. Medium-sized nuts with on a sheltered south or southwest aspect.
moderate kernels.
The tree prefers a moderately fertile, deep, well-drained, of
‘Thomas Mississippi Early season, resistant to anthracnose.
Myers’ Large nuts with large kernels. medium texture and near neutral pH (6 to 7) soil. Very sandy
‘Throp’ Indiana Mid leafing, group A, late season.
and clayey soils are unsuitable, though growth is good on chalk
and limestone where there is at least 60cm (2ft) depth of soil.
‘Todd’ Ohio Mid-late leafing, self-fertile. Large nuts
with large kernels. Because they are deep rooting, trees are very drought resistant
once established.
‘Vandersloot’ Pennsylvania Resistant to anthracnose. Large nuts with
moderate kernels. Good weed control (especially of grasses) around young trees
‘Victoria’ Kentucky Late flowering, mid-late season, resistant for the first few years is essential, especially if moisture is going
to anthracnose. Large nuts with small
kernels.
to be limiting.
‘Weschke’ Wisconsin Early season. For nut production, planting should be at a spacing of 8-15m
(26-50ft) apart. Choose more than one cultivar to achieve good
cross-pollination. Grafted trees can start flowering and fruiting
in five years. Typical yields are about 8kg (18lb) of nuts (around
1 cm
350 nuts) per year for 15-year-old trees, rising to a maximum at
50-60 years, when yields can reach 100kg (220lb) or more. Trees
are long lived and can continue to crop for 90 years or more.
The nuts usually reach full size in late August and ripen in late
September or October; they drop, usually within the green
fleshy husks, shortly before the leaves fall, usually in October.
At this stage, they are also quite easily shaken from the tree.
Ripeness is indicated by the softness of the husk. After harvest,
the husks must be removed within a few days and the nuts
washed, as the husks darken rapidly and can affect the kernel
colour and flavour. Handling the green husks can leave stains
on hands and clothes that are very difficult to remove – wear
gloves! The husks can be loosened by ‘stomping’ with feet or by
using a concrete mixer with water and stones in it. If nuts are to
be stored, they must then be well dried in temperatures under
Nuts from ‘Thomas’ black walnut 40°C (104°F).

BlaCK WALNUT  41
Seedling trees are the usual planting stock used for forestry. Pests and diseases
Bare-rooted black walnut transplants suffer a lot of stress on
These are in the most part common with those found on
transplanting. Late autumn is the best planting time. To establish
Persian/English walnuts (Juglans regia). Black walnuts are
a stand, plant individual trees at 3-4m (10-13ft) spacing. The
resistant to deep bark canker and rarely troubled by butternut
long-term aim is to finally obtain 40-88 trees/ha (16-35 trees/ac),
canker or walnut blight.
well spaced at 11-16m (50ft) apart or so. Hence the close-spaced
planting will require several gradual thinnings. Alternatively The most serious disease is walnut leaf blotch (Gnomonia
black walnut can be used in alley-cropping systems, planted in leptostyla): black walnuts are slightly more susceptible than
widely-spaced rows with alleys used for other crops between most Persian walnuts to this disease, which is considered
(though be careful what crops are used due to allelopathy – a serious threat to commercial growers in some seasons in
known susceptible intercrops include the apple and potato North America. It is widespread in North America and Europe.
families and white pines). Suitable intercrops could be cereals The fungus causes brown blotches on leaves; it can cause
(winter cereals may be better, since most of their growth occurs defoliation and infection of the developing fruit that then drops;
while the walnuts are dormant), grasses or forage for livestock less severe infections can reduce kernel weights or darken the
(only if the walnuts were well protected), cutting hay, kernels. The disease appears in late May-early June, favoured by
vegetables/market garden crops, etc. Trees grown in alley- wet weather.
cropping systems will require manual side pruning to maintain The spores of this disease overwinter on dead leaves. One control,
good form and a clean lower bole. if attacks are always bad, is to collect fallen leaves and compost
Seeds require stratification for about 16 weeks before sowing: at high temperatures or burn. Some cultivars are resistant.
mix with moist sand or compost and keep cold. Seeds should The insect pests of significance in North America are:
be sown in deep containers or seedbeds and covered with
25-50mm (1-2ins) of media. Predation from mice and rats can • Walnut husk flies (Rhagoletis spp.), which feed on the green
be a major problem. husk of nuts, producing a staining and off-flavouring of the
kernel;
Germination occurs within 2-5 weeks, and seedlings grow
rapidly to a height of 30-60cm (1-2ft) in the first year. • Curculios (Conotrachelus retentus) that feed on young leaves
and husks – control by collecting and destroying prematurely
The cultivars ‘Beck’, ‘Fonthill’, ‘Minnesota Native’, ‘Myers’ fallen nuts;
(‘Elmer Myers’), ‘Patterson’, ‘Putney’ and ‘Thomas’ are noted • Fall webworms (Hyphantria cunea, moth larvae which feed
for their vigour and straight form; seed from these are likely to on foliage).
produce a higher percentage of timber trees of good form than
unnamed seedlings. Late leafing is also highly heritable; from As to wildlife pests, the fleshy and strong-smelling husks deter
the above list, ‘Myers’ and ‘Thomas’ are very late leafing. squirrels to an extent from eating the nuts; but once the nuts
are de-husked (whether naturally or manually), squirrels are
Like other walnuts, black walnuts are difficult to propagate extremely fond of the nuts and will take them to bury for the
vegetatively. Budding or grafting is used, but temperatures of winter if allowed.
around 27°C (80°F) are necessary for callusing to occur and the
graft to succeed. Some options are to use a hot grafting pipe; Deer and rabbits can browse on the shoots although they are
greenwood tip grafting; and budding in late June/early July. not a favourite.
Late spring frost damage can be a problem hence the
importance of good siting.

Related species
Also described in this book are true or common walnut
(Juglans regia, p.204), butternut (Juglans cinerea, p.52) and
heartnut (Juglans ailantifolia var. cordiformis, p.97).

European & North American suppliers

Europe: ART, PHN, TPN
North America: GNN, NRN. Seedlings from state forest tree
nurseries.
1 cm

The fruit and nut of black walnut

42  BLACK WALNUT

BLADDERNUTS, Staphylea spp.
Deciduous, Zone 5-6, H6
Edible seeds

Origin and history

The bladdernuts are a group of deciduous shrubs and small
trees that get their name from the fruits, which are inflated
capsules containing a few seeds. They originate from northern
temperate regions, and are generally found growing in
woodlands in moist soil. The two species described here have
edible seeds.
S. pinnata (bladder nut/false pistachio) originates from
southern and central Europe – France to Ukraine – and Asia
Minor to Syria. S. trifolia (American bladder nut) is from eastern
North America – Quebec to Georgia, west to Kansas and
Nebraska. Both are found in the understorey and at the edges
of deciduous woodland.

Description
These are shrubs growing 3-5m (10-16ft) high and wide, bearing
white flowers borne at the shoot tips and pollinated by flies.
S. pinnata is upright and vigorous; leaves are pinnate, usually
with five leaflets, each 5-10cm (2-4ins) long, bright green
above and bluish green below. Bell-shaped flowers are
whitish-green tinged pink, fragrant, about 1cm (0.4ins) across
in narrow drooping panicles up to 12cm (5ins) long, borne in
May and June. Fruits are nearly round, greenish-white inflated
bladder-like capsules, to 3-4cm (1.2-1.6ins) long, ripening from
September to November. They contain 2-3 light brown roundish
seeds, each to 12mm (0.5ins across). It is naturalised in Britain.
Flowers of European bladdernut (S. pinnata)
S. trifolia is upright and moderately vigorous, with shiny shoots;
pinnate leaves have three leaflets each 3.5-8cm (1.4-3.2ins)
long, dark green above, downy beneath. Bell-shaped flowers
are dull white, 8mm (0.3ins) across, in drooping panicles to 5cm
(2ins) long, borne in May and June. Fruits are 3-4cm (1.2-1.6ins)
long, usually 3-lobed, light brown when ripe from September to
November. They contain 2-3 light brown roundish seeds, each A sweet edible oil is obtained from the seeds of S. trifolia, used
about 5mm (0.2ins) across. for cooking.

Uses S. trifolia has been used medicinally by the native Iroquois in

North America. An infusion of plants is taken for rheumatism,
The seeds of both species are edible raw or roasted, with a
and a bark infusion is used as a dermatological aid. The seeds
pleasant pistachio flavour. The shell is not edible. Shelling these
were used in rattles.
small seeds can be fiddly – those of the European bladdernut
are larger and can be shelled in manual or mechanical nut Plants have dense underground root systems and can be used
cracking machines. for erosion control.

BLADDERNUTS 43
Leaves and fruits of European bladdernut (S. pinnata) Seeds of S. pinnata (top) and
S. trifoliata (below)

Varieties/Cultivars Cuttings can also be taken; softwood and greenwood (semi-

ripe) cuttings can be taken in summer and rooted in a moist
There are none.
atmosphere with gentle bottom heat. Root cuttings also work.
Cultivation Division works well after plants have suckered.
The bladdernuts have a robust constitution and grow well in
Branches can be layered in July to August. Remove rooted
most fertile soils in sun or semi-shade – good in forest and
layers 15 months later in winter.
woodland gardens. They like a moist (but not waterlogged) soil
and are not tolerant of drought. They are very resistant to honey Pests and diseases
fungus (Armillaria spp.).
There are none very significant. Mice and squirrels may be
Flowers appear in great profusion in the spring following a long attracted by the ripe seeds.
hot summer. Seeds ripen from September to November – it is
easy to learn to judge ripeness from the condition of the fruit Related species
‘bladder’. There are a number of other shrub/small tree species of
bladdernut although no others are documented as having
Pruning isn’t essential. To restrict size and shape, prune after
edible seeds.
flowering. Plants can also be cut back hard in winter and will
respond with vigorous growth. European & North American suppliers
Plants are often grown from seed. Seed should either be sown Europe: ART, BUR
in the autumn or stratified before sowing in the spring. Both the
species above require 13-22 weeks of warm stratification, fol- North America: Seeds more easily available than plants.
lowed by 13 weeks of cold stratification, prior to sowing in spring.

44 BLADDERNUTs
BLUE BEAN, Decaisnea fargesii
Deciduous, Zone 6, H6
Edible fruit pulp
Source of rubber

Origin and history

Blue bean is a very distinctive shrub from western China,
sometimes planted ornamentally for its remarkable metallic-
blue pods that look like blue broad beans. It is less well known
outside its native range as an edible crop and as a source of
rubber.

Description
It is an upright shrub, growing 3-6m (10-20ft) high by 3m (10ft)
wide, sparsely branched with thick shiny pithy branches. It has
very distinctive large winter buds.
Leaves are large, pinnate, 60-100cm (24-39ins) long, with 13-25
leaflets that are deep green above (blue-tinged when young)
and blue-green beneath. They are rather like huge potato
leaves.
Flowers are yellowish-green, borne on long stalks in racemes up
to 50cm (20ins) long in May to June.
Fruits are pods, 7-15cm (3-6ins) long by 1.5-2.5cm (0.6-1ins)
wide; they are often borne in threes. They have a rough warty
outer surface. They start green but turn an increasingly bright
metallic blue as they ripen; they also become soft. When fully
ripe in October they split to reveal transparent-whitish jelly-like
contents which contain numerous smallish black seeds, disc
shaped, about 4mm (0.2ins) across.

Uses
The pulp inside the pods is sweet and edible raw, with a fine
melon flavour. The skin is peeled off in the same way as a broad
bean is peeled. Two lines of seeds run the length of the pulp
and can be swallowed without harm.
Decaisnea fargesii is traditionally used in Chinese medicine as an
Foliage and pods of blue bean
antirheumatic and antitussive drug. The stems are mainly used.
The shell of the pod, whose contents are edible, is not
edible itself. It contains white latex, which contains various Cultivation
hydrocarbons of the terpene type and rubber (C5H8). The latex
Blue bean will grow in sun or semi-shade, and prefers a fertile,
is found in a system of canals, and can be seen oozing from
loamy, moist but well-drained soil. It dislikes drought. Some
the edges of the pod when it is split open. There is thus the
shelter is preferable, as the branches are somewhat brittle and
potential to obtain rubber from the pods.
may break in strong winds. New growth can sometimes be
Varieties/Cultivars damaged by late spring frosts.
There are none. Growth is quite fast, about 40cm (16ins) per year.

BLUE BEAN  45
 BUARTNUT,
Juglans x bixbyi
Deciduous, Zone 4-5, H7
Edible nuts
Timber tree

Origin and history

Buartnuts are hybrids between the butternut (J. cinerea) and
the heartnut (J. ailantifolia var. cordiformis). They combine the
adaptability, cold tolerance and sweet flavour of butternut with
the high yields, easily cracked shells, and shapely branches of
heartnut. They were first bred in British Columbia in the early
1900s and more recently in Ontario.

Description
Buartnuts are vigorous trees growing to 25m (80ft) high and
15m (50ft) wide, similar to heartnut trees.

Uses
The nuts make excellent eating, and are fairly high in oils like the
butternut parent.

Varieties/Cultivars
Cultivar Origin Description
‘Barney’ British Nuts large, difficult to crack; early
Columbia ripening. Tree vigorous, productive.
‘Butterheart’ USA Nuts heart shaped, crack well, kernels
Blue bean pods and pulp inside rich. Tree precocious.
‘Coble’s No 1’ Pennsylvania Nuts large, quite hard to crack.
Tree a slow bearer.
The plant flowers and fruits regularly in the UK. Plants start
producing fruits after about five years. They ripen in late ‘Dooley’ USA
September and October. Pruning is not usually required. ‘Corsan’ Ontario Nuts round. Tree vigorous, productive.
‘Dunoka’ Ontario Nuts variable in size, 25% kernels.
Propagation is by seeds. Fresh seeds germinate best, sown in Light crops annually.
autumn or stratified over winter. They germinate slowly in the
‘Fioka’ Ontario Nuts small, crack out well, to 24%
spring. kernel, butternut flavour. Tree vigorous,
an annual cropper.
Pests and diseases ‘Hancock’ Massachusetts Nuts of average flavour. Large spreading
There are no pests or diseases of note. tree.
‘Mitchell’ Ontario Nuts medium sized, crack well, good
Related species flavour. Tree a good bearer, precocious,
often self-fertile.
The closely related D. insignis, from the eastern Himalayas, is
very similar apart from the fruits that are thicker, curved and ‘Van Syckle’ Michigan Nuts large, crack well in halves. Tree a
heavy bearer.
yellow. It is also less hardy, to zone 8/H4. The pulp is also edible
‘Wallick’ Indiana Nuts of good flavour.
from this species.

European & North American suppliers

Europe: ART, BUR
North America: FRF. Easier to find seeds.

46  BLUE BEAN

 Cultivation
Treat like butternut (see p.53)

Pests and diseases

In North America, butternut canker is the
most serious disease – see butternut (p.54)
for more details.

Related species
See butternut (J. cinerea, p.52), and
heartnut (J. ailantifolia var. cordiformis, p.97)
for more detailed information.

European & North American

suppliers
Europe: ART
North America: GNN

‘Mitchell’ buartnuts

Buartnut catkins in late spring

1 cm

BUARTNUT 47
BUFFALO BERRY, Shepherdia argentea
Deciduous, Zone 2, H7
Edible fruit
Nitrogen fixing

Origin and history Like Elaeagnus and sea buckthorn, buffalo berry is a nitrogen-
fixer, able to fix large amounts of nitrogen and benefiting nearby
Originating from the great plains of the USA, buffalo berry was
plants. It can also sucker readily.
long used by Native Americans for food and other products,
but has never been commercialised. The plant is related to Buffalo berry is very winter hardy, drought tolerant and its
Elaeagnus and sea buckthorn and the fruits too resemble those flowers are tolerant of frosts.
of these better-known edibles.
Uses
The name may have originated when the fruits were used to
In late summer the fruits are tart but they get sweeter later in
spice up buffalo meat and/or when the fruits were ripe it was
the season and after frosts. They make an exceptional jelly, and
time for the buffalo hunt.
can be eaten fresh, cooked or dried. Note that the high level of
Description saponins in fresh fruits can cause digestive irritation if eaten in
large amounts.
Plants are large shrubs/small trees, spiny with pale thorny
branches, growing 4-6m (13-20ft) high. Plants are dioecious, The fruits are high in vitamin C and are rich in carotenoid and
with small whitish-yellow male and female flowers borne on phenolic antioxidant compounds including lycopene.
separate plants. Fruits are 7-10mm (0.3-0.4ins) across, scarlet/
Very suitable as a hedge or windbreak plant, as it tolerates
red flecked with silver, tart like speckled redcurrants.
exposure.

Varieties/Cultivars
There are no named cultivars yet but
Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada (AAFC)
is developing male and female cultivars
aimed at commercial production for
release in around 2016-17. Some very
sweet varieties are being developed.

Cultivation
Buffalo berry prefers well-drained soils
with a pH of slightly acid to alkaline. The
roots are prone to damage if they dry
so keep moist when planting; but once
established plants are drought tolerant.
Both male and female plants are
required for fruiting – one male for a
number of females within 15m (50ft) or
so. Flowers appear at an age of 2-3 years.
Fruits are borne on one-year-old wood,
like on sea buckthorn, and are similarly
borne very close to the branches with
small fruit stalks, making harvesting
tricky and hand harvesting slow. The
fruits ripen in late summer and early
Buffalo berry fruits autumn.

48  BUFFALO BERRY

 Buffalo berry in late summer

The plant appears well adapted to mechanical harvesting. Pests and diseases
Traditional harvesting methods involved knocking the
There seem to be none of any importance.
branches, with only the ripe fruits falling. Like sea buckthorn,
possible other innovative harvest methods include pruning off Related species
fruiting branches and freezing (then knocking the fruits off) –
Canadian buffalo berry or russet buffalo berry (S. canadensis) is
this requires a biennial fruiting strategy; and using a vacuum
a smaller shrub with similar edible fruits.
harvesting system.*
Plants can be grown from seed – the seed requires about three European & North American suppliers
months of cold stratification. New seedlings can be prone to Europe: KOR
damping off diseases. The sex of seedlings will be unknown
North America: FFM
until they flower.
Plants can also be propagated by softwood cuttings in
midsummer.

*  www.vipeoy.com

BUFFALO BERRY  49
BULLACE / DAMSON, Prunus domestica insititia
Deciduous, Zone 5, H6
Edible fruit

Origin and history Because of their clingstone nature, fruits are usually cooked
with the stones/pits intact, and then the stones can be removed
Bullaces and damsons are types of plum, usually treated as part
from the cooked pulp much easier than with the fresh fruits.
of the subspecies insititia.
Bullace wine was traditionally made in Britain. Damson gin can
The origins of bullaces are lost in the mists of time. They are
be made using a similar method as sloe gin, but requiring less
nearer to wild sloe (Prunus spinosa) than damsons, though
sugar. Slivovic is made from damson fruits.
both are usually assumed to have both sloe and cherry plum
(P. cerasifera) in their parentage. ‘Wild’ trees are still found in Both bullaces and damsons have a long history of medicinal
hedges in Britain, especially near farmhouses. use, the fruits being diuretic and high in potassium and have
been recommended for rheumatism, liver, kidney and blood
The origin of damsons is also obscure. Certainly the Romans
circulation diseases.
brought them to England 2,000 years ago; they may or may not
have originated in Syria. They became popular to use as hedges Damsons make tough hedges or windbreaks, although fruiting
and windbreaks in the 1800s. Settlers took damsons to North in exposed locations is light.
America, where they flourished, and have naturalised in some
states e.g. Idaho. Varieties/Cultivars
Most or all named varieties are self-fertile, and all flower at a
Description similar time (mid season or just after). They will cross-pollinate
Wild bullace and damson trees, on their own roots, grow to with others and also with plums flowering at the same time.
about 8m (27ft) high. Leaves are very similar to sloe but unlike
that species, bullaces have no spines. Bullace fruits are rounder Bullace cultivar Origin Description
and smaller than damsons (which are more oval in shape), UK Fruits small (about 25mm, 1ins), round,
and can be yellow, green, blue or purple, ripening in October ‘Black Bullace’ blue-black with a bloom. The flesh is
and November. Some bullaces stay quite acid, others become yellow, firm, juicy and acid, the stone
small and clinging. A twiggy, round-
sweet when ripe, though often with some astringency. The single headed tree of moderate growth; cropping
pit is smooth. heavily. Flowers appear with the leaves
(which are small). Ripens October.
Damson fruits are like small plums, but as well as developing
sweetness as they ripen they retain some astringency. They vary ‘Shepherd’s UK Fruits greenish-yellow, roundish-oval,
from dark blue to near black, and the single pit is usually deeply Bullace’ large for a bullace (over 25mm, 1ins); flesh
furrowed. They ripen in September and October – earlier than firm, juicy, tart. A tree of moderate, upright
growth; cropping good. Ripens October.
bullaces.
‘Small Bullace’ UK Has small, blue-black fruits.
Fruits of both types are nearly always clingstone, which has Ripens September/October.
implications especially for culinary use.
‘Yellow Apricot’ UK Has large yellow fruits.
Uses Ripens October/November.

Sweet bullaces can be eaten as a fresh fruit, otherwise bullaces ‘White Bullace’ UK Fruits pale yellow, small (28mm, 1.1ins),
round, with a thick white bloom; stone
and damsons are often made into preserves and can be clinging. Flesh is pale yellow, firm, slightly
cooked in any way that plums are (see p.171). Bullaces contain sweet. A tree of moderate growth;
4-9% sugars and about 1% organic acids; they have a high cropping good. Ripens September/
October.
potassium and phosphorus content. The fruits are often best
after a few frosts.

50  BULLACE / DAMSON

Damson cultivar Origin Description
‘Blue Violet’ UK Medium-small, blue-black, bloomy, oval
fruit. A Westmorland variety.
Ripens August.
‘Bradley’s King’ UK Fruits purplish, sweet, bloomy, roundish-
oval, large for a damson; flesh greenish-
yellow, rather dry, quite sweet; stone
free. Bears heavy crops. Vigorous upright
habit, making a tall tree in time; good in
northern areas. Foliage very ornamental
in autumn. Susceptible to canker in the
south. Ripens late September.
‘Briceland’ UK Small, bluish-purple fruit with a heavy
bloom; flesh yellow with a spicy
astringent flavour. An upright tree of low
to medium vigour. Ripens September.
‘Common Damson’ UK Believed to be the common wild
damson. Fruits blue-black, small,
bloomy, roundish-oval; flesh dry, mealy,
rather acid, fair flavour; stone free. Poor
cropping. Ripens September/October.
‘Early Rivers’ UK Fruits blue-black, bloomy, small,
roundish, bullace-like; stone clinging.
Ripens late August.
Damson fruits
‘Farleigh Damson’ UK Fruit blue-black, bloomy, roundish-oval,
small; flesh greenish-yellow, firm, richly
flavoured. A tree of moderate vigour,
compact and densely branched – good
in hedges. Has large leaves. The heaviest
cropping damson if pollinated.
Ripens early September. Cultivation
‘French Damson’ Fruits blue-black, bloomy, oval, large for a Cultivate like plums (see p.171). Both bullaces and damsons
damson. Ripens September/October.
tolerate more shade than plums, bullaces considerable shade
‘Frogmore Prolific’ UK Fruits blue-black, bloomy, small-medium, and damsons part shade. ‘Farleigh’ and ‘Merryweather’ damson
roundish-oval; flesh greenish-yellow,
firm, somewhat sweet, of good flavour; are notably hardier than other damsons and suitable even for
stone clinging. Dense, compact, upright, exposed locations.
twiggy tree with prolific blossom on
bare branches. A regular but often light Seedling trees are rarely available commercially, though for
cropper. Virtually identical to ‘Shropshire hedging seedlings are preferred over grafted trees both for cost
Prune’ apart from flowering characteristic.
Ripens early September. and resilience, and they are fairly easy to grow.
‘Godshill’ UK Small fruit, quite sweet when ripe. Grafted cultivars of bullaces and damsons are available from a
A prolific cropper. few fruit tree nurseries. Like other plums they can be grafted to
‘Langley Bullace’ UK Fruits blue-black, bloomy, roundish-oval, most plum rootstocks, most commonly ‘St. Julien’ in the UK.
stone clinging. Flesh is greenish, firm,
sweet-acid. A vigorous, tall, straggling tree
with twisted branches; prolific cropping. Pests and diseases
Nearer a damson than a bullace! As for plums (p.173). Most damsons are resistant to the plum
Ripens October.
disease silverleaf.
‘Merryweather UK Fruits are blue-black, bloomy, roundish-
Damson’ oval, plum-like, large for a damson
(34mm, 1.4ins); flesh greenish-yellow,
Related species
firm, quite sweet when ripe, fair to good Cherry plum (P. cerasifera, p.58), and plum (P. domestica, p.171),
flavour; stone clinging, skin thick. A vigorous, are described in this book.
spreading tree. Good cropper that bears
early in life. Ripens September.
European & North American suppliers
‘Shropshire Prune’ UK Fruits blue-black, densely bloomy, oval,
quite large for a damson (30 x 35mm, 1.25 Europe: ART, BLK, CBS, COO, DEA, KPN, OFM
x1.4ins); flesh firm, sugary, astringent, of
very rich flavour; stone clinging. Dense, North America: AAF, BLN, DWN, STB
compact, upright, twiggy tree with prolific
blossom on bare branches. Small leaves.
A regular but often light cropper.
Ripens September/October.

BULLACE / DAMSON  51
BUTTERNUT, Juglans cinerea
Deciduous, Zone 3-4, H7
Edible nuts
Timber tree

Origin and history Uses

The butternut (also called the oilnut or white walnut) is a The nuts are sweet, very oily and fragrant, with a rich agreeable
member of the walnut family native to North America, where buttery flavour. They are eaten fresh, roasted or salted, for
its large edible nuts have been long relished. It is the hardiest flavouring, and are particularly popular used in cooking
member of the walnut family, with a range that extends well into (pastries) and in confectionery manufacture (like black walnuts).
Canada (eastern USA, south to Georgia and west to the Dakotas One traditional use in New England is in combination with
and Arkansas and north to New Brunswick and Manitoba). maple sugar in making maple-butternut candy.

Description Kernels form roughly 20% of the weight of the total nut. Per 100g,
on average, they contain 25g protein (very high), 64g fat, 8.7g
Butternuts can reach 30m (100ft) high in American forests,
carbohydrate, and 7.1mg iron.
but are more usually spreading-topped medium size trees
(18m, 60ft) with a straight trunk that can reach 60-100cm (60-30ins) Young butternuts are sometimes pickled like green walnuts
in diameter. after being rubbed smooth. They are harvested in early summer
(when a pin can still be thrust through the nut without any
The bark is lighter, greyer and smoother than that of black walnut
marked resistance), soaked in a mild brine for three weeks,
(J. nigra). All the young twigs, petioles, leaves, buds and fruit are
then scalded and the outer skin rubbed off; the nuts are then
covered with a fine hairy down which exudes a sticky substance.
covered with a ‘syrup’ of water, vinegar, sugar and spices.
Leaves are 35-60cm (14-24ins) long, compound with 11-19
The oil pressed from nuts can be used as cooking oil.
leaflets, each 5-12cm (2-5ins) long and up to 5cm (2ins) wide,
yellowish-green and turning yellow or brown before falling in The sap can be tapped and made into a syrup much like maple
the early autumn. syrup.
Like other walnuts, the male flower is a catkin, light yellowish- The inner bark (usually of the roots) has been used medicinally,
green, 5-10cm (2-4ins) long; the female flowers are borne in containing juglone, juglandin and juglandic acid. It is alterative,
clusters from leaf axils, each with two stigmas that open to cathartic, laxative, rubefacient, stimulant, tonic and vermifuge;
reveal a striking red surface. Flowering usually occurs in May or traditionally used for cancer, dysentery, epithelioma, fevers,
June, and the male and female flowers, though borne on the liver ailments, mycosis, tapeworms and warts.
same tree, usually mature at different times, hence single trees The sticky substance exuded from the downy covering contains
crop poorly. Cross-pollination can occur with all other members a well-known dye. The green nuts and bark were widely used
of the walnut family. as a dye source – they are boiled to produce yellowish-orange
Nuts are enclosed in a thick sticky hairy husk, and are borne in (nuts) and brown (bark) dyes, which were widely used 200
clusters of 2-5. Each fruit is 3-6cm (1.2-2.4ins) or more in length years ago (‘butternut jeans’ became a sort of uniform for many
by 25mm (1ins) or more in diameter. The shell, though hard, can Confederate soldiers in the Civil War).
generally be broken without difficulty (as many of the cultivars The wood from butternut is highly prized, being satiny, warm-
have thinner shells) and the kernel easily separated. On wild coloured, warpless and enduring. The heartwood is medium
trees, the shell cracks only after a considerable blow. dark chestnut-brown, but not as dark as black walnut which
The nut is light brown, pointed and oblong with eight very deep, it otherwise resembles. It is straight grained with a coarse but
rough, sharp ridges running lengthwise along the shell. soft texture, moderately strong and heavy, and weighs about
450kg/m3 (28lb/ft3). It is easily worked with both hand and
Fruits usually ripen in early October, and seedling trees start
power tools and there is little resistance to cutting edges.
bearing at a fairly young age (5-8 years from planting).
The wood nails, screws and glues well and can be stained
Butternuts are shorter lived than many walnuts – about 80-90 and brought to an excellent finish. It is not durable outdoors
years. and is moderately resistant to preservative treatment. It is a

52 BUTTERNUT
 Cultivar Origin Description
‘Ayers’ Michigan Nuts medium sized, high percentage
of kernel, cracks well. Tree upright,
vigorous, late leafing and flowering.
‘Bear Creek’ Washington Nuts crack very well, medium sized.
‘Beckwith’ Ohio Nuts medium sized, crack quite well. Tree
a prolific cropper, moderately vigorous.
‘Booth’ Ohio Nuts crack well, medium sized. Tree
vigorous, moderately susceptible to
walnut leaf blotch.
‘Bountiful’ Missouri Nuts mild flavoured, easily cracked and
shelled. Tree a heavy cropper, self-fertile,
flowers are frost resistant.
‘Buckley’ Iowa Nuts are very large, crack quite well, and
kernels are of good quality. Tree very
vigorous, early leafing.
‘Chamberlin’ New York Nuts medium-large, crack moderately
well; kernels moderately well filled,
good quality. Tree moderately vigorous,
susceptible to walnut leaf blotch and
dieback.
‘Craxezy’ Michigan Nuts medium sized, easily cracked, well
filled and kernels are of good quality.
Tree yields well, early leafing, moderately
susceptible to dieback.
‘Creighton’ Michigan Nuts small/medium sized, crack very
well and well filled; late ripening. Tree
vigorous, late to leaf out and lose leaves
in autumn.
‘Iroquois CA’ Ottawa Selected for butternut canker resistance –
not nut qualities.
Butternut tree
‘Moorhead #1’ Kentucky Selected for butternut canker resistance –
not nut qualities.
favourite of wood carvers and interior decorators, used for high ‘My Joy’ Pennsylvania Nuts medium sized, crack very well, well
filled.
class joinery, interior trim for boats, superstructures, cabinet
fitments, furniture, boxes and crates. It is sliced as a decorative ‘Kenworthy’ Wisconsin Nuts large, crack well, good flavour. Tree
small, a heavy bearer, precocious.
veneer and used in place of black walnut for furniture and wood
panelling. It makes a good fuel wood. ‘Weschcke’ Wisconsin Nuts medium/large sized, crack well, well
filled and kernels are light coloured and
of good quality.
Varieties/Cultivars
Improved cultivars, chosen for larger size and/or with improved
shelling (cracking) qualities, have been selected from wild trees 5m (16ft) is appropriate. Trees produce a deep taproot and are
over the past century or so and maintained by grafting; but the best transplanted as young plants – older plants may take a
species hasn’t been seriously commercialised. Most selection year or two to recover. At least two cultivars or seedlings should
took place between the two world wars, primarily as a result of be grown to ensure cross-pollination.
enthusiasm by the Northern Nut Growers Association (NNGA).
Trees can be expected to grow about 3m (10ft) in 10 years in
Only a few are available from commercial nurseries now.
British conditions, rather more in a warmer climate.
Cultivation A substance that is toxic to some plants, juglone, occurs in roots
Like other walnuts, the butternut likes a deep, fertile, well-drained and is washed into the soil from decaying leaves. Juglone is
and moist soil, preferably slightly acid or neutral; and a position quickly detoxified by the soil, but in some circumstances and
in full sun. Limestone soils are tolerated. Where native, rainfall soils it may rise to concentrations which are detrimental to
varies from 54-123cm (22-49ins) per year and annual temper- apples in particular, also to Ericaceae, Potentilla sp., Pinus strobus
ature from 8.4-18.0°C (47-64°F); cold winters and hot summers, and P. resinosa, potatoes and tomatoes, and French beans.
i.e. a continental climate. It is often found on river bottoms and These species should be avoided in close plantings.
tolerates a high water table.
Seedling butternut stock inherit the leafing characteristics of
For nut production, trees should be planted at 8-12m (26-39ft) their parents, hence for late leafing seedlings, seeds from a late
apart; for timber production, a much closer spacing of about leafing cultivar should be used if possible. Several cultivars are

BUTTERNUT 53
known to have good timber form, and seedlings from these are a hot grafting pipe; techniques used include splice grafts, chip
much more likely to be useful timber trees than random seed budding and greenwood tip grafts.
from unknown trees.
Seeds require 3-4 months of cold stratification, and germination
Grafted trees take 3-6 years to start bearing; seedling trees may be improved by carefully cracking the shells before sowing.
usually take about 6-8 years. Yields are smaller than those of Autumn sowing is also effective, but make sure that rodents
walnuts, perhaps 30-50% at most (i.e. around 14-23kg/30-50lb can’t get at the seeds. A 50% germination rate is pretty good.
of in-shell nuts per tree). Seedlings of named varieties will inherit many of their good
qualities, for no breeding work has been done on butternuts
Nuts are harvested after they drop by picking up from the
and cultivars are just superior wild trees. There are on average
ground. The fruits can also be knocked off the tree when ripe
66 seeds/kg (30 seeds/lb).
(they turn from greenish-bronze to greenish-brown when ripe).
The husks are gummy and result in gummy hands and gloves. Pests and diseases
Any husks still attached must be removed – requires some Walnut blight (Xanthomonas campestris pv. juglandis) does not
effort with butternut, as the shells have 15-20 linear spiny attack butternut.
ridges projecting into the husks; American growers recommend
Butternut canker is a serious disease in North America caused
throwing them in a concrete mixer with some chunks of
by the fungus Sirococcus clavigignenti-juglandacearum.
concrete! Leather gloves should be worn to protect fingers from
Symptoms are dying branches, discoloured bark, and cankers
these sharp ridges when removing the dried husks with a knife
on twigs, branches and trunk. Young cankers appear sunken,
and/or brush. They are easiest to remove when at an early stage
dark and elongated and ooze a thin black liquid in spring. Older
of ripeness (still soft).
cankers are large and may be covered with shredded bark.
The nuts should be allowed to dry for a few weeks by Several cankers may coalesce and girdle a tree causing its death.
spreading them in a warm airy room, stirring occasionally. This disease is decimating much of the butternut population in
They should be stored in a well-ventilated, dry, cool, mouse its native range, but resistance is occasionally occurring.
and rodent-proof place.
Walnut bunch is caused by a mycoplasma-like (virus-like)
Kernels are removed by cracking nuts: a heavy duty nutcracker organism; this causes witches’ brooms (clusters of wiry twigs on
is usually required (e.g. an American version made for black branches). Butternuts are quite susceptible in North America.
walnuts); a hammer and anvil or block of hard wood is
Dieback caused by the fungus Melanconis juglandis is chiefly
good; alternatively, nuts can be covered with hot water and
a butternut disease (though other walnuts are sometimes
soaked until the water cools when they will crack easily. Dried
affected). It causes a slow dieback of branches, with no well-
butternuts will store for several months at room temperature
defined symptoms (no wilting of leaves or cankers). Trees
and a year at fridge temperatures – less than with true walnut
growing weakly are more susceptible.
due to their high oil content.
Walnut leaf blotch, caused by the fungus Gnomonia leptostyla,
Cultivars are propagated by grafting, usually onto black walnut
is less serious on butternut than walnut.
rootstock. Grafting is quite difficult and may require the use of
North American minor insect pests include the walnut
caterpillar (Datuna integerrima) and fall webworm caterpillar
which attack leaves; and the butternut curculio or walnut weevil
(Conotrachelus juglandis), whose larvae feed on young stems,
branches and immature fruits, and which is sometimes serious
in Canada. Walnut husk flies (a problem on walnuts) do not
usually attack butternut.
Grey squirrels can be a serious pest in Britain and North America,
and may take nuts from trees. See walnut (p.208) for more on
control measures.

Related species
Black walnut (J. nigra, p.39), buartnut (J. x bixbyi, p.46), heartnut
(J. ailantifolia var. cordiformis, p.97), and walnut (J. regia, p.204)
are some of the other walnut family described in this book.

European & North American suppliers

Europe: ART
‘Bear Creek’ nuts North America: GNN, NRN

54 BUTTERNUT
CATHAY QUINCE, Chaenomeles cathayensis
Deciduous, Zone 5, H7
Edible fruit
Medicinal

Origin and history Uses

Native to central China, Cathay quince has long been used there The fruits are hard with a great number of stone cells, acid,
as a fruiting and medicinal tree. It is the largest of the flowering lemony, and fragrant. The characteristic pleasant aroma is
quinces and the only one with tree-like form. due to enathic-ethyl and pelargonic-ethyl ethers. The fruits are
high in dietary fibre and vitamin C, and are moderately high in
Description vitamins B1 and B2.
An erect shrub or small tree to 6m (20ft) high, usually less in
cultivation. Branches are sparse with short spiny spurs. Fruits are used like those of the common quince, i.e. are cooked
with other fruits for desserts, jams, jellies, syrups, sauces, juice,
Flowers are 4cm (1.5ins) across, white occasionally flushed soft drinks, wines and liqueurs, candied fruits etc. The fruits
pink, in clusters of 2-3, appearing in early and mid spring – are aromatic and impart a pleasant lemony flavour. Slices of
very ornamental. Naturally occurring var. wilsonii has salmon- fruit can be used as a lemon substitute in drinks. The fruits
pink flowers. are also used in the confectionery industry and in perfumery.
Fruits are large and heavy, to 15 x 9cm (6 x 3.5ins) and weighing The vitamin C and phenolics are antioxidant and prevent
on average 180g/7oz (occasionally to 600g/21oz or more), browning of the fruit during processing. Fruits store well for at
slightly oval, dull green, hard, ripening in October. least two months in cool conditions.

Each fruit contains up to 120 seeds; seeds are wedge shaped The juice can be extracted from crushed fruits, with a juice
and pointed at one end, 10mm (0.4ins) long. yield of up to 60%. The raw juice can be used as a substitute

Cathay quince
flowers in spring

CATHAY QUINCE  55
 in any moderately fertile, well-drained soil. It is quite shade
tolerant, though flowering is delayed and reduced without sun.
Tolerant of atmospheric pollution and of a wide range of soil
types (they can become chlorotic on very alkaline soils, though).
They are fairly drought tolerant once established.
In general, plants only need pruning to thin out overcrowded
branches.
Propagation is by seed, cuttings or layering.
Fresh seed can be removed from fruits and sown in autumn,
allowing winter cold to stratify the seeds. Dry seed must be
pre-stratified for three months. Protect seeds from rodents.
Seed-grown plants take 3-5 years to flower and fruit.
Take semi-ripe heel cuttings in summer (June to July), using
bottom heat of 16°C (60°F). Larger cuttings (over 20cm/8ins)
are most successful.
Hardwood cuttings sometimes succeed. Take cuttings of
mature wood of the current year’s growth in November and
place in a cold frame.
Cathay quince fruit Layer plants in February or March. Detach the new rooted plant
the following winter.

for vinegar or lemon (as an acidifying agent with antioxidant

Pests and diseases
properties it is 10 times stronger than apple juice). Plants are susceptible to fireblight (Erwinia amylovora).
However, plants in this genus are notably resistant to honey
Plants are widely used as ornamentals in gardens; the cut fungus.
flowering shoots last well if cut and brought indoors.
Insect pests include aphids, brown scale (Parthenolecanium
Cathay quince can be used in hedges but will fruit less in an corni) – wipe off with a soft rag; and sawfly larvae of the pear
exposed position. and cherry slugworm (Caliroa cerasi), which can skeletonise the
Chaenomeles are good bee plants, flowering early in the year upper surface of leaves. None of these is very significant and
and providing pollen and nectar. control is not usually necessary.

Medicinally, the fruits are used in China, being antiemetic, Related species
antirheumatic, antispasmodic, and digestive. The shrubs C. japonica and C. speciosa, along with their hybrids,
are more widely grown in gardens. They have similar uses, and
Varieties/Cultivars
C. japonica is sometimes grown commercially for the fruits.
There are none. Hybrids with the other Chaenomeles species
are shrubby. European & North American suppliers
Europe: ART, BUR
Cultivation
Cathay quince can be grown in any normal garden location North America: OTC

56  CATHAY QUINCE

CHE / CHINESE MULBERRY, Cudrania tricuspidata
Deciduous, Zone 6-7, H5-6
Edible fruit

Origin and history are used in the treatment of malaria, debility and menorrhagia;
the root is galactogogue and is also used in the treatment of
Che, the Chinese mulberry, melon tree or silkworm thorn is
amenorrhoea; and the plant is used to eliminate blood stasis
related to mulberries (Morus spp.) and is one of a small number
and stimulate the circulation in cancer of the alimentary system.
of Cudrania species native to eastern Asia and the Southwest
Pacific. It is yet another example of a fruit that Chinese and A yellow dye is obtained from the wood.
other Asian cultures have grown and appreciated for centuries,
The wood is fine grained and sometimes used for utensils.
but has been little known elsewhere until recent times. It is
native to central and western China and Korea. The leaves are sometimes used in China for feeding silkworms
(hence the alternative common name), but usually only when
Description white mulberry leaves are in short supply.
Che is a deciduous tree or large shrub usually growing to The leaves have been eaten as a famine food.
about 5m (16ft) high and wide. It has a dense, rounded head
of branches, with shoots lightly striped olive-brown. The young Varieties/Cultivars
branches are thorny but older wood loses its thorns.
Superior fruiting selections do exist in China but not yet in the
Its leaves are oval (often three lobed) and alternate, 4-10cm West.
(1.5-4ins) long and 2-5cm (0.8-2ins) wide, dark green, with short
stalks. A straight thorn emerges from each leaf axil on young Cultivation
branches. Cultivation is very similar to that of mulberries. A sheltered sunny
position in well-drained, moist soil is ideal; nutritional require-
Flowers are green, crowded into a ball about 8mm (0.3ins) in
ments are minimal, and feeding is not usually required. Estab-
diameter, with male and female flowers usually on separate
lished trees are wind and drought tolerant. Trees leaf and flower
plants (i.e. the species is dioecious); they appear in July, usually
late in spring, missing spring frosts. Growth is generally slow.
in pairs, from the leaf axils of the current year’s growth. The
male flowers turn yellow as the pollen ripens and is released. It appears that both male and female trees are not required
Pollination is via the wind. for fruits to be produced; without pollination, female flowers
simply develop into seedless fruits (very useful, especially for
Female flowers develop into an elliptical hard shining ‘fruit’,
preserving fruits). Also, male trees occasionally have a few
orange-yellow, 25mm (1ins) long by 40mm (1.5ins) wide, which
female flowers that will set fruit. Female trees are larger and
turns red or maroon as it softens. Fertilised fruits contain 3-6
more robust than male trees. If both sexes are desired but there
brown flattish seeds, 5mm (0.2ins) in diameter.
is not space, a male branch can be grafted onto a female tree.
Uses Pruning is useful to prevent trees from becoming sprawling
The fruits are edible, fresh, cooked or preserved, and are rather untidy bushes that make harvesting very difficult. In winter,
like mulberries. The hard fruit is almost tasteless, but when fully prune branches formed the previous year to about half their
soft-ripe it is subacid to sweet, fragrant and pleasant flavoured, length, and head back the remaining shoots also by 50%. A
with a melon flavour – some forms can be quite delicious. leader can be staked to point it more vertically to form a more
The sugar content is similar to that of ripe figs. Fruits developed erect tree.
from fertilised female flowers contain several seeds. Fresh fruits
Seedling trees begin to fruit at about 10 years, named varieties
can be kept for several days in a fridge. Cooking them with other
from cuttings or grafts in half that time. Mature trees can
fruits that add some acidity improves the taste (e.g. half che,
produce as much as 180kg (400lb) of fruits, which ripen in late
half rhubarb is said to be particularly tasty). Preserves made
autumn. Unlike mulberries, the ripe fruits don’t separate easily
from che fruits taste ‘figgy’.
from the tree and must be individually picked. Full ripeness is
The plant is used in Chinese medicine: an infusion of the wood indicated by a dark shade of red with some blackening of the
is used to treat sore or weak eyes; the inner bark and the wood skin and lack of milky latex when the fruits are picked.

CHE 57
 CHERRY PLUM /
MYROBALAN,
Seeds are not dormant and should be sown in spring.
Cuttings can be taken of half-ripe wood, in July or August; and
Prunus cerasifera
of mature wood in November placed in a sandy soil. Deciduous, Zone 3-4, H7
Superior selections or known sex plants can be grafted onto
Edible fruit
seedling Cudrania or Osage orange (Maclura pomifera) root-
stocks. Grafted plants tend to be more upright in growth habit.

Pests and diseases Origin and history

The cherry plum or myrobalan, Prunus cerasifera, originated in
There are few pests and diseases. The plants do not appear to
the Caucasus and west Asia and is prominent in the parentage
be as susceptible to slug and snail damage as mulberries. The
of the true plum species, Prunus domestica. Cherry plums have
ripe fruits are moderately attractive to birds – but unprotected
been cultivated in Europe since the 1500s and probably earlier.
trees usually still retain enough fruits.

Related species Description

Cherry plum is a round-headed tree up to 9m (30ft) high, though
The related Osage orange (Maclura pomifera) is a North Ameri-
often 4-8m (13-26ft). Plants are often suckering, forming thickets
can tree with inedible fruits but with numerous traditional uses.
in time, and are usually thorny, with shiny green young shoots.
European & North American suppliers Leaves are elliptic, 20-70mm (0.8-2.8ins) long by 20-25mm
Europe: ART, sometimes easier to source seed (0.8-1ins) wide, and bright green (although several ornamental
selections have red foliage). They taper at both ends and have
North America: ELS, HSN.
small rounded teeth along the edges. Leaves are smooth and
glossy above, and downy beneath.
Flowers are produced singly or occasionally in twos or threes,
Flowers of Chinese mulberry, usually before the foliage appears; they are similar to those
Cudrania tricuspidata ‘Hariguwa’ of the sloe, with which they are often confused. Flowers are
produced at each bud of the previous year’s wood, are white,
tinged pink inside, and 15-25mm (0.6-1ins) across. Flowering
occurs for several weeks early in spring, usually in March though
sometimes in late February or early April. Most trees are self-
fertile and pollination is carried out by bees.
Fruits are yellow to red or black, round, smooth, indented at
the junction with the stalk, 20-30mm (0.8-1.2ins) across, juicy,
and sweet to subacid with a distinctive good flavour. Stones are
usually clinging. The flesh is usually yellow. Fruits ripen in July
and August, generally before garden plums.
Cherry plum readily cross breeds with the sloe (Prunus spinosa),
the offspring of which are often large fruited.
Prunus cerasifera ssp. divaricata is the wild form of the species,
found in southeastern Europe and western Asia. Trees, to 10m
(32ft) high, are of a more slender and looser habit, flower later
with the opening of leaves (April to May) and have slightly
smaller, yellow fruit (18-20mm, 0.7-0.8ins across). The fruits taste
like mirabelle plums and are high in citric acid.

Uses
The fruits are the size of a small plum, have a thin skin and are
generally sweet and of good flavour. They are fine to eat raw
or can be cooked or used in preserves; they can also be dried

58 CHE
or fermented into wine. In Georgia and
Armenia they are made into a sauce to
accompany meat. Fruit yields are never
as large as they can be with garden
plums due to their early flowering habit.
Fruits contain up to 10% sugars (fructose
and glucose), 5% citric acid, malic acid,
large amounts of pectin, 16mg/100g
vitamin C and 8mg/100g provitamin A.
A major use for the species is as a hardy
fruiting hedge. Myrobalan tolerates wind
exposure and the thorny branches make
a fine impenetrable hedge with very little
maintenance; and as a bonus, fruits are
produced in summer. Myrobalan hedges
were often used around orchards in
Kent, and are popular in former Soviet
Union countries.
Several dyes can be obtained from the
plant. The leaves give a green dye and
fruits give a dark grey-green.
An infusion of the fruit is used
medicinally in parts of Asia to treat Cherry plum tree
coughs and inflammations of the upper
respiratory tract.
Cherry plum is a good soil stabiliser, and its ability to form Varieties/Cultivars
thickets makes it of use in reforestation projects, notably in Only true cherry plums are listed overleaf. Mirabelle plums are
former Yugoslavia. usually placed within cherry plums too. There are many hybrids
The plant is a good source of early pollen and nectar for both of cherry plum, mostly selected for ornamental use, although
honey and wild bumblebees. some with Japanese plum (Prunus salicina) have decent fruit.
Prunus cerasifera is a good accumulator of calcium and Cultivation
potassium, which are raised from the subsoil and accumulated
The cherry plum grows in all soils, light and sandy to heavy
in topsoil layers.
and clay, as long as there is adequate moisture. A wide range
Cherry plum selections are used as vigorous plum family of pH is tolerated from acid to alkaline (4.5-8.3). Semi-shade
rootstocks (Myrobalan stocks). Hybrids of cherry plums with is tolerated but fruiting is better in a sunny position. In the UK
other Prunus species are also widely used as plum family growth is around 40cm (16ins) per year, with the height after 10
rootstocks, notably the ‘Marianna’ slightly dwarfing stocks years at around 4m (13ft).
(which are P. cerasifera x munsoniana) in North America. Rootstock
Several cultivars (notably most of the red-leaved ones) are self-
selections are normally propagated by hardwood cuttings.
sterile and fruiting will be improved by growing several cultivars
or by growing some seedling trees together. Thus by a variety

CHERRY PLUM  59
Cultivar Origin Description
‘All Red’ USA A small, self-fertile tree to 4m (13ft)
high with red foliage and bark. Fruits,
to 30mm (1.2ins) in diameter, are of measures including these, siting to avoid late frosts, and by
maroon with dark red flesh, juicy with
a good acid/sweet balance. Freestone. encouraging wild and/or honey bees, regular cropping can be
achieved.
‘Belsiana’ Algeria An old Algerian cultivar, widely grown
in Spain and France. Flowering in late Fruits can be harvested when fully ripe in late July or August,
March in England and susceptible to
frost damage. Fruits are amber-yellow, by vigorously shaking trees to help fruits fall; alternatively they
round and medium sized; thin skinned; can be left on the tree and used gradually – fruits will often hang
flesh amber-yellow, melting, sweet. well on the tree.
‘Burrel’s Red USA Tree very similar to type; fruits red,
Myrobalan’ slightly prone to splitting. Pests and diseases
‘Cocheco’ USA Self-sterile selection with red foliage. Cherry plum is relatively free of problems but can occasionally
Small-medium sized, red blushed fruit;
flesh yellow; good quality. A hardy, suffer from any of the plum diseases (see p.173).
disease-resistant tree.
‘De Caradeuc’ USA A large, vigorous, erect tree, flowering
Related species
after the leaves appear. Fruits are deep True plum (p.171) is thought to have derived in part from this
purple-red, 30mm (1.2ins) across with species.
thin skins; the flesh is yellow, soft,
very juicy, melting; fair quality.
Early ripening. European & North American suppliers
‘Golden Sphere’ Ukraine Fruits large, translucent yellow; flesh Europe: ART, BLK, BUC, CBS, COO, DEA, KMR, KPN, THN
firm, sweet, fair flavour, ripens August.
Tree hardy, late flowering, North America: ELS, STB
‘Gypsy’ Ukraine Fruit large, dark red; flesh orange,
sweet, good flavour, ripens August.
Tree hardy, late flowering.
‘Kentish Red’ UK Red fruited selection.
‘Mirabelle de Nancy’ France Fruits golden yellow, round, small;
flesh sweet, excellent flavour.
Tree of low vigour.
‘Pissardii’ Iran A parent of many of the red-leaved
varieties. Leaves are larger than
normal, red-brown becoming purple.
Late flowering; fruits, occasionally
produced, 30mm (1.2ins) across,
purple-red.
‘Red Myrobalan’ Unknown Tree very similar to type. Flowering is
late; self-fertile; fruit red, good quality,
ripens in late July-early August.
‘Ruby’ Ukraine Fruit very large, red; flesh dark red,
sweet. Tree very upright, hardy, late
flowering.
‘Thundercloud’ USA A vigorous, upright tree to 10m (32ft)
high, hardy to zone 3. Red-brown
leaves and pink flowers; fruits red with Cherry plum fruit
a good flavour, produced sporadically.
‘Yellow Cherry Plum’ Unknown A self-fertile cultivar, late flowering,
bearing good crops of yellow fruits
with free stones and of good quality in
late July to early August.

60  CHERRY PLUM

CHINESE DOGWOOD, Cornus kousa var. chinensis
Deciduous, Zone 5-6, H6-7
Edible fruit

Origin and history

Chinese dogwood is a large
shrub or small tree from
eastern Asia.

Description
It grows 7-10m (23-33ft) high
and 6m (20ft) across, though
usually much smaller than
this in cultivation, either as a
small tree or multi-stemmed
shrub. Dense heads of
flowers for two weeks in late
June/early July are followed
by pinkish-red fruits looking
like red lychees.
This subspecies (C. kousa
chinensis) is more tree-like
in habit than C. kousa, grows
more vigorously and flowers
and fruits better. Chinese dogwood flowers Chinese dogwood fruits
Uses
Widely planted in ornamental
gardens for the fantastic
flowers around midsummer. Cultivation
The fruits are edible when they ripen in late summer – raw or Easy to grow, likes any soil that does not dry out too much,
cooked, 2cm (0.8ins) or more in diameter. The skin can be and sun or part shade.
a little bitter (depending on the tree), but the pulp is sweet,
juicy and delicious with a custard-like texture and an apricot/ Pests and diseases
pawpaw flavour. None of significance.
The wood is very hard and heavy – used for mallets etc. Related species
Varieties/Cultivars Bentham’s cornel (Cornus capitata) is described on p.31 and
Cornelian cherry (Cornus mas) is described on p.68.
Several cultivars have been selected for profuse flowering
including ‘China Girl’ and ‘Milky Way’ however these will not European & North American suppliers
necessarily fruit more heavily. Others include:
Europe: ART, BUR
Cultivar Origin Description
North America: OGW
‘Big Apple’ USA Bears larger fruits to 3cm (1.2ins) diameter.
‘Norman Hadden’ UK Hybrid with Cornus capitata, bears heavy
crops of large fruit.

CHINESE DOGWOOD  61
CHINESE QUINCE, Pseudocydonia sinensis
Deciduous, Zone 6-7, H4-5
Edible fruit

Origin and history The fruits are edible – cooked like other quinces (with other
fruit), candied, preserved in syrup or made into a liqueur. In
The Chinese quince, sometimes confused with the common
China the juice is mixed with ginger and made into drinks.
quince (Cydonia oblonga) is another member of the Rosaceae
family that bears large edible fruits. It is native to China. Medicinally, the plant is used as an antitussive.

Description The fruits are very aromatic and add a spicy scent to a room.
The Chinese quince is a small deciduous twiggy tree or large The wood is hard and dark red – sometimes used to make
shrub (semi-evergreen in mild parts of Britain) growing to a picture frames.
height and width of 6m (20ft), often less. It has bark that peels
in small plates, leaving a patchwork of grey, green, orange Varieties/Cultivars
and brown. The trunks become fluted or corrugated with age. There do not appear to be any cultivars available in Europe at
Branches are densely hairy, becoming shiny later and thornless. present, and very few outside of China at all.
Leaves turn red or yellow in the autumn before falling. Cultivar Origin Description

Flowers are borne singly on short leaf shoots of one-year-old ‘Dragon Eye’ USA Fruit medium sized, yellow, suitable for pickling.
wood in April to May (with the leaves) and are 2.5-4cm (1-1.5ins) ‘Chino’ USA Fruit large, greenish-white, few seeds.
across and pink. Flowers are insect pollinated and self-sterile
(two selections are needed for cross-pollination to occur). Cultivation
Fruits are very large, 10-18cm (4-7ins) long, dark yellow, egg or Chinese quince needs a sunny position and any reasonable
bottle shaped. They ripen in October. well-drained soil. In cool climates like Britain, the wood often
does not get fully ripe, and hardiness can only be assumed
Uses down to zone 8 (-10°C) before damage starts to occur. Plants
are sometimes grown against a wall or on the sunny side of a
Fruits are large, 250-900g, with a smooth skin and firm flesh.
hedge/tree for extra shelter. Two selections must be grown for
fruit to occur.
Little regular pruning is needed – overcrowded branches can be
cut out.
It is cultivated commercially in China for its edible fruit.
Propagation is usually by seed – requiring three months of cold
stratification. Cultivars are propagated by grafting.

Pests and diseases

Less susceptible than common quince to fireblight and quince
rust, though it is sometimes attacked mildly.

Related species
No other in genus, but quite closely related to the flowering
quinces (Chaenomeles).

European & North American suppliers

Europe: ART, BUR
Chinese quince North America: RRN

62  CHINESE QUINCE

CHINKAPIN, Castanea pumila
Deciduous, Zone 5, H7
Edible nut

Origin and history Description

Chinkapins, also called ‘chinquapins’, dwarf or bush chestnuts, The chinkapin is a medium to large, spreading, smooth-barked,
are shrubs and small trees found throughout the eastern, multi-stemmed suckering tree or shrub usually growing 2-4m
southern and southeastern USA in dry sandy woods (both (6-13ft) high. Occasionally, single-stemmed plants may reach
deciduous and coniferous) and thickets. It is a little known but 5-8m (16-27ft) high, exceptionally even a little more.
potentially valuable shrub as a source of food, wood, rootstock
Leaves are borne alternately along the slender reddish-brown
material and medicine.
shoots and typical sweet chestnut shape but very variable in
There is some debate about the taxonomy of chinkapins. length and width.
Some separate them into eight or more poorly-defined species
Flowering occurs in June or July after the first leaves have
including C. pumila, C. ozarkensis, C. ashei, A. alnifolia, C. floridana,
expanded. The flowers are borne on erect, horizontal or
C. paucispina, C. arkansana and C. alabamensis. More recently,
drooping spikes appearing from leaf axils of the current year’s
there is general agreement that all these species come within
shoots. There is only one flower shoot per leaf axil, and it may
C. pumila, which has two botanical varieties, var. pumila and
be male, female or bisexual. Male catkins appear near the
var. ozarkensis. Here I concentrate on the more common form,
bases of the shoots, and are 10-15cm (4-6ins) long; bisexual
var. pumila, known as the Alleghany, American, common or tree
flowers containing both male and female flowers are found
chinkapin.

Chinkapin in flower

CHINKAPIN 63
near the terminal ends of the shoots (female flowers occur near The nuts are a source of wildlife food. Dense thickets of
the bases of these bisexual flowers and males near the tips). chinkapins make good cover for birds such as quail and
Occasionally, female catkins appear instead of bisexual ones. pheasant.
The flowers are strong smelling.
Leaves, bark, wood and seed burrs all contain tannins and
Pollination is mostly via the wind, but some insects including could potentially be used for tanning leather.
bees may help. Chinkapins are rarely self-fertile, so cross-
It has some resistance against chestnut blight and has been
pollination is necessary for a nut crop.
used in some chestnut breeding programmes as a source of
Prickly burrs with soft spines develop, 14-46mm (0.6-1.8ins) resistance.
in diameter, within each of which is a single nut. Usually, 1-5
Medicinally, the leaves have been used as a dermatological aid
burrs are formed per flower spike, occasionally up to eight or
and febrifuge, also as an antiperiodic, astringent and tonic. The
more. The nut is round or elongated, shiny and brown, about
root has been used as an astringent, a tonic and to treat fevers.
12-20mm (0.5-0.8ins) across. The burrs split into two parts at
maturity, exposing the nut inside for a few days before it falls.
Ripening is spread out, with basal burrs ripening earliest.
Varieties/Cultivars
The burrs usually remain attached to the bush for weeks or There are none.
months afterwards.
Cultivation
Nuts usually ripen in September or October. In wet years, nuts
A well-drained soil is preferred with a slightly acid pH (5.5-6.0).
may start to germinate within the burr. They naturally germinate
Drought, poor and temporarily wet soils, and light shade are all
in the autumn, sending down a root first.
tolerated. Growth of 2-2.5m (6-8ft) in 10 years can be expected.
Uses For nut production, plants can be spaced at 2-4m within rows,
The nuts are edible raw or cooked, being sweet, aromatic and with rows 3-6m apart.
nutty-flavoured. They contain 5% fats, 5% protein, 40% starch,
Plants start flowering and fruiting after 2-4 years. Maturity
and higher levels of oleic and linoleic fatty acids, and sugars –
is early compared with European chestnuts – usually in
sucrose and glucose – than European chestnuts. The seeds can
September.
be ground into a flour and used in the same way as European
chestnut flour to make bread etc. Frequent shaking and collection of nuts is necessary to harvest
the crop before wildlife (birds and squirrels) remove the crop;
The seeds are sometimes traditionally used to fatten pigs.
picking closed burrs is not really viable as the nuts will not
A coffee and chocolate substitute is made from the seed. usually ripen properly and they must be forced open.
The wood is a good source of fuel and makes good charcoal. Overall per area yields can be as high as for other chestnuts:
It is also used for fence posts, being naturally durable. Shrubs 1-3t/ha (880-2640lb/ac). Established plants (10-15 years old) can
coppice vigorously and can be cut down to ground level. The yield 6kg (13.2lb) each. There are 500-1300 nuts per kg (230-600
wood is dark brown, strong, light and hard, coarse grained, nuts per lb).
and resistant to rotting.
Propagation is usually via seed – plant in autumn, keep moist
but not wet over winter. Suckers can also be removed.

Pests and diseases

Chinkapins are subject to most of the same potential insect
pests and diseases as other chestnuts. Like European chestnuts,
they are susceptible to ink disease (Phytophthora cinnamomi).
They do show some resistance to chestnut blight (Cryphonectria
parasitica) and because of their suckering habit, can tolerate
the disease and still crop well.

Related species
Sweet chestnut (Castanea sativa and hybrids) is described on
p.197.

European & North American suppliers

Europe:
Chinkapin nuts North America: ECN, ELS

64 CHINKAPIN
HARDY CITRUS & CITRANGE, Citrus and Citrus hybrids
Evergreen, Zone 8, H4
Edible fruit

Origin and history Sometimes used as a dwarfing rootstock for citrus species.
Breeds true from seed.
By ‘hardy’, here we limit ourselves in scope to those species and
varieties that are hardy in zone 8 (i.e. hardy down to average Other hybrid species between citrus and Poncirus that have
winter minimum temperatures of between -7 and -12°C). Most good possibilities, though little work has been done on them to
of the well-known citrus species, like the oranges, grapefruit, date, are ‘Citranderins’ (P. trifoliata x C. reticulata), ‘Citremons’
lemons etc. are only hardy to zone 9 (-1 to -6°C) and have little (P. trifoliata x C. limon) and ‘Citradias’ (P. trifoliata x C. aurantiada).
hope of surviving outdoors in temperate climates where frosts
are common; however, occasionally, hardier varieties of some of Citrus ichangensis – Ichang lemon, Ichang Papeda
these tender species do exist. One of the hardiest citrus species, this looks quite healthy
through the winter without any protection other than a
Hardiness in citrus is a complicated subject, and the cold- sheltered site. It is a small tree, growing up to 10m (33ft) high in
hardiness of a variety or species is determined by: its native habitat (mountains of southwest China), but probably
• Duration of cold – shorter periods are less damaging. less than half that height in cultivation in temperate climes. It
• Position of fruit – fruit is more prone to frost damage than has long thin thorns, narrow leaves and white flowers followed
foliage (it is damaged by temperatures of -2 to -3°C) and fruit by lemon-shaped fruits, 7-10cm (3-4ins) long. The fruit pulp is
well covered by foliage is more protected from cold. sour but flavourful and contains large seeds. Sometimes used
as a Citrus rootstock or interstock (the latter with satsumas
• Proximity of buildings/walls considerably improves survival induces early bearing and heavy cropping).
prospects.
• Good air drainage is vital so that cold air will drain away from Citrus ichangensis var. microcarpus –
the citrus plants. Small fruited Ichang papeda
• The rootstock used. The best rootstock to promote cold- This natural variety of the above is even hardier, fruiting well
hardiness is the trifoliate orange (Poncirus trifoliata). If buying high in the mountains of Yunnan in China. It grows to 3-5m
grafted plants, check which rootstock is used. (10-16ft) high and bears smaller oblong yellow fruits, 3-4cm
• Spring frosts are most damaging. Young growth and flowers (1.2-1.5ins) across.
are quite tender. Citrus junos – Ichandarin, Yuzu
The species described below mostly originate from China or the (‘Xiangcheng’ in China)
foothills of the Himalayas. A spiny shrub, growing 2-5m (6-16ft) high, very hardy and
usually unscathed by winter weather in southwest England,
Description this relatively unknown species has very good potential. It bears
rounded fruits, 5-7cm (2-2.8ins) in diameter with a rough bumpy
X Citroncirus webberi (Citrus sinensis x Poncirus trifoliata) peel, greenish when ripe. The pulp is very acid, somewhat bitter
– Citrange with a lemon-lime flavour and contains plump seeds; it has a
The citranges are hybrids of the sweet orange (Citrus sinensis) pleasant, fresh aroma. The oil from the peel contains some 2%
and the hardy or trifoliate orange (Poncirus trifoliata). They aldehydes and is used much like lemon peel.
are evergreen or semi-evergreen, strong growing shrubs up
It is cultivated in central China and Japan, the fruits being used
to 6-7m (20-23ft) high, spreading and with thorny branches
as substitutes for lemons and limes, and as a raw material for
and leaves with 1-3 large leaflets. Large white fragrant flowers,
vinegar. It is also excellent for making preserves. Notable for
up to 6cm (2.4ins) across, are followed by round fruits, 5-6cm
being able to be propagated by softwood cuttings under mist
(2-2.4ins) across (more for some cultivars), orange or yellow in
in mid-late summer.
colour. The fruit rind is thin but tightly adherent. The fruit pulp
is usually sour and sometimes bitter, but is suitable for using as Sometimes used as a Phytophthora-tolerant citrus rootstock, it is
a lemon substitute and for making into jams/marmalade etc. the principal rootstock used in Japan for oranges and satsumas.

HARDY CITRUS & CITRANGE  65

Citrus x latipes grapefruits in India. This may be the same as C. pseudolimon.
This is a hybrid from Asia, bearing edible acid fruits. Not much Citrus hybrid – ‘US 119’
known about this one, it seems of borderline hardiness (zone 8/9)
This selection is a hybrid of grapefruit, trifoliate orange and
and will need indoor protection over winter in Britain.
orange, and has survived temperatures of -12°C in North
Citrus x limon ‘Snow’ – Lemon America with little injury. Fruits are low acid, sweet, very firm.
Most lemons are only hardy in zone 9; this variety is likely to be
hardy into zone 8, as it is commonly grown at high elevations
Uses
in Japan where it may be covered in snow during the winter. See above – grown for their edible fruit pulp and sometimes
Makes a medium shrub up to 3m (10ft) high; yellow fruits can fragrant leaves.
be very large and are very juicy and flavourful.
Varieties/Cultivars
Citrus x meyeri ‘Meyer’ – Meyer lemon Citranges:
Previously included with the lemons (Citrus limon) but now
Cultivar Origin Description
considered a separate species. The Meyer lemon is just about
hardy into zone 8, and is a dense medium to large shrub with ‘Carrizo’ USA Vigorous, upright, productive and hardy. Fruits light
orange; flesh light yellow, juicy, very acid, somewhat
short-stalked, large dark green leaves and few thorns. Clusters of bitter, numerous seeds. Early maturing. Resistant to
fragrant white flowers are followed by freely-produced medium- citrus nematodes.
sized yellowish-orange fruits, rounder than most lemons, ‘C-32’ USA Vigorous, less dense than ‘Troyer’ but quite resistant
thin-skinned, flesh tangy, juicy, not too acid, very lemon-like in to citrus nematodes. Used as a rootstock.
flavour and usage. The fruits are usually well covered by foliage. ‘C-35’ USA Moderately vigorous, less dense than ‘Troyer’ but
The fragrant leaves makes a nice tea. quite resistant to citrus nematodes. Used as a
rootstock.
Citrus pseudolimon – Galgal, Hill lemon, ‘Morton’ USA Produces very good quality fruits, close to navel
Kumaon lemon oranges in size, colour and flavour; up to 10cm (4ins)
across, quite sweet, can be eaten fresh or used like
This relatively unknown species may be the hardiest of all citrus, other citrange fruits for preserves, jam etc.
growing as it does high up in the submountainous region of ‘Rusk’ USA A vigorous, tall, hardy, dense-growing, productive
northwest India where snow is not uncommon. It grows under selection. Fruits are deep orange with a reddish
very demanding conditions, often planted in rocky and poor flush; the flesh is orange-yellow, very juicy, sprightly
acid, not bitter with few seeds; early ripening.
land, becoming a vigorous upright tree up to 6m (20ft) high.
Large flowers in spring are followed by large
yellow fruits with a medium thick adherent
rind. The flesh is pale yellow, coarse,
moderately juicy and very sour, with large
seeds. It is a popular home-garden plant
in northwest India, used as a lemon
substitute and commercially for making
pickles and lemon squash.
Citrus reticulata
(C. nobilis var. deliciosa) – Mandarin
Most mandarins are only hardy to zone
9; a few varieties are hardier. Mandarins
make shrubs or small trees; fruits are
easily peeled, flattish-round, orange,
with a sweet and aromatic fruit pulp and
small seeds. Even the selections below will
only succeed in the mildest regions.
Citrus sp. – Khasi papeda
A hardy species from the hills of northeast
India, reputedly as hardy as the Ichang
lemon. It bears large, 7-10cm (2.8-4ins)
fruits resembling grapefruit in appearance;
the flesh is white, juicy, seedy, with a spicy
flavour and a peppery tang; eaten like Ripening yuzu (Citrus junos) fruits

66  HARDY CITRUS & CITRANGE

 ‘Savage’ USA Fruits are yellow, 6-7cm (2.2-2.6ins) across, fragrant, lime-free compost, but plants should be potted up only into a
acid. The tree is often semi-deciduous, indicating slightly larger pot several times, rather than being put straight
possible extra cold-hardiness. into a large pot; even large trees need no more than a 30cm
‘Spaneet’ USA Fruits are deep orange, nearly seedless, very juicy. (12ins) pot. Plants indoors will still require good ventilation,
‘Troyer’ USA Moderately vigorous, upright, productive and even on sunny winter days; they also need careful watering
hardy. Fruits light orange, small; flesh light yellow, regularly during the growing season but rarely in winter.
juicy, very acid, somewhat bitter, numerous seeds.
Early maturing. Used as a rootstock (primarily with Citrus are quite heavy feeders; container-grown plants should
oranges), it induces good quality fruits.
be treated much like tomatoes during the summer months, and
Citrus junos: given plenty of high-potash feed (e.g. seaweed extract, comfrey
fertiliser etc.). Outside plants will also benefit from comfrey
Cultivar Origin Description mulches or feeding as well as compost or manure.
‘Hanayu’ China Medium-sized fruits (6-8cm, 2.4-3.2ins across)
with pleasant lime flavour. Pruning of outdoor plants is normally unnecessary in temperate
‘Shangjuan’ China Very large fruits, bright yellow, very juicy; a very
climates, where growth will not be excessive. In cases of frost
good lemon substitute. damage, wait at least six months to be sure of the extent of
‘Sudachi’ China Light orange, seedy flesh with good acid damaged areas (dieback may continue during this period);
mandarin-lime flavour. Fast growing, not as cold then cut out damaged and dead wood. Watch out for the vicious
hardy as some varieties. thorns which most citrus bear! With indoor plants, pinch out
‘Yuko’ China Easily peeled fruits with a mild mandarin flavour. growing tips of shoots growing where they are unwanted rather
Not as cold hardy as some. than cutting out shoots, as citrus store their food mostly in their
Citrus reticulata (Mandarin): leaves and stems (rather than roots) over the winter period.

Cultivar Origin Description

Fragrant flowers form on new growth in late winter and spring
(though lemons, including ‘Meyer’, flower continuously). A small
‘Chinotto’ Italy Reputed to be hardy to -8°C. A dense dwarf
tree, thornless, self-fertile, bearing tight clusters percentage actually set fruit and there is a drop of immature
of medium size, juicy, tangy fruit. Sometimes fruit much like the ‘June drop’ experienced with deciduous fruit
included in the sour oranges (C. aurantium), trees. Pollination occurs via insects and occasionally the wind;
it originated in Italy where it is prized for making
preserves. some varieties are self-fertile.
‘Cleopatra’ India Often used as a cold-hardy rootstock (it The developing fruits may go dormant over the winter and then
produces large trees with small fruit) and is continue to develop to maturity the following year; with most
adapted to a wide range of soils; hardy to -10°C.
varieties/species, the fruits hang well on the tree when ripe and
‘Guangjiu’ China A Chinese selection, hardy to -10°C.
can be cut off when required. Ripeness is indicated more by a
‘Satsuma’ Japan Of borderline hardiness between zones 8 and 9. slight loss of skin shine than a colour change. Some varieties,
It forms an open, tough tree and bears excellent
seedless fruits with a mild sweet flavour. like ‘Meyer’, may ripen their fruit from early winter onwards in
the same year. Fruiting usually begins by 3-5 years of age.
‘Silver Hill’ New Another hardy variety; slow growing with a
Zealand weeping habit, it bears medium-large fruit,
orange-red in colour. Pests and diseases
Pests including aphids, whitefly, brown scale, and small
Cultivation caterpillars may build up on plants inside but are rarely a
problem outside.
Even the hardiest species and varieties need an average
winter minimum temperature of -5°C, which limits their Related species
outdoor cultivation in Britain to southern England (south of
Many commercial citrus species are grown in warmer parts of
a London-Bristol line) and favoured western coastal regions.
the world. Trifoliate orange (Poncirus trifoliata) is a hardy relative
Their cultivation range can be extended by growing inside a
with golf-ball sized fruits of poor quality though usable for juice.
cold greenhouse (or growing in large tubs and bringing inside
in winter), conservatory, or twin-walled polytunnel. Outdoor European & North American suppliers
cultivation requires a favoured position, preferably near a warm
wall, and even then in severe winter weather, plants will benefit Europe: CIT
from extra protection such as a fleece covering. Protection from North America: MAC
cold winter/spring winds is essential. Growth of citrus plants
ceases below 12°C (54°F).
Spring planting is preferable, into fairly fertile and well-drained
soil. Citrus roots are relatively shallow and trees will benefit from
a permanent mulch beneath, but make sure this is kept away
from the tree bark. Container-grown plants should be given a

HARDY CITRUS & CITRANGE  67

CORNELIAN CHERRY, Cornus mas
Deciduous, Zone 4, H7
Edible fruit
Medicinal
Timber

Origin and history Trees are generally partially self-fertile (some more than others),
and cross-pollination usually increases fruit yields.
Cornelian cherry or Sorbet is a member of the dogwood family,
and is well known in ornamental gardens for its cheerful yellow Fruits are usually bright glossy red, oblong, 14-20mm (0.6-0.8ins)
flowers in late winter. It is native to central and southern Europe, long (30-40mm, 1.2-1.6ins in large-fruited selections) and
Asia Minor, Armenia and the Caucasus in dry deciduous forests about 12mm (0.5ins) wide, astringent until fully ripe (usually in
and brushlands. September) and then sweet-acid (depending on the selection).
They contain a single large elongated seed, 13-18mm (0.5-0.7ins)
It has been cultivated for centuries, and is still cultivated in
long by 4-9mm (0.2-0.4ins) wide.
some parts of Europe for its fruits (notably Turkey, Russia,
Moldavia, Ukraine, and the Caucasus – Armenia, Azerbaijan, Trees may be very long lived (up to 200 years).
Georgia). It was well known to the Greeks and Romans, and
grown in monastery gardens in Europe through the Middle Uses
Ages; it was introduced to Britain by the 16th century. By the
The fruits are edible raw, dried and used in preserves; they can
18th century, it was common in English gardens, where it was
also be used to make wine and liqueur. They were popular
grown for its fruits, sometimes called cornel plums. It is now
enough to be found in European markets up to the end of the
naturalised in Britain.
19th century, and especially popular in France and Germany.
The cornel is grown intensively in the Anatolia region of The fruits are still commonly found in markets in Turkey.
Turkey, where at least 20 selections (some of them seedlings)
The fully ripe fruits are on the acid side of sweet-acid with a
are considered as having high economic value. Figures from
tangy plum-like taste and texture; before fully ripe they have an
1988 report that there were 1.6 million cornel trees in Turkey,
unpleasant astringency. The juice has a pleasant flavour.
producing 18,000 tonnes of fruit per year.
In Turkey the fruits are a favoured ingredient of sherbet (or serbet),
The name ‘Cornelian’ refers to the similarity in colour of the fruit
a drink sold in stores and by street vendors (this is where the
to cornelian (or carnelian) quartz, which has a waxy lustre and a
common name ‘sorbet’ comes from); jams and marmalade are
deep red, reddish-white or flesh red colour.
also made in commercial quantities.
Description In Ukraine, the fruits are juiced and sold commercially as soft
Cornus mas is a deciduous small tree or shrub growing to drinks; they are also made into preserves (conserves – the fruits
5m (16ft) high and wide (exceptionally to 7.5m, 25ft), with a are low in pectin, hence extra pectin or other fruits need to
spreading, rounded, rather open habit. It usually branches be added), and also fermented into wine and distilled into a
near to the ground. It tends to be more spreading in shadier liqueur. Here and in many other countries of the Caucasus the
locations. Larger specimens can have trunks to 20cm (8ins) in fruits are both dried as fruit leathers and also canned. In the
diameter. Caucasus, dried fruits are ground to powder and sprinkled on
grilled meats and into spice sauces.
Leaves appear as typical dogwood-type. They usually turn
purple-reddish in autumn in cool climates. In Russia, fruits are made into jams, jellies, fruit candies, purees,
soft drinks and are stewed. The dried fruits are used in sauces.
The flowers are golden yellow, in small umbels of 5-9, appearing
before the leaves in February to March (occasionally April) at When the fruit was popular in Britain, it was rarely eaten out of
nodes on the previous year’s wood and on spurs of older wood. hand (perhaps because better-tasting clones were unknown
Each flower is 3mm (0.2ins) in diameter, with umbels about there), but was esteemed for the delicious tarts they made;
2cm (0.8ins) across. The flowers are pollinated by bees, mostly shops also commonly sold rob de cornis, a thickened, sweet
wild bumblebees unless the weather at flowering is warm. syrup made from cornelian cherry fruits. The fruit juice was
The flowering period is long, and the flowers are frost tolerant, also added to cider and perry. Eau-de-vie was made with the
hence fruiting does not suffer too much from bad weather. fruit in France.

68  CORNELIAN CHERRY

Fruit characteristics and content varies
between cultivars and is also affected by
environment:
• Fruit size: can reach 30-40 mm (1.2-1.6ins)
long in better selections.
• Fruit weight: can reach 6g per fruit in
larger-fruited selections (wild forms are
typically 2g).
• Flesh/seed ratio: can reach six or more in
better selections. Cornelian cherry flowers in late winter
• Juice colour: can vary from light to mid-
red. An important characteristic for the
juice industry.
Researchers in the former USSR noted that the flesh of the
• Stone: can be clinging or non-clinging (free). fruit and seed oil are useful for recovery and regeneration
• Soluble solids content: 9-14%, average 12%. of damaged skin, and have been used successfully to cure
• Sugar content (invert sugar): 4-12%; 5-11g per 100ml. difficult-to-heal wounds, stomach ulcers and colitis. The fruit,
bark and leaves have also demonstrated antimicrobial activity
• Citric acid content: 1-7%.
against Staphylococcus and E. coli bacteria. Recent Russian
• Ascorbic acid (vitamin C): 36-300mg/100g – very high (higher research reports that the fruit contains substances that leach
in more northerly populations). radioactivity from the body.
• Vitamin C content after cooking: 30-50mg/100g – as high as
A study in Azerbaijan of the properties of the fatty oil obtained
raw lemons!
from the drupes (which contain 34-35% of the oil) showed
• Pectin content: 0.6-1.4% (of which 0.35-0.63% is soluble). significant antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus and
• Fruits also contain substantial amounts of calcium, E. coli bacteria.
magnesium, provitamin A and rutin.
The flowers are valued by bees (hive and wild bumble bees but
The flowers are edible, used as a flavouring – used in Norway to mostly the latter) and are a good early season source of nectar
flavour spirits. and pollen. In Russia it is regarded as an excellent honey plant.
An oil can be extracted from the seeds (only practical on a large The leaves are high in tannin and can be used for tanning.
scale) – oil content of seeds is up to 34%. The oil is edible and
A yellow dye is obtained from the bark, used for dyeing wool.
can be used for lamp fuel (i.e. an illuminant). The seeds can also
be roasted and ground to make a coffee substitute. The wood, though never available in large sizes, has
considerable value because of its very hard, tough, flexible,
In the traditional medicine system of the Caucasus and central
durable nature; it is heavier than water. It is valued for turnery
Asia, cornelian cherry has been used for more than 1,000 years.
and used for making small articles for domestic use (skewers,
Products made from the leaves, flowers and fruit are used to
handles, utensils), flutes and other traditional musical instruments,
treat sore throats, digestion problems, measles, chickenpox,
jewellery, javelins, wheel spokes, gears and ladders. The Greeks
anaemia, rickets, hepatitis A and pyelonephritis. The fruit
and Romans used it for making wedges to split wood, pins and
juice is used for diabetes. Products from the leaves, dried and
bolts and in spears.
powdered fruits and dried ground drupes (fruit plus seed)
are used for diarrhoea and haemorrhoids. Products from the The tree is used in the Czech Republic and Slovakia in
bark and evaporated juice are used to treat skin wounds and screens and windbreaks. It tolerates trimming and makes an
furunculosis. impenetrable hedge.

CORNELIAN CHERRY  69
Varieties/Cultivars
Variety/cultivar Origin Description Variety/cultivar Origin Description
‘Alba’ Unknown Fruits are nearly white. ‘Pyramidalis’ Unknown Growth is narrowly upright
with branches only slightly
‘Aurea’ Unknown Leaves are yellowish; selected outspread. Selected for
for ornamental use. Fruits are ornamental use.
red, medium sized; a good
cropper. ‘Red Star’ Ukraine A large-fruited cultivar. Late
ripening.
‘Aureoelegantissima’ Unknown Leaves are partly broad yellow
or pink margined, partly all ‘Redstone’ A heavy cropper.
yellow. A medium-sized shrub,
‘Romanian’ Romania Fruit large, round, bright red;
growing 2m (6ft) high and 3m
flesh sweet, delicate flavour,
(10ft) in spread; prefers part
excellent quality.
shade. Selected for ornamental
Very productive.
use.
‘Russian Giant’ Unknown Fruit large, barrel shaped, dark
‘Bodacious’ USA Large crops of medium-sized
reddish-scarlet; flesh sweet,
fruits.
excellent flavour, stone small.
‘Bulgarian’ Bulgaria Fruit large, pear shaped, deep High yielding tree.
scarlet-violet; flesh sweet,
‘Shan’ Bulgaria Mid season (August), fruits
excellent flavour, stone small.
large.
Very productive.
‘Shurian’ Bulgaria Late season (September),
‘Chicago’ USA Large fruit, early ripening.
fruits large.
‘Cream’ Eastern Europe Fruit cream coloured, excellent
‘Sphaerocarpa’ Romania Natural variety with rounded
quality.
fruits.
‘Devin’ Czech Republic A heavy and regular cropper;
‘Sunrise’ Ukraine Fruit striped red on pinky-red,
fruit large with small stones.
large, late season.
‘Elegant’ Ukraine A large-fruited cultivar, fruits
‘Titus’ Czech Republic A heavy and regular cropper;
sweet, pear shaped.
fruit large with small stones.
‘Flava’ Unknown Fruits are large, yellow, and
‘Variegata’ Unknown Leaves usually have a wide
slightly sweeter than most
creamy white border. Dense
other cultivars. Propagates well
growth. A good cropper of
by softwood cuttings.
medium-sized fruits and self-
‘Golden Glory’ Unknown Flowers are larger and more fertile, although selected for
profuse; leaves and fruits (red) ornamental use.
are also large. Tree upright and
‘Violacea’ Unknown Fruits are violet-blue.
columnar; leaves very dark
green. Selected for ornamental ‘Yellow’ Ukraine Good fruiting selection with
use. large yellow fruits.
‘Gourmet’ Unknown Bears very large, bright red,
slightly pear shaped fruits,
very sweet. Cultivation
‘Helen’ Ukraine A large-fruited cultivar bred in Cornelian cherry is easy to grow in any soil of moderate to
the Ukraine. good fertility, including heavy clay. Preferred conditions
‘Jolico’ Austria Productive, large-fruited are a moist soil and sun. Light shade and exposure to wind
cultivar. Yields some 2.5kg are both tolerated; plants are very drought resistant. Plants
(5.5lb) of fruit per plant, fruit
weight averages 4.5-5.6g
transplant easily and grow at a moderate rate. It is resistant
(very large), very sweet (13-15% to honey fungus (Armillaria mellea and other species) and to
soluble sugars). Verticillium wilt.
‘Kazanlak’ Bulgaria Mid season (August), fruits pear
shaped, very large.
Trees should be spaced 6-7m (20-23ft) apart in orchard-like
conditions. They can also be grown as a trimmed hedge –
‘Macrocarpa’ Unknown Fruits are larger than the
species and pear shaped. plant 3.7m (12ft) apart.
Cultivated on the Balkan
Peninsula and in the Caucasus. Seedlings can take 3-5 years, sometimes more, before flowering,
and 6-10 years before fruiting; plants grown from cuttings fruit
‘Nana’ Unknown Growth is dwarf and rounded;
leaves also dwarfed. Selected more quickly but are shorter lived. Trees may live and continue
for ornamental use. fruiting for a long time – a botanical garden in Kiev has trees
‘Pioneer’ Ukraine A very large-fruited cultivar. 150-200 years old that still fruit. It is usual for no fruits to set for
the first few years of flowering – the flowers often start off being
male only, but will change to perfect flowers (i.e. with male and
female parts) after a while.

70  CORNELIAN CHERRY

 Cornelian cherry fruits

Grafted fruiting varieties, on the other hand, usually start fruiting Sow seed from fresh fruits in autumn or stratify dry seed for
within 1-2 years of planting. 23 weeks (cold) or 16 weeks warm plus 4-16 weeks (cold).
Germination of dried seed can be very slow, often taking
If the weather at flowering time is poor and bumblebees 12-15 months after stratification. Nicking the seed coat prior
aren’t flying, hand-pollinating the flowers may improve fruit to stratification should speed germination. When they sprout,
set. Fruit yields are also usually increased by cross-pollination, seedlings raise two large irregular oval seed leaves; normal
i.e. growing more than one cultivar. Mature trees can typically foliage follows, with leaves in pairs.
on average yield 11kg (24lb) of fruit, the better selections up to
double this. Grafting: any method is suitable, using seedling rootstocks and
grafting low. Because plants branch close to the ground, make
Fruits from a single tree ripen over a long harvest period. sure that all branches on a grafted plant arise from the scion
The simplest way to harvest in quantity is to periodically and not the rootstock.
give the branches a gentle shake once the fruit has coloured,
and collect the fallen fruits from the ground. Ripe fruits hang Pests and diseases
well on the tree (if birds leave them alone), becoming more There are few pests or diseases. In prolonged wet periods, a
concentrated in flavour and sweetness. If fruits are kept at room fungal leaf spot may affect leaves (possibly Septoria cornicola
temperature for a day or two after harvest, they sweeten further. which also affects Cornus sanguinea); plants recover in drier
Fruits generally ripen in August or September, but this varies weather. Birds may compete for the fruits and squirrels are
by up to four weeks between cultivars. Fruit shape can vary reported to be fond of the seeds in North America, sometimes
from oblong to cylindrical and pear shape; fruit colour can taking even unripe fruits.
range from cream to yellow, orange and bright red to dark
reddish-violet and almost black. Similarly, flavour and other
Related species
characteristics can vary. Bentham’s cornel (Cornus capitata) is described on p.31 and
Chinese dogwood (Cornus kousa var. chinensis) on p.61.
In native stands, fruit yields are in the region of 500-1,000kg/ha
(440-880lb/acre), but in orchard plantings of improved varieties, European & North American suppliers
yields can reach 5,000kg/ha (4400lb/acre). Europe: ART, BUR
Propagation is usually by seed or grafting. North America: ELS, HSN, OGW

CORNELIAN CHERRY  71
CRAB APPLES, Malus species
Deciduous, Zone 2-5, H7
Edible fruit

Origin and history Varieties/Cultivars

Most apples species originate from Asia and the Caucasus. There are hundreds of crab apple cultivars and no room here to
list them all. The major species and hybrids used are:
Crab apples are often overlooked when choosing trees to grow
because of the perception of them as having small fruit of poor M. x adstringens (M. baccata x M. pumila)
quality. This is not always the case, though, and crab apple Large spreading trees with impressive pink flowers and large
trees can be useful in several ways: fruits. Very prone to blights, scabs and rusts though, leaving
• They need no pruning as fruit size is not important. leaves and fruits disfigured. Includes cultivars ‘Hopa’, ‘Hyslop’,
• Most flower profusely over a long period – very ornamental. ‘Martha’ and ‘Transcendent’.
• Many are excellent pollinators, with high pollen production M. x arnoldiana (M. baccata x M. floribunda)
(good selections with twice the pollen of standard cultivars Large, upright, spreading trees to 7m (25ft) high and 11m (3ft)
and high pollen viability and fertility). wide. Buds are dark red and flowers are large and pink; fruits are
• Fruits of standard apple cultivars are often larger when oval, yellow with a pink or red blush, 1-1.5cm (0.4-0.6ins) across.
pollinated by flowering crabs. An alternate bloomer and prone to diseases.
• Many have large open flowers that are very attractive to bees. M. x atrosanguinea (M. halliana x M. toringo)
• Many have persistent fruits that can be left on the tree until Tree growing to 5m (16ft) high and 8m (26ft) wide with a
required. spreading form, carmine buds and abundant deep pink-rose
• Some have fruits of dessert quality, others are good cooked. blossoms. Fruits small, reddish-yellow. An annual bloomer,
• Many can be used to make a superior apple sauce or jelly. resistant to most diseases; moderately susceptible to scab.
• Those with small persistent fruits are good for wildlife over M. baccata – Siberian crab
the winter.
Trees rounded, upright, spreading, up to 12m (40ft) high and
• Several selections (nearly all those listed below) are highly wide, extremely hardy. Bears a profusion of frost-resistant white
disease resistant. flowers earlier than most apples, followed by large quantities
• Trees of some selections are small or very small, allowing of very small red or yellow fruits, 1cm (0.4ins) across. Blooms
them to be used in any situation. annually; very resistant to most diseases, though moderately
susceptible to scab. Many named cultivars.
Description
Most apple species make small trees with pretty white flowers M. coronaria
and fruits of varying sizes and colours. See below for a description Trees large and wide, to 9m (30ft) high. Flowers are pink, very
of the main species. fragrant; fruits greenish, 3cm (1.2ins) across. Highly susceptible
to fireblight, scab and cedar apple rust. Includes the cultivars
Uses ‘Coralglow’, ‘Elk River’, ‘Pink Pearl’.
Fruits from some of the best varieties are good to eat raw,
however most crab apples are used cooked to make sauces, M. x dawsoniana
jellies, preserves etc. An upright, densely twiggy tree with a rounded head. Flowers
late, white and borne annually, fruits elliptic-oblong, 4cm
All species are good bee plants. (1.6ins) long by 2.5cm (1ins) wide, yellow-green and red. Good
autumn colour. Good disease resistance.
M. floribunda
A small, spreading tree to 3.5m (12ft) high and 5.5m (18ft)
wide. White flowers, borne annually from a young age, fruits

72  CRAB APPLES

 Malus sieboldii in flower

yellow and red, 1cm (0.4ins) across. Resistant to foliar and ‘Fimbriata’, ‘Fiore’s Improved’, ‘Klehms’, ‘Nevis’, ‘Nova’, ‘Palmeri’,
fruit diseases but slightly susceptible to powdery mildew and ‘Plena’, ‘Prairie Rose’, ‘Prince Georges’.
moderately susceptible to fireblight. Includes the cultivars
‘Ellwangeriana’ and ‘Exzellenz Thiel’. Good pollinators. M. x magdeburgensis (M. spectabilis x M. pumila)
Bears abundant annual pink flowers, single and semi-double;
M. fusca – Oregon crab fruit 3cm (1.2ins) across, yellow-green blushed red. Good
Trees growing to 12m (40ft) high; very hardy and disease disease resistance, slightly susceptible to scab.
resistant. Tolerates a wide range of soils. Flowers are white
or pinkish, and fruits are ellipsoid, 1.5cm (0.6ins) long, yellow M. x micromalus (M. spectabilis x M. baccata)
flushed pink or red. Tends to be an alternate bearer. Includes An upright bush or small tree to 4.5m (15ft) high and 3m (10ft)
the cultivar ‘Wagener’. wide. Flowers pink, very early, large, somewhat biennial;
fruit 1-1.5cm (0.4-0.6ins) across, light green ribbed with red.
M. x hartwigii Susceptible to mild scab.
An upright, globe-topped tree, disease resistant. Flowers borne
annually, semi-double, pink turning white. Fruits 1.5cm (0.6ins), M. prunifolia
yellow-green blushed red, persistent, abundant. Small tree. An alternate bloomer that produces great quantities
of fruit. Fruits red, yellow or orange, up to 2cm (0.8ins) or more
M. hupehensis across. Susceptible to diseases including scab.
An open, irregular, spreading tree to 5m (16ft) high and 8m
(25ft) wide. White fragrant flowers borne abundantly, somewhat M. x purpurea (M. x atrosanguinea x M. pumila
biennial. Fruit greenish-yellow with red cheek, 1cm (0.4ins) ‘Niedzwetzkyana’)
across. Very good disease resistance. Includes cultivars ‘Donald’, Medium-sized tree. Flowers very early and annually; blooms
‘Wayne Douglas’. purplish-red, fading to mauve. Fruit 1.5-2.5cm (0.6-1ins) across,
dark purple. Very susceptible to scab, susceptible to fire blight.
M. ioensis A parent of many red-flowering crabs. Includes the cultivars
Very susceptible to scab and cedar apple rust. Flowers late, ‘Aldenhamensis’, ‘Eleyi’, ‘Kornicensis’, ‘Lemoinei’.
blooms strongly fragranced. Includes the cultivars ‘Boone Park’,

CRAB APPLES  73
 M. x sublobata (M. toringo x M. prunifolia)
Pyramidal tree. Flowers bluish-white, large, profuse. Fruit
1.5-2cm (0.6-0.8ins) across, yellow. Susceptible to severe scab.
Includes the cultivar ‘Cashmere’.
M. toringo (M. sieboldii formerly)
A small shrubby tree. Flowers light pink turning white, annual,
late. Fruit small, 0.6-0.8cm (0.3ins) across, yellow or red.
Susceptible to scab and fire blight.
M. toringoides
Ripe crab apples
A small tree to 8m (26ft) high. Flowers white, late, biennial. Fruit
pear shaped, 2.5cm (1ins) long, apricot yellow with a red cheek,
M. x robusta (M. baccata x M. prunifolia) borne profusely. Slightly susceptible to scab and fire blight.
Medium-sized trees, early flowering, with cherry-like fruit to Includes the cultivars ‘Bristol’ and ‘Macrocarpa’.
2cm (0.8ins) across. Tends to be biennial blooming; slightly M. tschonoskii
susceptible to scab. Includes the cultivars ‘Arnold-Canada’, A large upright pyramidal tree to 12m (40ft) high and 4.5m (15ft)
‘Erecta’, ‘Gary’s Choice’, ‘Persicifolia’. across. Flowers white, sparse. Fruit round, 2-3cm (0.8-1.2ins)
M. sargentii across, greenish. Susceptible to slight scab and severe fire
A shrub growing to 2.5m (8ft) high and twice as wide, densely blight. Good autumn colour.
branched. Flowers profuse, white, fragrant, biennial. Fruit dark M. yunnanensis
red to purple, 0.6-0.8cm (0.3ins) across, persistent. Very good A pyramidal tree to 10m (33ft) high, narrow and upright.
disease resistance. Flowers white. Fruit brownish-red. Good autumn colour;
M. x scheideckeri (M. floribunda x M. prunifolia) disease resistant except for fire blight to which it is susceptible.
A small upright tree, susceptible to scab and fire blight. Includes the cultivars ‘Veitchii’ and ‘Veitch’s Scarlet’.
Flowers pale rose pink; fruits 1.5cm (0.6ins) across.
Cultivation
M. sieboldii (M. x zumi) Cultivate as per domesticated apples (see p.15)
Round-headed tree to 4.5m (15ft) high and 3m (10ft) across,
somewhat bushy and slow growing. Flowers white, abundant, Pests and diseases
borne annually. Fruit red, 1-1.5cm (0.4-0.6ins) across, abundant. Can be susceptible to all the same diseases as apples, although
Disease resistant. Includes the cultivars ‘Calocarpa’ and many species are disease resistant.
‘Wooster’.
Related species
M. x soulardii (M. ioensis x M. pumila)
Apples (p.15).
Medium-sized tree. Flowers light pink, abundant, annual.
Fruit abundant, yellow-green, large – to 5.5cm (2ins+) across. European & North American suppliers
Susceptible to scab and cedar apple rust. Europe: ART, BLK, BUC, CBS, DEA, KPN, THN. Also most apple
M. spectabilis tree nurseries.
An upright tree to 8m (26ft) high. Flowers rose-red, abundant. North America: GPO, HFT, OGW, RTN. Also most apple tree
Fruit 2cm (0.8ins) across, yellowish, sour. Somewhat susceptible nurseries.
to scab. Includes the cultivar ‘Riversii’.

74  CRAB APPLES

DATE PLUM, Diospyros lotus
Deciduous, Zone 5, H6-7
Edible fruit

Origin and history fruits may also be dried, losing their astringency; if left on the
tree to shrivel, they take on a date-like texture. Some breeding
The date plum, false lote-tree, or lotus plant, is one of the lesser-
work has been undertaken in Asia, where superior cultivars have
known members of the persimmon genus (in the ebony family,
been selected. Ripe fruits contain approximately 1.9% protein,
Ebenaceae), yet in many parts of temperate Asia (especially
0.2% fat, 47.7% carbohydrates.
China where it is native along with Japan and the Himalayas,
found in mixed mountain forests) it is widely cultivated as a fruit The fruits are also used medicinally in Chinese medicine,
tree, rootstock, and for other useful products. being antifebrile (i.e. used as a febrifuge against fevers) and
secretogogue.
Description
Much used, especially in Asia, Europe and North America, as
A small or medium-sized tree, growing up to 6-12m (20-40ft)
a rootstock for cultivars of the Oriental persimmon (Diospyros
high in cultivation, but sometimes double that in the wild, and
kaki). The date plum is more cold hardy than the Oriental
to about 6m (20ft) in spread. It has a rounded crown. On older
persimmon, and some of this extra cold hardiness affects the
trees the bark becomes furrowed and cracked.
scion cultivar when grafted. Hence in colder Asian regions,
Leaves are oval, dark green, glossy, leathery and tough, and D. kaki scions are grafted high on D. lotus rootstocks.
alternate on stems.
The date plum is also grown commercially for its unripe fruit,
Flowers are tiny (males 5mm/0.2ins, females 8-10mm/0.3-0.4ins which are processed to provide a source of tannins. These
long), urn shaped, greenish-yellow tinged red, appearing from tannins (and those from unripe fallen D. kaki fruits) are widely
the leaf axils, mainly on one-year-old shoots; female flowers used as a deproteinising agent in the brewing process of sake
are produced singly, males in clusters of 1-3 on downy stalks. (rice wine).
Like other persimmons, this species is usually dioecious, hence
Falling fruit can be used for pig fodder in the late autumn and
male and female flowers are produced on different plants.
early winter.
Flowering occurs in July in Britain and pollination is via insects,
including bees. The wood is durable, pliable and resists rotting. It is used for
construction, joinery etc.
On female plants, fertilised fruits form; these are round (cherry
tomato shaped and sized), 15-20 mm (0.6-0.8ins) across, green The flowers provide bee forage.
when immature, ripening to yellow or reddish-purple with
a bluish bloom. They have a blackcurrant-like aroma. The Varieties/Cultivars
four-lobed calyx remains attached to the base of the fruit and
Cultivar Origin Description
grows with it. Like most other persimmons, fruits remain high
in tannins and very astringent until they ripen, often after a ‘Albert’ Unknown Female selection, bears larger fruits, hardy
frost; then flavour is sweet and tasty. Fruits contain 0-8 small, ‘Browny’ Unknown Male selection
flat, black seeds, and continue to hang on the tree well after the ‘Maalte’ Unknown Female selection with good quality fruits
leaves fall in autumn.

Uses Cultivation
The fruits develop freely in cool climates like Britain. Unless the Needs a warm position in full sun to fruit well, but it does
summer is particularly hot (when they may ripen in October), tolerate partial shade. It prefers a deep, fertile, moist but well-
they usually need to be bletted (picked and stored in the cool) drained loamy soil and some protection from the wind. Young
or frosted before they lose their astringency and become edible; plants are somewhat frost susceptible. The growth rate is slow
when fully ripe they are then sweet with a floury texture, date- to moderate – about 3m (10ft) in 10 years. It is best to transplant
like, rich and delicious. The fruits usually remain on the tree container-grown plants as the taproots are very susceptible to
after leaf fall, thus can be picked in November after frosts. The damage on transplanting.

DATE PLUM  75
 Ripening date plum fruits

Trees can also be trained against a wall as a fan or espalier;

or in the open as bush trees.
Propagation is by seed or (for named selections) grafting onto
seedling D. lotus rootstocks.
There are approximately 8,000 seeds per kg (3,600 per lb).
Seeds need a short period (four weeks) of cold stratification
before they germinate. After this, sow in the warmth and
germination occurs within a few weeks. First year growth is
20-30cm (8-12ins).

Pests and diseases

There are no serious pests or diseases in temperate zones.

Related species
Persimmon (Diospyros kaki) is described on p.160 and American
persimmon (D. virginiana) on p.11.

European & North American suppliers

Europe: ART, BUR, PFS
North America: Not known

76  DATE PLUM

ELDERBERRY, Sambucus nigra
Deciduous, Zone 5, H7
Edible fruit
Medicinal

Origin and history outer flowers are open and the central ones are still in bud;
they are collected on dry days as wet flowers discolour on
The European elderberry originates from Europe, southwestern
drying. The flowers are delicate and are dried carefully at
Asia and North Africa and has long been used for food,
moderate temperatures (35-40oC (95-104oF) maximum). The
medicine and various folk uses.
dried flowers are then rubbed away from the stalks by hand or
Description machine. The drying ratio for flowers is 6:1.
A small tree or shrub to 10m (33ft) high, often half that, with a The fruits are used in the food industry, mainly as a colourant
trunk up to 30cm (12ins) thick. Bark becomes fissured, corky – fruits contain 2.4g anthocyans/100g. Fruits for drying are
and grey. harvested in heads with stalks intact, thus ensuring during
drying that the fruits do not stick together and dry uniformly.
Leaves usually with five leaflets, each to 12 x 6cm (5 x 2.5ins)
After drying the berries are removed from the stalks by rubbing.
large, dark green above and lighter below.
The drying ratio for fruits is 4 or 5:1.
Flowers, in May to June, are cream coloured, musky scented,
Elder has a very long history of use as a medicinal herb. Mainly
in flat-topped umbels about 15cm (6ins) in diameter; they are
used nowadays are the dried flowers, which are diaphoretic,
formed on the current year’s growth. Fruits shiny purple-black,
diuretic, expectorant, galactogogue and pectoral. An infusion is
6-8mm (0.3ins) in diameter, ripening August to September
very effective in the treatment of chest complaints and is also
(typical weight 0.3g).
used to bathe inflamed eyes. The infusion is also a very good
Uses spring tonic and blood cleanser. Externally, the flowers are used
in formulations to ease pain and abate inflammation. Used as
The fruits are edible raw or cooked.
Slightly bitter – less so if dried. Typically
they contain 5-7% sugars, 1% pectin and
10-50mg/100g vitamin C. Most often used
in jams, jellies (traditionally elderberry
and apple jelly), pies, sauces, chutney,
compotes, elderberry wine, liqueurs, rob
etc. Also to flavour and colour preserves.
The flowers are edible raw, cooked and
dried. They make a pleasant snack raw
and add a muscatel flavour to jams and
stewed fruits. Commonly used to make
elderflower wine (still or sparkling) and to
make gooseberry and elderflower jelly;
commercially to make cordials and other
soft drinks. Also used to make a tea and
soaked in cold water to make a soft drink.
They are very high in vitamin C.
The elderflower drinks industry is large and
growing, with herb teas, cordials, and
alcoholic beverages all being made on a
commercial scale. Despite this, most
flowers are still gathered from the wild.
The flower heads can be gathered once the Elder flowers

ELDERBERRY 77
an ointment, it treats chilblains, burns, wounds, scalds etc. The
fresh flowers are used in the distillation of ‘elder flower water’.
The water is mildly astringent and a gentle stimulant. It is mainly
used as a vehicle for eye and skin lotions, oils and ointments.
The leaves and bark are insect repellent, insecticidal and
fungicidal. The active ingredient is the alkaloid sambucine.
Extracts can be used against grey mould (Botrytis cinerea),
young caterpillars (including cabbage white, Pieris brassicae,
also P. napi and P. rapae), mosquitoes (Culex spp.), and weevils
(Phyllobius oblongus). It is also reputed to be effective against
aphids, young gooseberry sawfly larvae, blackspot on roses and
various mildews.
The fruit, bark, roots and leaves can all be used for dyeing. Bark
or roots with iron mordant gives grey-black; leaves+alum gives
yellowish-green; leaves+chrome gives green; fruit+alum gives Elder fruits
blue-violet.
The blue colouring matter from fruits can be used as a litmus
test – turns green in alkaline and red in acid. Variety/cultivar Origin Description

The pith from shoots is used in microscopy (for gripping ‘Alba’ Europe Fruits chalky-white coloured,
sweet, pleasant.
specimens in microscope slides) and in watchmaking for
dabbing oil. ‘Bradet’ Eastern Europe Large fruits borne in high yields.
‘Cae Rhos Lligwy’ Wales Fruits large, green, gooseberry-
The wood is white, fine grained and polishes well. It is used for flavoured.
toys, mathematical instruments, skewers, cogs, combs, pegs, ‘Donau’ Austria Good fruiting cultivar that is used
carving etc. in commercial fruit orchards.

It is a good pioneer species for re-establishing woodland. ‘Fructo-Luteo’ Europe Fruits creamy-gold, sometimes red
tinted; slow maturing.
Varieties/Cultivars ‘Godshill’ England Fruits larger than normal.

In addition to several ornamental forms (with coloured or ‘Haidegg 17’ Austria Vigorous variety, extremely heavy
cropping.
unusual shaped leaves), good fruiting forms are displayed in the
adjacent table. ‘Haschberg’ Austria Fruiting cultivar that is used in
commercial fruit orchards.

Cultivation ‘Ina’ Eastern Europe Medium-large fruits borne in high

yields.
Grows in most soils in sun or shade – sun is needed for good
‘Sambo’ Czech Bred for its superior fruiting
flowering and fruiting. qualities.
Best pollination occurs when two selections are planted. ‘Sambu’ Denmark Medium-sized fruits (with good
Very tolerant of cutting. colour content) in medium-sized
clusters. Yields good.
Commercial elder plantations easily outperform wild stands. ‘Samdal’ Denmark Large fruits (with good colour
Plantations can be established by planting seedlings or content) in large clusters. Yields
extremely high.
cuttings in rows 2.5-3m (8-10ft) apart with plants 1-1.5m (3-5ft)
in the row. ‘Samidan’ Denmark Large fruits (with moderate colour
content) in very large clusters.
Very high yielding.
Pests and diseases
‘Samnor’ Norway Vigorous fruiting cultivar with
There are few that affect elder. Birds like the fruits so some very good frost resistance. Heavy
protection and/or bird scaring may be necessary. cropping.
‘Sampo’ Denmark Very large fruits (with good flavour
Related species and colour content) in large
clusters. Very high yielding.
American elder (Sambucus canadensis).
‘Samyl’ Denmark Large fruits (with very high colour
European & North American suppliers content) in large clusters. Very high
yielding.
Europe: ART, COO F. viridis Europe Fruits pale green, turning white or
translucent-striped.
North America: ELS

78 ELDERBERRY
EUCALYPTUS species
Hardy evergreen, Zone 7-9, H3-5
Timber
Essential oils

Origin and history Varieties/Cultivars

The eucalypts are a huge range of over 500 species of evergreen Some of the hardiest species are:
trees and shrubs from Australia and southeastern Asia.
Although many are tropical, there are a number that are hardy E. archeri – Alpine cider gum
to zone 8 or even zone 7 (-15°C) that can be cultivated in colder Small tree to 9m (30ft) high from Tasmania. Smooth bark,
parts of the world. green leaves. Hardy to zone 9.
Eucalypts have often been condemned after being planted Used for floristry in the UK.
in monocultures in warm Mediterranean climates where they
E. coccifera – Tasmanian snow gum
can dramatically lower the water table and become a weedy
nuisance. However they pose no such danger in cooler climates. Tree or shrub to 10m (33ft) high from Tasmania. Smooth bark,
grey-green leaves with peppermint scent. Hardy to zone 8.
Description E. glaucescens – Tingiringi gum
Eucalyptus trees are very distinctive and immediately
Tree to 12m (40ft) high or more from southeastern Australia.
recognisable. They have mainly grey or grey-blue leaves, often
Bark peeling, white, leaves grey-blue. Hardy to zone 7.
in different shapes on young and mature plants, and bark that
is either silky smooth or fibrous/stringy. The leaves contain Used for floristry in the UK.
essential oils in varying amounts depending on the species.
Flowers are often yellow.
E. gunnii – Cider gum
Tree to 25m (80ft) high from Tasmania. Bark smooth, leaves
The species listed under ‘Varieties’ below are amongst the grey-green. Hardy to zone 8.
hardiest of all.
Used for floristry in the UK.
Uses
E. johnstonii – Tasmanian yellow gum
In warm parts of the world eucalypts are cultivated for their
Tree to 40m (130ft) high from Tasmania. Bark smooth, leaves
essential oils, often in a coppice system with regular annual
dark green. Hardy to zone 8.
cutting of leafy shoots. Unfortunately none of the major
commercial species are very hardy and there has been little Leaves are relatively high in essential oils.
research done on oil yields from less well-known hardier
species, and in cooler climates. Nevertheless there is E. kybeanensis – Kybean mallee ash
potential for some of the species above for oil production, Tree or shrub to 15m (50ft) high from southeastern Australia.
e.g. E. johnstonii. The twigs and leaves (fresh or partially dried) Bark smooth, leaves green. Hardy to zone 7.
are distilled to extract the essential oil. The oil content varies from Used for floristry in the UK.
species to species and is affected by climate. Tropical species
may reach 3-4.5% oil content, but in cooler climates 1-2% E. pauciflora ssp. debeuzevillei – Jounama snow gum
maximum is more likely. A species with 1.5% oil content will Tree to 15m (50ft) high from southeast Australia. Leaves blue-green.
produce 3.5-6kg (8-13lb) of distilled oil per tonne of fresh leaves. Hardy to zone 8.
Eucalyptus might never be significant large timber trees in a Used for floristry in the UK.
cool climate, due to the risk of cold damage, however they
coppice or pollard strongly and have good potential as coppice E. pauciflora ssp. niphophila – Snow gum
trees for firewood production. Small tree or shrub to 6m (20ft) high from Tasmania. Leaves
blue-green. Hardy to zone 7.
Many species have good potential for commercial production
for floristry. Used for floristry in the UK.

EUCALYPTUS 79
E. parvifolia – Kybean gum Related species
Tree to 9m (30ft) high from New South Wales. Bark smooth, The myrtles are related.
leaves green. Hardy to zone 8.
Used for floristry in the UK.
European & North American suppliers
Europe: BUR
E. perriniana – Spinning gum
North America: Not known
Tree or shrub to 9m (30ft) high from southwest Australia.
Bark smooth, leaves grey-green to blue-green. Hardy to zone 8.
E. nitida – Smithton peppermint
Small tree or shrub from Tasmania. Bark smooth, leaves blue-
green. Hardy to zone 8.
E. urnigera – Urn gum
Tree to 12m (40ft) high from Tasmania.
Bark smooth, leaves green. Hardy to
zone 8.
Leaves are relatively high in essential
oils.

Cultivation
Grow in full sun in well-drained soils
that do not dry out too excessively in
summer. Shelter reduces the risk of
dieback in less hardy species. Keep
young trees weed-free with a mulch for
the first few years.
Eucalypts for foliage production are
grown in rows about 2m (6ft) apart with
plants 1m (3ft) in the row. Young trees
are allowed to establish for three years
before cutting begins; each spring, they
are cut back to about 1m (3ft) high to
allow for plenty of new shoots. The new
shoots are hardened enough for the
floristry trade by September or October.

Pests and diseases

Rabbits can be a pest – they will nibble
off new shoots of coppiced trees that
they can reach in the spring.
Insect pests include a species of psyllid
(Ctenaryaina eucalypti) and aphids.
Eucalypts are susceptible to silverleaf
disease (Stereum purpureum – the same
disease that plums can suffer from) and
are best not cut in winter.
They can also be affected by ink disease
(Phytophthora cinnamomi) especially on
wetter soils.
Winter dieback also occurs with some of
the less hardy species. Eucalyptus pauciflora

80 EUCALYPTUS
FIG, Ficus carica
Deciduous, Zone 6-9, H4-5
Edible fruit

Origin and history Description

The fig is native to the hot areas of Asia Minor and was one Figs are spreading deciduous trees, growing in the wild to 10m
of the first fruits to be cultivated there; it ranks with grapes, (33ft) high, with thick branches. They tend to be more shrubby
dates and olives as an important crop in early Mediterranean and half that height in Britain and other cooler areas. The trunks
civilisations. Its fruits have always been highly prized not only have smooth leathery-textured, mid-grey bark.
for their food value but also because of their suitability for
Branches tend to bend down, then sweep up, and are often
drying and subsequent storing.
knobbly, ribbed, dark green with big leaf scars in winter. The
The history of the fig in Britain is linked with the Romans: the fig terminal bud is conical and sharply pointed.
was prominent in their diet and dried samples were imported
Leaves are alternate, 3-5 lobed, instantly recognisable, 10-20cm
from Italy. By the 16th and 17th centuries, it was being cultivated
(4-8ins) long, roughly hairy above, softly below. They are
by the wealthy, though progress has since been hindered
exceptionally variable in shape, even on the same tree. They
by a lack of many suitable cultivars, unsuitable cultivation
are borne on long stalks, and are dark green, thick and leathery.
techniques, and a climate marginal for success. It is occasionally
They open late, in May in Britain, usually escaping any spring
found self-sown in Britain, especially in the southwest, but
frost damage. The leaves and branches exude latex when cut.
occasionally as far north as Mull and Angus in Scotland.
Fig flowers are tiny and inside a hollow receptacle which
Figs were introduced into California in the 18th century, in a
becomes the fruit. See above for descriptions of the different fig
Franciscan mission, and spread to other missions (hence the
types depending on flowering behaviour.
variety mission). It was not until the 1890s, when the USDA
imported 60 varieties from the RHS, that commercial growing The fruits are a type of multiple fruit, usually pear shaped at
became popular. maturity, 5-8cm (2-3.2ins) long, and greenish or brownish violet.
Figs are classified into four types: Common, San Pedro, Smyrna Uses
and Caprifig.
Fig fruits are sweet, succulent and melting, and have a high
Common figs produce no pollen but most varieties set seedless, food value. They are high in minerals and fresh fruits contain
parthenocarpic fruits without pollination. Most but not all about 20% carbohydrates.
varieties set a first (breba) crop.
The fruits are eaten fresh or are often dried (dried fruit is a
San Pedro types set a good first (breba) crop without pollina- major item of commerce), and as a paste baked in pastry
tion, but demand a warm summer climate. They may also set a products. Products include fig bars and biscuits, fig jam or
second with or without pollination if the climate is suitable. preserve, juice, candied figs, canned figs, fig syrup, and dried
‘string’ figs. In ­Albania, the fruits are used to produce a spirit,
Smyrna figs originate from Turkey, and in common with many
‘Raki’; there is a German fig brandy and a North African liqueur
of the older fig selections once grown, it relies on the tiny fig
‘Boukha’ or ‘Mahia’.
wasp which breeds inside the wild form of fig (caprifig). Without
cross-pollination (caprification), the Smyrna fig is not fertilised There are reports that the latex obtained from cut leaves can be
and therefore does not mature; hence old varieties of this used to coagulate ‘plant milks’. Caution is advised as the latex is
type cannot be cultivated where the fig wasp does not exist known to be toxic when eaten.
(e.g. Britain); the wasp was introduced into California in 1899.
Fig leaves, both fresh and dried, have been used for cattle
Smyrna figs set virtually no breba crop.
fodder. The wood is pliable and porous but of little value.
Caprifigs are derived from wild forms and usually have fruits
Medicinally, fig fruits are well-known laxatives (syrup of figs is
of little value; they are grown to host the fig wasp where
still a constipation remedy) and are also emollient (helps relieve
pollinating varieties are cultivated.
pain and inflammation) and mildly expectorant – used for sore
Here we are mainly concerned with varieties of common and throats, coughs, and bronchial/tracheal infections. The latex
San Pedro that set fruit without pollination. from freshly-cut leaves has an analgesic effect against insect

FIG 81
 Fig tree with young fruits

82 FIG
 Cultivar Origin Description
‘Brown Turkey Early-mid season. A reliable cultivar in Britain, also widely grown in eastern USA.
Turkey’ Ripens two weeks after ‘Brunswick’. Fruits are brownish-purple when ripe, pear shaped
and medium in size, tough skinned; flesh usually pink, very sweet, rich, good quality.
Cropping good; not suitable for drying or canning. Best flavour is immediately on picking.
Second crop figs smaller, turbinate, fair quality. Tree of moderate vigour. Good in pots.
‘Brunswick’ Southeast Early-mid season. Widely grown in Texas for canning. Regarded by some as the best
Europe outdoor fig for Britain. Brebas large, long pyramid shape, greenish-yellow winged brown;
flesh amber-pink, fair to good quality. Full flavour is achieved 2-3 days after picking.
Main crop moderate. Second crop figs smaller, turbinate, bronze; pulp amber tinged red,
good flavour and quality; excellent for preserving, poor for drying. Hardier than most.
Leaves oak-like, very large. Trees vigorous, spreading, with fairly thick twigs. Not suitable
for pot growing.
stings and bites, and is used ‘Desert King’ California Fruit medium sized, sweet, melting, pale yellow, very good quality. Vigorous upright tree.
against corns and warts ‘Mission’ California Mid season. Fruits medium-large, pyriform, purple-black; flesh amber-pink, firm, sweet,
(warning: the sap is a skin and rich flavour, excellent quality. Bears a good breba crop in most seasons. Second crop figs
similar. Leaves oak-like. Tree of moderate vigour. Needs a warm wall in Britain; good in
eye irritant, especially in sun). pots.
The leaves are stomachic
‘White France Mid season. Fruits medium, long pyramid shaped, slightly ribbed, yellowish-green in
and are used in India and Marseilles’ colour; flesh amber, juicy, sweet, good flavour and quality. Main cropping fair. Second crop
Pakistan as a diuretic, figs smaller, rich sweet flavour, good quality. Quality of the dried fig poor. Also suited to
demulcent, emollient and pot culture. Light cropping outdoors in Britain – best against a wall. Leaves maple-like.
Tree vigorous, dense.
anthelmintic. A decoction of
young branches is sometimes
used as a pectoral. Fig has
numerous other medicinal uses in Chinese medicine, the autumn at and near the young shoot tips – they develop and
leaves, stems and fruits all being used; the plant is considered ripen the next summer in August and September, with a few
anticancer, and several compounds have recently been in October; fruits produced in the spring on new growth only
confirmed as such. ripen in hot summers. The overwintering fruitlets are no larger
than a pea, and can be damaged by heavy frosts, hence in cold
Varieties/Cultivars areas the branches must be protected, although this should be
Over 650 distinct fig cultivars exist worldwide, but only a small unnecessary if trees are grown so that the wood is well ripened.
number of these are grown in any quantity. Nearly all established Figs are very long lived and start fruiting quite quickly, at 3-4
cultivars have been selected from wild seedlings, with only a years old if the roots are restricted or growth is controlled.
handful recently deliberately bred. Some of the popular cultivars
have numerous synonyms that often confuses identification – There is a long history of figs being used in European
for example, ‘Brown Turkey’ has 19 known synonyms! A few of agroforestry. Spanish practice includes, for example, fig
the most common cultivars are listed in the table. plantations at wide spacing (12m, 40ft apart), with cultivated
crops below (rotations of wheat, clover and chick peas; the
Cultivation clover grazed by sheep).
Figs like sun and need warmth to ripen the crop. They are To enable figs to withstand cold winter temperatures, it is
susceptible to cold (particularly where summer heat is not essential that trees should produce short, stubby growths that
sufficient to fully ripen new growth) and may need protection are well ripened before the onset of winter. In a climate with
in winter in cold areas (achieved with fan trees by wrapping plentiful rain, like in Britain, this necessitates reducing the vigour
branches with straw or bracken, or covering whole tree with fine of the tree:
netting or fleece). They tolerate very hot summer conditions.
• The traditional method in Britain is to restrict the roots. This
A wide range of soils is tolerated as long as there is good necessitates making a large hole (at least 60 x 60 x 60cm
drainage; chalky soils are tolerated (soil range pH 4.3-8.6). / 2 x 2 x 2ft), lined with concrete or bricks and packed with
Very fertile soils often induce lush vegetative growth at the stone or broken brick to a depth of 30cm (1ft). The young tree
expense of fruiting. A sunny site is essential, and frost pockets is planted into this in a good loamy soil.
should be avoided. Figs are quite wind tolerant, the branches
• Another method to control vigour is by root pruning. This
very rarely breaking even in storms. Various strategies are
consists of digging a trench at a radius of 60-120cm (2-4ft)
available for reducing vigour (see below).
from the trunk of the tree, and severing any thick anchorage
In Britain, they are often grown as fans against a wall, but can roots and downward growing roots. The thin fibrous feeding
also be grown in the open as a bush or tree in milder areas. roots should be left undamaged as much as possible. The
Here, figs bear two crops a year, but usually only one ripens: effects of root pruning tend not to last very long because of
the successful crop starts as embryo fruits in late summer/early the speed of root growth.

FIG 83
 Propagation of cultivars is usually by
hardwood cuttings of one-year-old
wood, 30cm (12ins) long, inserted
in well-drained ground in autumn,
with frost protection in cold climates.
An ancient practice, still sometimes
followed, is to plant a large cutting in the
ground at the permanent location of the
tree: a cutting 1.2-1.5m (4-5ft) long and
4-5cm (1.5-2ins) diameter at the base
Ripening fig fruits is set upright in a hole 90cm (3ft) deep;
sometimes two cuttings are used in the
In Britain, unless the summer is exceptionally hot, fruits that same hole to ensure success.
are produced in spring will not ripen, and should be removed
in late autumn to concentrate the tree’s resources into the Pests and diseases
embryo figs produced in the summer. If not removed, most will Figs are generally pest and disease free.
eventually yellow and drop. Mice are fond of the bark and can sometimes gnaw all around
Figs require little or nothing in the way of nitrogen – occasional fig stems, killing the tree. Make sure that mulches are kept away
mulches of compost or manure will suffice unless growth is from trunks.
lacking. Continued fruiting requires potassium (10-20g K2O Wasps and birds may attack ripening fruits – notably blackbirds
per m2 per year; 0.3-0.6oz/yd2/year) that can be supplied via a in Britain. Netting or other protection may be necessary.
comfrey leaf mulch, seaweed meal, wood ash etc.
Insect pests, rarely problematical in Britain, include scale insect,
Figs are ready for picking when they turn soft and flabby and mealybug and red spider mite. The fig mite can cause serious
hang downwards. Slight splits in the skin, or sometimes a drop damage in California, by causing ‘rusting’ of fruits and leaves.
of nectar exuded from the eye of the fruit, are indications that it
is ripe. The most useful sign of ripeness is a change of colour – Grey mould (Botrytis cinerea) can cause branch die-back and
every variety will differ in this respect, and this must be learnt by fruit rotting in damp spells. Cut out affected branches and paint
the grower. Harvesting demands care and attention – fruits are wounds as below.
delicate and need gentle handling. Fruits on a single tree ripen Coral spot (Nectria cinnabarina) is a fungal disease to which figs
over a period of several weeks, and picking should take place are very susceptible. This shows as numerous coral red spots
every day if possible. Make sure that pressure is exerted on the on old and dead wood, and can cause die-back of branches.
stalk and not the fruit when picking. Wear long sleeves to pick Cut out and burn affected branches to a point well below the
as the fig leaves may irritate the skin. diseased tissues, and paint all the wounds with a protective
Yields in Britain for mature (six years old +) bush or fan-trained paint.
figs are 5-1kg (12-30lb) per year, with each tree yielding up to
100 fruits. Potted plants of 1.2m (4ft) high can annually bear Related species
several dozen fruits. There are none of note.
Figs grown commercially for drying or paste production are European & North American suppliers
often allowed to drop and are mechanically harvested from the Europe: ART, BLK, CBS, COO, DEA, OFM, REA, THN
ground. This necessitates a flat smooth orchard floor at harvest
time. Green manure or cover crops are sometimes grown over North America: BRN, ELS, OGW
winter and shallow ploughed or disced in the spring.

84 FIG
GINKGO, Ginkgo biloba
Deciduous, Zone 4, H7
Edible nuts
Medicinal leaves

Origin and history

The ginkgo or maidenhair tree is a relic of prehistoric ages,
being the only survivor of a genus that was widely distributed
(including in Britain) 180 million years ago. It is now only found
in the wild in the Tianmu Mountains of Zhejiang province in
China. It has been widely cultivated for a very long time in
China, Japan and Korea.
Ginkgos are long-lived trees, probably one reason why they
are primarily found around temples in Japan, Korea and
Manchuria, where it is regarded as a sacred tree. The tree was
introduced to Europe in around 1730, from seeds collected
from trees in temple gardens.

Description
Although placed in the conifer family, the ginkgo is a tall
deciduous tree, growing up to 20m (70ft) high in cultivation.
It has a variable habit, sometimes narrowly conical, other times
spreading; trees tend to be upright when young, becoming
more spreading with age. The bark is grey and deeply furrowed
on older trunks.
The distinctive leaves are fan shaped, with branching parallel
veins and an irregular undulating margin. The leaves turn
golden-yellow in autumn before quickly falling.
Flowers are borne in leaf axils on separate trees, in spring
before the leaves fully open. Male flowers are yellow, catkin-
like, 25-80mm (1-3.2ins) long, shedding pollen in March; female
flowers are pale yellow becoming orange, tiny (2mm, 0.1ins),
in twos or threes, on long stalks. Pollination is via the wind and
female flowers then develop into drupe-like fruits, with a fleshy
outer and hard inner nut.
Distinctive leaves of the ginkgo
The fruits, maturing in the autumn, appear singly or in pairs like
small round yellowish-green plums, 25mm (1ins) long; the fleshy
exterior starts to decay on the tree, darkening to purple-black;
ripe fruits fall, the fleshy covering then bursting and emitting an
unpleasant odour of rancid butter. The inner nut is smooth and
white, ovoid, 12-20mm (0.5-0.8ins) long, with two or three ridges.
The ginkgo is dioecious, so trees are either male or female; only
females bear fruits. There is no easy sure way of telling male
and female plants apart before they flower.
Maidenhair trees are long lived: trees over 200 years old are still
healthy and growing in Britain.

GINKGO 85
 Ripe ginkgo fruits and bright yellow autumn leaves

Uses mild Swiss cheese. Eaten at Chinese feasts, they are supposed
to aid digestion and alleviate the effects of drinking too much
The maidenhair tree has traditionally been used as a street tree
wine. (N.B. seeds are mildly toxic raw and should only be eaten
in Japan, and more recently in other countries – male clones
cooked.) Canned, boiled ginkgo nuts can sometimes be seen in
are usually used so there is no unpleasant-smelling fruit for folk
oriental grocery stores. The Chinese often bake them with meat
to complain about – it becomes slimy and slippery as it decays.
or fowl and include them in sweet soups with Chinese dates
The decaying fleshy fruit exterior has been variously described (Zizyphus jujube) or white fungi.
as ‘unpleasant’, ‘evil’, ‘foul’, ‘offensive’ and ‘malodorous’. This
Ginkgo is seldom felled for its timber, which is yellow-brown,
is caused by butanoic acid, which causes the smell of rancid
light, soft, close grained and brittle, with a thin satiny-white
butter. Gloves should be used when handling fruits, as the juice
sapwood. It has insect-repelling properties and is used for
from the outer flesh causes itching, rashes and even dermatitis
chessboards, bas-relief carvings and toys. Trees can be
in some people.
coppiced.
Nevertheless, the kernel of the nut when cooked is well-
Extracts from the leaves and roots (with alcohol) have been
flavoured and esteemed as a delicacy in China and Japan,
found to have effective pest-control properties.
where they are sold in markets. In China the nuts are often
served on special occasions such as weddings and the The fruit pulp, seeds and leaf extracts have been long used in
Chinese New Year. traditional Chinese medicine.
Seeds are high in protein and carbohydrates. Seeds are first The numerous use of ginkgo in Chinese medicine brought the
shelled, then usually soaked in hot water to facilitate peeling plant to the attention of mainstream medicine. Leaf extracts
off the papery inner seed layer. Kernels are eaten roasted have an antiradical effect on the brain – i.e. aid the body to
or boiled for 10-15 minutes, when they have a pleasant and repel attacks of free radicals that damage cell membranes –
characteristic flavour, which has been likened to almond or and are vasoregulatory (improving general microcirculation

86 GINKGO
especially in the brain). Extensive research in the past 30 years Cultivation
has established that ginkgo can improve cerebral circulation.
Ginkgos are tolerant of most conditions, including part shade,
It is also thought to slow down cerebral ageing by improving the
acid soils (to pH 4.5), alkaline soils (to pH 8.5), steep slopes, high
glucose consumption of the brain. The effects are to improve
and low humidity, air pollution, and are very drought tolerant.
performance of short-term memory, alertness and drive.
They are resistant to wind and snow damage. They are hardly
Some large pharmaceutical companies are investing in gingko
ever affected by pests or diseases. The main thing to avoid is
plantations to provide bulk leaf matter for drug extraction.
poor drainage.
Varieties/Cultivars Preferred conditions are a deep, well-drained soil with pH on
Good fruiting cultivars may have been selected in China and the acid side (5-5.5). Growth is best in hot summers, though the
Japan, but only a few are available in the Western world, with typical British summer is quite adequate. Growth is quite slow,
mostly ornamental cultivars available. Some of these are of about 3m (10ft) in 10 years and 8m (25ft) in 20 years.
known sex, so they could still be used for nut production if Male and female trees are needed for fruiting to take place:
males and females are both utilised. Most of the ornamental one male will pollinate up to five females. A male branch can
cultivars are columnar or narrowly conical in shape. be grafted onto a female tree to ensure pollination.
Cultivar Origin Description Trees start bearing fruits at 25-35 years of age. Fruits are readily
‘Eastern Star’ China Female, bears abundant crops of large nuts produced in Britain, where the tree generally thrives in all
‘Fairmount’ USA Male tree but exposed locations. The fruits ripen and fall in autumn.
‘King of Dongting’ China Male tree, slow growing with large leaves The offensive odour is only emitted when the ripe fruit pulp
is crushed to extract the seed. Gloves should be used when
‘Long March’ China Female, heavy cropping with large nuts
collecting fruits as the juice from the fleshy exterior coat can be
‘Mayfield’ USA Male tree
a skin irritant.
‘Ohazuki’ Japan Female, tree 4-5m high with large leaves
Plantations have been set up in China, Japan, Korea, France
‘Princeton Sentry’ USA Male tree
and the USA to yield leaves for the pharmaceutical industry.
‘Saratoga’ USA Male tree Plants grown for leaf production are cut back to 30cm (1ft) every
year in October. The leaves are harvested while still green in late
summer or early autumn, dried immediately and pressed into
bales for transport to the processing plant. Yields of leaves rise
quickly to 20t/ha/year (17,600lb/ac/year) in the third year after
planting in an intensive plantation. Trees could be grown as an
understorey crop in light shade for leaf production.
Propagation is easiest from seed. Seeds do not need
stratification and are best sown fresh. Seedlings are susceptible
to frost damage in early autumn, but not to any pests and
diseases. Seedlings reach 20-30cm (8-12ins) in their first year.
Named cultivars are grafted to seedling rootstocks using
standard methods.

Pests and diseases

There are none of note.

Related species
None – the ginkgo is unique!

European & North American suppliers

Europe: ART
Ginkgo nuts North America: OGW

GINKGO 87
GOLDEN CHINKAPINS, Chrysolepis and Castanopsis
Evergreen, Zone 7-9, H4-5
Edible seed

Origin and history and short spikes of female flowers (wind and bee pollinated).
One to three roundish nuts are borne in a prickly burr, which
The golden chinkapins (or golden chestnuts) are attractive
ripen in their second autumn. Most species are only hardy to
evergreen trees and shrubs, intermediate between the oaks
zones 7-9 (-5 to 15°C) and do not grow to full size in the UK.
(Quercus) and the chestnuts (Castanea). Castanopsis originate
from southern and eastern Asia, mainly in subtropical regions; Chrysolepis
Chrysolepis originate from the western USA. All have edible nuts. Trees have reddish-brown bark and golden young shoots. Leaves
are glossy and dark yellowish-green above, golden and densely
Description
furry beneath. Flowers are borne on long slender catkins from the
Castanopsis leaf axils of young shoots in July (wind and bee pollinated). Spiny
Plants have dark grey scaly bark and tough leathery leaves round fruits are borne in clusters of 1-3, each containing 1-3 trian-
(often coppery in colour when expanding); spikes of male flowers gular nuts 1.5cm (0.6ins) long that ripen in their second autumn.

Dwarf golden chinkapin (Chrysolepis sempervirens) in flower

88  GOLDEN CHINKAPINS

Uses Cultivation
The seeds of all species are edible, though like acorns in many Castanopsis prefer a warm continental climate and although
species they contain tannins that need to be removed before they are winter hardy in much of Britain, they only flourish when
consumption. See oaks (p.132) for more details of tannin summer temperatures are good. Chrysolepis like Mediterranean
removal. and oceanic climates, and do very well in Britain, fruiting well in
England and Scotland.
The timber from larger species is used for construction and
fencing. The wood also makes good fuel. Plant in any reasonable acid to neutral soil.
Propagation is as for the oaks – usually by seed, which is not
Species dormant, or grafting is possible.
Species Origin Description
Pests and diseases
Castanopsis China A tree in its native habitat growing 15-18m
chinensis (50-60ft) high or more. Bears clusters 10cm All are resistant to chestnut blight (Cryphonectria parasitica).
(4ins) long of densely prickly greenish-
brown fruits. Zone 7/H5. Related species
Castanopsis Japan Japanese chinkapin. A tree to 15m (60ft) Oaks (p.132) and chestnuts (p.197).
cuspidata high or more with wide drooping branches.
Fruit clusters have 6-10 fruits, round at first
but oval when ripe, each enclosing one nut. European & North American suppliers
Zone 7/H5. Europe: BUR, MCN
Castanopsis China Tree to 15m (60ft) high or more. Fruits with
delavayi short prickles are borne in clusters of 6-10, North America: Not known
each round, 12mm (0.5ins) thick, with one
nut. Zone 8/H4.
Castanopsis Eastern Tree to 20m (70ft) high that is found at up
hystrix Himalayas to 2,400m in the Himalayas.
Castanopsis Himalayas Indian chestnut. Tree to 15m (50ft) high.
indica
Castanopsis China A tree 10-20m (33-70ft) high. Fruit clusters
orthocantha are 6cm (2.4ins) long, with burrs rounded,
3cm (1.2ins) across. Zone 8/H4.
Castanopsis China Tree with reddish-brown shoots. Fruit
sclerophylla clusters of 1-3 each bearing a nut 10-14mm
(0.4-0.5ins) across.
Castanopsis Tibet Tibetan chinkapin. Bears nuts 2cm (0.8ins)
tibetana or more across.
Castanopsis Western A tree usually 5-10m (16-33 ft) high,
tribuloides China occasionally more. Bears nuts about 1.5cm
(0.6ins) across.
Chrysolepis Western USA Golden chinkapin, golden chestnut. A tree
chrysophylla to 25m high with furrowed bark. Spiny
husks contains 1-2 seeds, 1cm (0.4ins) long.
Zone 7/H4. Japanese chinkapin nuts
Chrysolepis Western USA Dwarf golden chinkapin. Tree or shrub (Castanopsis cuspidata sieboldii)
sempervirens reaching 3-5 m high and 6m wide with
smooth bark. Zone 6/H6.

GOLDEN CHINKAPINS  89
HAWTHORNS, Crataegus species
Deciduous, Zone 4-7, H5-7
Edible fruit

Origin and history In general, the more persistent fruits that hang on the tree into
the winter are less palatable to humans as well as wildlife.
The genus Crataegus or hawthorn family is a very diverse genus,
containing over 200 species ranging from small shrubs to large Uses
trees, originating from many temperate and subtropical regions
Most, if not all, of the hawthorns have edible fruits, which vary
of the world. It is part of the Rosaceae family which includes
in quality from dull (for example, the native British species
apples, pears, plums, cherries etc., with the disadvantage that
C. monogyna and C. laevigata) to delicious (e.g. C. tanacetifolia
many of the same pests and diseases can attack hawthorns;
and C. schraderiana). Several species are also used medicinally.
however, most hawthorns are hardy and resilient species which
The wood is very hard and strong and useful for tool handles
are easy plants to grow, tolerating most sites and conditions.
and other small items.
Description The fruits can be eaten raw or cooked in pies, made into
Most hawthorns are small thorny trees, 4-8m (13-27ft) high preserves etc. Fruits can be dried for storage and use later.
with rounded heads. White flowers are borne in spring, often They can be made into jams, jellies and fruit leathers. They can
profusely, followed by fruits that ripen in autumn. also be made into wine and vinegar. The fruits are perishable
and only keep in a fridge for a few days, so use them quickly.
Fruits are rather like small apples, usually round or broadly
elliptical, with a thin skin covering a fleshy pulp, and with one Hawthorn fruits are rich in minerals, e.g. Crataegus pinnatifida
to five seeds in a clump at the centre, often stuck together. fruits are moderately high in phosphorus, high in calcium and
Fruit colours range from yellow to green, red and dark purple. very high in potassium and iron.
Fruit size ranges from 5mm (0.2ins) to over 40mm (over 1.5ins).
Hawthorns are an ancient plant of folk medicine – the
The texture varies with some being hard, dry and powdery,
pharmacological properties were described in the first century
some mealy, some crisp and juicy and others soft and juicy.
AD. The flowers and fruits are used to treat cardiac functional
Some taste bitter, others dull and some are delicious; the better
disorders, and the drugs involved reduce blood pressure and
flavoured fruits often have an apple-like flavour. For most
act as a sedative. Hawthorn leaf extracts stimulate heart activity
species fruits ripen from summer to autumn (July to October).
and increase blood pressure.
Hawthorns are most ornamental when flowering or bearing
fruit, and several species are noteworthy for their brightly-
coloured leaves in autumn.

Varieties/Cultivars
The table opposite and overleaf is only a selection of the
hundreds of species that exist. These are species with fruits of
known good quality either raw or cooked (or both). Doubtless
there will be other species not yet evaluated which can be
added to this list. Other species with large fruits of unknown
quality include C. arkansana, C. x dippeliana, C. dunbarii, C. henryi,
and C. peregrina.

Cultivation
Hawthorns generally tolerate most soils, including chalk and
heavy clay, with the optimal being a well-drained but moist
loam. Once established they are quite tolerant of drought and
Crataegus pedicellata fruits waterlogging – some species grow in marshes and swamps in

90 HAWTHORNS
Species Origin Description
C. aestivalis See C. opaca
C. anomala Eastern North Grows to 5m (16ft) tall. Fruits 20mm (0.8ins) in diameter with a good flavour.
America
C. aprica Southeastern Shrub or small tree to 6m (20ft) tall with long spines. Fruits orange-red, 12mm
North America (0.5ins) in diameter, sweet and juicy; 3-5 seeds.
C. armena Fruits 10mm (0.4ins) in diameter; flesh mealy, slightly sweet.
C. arnoldiana Northeastern Grows 4-6m (13-20ft) tall by 4m (13ft) wide. Fruits ripen mid September in England;
‘Arnold Thorn’ North America bright red, 20mm (0.8ins) in diameter with a good sweet flavour; flesh soft,
juicy and mealy; 3-4 seeds
C. azarolus Mediterranean Grows to 6m (20ft) tall and wide with few spines; sometimes cultivated in the
Azarole Mediterranean for its fruit. Fruits orange-yellow (occasionally white or red) 25mm
(1ins) in diameter with a pleasant sweet-acid apple flavour. In cooler climates
the fruit does not always ripen well and is best cooked or used in preserves.
Some improved cultivars have been selected in Mediterranean countries.
C. calpodendron Eastern North Erect tree, grows to 6m (20ft) tall; few thorns. Fruits yellow-red, 10mm (0.4ins)
Blackthorn America in diameter, sweet, succulent.
C. canadensis Eastern North Grows to 9m (30ft) tall. Fruits to 16mm (0.7ins) in diameter, best used cooked.
America
C. coccinea Northeastern Grows to 7m (23ft) tall and wide, with small thorns. Fruits ripen mid October
(syn. C. pedicellata) North America in England, bright red, 10-20cm (4-8ins) in diameter, sweet, dry and mealy –
Scarlet haw best used cooked. Unusually, the fruits store well for up to two months.
C. coccinioides Central North Grows to 6m (20ft) high with large thorns. Fruits bright red, firm, subacid, best
Kansas hawthorn America used cooked; five seeds.
C. columbiana Western North Shrub or small tree to 5m (16ft) tall with large thorns. Fruits red or purple,
America 10mm (0.4ins) in diameter, sweet, mealy, very pleasant flavour.
C. dilatata Eastern North Grows to 6m (20ft) tall. Fruits to 20mm (0.8ins) in diameter, sweet.
America
C. douglasii Western North Grows to 9m (30ft) tall with large spines. Fruits black, 8-15mm (0.3-0.6ins) across,
Black haw America sweet, juicy, good flavour.
C. x durobrivensis Northeastern Tree or multi-stemmed shrub growing 3-4.5m (10-15ft) tall with large thorns.
North America Fruits, ripening in September in England, crimson, 15-18mm (0.6-0.7ins) in
diameter, sweet, fairly juicy when ripe, flavour apple-like.
C. ellwangeriana Eastern North Tree or multi-stemmed shrub to 6m (20ft) tall and wide, with few but large spines.
America Fruits, ripening in September in England, red, 15-18mm (0.6-0.7ins) in diameter,
juicy, acid, very good; heavy yielding; fruits fall from tree just before full ripeness.
C. elongata Eastern North Fruits make pleasant eating.
America
C. festiva Eastern North Fruits yellow, 10mm (0.4ins) in diameter, sweet, juicy, very good.
America
C. flabellata Eastern North Grows to 6m (20ft) tall. Fruits to 15mm (0.6ins) in diameter, sweet, mealy, good.
America
C. flava Southeastern Grows to 8m (26ft) tall with moderately large thorns. Fruits greenish-yellow, to
Summer haw, North America 15mm (0.6ins) in diameter, dry and mealy but used in North America for making
Yellow haw fine-flavoured preserves.
C. gemmosa North America Small tree, bears heavy crops of red fruits 12-15mm (0.5-0.6ins) in diameter,
sweet and succulent.
C. heterophylla Spain to China Shrub or small tree to 5m (16ft) tall with few thorns. Fruits red, up to 15mm
(0.6ins) in diameter, best used cooked.
C. hupehensis Western China Grows to 5m (13ft) high with moderately large thorns. Fruits dark red, 25mm (1ins)
Hupeh haw in diameter, mild flavour.
C. illinoiensis USA Grows 4-6m (13-20ft) tall. Fruits 20mm (0.8ins) in diameter with a good sweet
flavour; flesh soft, juicy and mealy.
C. kansuensis China Fruits are acid and sour, mostly used in China for making wines and vinegars.
C. laciniata Southeast Grows to 6m (20ft) tall, sparsely thorned. Fruits orange-red, downy, 15mm (0.6ins)
(syn. C. orientalis) Europe to China in diameter, good flavour.
C. macrosperma Eastern North Grows to 8m (26ft) tall with large thorns. Fruits red, 15-20mm (0.6-0.8ins) in
America diameter, fair flavour.

HAWTHORNS 91
 Species Origin Description
C. missouriensis Southeastern Shrub or small tree to 6m (20ft) tall and 4m (13ft) wide, with long slender thorns.
North America Fruits ripen late September in England; red, 15-25mm (0.6-1ins) in diameter;
flesh sweet, soft, fairly juicy, good flavour.
C. mollis Eastern & Central Grows to 9m (30ft) tall and wide with a spreading crown. Fruits red, 20-25mm (0.8-
Red haw North America 1ins) in diameter, subacid, dry, mealy, pleasant flavour – best used for preserves.
C. opaca Southern North Also Crataegus aestivalis – eastern mayhaw
Western mayhaw America These two species are now considered distinct but were formerly treated
together. They are similar in tree and fruit characteristics and so are described
together here.
Trees grow to 6-9m (20-30ft) tall and found in the wild in low wet areas along
streams and in swamps; tolerant of very acid conditions. Flowers in early
spring (very frost resistant) are followed in May (in southern USA) by yellow
or red, fragrant, juicy, acid fruits with a pleasant apple-like flavour; frequently
used in North America for making jams and jellies (there are now at least eight
commercial manufacturers of mayhaw jelly in the southeastern USA and over
300,000 trees planted in commercial orchards). Several cultivars have been
selected (mostly from the wild) with red fruits 18-25mm (0.7-1ins) in diameter;
these include ‘Big Red’, ‘Big Sandy #4’, ‘Big ‘V’’, ‘Golden Farris’, ‘Heavy (Southland
Heavy)’, ‘Royalty’, ‘Super Berry’, ‘Super Spur’, ‘Texas Star’, ‘the Gem’, ‘Turkey Apple’
and ‘Warren’s’.
C. pensylvanica Eastern North Grows to 9m (30ft) tall though more commonly to 6m (20ft) with a similar spread.
America Fruits ripen over a month from mid September in England; to 25mm (1ins) or
more in diameter, sweet-acid, very good flavour.
C. persimilis North America Small tree with large thorns, bears large shiny red fruits.
‘Prunifolia’
C. pinnatifida China Grows to 7.5m (25ft) tall with few thorns. Fruits deep glossy red, 25-40mm
var. major (1-1.5ins) in diameter, pleasant flavour – used raw, dried, candied, cooked and
Chinese haw made into drinks. Selections of this are grown commercially in China including
the variety ‘Big Golden Star’ that is available in the UK; other cultivars include
‘Autumn Golden Star’, ‘Big Ball’, ‘Little Golden Star’, ‘Purple Jian’.
C. pontica Central Asia Fruits are of a good size and good flavour – somewhat citrus-like.
C. pruinosa Northeastern Grows to 6m (20ft) high with large thorns. Fruits dark red, 10-16mm (0.4-0.6ins)
Frosted hawthorn North America in diameter, sweet, best used cooked.
C. pubescens Mexico Grows to 10m (33ft) high. Fruits mealy, juicy, best cooked; also used for flavouring
Manzanilla drinks.
C. punctata Eastern North Grows to 10m (33ft) tall with large thorns. Fruits deep red, 25mm (1ins) in
Dotted hawthorn America diameter, apple-like texture and appearance, good flavour.
C. rotundifolia Eastern North Grows to 6m (20ft) high. Fruits to 15mm (0.6ins) in diameter, sweet, mealy,
America pleasant flavour.
C. rufula Southeastern Round-headed small tree. Fruits ripen in early summer and are 12mm (0.5ins) or
Rufus or Florida USA more in diameter, dry, mealy, and borne in profusion; best used in preserves.
mayhaw
C. scabrifolia China Fruits are yellow or white and eaten raw or processed in China.
C. schraderiana Mountains of Grows to 6m (20ft) tall and 5m (16ft) wide. Fruits ripen in late September or October
Greece in England, hanging on the tree for a further four weeks; 12-18 mm (0.5-0.7ins)
or more in diameter, soft, juicy, melting, with a delicious flavour.
C. songorica East Asia Fruits small, mealy, juicy, quite pleasant.
C. submollis Northeastern Grows to 7.5m (25ft) high and wide; thorny. Fruits pale red, 20-25mm (0.8-1ins)
North America in diameter, sweet, juicy, mealy, pleasant flavour; five seeds.
C. champlainensis appears to be the same as this species.
C. subvillosa East Asia, North Fruits have an agreeable flavour.
America
C. succulenta Eastern North Grows to 6m (20ft) tall with large thorns. Fruits deep red, 30-40mm (1.2-1.5ins)
Succulent haw America in diameter; flesh sweet, juicy, pulpy.
C. tanacetifolia West Asia Grows 6-9m (20-30ft) tall and similar in width. Fruits ripen early October in
Tansy leaved England, yellowish, 20-25 mm (0.8-1ins) in diameter, firm, juicy with a distinct
thorn, Syrian haw good apple flavour. Thornless.
C. viridis Southeastern Thornless small tree, bears 20mm (0.8ins) orange-red fruits.
‘Winter King’ USA

92 HAWTHORNS
their native habitat and thrive in such situations. Many species
are tolerant of exposure, even to salt-laden winds, and can
be used in hedges although fruiting will be much reduced
in exposed situations. They are also tolerant of atmospheric
pollution. Most species are hardy to -20°C (-4°F) or more. Azarole fruits (Crataegus azarolus)
Trees should be spaced at 7.5m (25ft) apart for maximum fruit
production, but closer spacings are possible.
Flowers are produced in early to late spring, usually before the from rodents. If seed is harvested green (just before it is fully
leaves open, and are usually white. The trees are particularly ripe, when the embryo has developed but before the seedcoat
orna­mental during flowering. Trees are self-fertile, with pollination hardens) and sown immediately then it often germinates the
carried out by insects, particularly wild and honey bees. following spring.
Fruit production is highest in sunny sites, although trees will Grafting: Rare species and superior fruiting forms are usually
tolerate a semi-shaded position. Fruits are produced mainly propagated by grafting onto seedling rootstocks (usually C.
on the outside of the tree and ripen 6-8 weeks after flowering monogyna in Britain, but any Crataegus species will do). Simple
(this short period between flowering and fruit ripening reduces whip and tongue grafts in spring succeed quite easily. Grafted
chances of pest and disease damage). Because hawthorns are plants usually start fruiting within a couple of years.
nearly always thorny, fruits are often easier to harvest by gently
shaking the branches over a sheet than by picking individual Pests and diseases
fruits. Fruits should be harvested every other day to minimise Pests are not generally a problem. Birds and other wildlife may
bird damage. take the ripe fruits and if this occurs, some protective measures
Pruning is best kept to a minimum as the thorny branches may be necessary.
make it tiresome, although hawthorns are very tolerant of The only disease of note is fireblight (Erwinia amylovora) to
pruning. Remember that most species naturally form a rounded which some species are susceptible, including the UK native
head, and will not easily grow to central leader form. Some C. monogyna. The symptoms on hawthorns are similar to those
formation pruning of young trees may be desirable to remove on apples – blossoms and leaves become blighted, blackening
low branches and form a decent framework of branches, and wilting but remaining hanging on the tree. The bacterium
otherwise just cut off dead, diseased or excessively crowded can spread down along shoots that start rapidly dying back.
branches in winter. Flowers and fruit are borne on one and Hawthorns are rarely killed and often only show mild signs of
two-year-old wood. the disease, but can be a source of infection for other trees.
Propagation from seed: Hybridisation is common when plants The disease is still fairly uncommon in the UK but is widespread
of more than one species are grown together, so to ensure the in parts of North America. Many hawthorns are resistant to
true species from seed, the different species must be noted fireblight, including C. coccinea and C. prunifolia.
to flower at a different time or else have their flowers bagged.
Plants are self-fertile and seedling trees take from 5-8 years Related species
before they start bearing fruit, though grafted trees will often There are a number of hawthorn shrubs with good quality fruits
flower heavily in their third year. including C. baroussana, C. cuneata and C. jonesiae.
Hawthorn seed is deeply dormant and requires stratification European & North American suppliers
for at least one winter, sometimes two or three, before it
Europe: ART, THN
germinates. Germination is often slow and erratic and may be
spread over several spring seasons. Make sure seed is protected North America: HSN

HAWTHORNS 93
HAZEL, Corylus avellana and C. maxima
Deciduous, Zone 4, H7
Edible nuts
Poles/stakes

Origin and history A clear, yellow, non-drying oil is obtained from the nuts; this
is used in food, for painting, in perfumes, as a fuel oil, for the
Hazels and filberts are deciduous shrubby nut-bearing species
manufacture of soaps and for machinery.
of the genus Corylus and the family Betulaceae. Filberts are of
the species C. maxima and hazelnuts (or cobnuts) of the species Apart from the edible nuts, hazels are best known for their use
C. avellana; although many of the good fruiting cultivars are as a coppice species. The poles from coppice (‘wands’) are long
a result of hybrids between the two species and with other and flexible and have been traditionally used for many years for
Corylus species. The names have become confused over the wattle fencing (branches are usually split, then weaved to make
years and some hazels are called filberts and vice versa; here I sections of fence); water diviner’s rods; thatching spars; walking
am describing both. sticks; fishing rods; basketry; clothes props; pea and bean sticks;
hedging stakes used when laying a hedge; firewood, notably for
The word ‘hazel’ originates from the Anglo-Saxon word for
brick kilns and baking ovens; construction of wattle and daub
hood or bonnet, ‘haesel’; ‘filbert’ probably originates from
walls; crates; hurdles; barrel hoops; and fascines for laying
St. Philbert, whose feast day was celebrated on August 22nd.
under roads in boggy areas.
Other common names include cobnut, Pontic nut, Lombardy
nut and Spanish nut. Hazel wood is soft, elastic, reddish-white with dark lines, and is
easy to split but not very durable. Older wood has been used
Description by joiners and sieve makers, and charcoal from the wood for
Hazel are small trees or large shrubs, commonly to 5m (16ft) gunpowder manufacture. Root wood, veined and variegated,
high (but sometimes twice that height) and a similar spread. was once used for inlay cabinet work.
The much-branched stems show prominent breathing pores,
Hazels are an excellent hedging species, though fruiting will
and have mottled grey and brown bark.
be much reduced in an exposed location. The foliage is also
The distinctive male catkins are yellow and 3-6cm (1.2-2.4ins) attractive to grazing animals if they can get to it.
long, shedding their pollen in February and March; female
The leaves are very palatable to cattle and have been used
flowers are tiny 5mm (0.2ins) red tassels. Most trees have male
as a source of cattle fodder; this may be particularly useful if
and female flowers ripen at different times so are not self-fertile.
coppicing is undertaken in summer.
Pollination is by the wind.
Leaves contain, on average, 2.2% N, 0.12% P, 0.7% K. Leaf litter
Fruits form in clusters of 1-4. In true hazel (C. avellana) the
is sufficiently nitrogen and potassium-rich to benefit other
leafy bracts are shorter than the length of the nut, i.e. the nut
nearby crops – i.e. hazel can be used as a green manure crop.
sticks out. In filbert (C. maxima) the leafy bracts are tubular and
closed, twice as long as the nut and completely enclosing it. Varieties/Cultivars
Nuts are pale green ripening to pale brown, round to oval
There are hundreds of cultivars across the world. The table
(or longer in filbert), 15-30mm (0.6-1.2ins) long, ripening from
opposite is a selection of the main varieties used in northern
mid September to October. In true hazels the nuts fall free of
Europe and North America. Much of the recent breeding work
the bracts, in filberts the nuts often fall within the bracts.
has taken place in Oregon, USA to produce trees resistant to
Hazels and filberts are not particularly deep rooting, having eastern filbert blight (EF blight).
small tap roots and plentiful shallow roots. They are not
particularly long-lived species, to about 70-80 years at most. Cultivation
A wide range of soil pH is tolerated (5.5-7.5), with the optimum
Uses around 6.0. Hazel tolerates a wide variety of soils, from
The nuts, known as hazelnuts, cobnuts or filberts, are eaten calcareous to acid loams and clays. Soil of poor to moderate
raw, roasted or salted, and are used in confectionery and fertility is most suitable – a very fertile soil may result in excess
baked goods. vegetative growth at the expense of cropping. Adequate
moisture and good drainage are essential.

94 HAZEL
 Cultivar Origin Description
‘Barcelona’ Spain Old variety still widely used in USA and
elsewhere.
‘Butler’ USA Very large round nuts. High yields.
‘Clark’ USA Small trees with very good quality nuts.
‘Corabel’ France Late ripening, very large round nuts.
‘Cosford’ UK Moderate yields of medium-sized nuts.
‘Dorris’ USA Very recent variety. Nuts medium sized,
excellent quality. Trees resistant to EF blight.
‘Ennis’ nuts
‘Ennis’ USA Large nuts borne in high yields.
‘Epsilon’ USA Recent. Pollinating variety, resistant to EF blight.
‘Felix’ USA Very recent. Pollinating variety, resistant to EF
Hazel is fairly shade tolerant, often being seen as part of the blight.
understorey in forests, however cropping will suffer in shade. ‘Gamma’ USA Recent. Pollinating variety, resistant to EF blight.

Plant in autumn or early winter at a spacing of 4.5-5m (15-16ft) ‘Gunslebert’ Germany Medium-sized nuts, best cropping in a dry
climate.
apart each way, or with rows wider apart and plants closer within
‘Halls Giant’ France Nuts large, conical. Heavy cropping trees.
rows (e.g. 6 x 3.5m, 20 x 12ft) to allow for mechanical access.
‘Jefferson’ USA Very recent. Large nuts, very high yields,
Hazels and filberts are usually grown on their own roots: this resistant to EF blight.
makes propagation (by layering) easy but leads to many suckers. ‘Kent Cob’ France A filbert, medium-sized nut. Harvested as
Most commercial operations grow trees on a single stem (to speciality crop in UK picked young at milky stage.
ease mechanical harvesting) hence suckers must be constantly ‘Lewis’ USA Recent variety, crops over a long period, good
removed. However on a smaller scale trees can be grown in a quality nuts.
multi-stemmed bush form, ideally with some pruning to form a ‘McDonald’ USA Very recent. Tree very open, bears good crops of
goblet shape, allowing light into the centre of the tree. large nuts, trees resistant to EF blight.
‘Pauetet’ Spain Heavy crops of medium to large nuts.
Flowering takes place between January and March, usually
spanning 4-6 weeks. Flowers are wind pollinated and are quite ‘Pearsons UK Heavy crops of medium-sized nuts.
Prolific’
hardy, although severe frosts and wet and windy conditions
‘Sacajawea’ USA Recent variety, excellent quality nuts, trees
damage flowers; rain clears the air of pollen grains and excess resistant to EF blight.
moisture destroys pollen viability (which even in sunny weather
‘Santiam’ USA Recent variety, moderate quality nuts, trees
is only for a few hours). Female flowers are most receptive 2-3 resistant to EF blight.
weeks after they first emerge. Flowers (and nuts) are borne on
‘Segorbe’ France Nuts large, trees heavy croppers.
the previous year’s wood. Two or three different varieties are
‘Tonda di Italy A major commercial nut, prefers hot climate.
recommended for good pollination, unless there are wild Giffoni’ Nuts large, trees heavy croppers.
hazels nearby.
‘Webbs UK A filbert, heavy crops of nuts borne in large
Most cultivars start bearing fruit after 3-4 years. However, hazels Prize Cob’ clusters.
tend to bear erratically and often bear crops biennially. ‘Wepster’ USA Very recent. Heavy cropper of small sweet nuts.
Resistant to EF blight.
Yields increase to a maximum after about 15 years from
‘Willamette’ USA Recent variety, heavy crops of large nuts.
planting. Mature trees often yield 11kg (25lb) of nuts, although
‘Yamhill’ USA Very recent. Small, productive trees bearing
an average of 3-5kg (7-11lb) is more normal. small nuts. Resistant to EF blight.
A mature orchard (plat) regularly yields 1-2 tonnes of dry nuts ‘York’ USA Very recent. Pollinating variety, resistant to EF
per hectare (400-800kg/ac, or 880-1,760lb/ac), and newer blight.

HAZEL 95
 Pests and diseases
Grey (American) squirrels are the worst pest: they may eat the
whole crop, before it has even ripened. If you have grey squirrels
around then you will need to reduce squirrel numbers by lethal
measures or face having no crop. Shooting or trapping in live
cage traps are the most humane methods. Other wildlife pests
include crows and mice, and if these become a problem control
measures may be necessary.
Eastern filbert blight (Anisogramma anomala) is a serious disease
in North America. The American hazel, Corylus americana, is
the natural host of this disease but it is far more devastating to
the European species grown in North America. It is not present
in Europe. In infected trees, yields rapidly decline and large
Webbs Prize Cob nuts
cankers form that can girdle entire limbs. Plants are killed a
few years after the cankers spread to the main trunk. Most
cultivars are susceptible, though ‘Barcelona’ and ‘Halls Giant’
cultivars have the potential to yield an average of 3t/ha (2,640lb/ are somewhat tolerant and ‘Gasaway’ is very resistant. The best
ac) and twice that in a good cropping year. control is to cut out and burn infected branches.
On a small scale, harvest before nuts fall to the ground, as Nut weevils (Balaninus nucum in Europe, Curculio sp. in the US)
losses to mice and squirrels will be very significant. When these destroy maturing nuts. These small brown beetles lay their
pests are a serious problem, early picking may be necessary. eggs in immature nuts, which hatch into small white maggots
Branches can be shaken by hand to loosen nuts, which can be that feed on the kernel. Many of these infested nuts fall from
picked from the ground. the tree in July and August. In August, the maggots bore holes
On a larger scale, commercial crops are harvested either after in the shell to escape and pupate in the soil. Infestations
nuts fall, or by using mechanical shakers, followed by the use are rarely serious, and the best control measures are to;
of pick-up harvesters. Two or three passes are required over the regularly collect and burn fallen nuts during July and August;
ripening season to pick up nuts. run poultry under trees at that time; and to hoe or shallow
cultivate beneath bushes in September, which helps to destroy
Empty nuts can be separated off by placing seeds in water – overwintering pupae.
seeds that float at the surface are empty.
Filbertworm (Melissopus latigerranus) is a pest of western
Nuts can be dried by storing in shallow layers in trays, or in nets, North America, where larvae feed on kernels. Thin-shelled
in a dry, airy room. Turn them occasionally to ensure thorough cultivars are more susceptible.
drying. Natural drying may take 4-6 weeks – in Britain added
heat may be necessary. Nuts that are damp soon become Bacterial blight (Xanthomonas campestris pv. corylina) – this
mouldy and tainted. Commercial crops are dried with hot bacterium, closely related to that causing walnut blight, can
blown air at 35-40°C (95-104°F) to 8-10% moisture. cause a bacterial blight on hazelnuts and filberts. The bacterium
causes leaf-spotting, dieback of branches and even death of
Hazel coppice has been a valuable shrub crop in temperate trees in nurseries and young plantations. Trees under stress are
areas for many centuries; coppiced stools themselves can live most susceptible. Control is by copper sprays.
many hundreds of years.
Hazel is usually grown as a short-rotation coppice for a supply Related species
of poles for the many uses described above. A 7-10 year rotation American hazel, C. americana, has been hybridised with C. avellana
is the norm, and for this type of coppice a density of 1,500-2,000 to produce blight-resistant productive trees, notably at
plants per hectare (600-800 plants per acre) is appropriate. This Badgersett Research Corporation in the USA.
means a planting distance of 2.2-2.6m (7-8.5ft) between plants. C. colurna, the Turkish hazel, has small hard nuts but its hybrids
For silvicultural use, hazels are normally propagated by seed. with C. avellana are known as trazels. These are single-stemmed
Seed should be stratified for 16 weeks in damp sand (taking trees with good quality nuts.
care to exclude rodents from the storage area) before sowing.
European & North American suppliers
Stool layering works for many cultivars and leads to one year
Europe: ART, BLK, BUC, COO, DEA, KPN, OFM, REA
rooted plants. One-year-old stooled shoots of pencil thickness
are ringed at the base, smeared with hormone rooting paste North America: BRN, GNN
and covered with soil in May. Rooted shoots may be detached
the following winter.

96 HAZEL
HEARTNUT, Juglans ailantifolia var. cordiformis
Deciduous, Zone 4-5, H7
Edible nuts

Origin and history The bark has been used medicinally, being anthelmintic,
astringent, diuretic, lithontripic, pectoral, and a kidney tonic.
Native to Japan, the heartnut was introduced into North
It and the nut husks are rich in tannins and can both be used for
America in the 1800s, and a century later selection work to
dyeing a brown colour without the use of a mordant.
identify good fruiting trees with quality nuts was well under
way. Its potential as a commercial and garden nut tree is now The wood is dark brown, light, soft, not easily cracked or
very good. It also makes a beautiful ornamental tree, with large warped, not strong or very valuable; it is used in Japan for
compound leaves giving it an almost tropical appearance. cabinet making, utensils and gun stocks.

Description
The heartnut is a medium-sized tree growing to 15m (50ft)
high or more, with a broad crown and dense canopy. The
bark is light grey with dark vertical cracks. Like several of the
walnut family, young branches and leaf stalks are clothed with
glandular hairs.
The leaves are large and compound: 40-60cm (16-24ins) long
or more – sometimes 1m (3ft) long. Male flowers (catkins) in
spring are very striking – yellowish green, 10-30cm (4-12ins)
long. Female flowers are small and similar to walnut except they
are borne on strings with 10-20 flowers per string. Although the
heartnut flowers before walnut, it is more frost resistant.
Fruits are formed in long strings of up to 20; they are roundish-
oval, with a sticky downy husk.
Nuts are thin shelled, 3cm (1.2ins) long (more in some cultivars),
flattened, smooth, with a broad heart-shaped base. They ripen
in late September or October, before most walnuts.

Uses
The nuts have a gentle walnut flavour, without the bitter
aftertaste of English walnuts – in taste tests, a majority of people
preferred the taste to that of English walnuts. They can be used
in place of English walnuts in all situations – for baked goods,
candies, ice cream and fresh eating.
Nuts are rich in oil – sometimes as high as 60% of kernel weight.
The shells are also high in oil and burn well. In-shell heartnuts
have a long storage life – 3-4 years or more.
The nuts, in the soft green stage before the shells harden (when
English walnuts are sometimes pickled), are very rich in vitamin C.
At this stage the whole nuts can be pickled or blended whole
and have honey added as a sweetener, then used as a nut
marmalade. Fruits of heartnut ‘CW3’

HEARTNUT 97
 Cultivation
Heartnuts are easy trees to grow, with few
pests or diseases. It grows vigorously in
a variety of soils and conditions. A moist,
well-drained soil and sun are essential
though. They originate from Japan and are
well suited to temperate maritime regions
with regular summer rainfall; unlike most
walnut family members, they grow and
crop better in cooler regions than warmer
ones. They are more tolerant of late frosts
than English walnuts and are more winter
hardy. Branches are strong, attached to the
trunk at wide angles and not susceptible
to breakage in high winds.
There is very little care needed after
trees are planted – there are few pests
or diseases, and little pruning needed.
Heartnut trees are quite likely to produce
juglone from roots and leaves, like other
members of the walnut family, which has
an allelopathic effect on some other plants
A spike of female heartnut flowers (notably apples and white pines).
Planting is usually at a minimum spacing
of 10m (33ft) between trees, giving 100
trees per hectare or 40 trees per acre. For
Varieties/Cultivars faster commercial production, initial planting could be at twice
this density, with the aim of thinning the trees after 12-15 years.
The best cultivars have nuts of a good size that crack well. Good
Or the gaps between widely-spaced trees can be used for an
cracking varieties have nuts which fracture reliably on the suture
interplanted crop for 7-10 years.
line, internal shell cavities with four smooth open lobes which
easily release the kernel, and the kernel should fall from the shell Growth is fast – 1m (3ft) per year in Britain is quite common.
in one or two pieces as it falls from the cracker. Crackers designed Heartnuts are wind pollinated, so adequate pollination is
for English walnuts work well with good varieties of heartnuts. dependent on good weather conditions in June. Flower
Flavour and eating quality does not differ very much between initiation also depends on suitable conditions during the
cultivars. With these good cultivars, kernel percentage is usually previous summer.
30-35% of the whole in-shell nut. Self-fertility appears to be more common in heartnuts than in
Most of the recent heartnut selections have been made in the English walnuts. Flowering overlaps with that of butternuts,
Great Lakes region of North America – from Ontario in Canada, and cross-pollination between the different species does occur.
to New York and Pennsylvania in the USA. They have been Like other walnuts, the male and female flowers on a particular
made by selecting the best cultivars from seedlings of the older tree are often fertile at different times. For this reason, two or
cultivars. more selections should be planted to ensure good cropping.

98 HEARTNUT
 Cultivar Origin Description
‘Brock’ USA Large nuts, productive tree, older variety.
‘Callandar’ USA Medium nuts, moderately productive tree.
‘Campbell CW1’ Ontario Medium-large nuts, very productive tree.
‘Campbell CW3’ Ontario Medium nuts, productive compact tree.
‘Campbell CWW’ Ontario Medium nuts, productive tree.
‘Etter’ USA Small nuts, moderate producer, older
variety.
‘Fodermaier’ USA Medium nuts, moderate producer, hardy
older variety.
‘Imshu’ Ontario Medium nuts, very productive tree.
‘Locket’ Ontario Medium nuts, very productive tree.
‘Pike’ USA Medium nuts, moderate producer.
‘Rhodes’ Ontario Large nuts, productive tree, self-fertile and
late flowering.
‘Simcoe’ Ontario Large nuts, very productive tree.
‘Stealth’ Ontario Medium nut, good producer.
‘Wright’ Ontario Medium nut, good producer.

The nuts fall to the ground when ripe in autumn, usually inside
the green husks. Harvesting is similar to that for English walnuts
– Nut Wizards work well. The husks must be removed promptly,
either by hand (the husks are loose when they fall and can be
Nuts of heartnut ‘Fodermaier’
rubbed off easily) or mechanically (a concrete mixer with stones
and water works well for example).
budding and greenwood tip grafting in early summer can also
The nuts can then be dried (in temperatures under 43°C/77°F)
be successful.
and stored. Easier cracking occurs about one month later, when
halves crack easier at the seam (suture). Established trees can be top worked by spring bark grafting and
chip budding; also by cleft grafting.
Cropping of grafted trees starts at about 4-5 years (5-7 years for
seedlings). Heartnuts can be layered – i.e. propagated on their own roots –
if there is a convenient low branch.
Year Average crop Average crop at 100 trees/hectare
per tree (40 trees/acre) Seedling propagation is quite easy – seeds are best sown in
winter and allowed to be cold chilled. Protect against rodents.
5 2.3kg (5lb) 230kg/ha
200lb/ac
Pests and diseases
10 23kg (50lb) 2300kg/ha
2000lb/ac Heartnuts are resistant to walnut blight (Xanthomonas
15+ 34kg (75lb) 3400kg/ha campestris pv. juglandis), leaf spot or walnut anthracnose
3000lb/ac (Gnomonia leptostyla), butternut canker and walnut husk flies
(Rhagoletis completa). In warm climates they can be susceptible
These are average yields – mature trees can sometimes yield to bunch or broom disease – a mycoplasma-like organism
double these figures in a good year. In general, though, heartnut which causes ‘witches’ brooms’ or dense clumps of branches to
productiveness and kernel quality is more constant from year to form on limbs.
year than many other nut trees. Even an average yield of 3.4t/ha
(3300lb/ac) has the potential to be highly profitable because of Related species
the low maintenance costs required. Also described in this book are black walnut (Juglans nigra,
Trees can remain highly productive for 75 years or more. p.39), butternut (Jugland cinerea, p.52), buartnut (Juglans x
bixbyi, p.46) and walnut (Juglans regia, p.204).
Propagation of cultivars is usually by grafting, normally onto
seedling heartnuts, butternuts (Juglans cinerea) or black walnut European & North American suppliers
(Juglans nigra) seedlings. Like other walnuts, grafting is quite
Europe: ART
difficult and needs warm temperatures around the graft union.
In spring, the use of a hot grafting pipe can be useful. Chip North America: BRN, GNN, NRN

HEARTNUT 99
HICKORIES, Carya species
Deciduous, Zone 5, H7
Edible nuts
Timber

Origin and history

Some 14 species of Carya are found in eastern North America
(plus several hybrids), and a further six in China. The nuts, which
are of comparable sizes to walnuts, are rich in oils and edible
from most, though not all, of the species. The better ones
have a rich walnut-like flavour. Most nuts are hard shelled,
like black walnuts. Here I concentrate on the three most useful
edible hickories: C. laciniosa, C. ovata and C. tomentosa.
Pecan (C. illinoinensis) is described separately on p.100.

Description
The hickories, Carya species, are closely related to walnuts,
and like them are usually large deciduous trees which can
live to a great age, 400-500 years. They tend to form upright
cylindrical crowns when grown in the open.
They have alternate pinnate leaves each with 3-17 leaflets.
Male flowers are borne in catkins and female flowers in spikes,
to be followed by large fruits consisting of a single nut
surrounded by a leathery skin (husk or outer shell) that splits
open at maturity. The foliage is aromatic.
All species have pronounced taproots that securely anchor the
trees if soil conditions allow.

Uses
Edible nuts have a sweet kernel contained within a shell varying
in thickness from species to species and within the species also.
Thick-shelled species are difficult to crack and may contain
kernels weighing only 20% of the total nut. The kernels can be
eaten raw, like other nuts, and can also be made into an oily
‘hickory milk’ used like butter, and ground into a flour and used
in breads etc.
Shagbark hickory (so called for the shaggy bark
Kernels are rich in oils and resemble walnuts in richness of on older trees)
flavour. The oil can be extracted and is suitable for any culinary
uses. The oil is also used in making paints in China and has
been used for oil lamps and medicinally for rheumatism. as ‘red hickory’, and the sapwood is sold separately as ‘white
All species can be tapped for the sap, which is concentrated to hickory’. High quality timber is used for the manufacture of skis,
make a syrup like maple syrup, or made into a wine etc. gymnastic bars, and other athletic equipment (golf club shafts,
lacrosse sticks, tennis racquets, basketball bats, longbows)
The shells are used for making activated charcoal in China.
and as a flooring material for gymnasiums, roller skate rinks
The wood of hickories is well known for its strength and and ballrooms. Some wood is used in making furniture, in
resilience and is excellent for tool handles (hammers, picks, piano construction, for butcher’s blocks, wall panelling and
axes etc.). The heartwood is brown or reddish-brown and sold interior trim, dowels, ladder rungs and pallets, heavy sea fishing

100 HICKORIES
rods, drum sticks, wheel spokes and vehicle bodies. It makes Cultivation
excellent firewood and charcoal, and is used in the smoking of
Hickories are well suited to low input, sustainable agricultural
meats and cheeses.
systems, where the long-lived multifunctional trees are a valuable
A yellow dye is obtained by using the bark of any of these three resource for food, fuel and high quality timber. They are relatively
species with an alum mordant. Other dyes are obtained from slow to crop (10 years or more) and yields are moderate (often
the leaves. 22-45kg/48-100lb per tree, once every 2-3 years).

Varieties/Cultivars Hickories prefer a good fertile soil, preferably a deep moisture-

retentive loam, though they tolerate both light and heavy soils,
Shellbark hickory (C. laciniosa) has the largest nuts, to 5cm (2ins)
and acid and alkaline conditions. All hickories prefer a climate
in length; shagbark hickory (C. ovata) has nuts 2.5-4cm (1-1.5ins)
with hot summers, and they need a position in sun but with
long; mockernut hickory (C. tomentosa) has nuts about 3cm
(1.2ins) long.
Many cultivars have been selected over the last 100 years in the
USA but only a few are available commercially, including those
below.
Cultivars Origin Description
‘Dewey Moore’ USA C. laciniosa. Moderate producer of thin shelled
nuts.
‘Doghouse’ USA C. laciniosa x C. ovata. Large nuts of good
flavour.
‘Glover’ USA C. ovata. Small nuts, crack well.
‘Grainger’ USA C. ovata. Medium nuts, good producer.
‘Fayette’ USA C. laciniosa. Large nuts, good annual producer. 1 cm
‘Henning’ USA C. laciniosa. Large nuts, fast grower.
‘Henry’ USA C. laciniosa. Large nuts, good producer.
Nuts of shagbark hickory ‘Glover’
‘Keystone’ USA C. laciniosa. Large nuts, thin shelled, good
bearer.
‘Lindauer’ USA C. laciniosa. Large nuts, very heavy producer.
‘Neilson’ USA C. ovata. Nuts medium-large, good precocious
cropper.
‘Porter’ USA C. ovata. Nuts medium, regular bearer.
‘Selbhers’ USA C. laciniosa. Large nuts, early season good
bearer.
‘Silvis 303’ USA C. ovata. Nuts large, good producer.
‘Simpson’ USA C .laciniosa. Medium-size nuts, heavy
producer.
‘Walters’ USA C. ovata. Nuts very large, cracks well.
‘Weschcke’ USA C. ovata or hybrid. Medium nut,
good precocious producer.
1 cm
‘Wilcox’ USA C. ovata. Medium nuts, good producer.
‘Yoder #1’ USA C. ovata x C. laciniosa. Medium nuts,
good precocious bearer. Nuts of shellbark hickory ‘Henry’

HICKORIES 101
shelter from strong winds in Britain. Transplanting should be
undertaken with care because of the long fleshy tap root: HIMALAYAN
for their first few years, young trees form a taproot with only a
few lateral feeder roots, and this taproot is usually longer and SEA BUCKTHORN,
thicker than the above-ground stem. If buying or raising plants,
either grow them in open-bottomed containers that air-prune Hippophae salicifolia
the tap root, or undercut the taproot (at 20-25cm, 8-10ins below
ground level) at least a year before transplanting. They are Deciduous, Zone 7-8, H5
very slow growing for the first five years or so, but then make Edible fruit
good growth; planting in tree shelters may be advantageous. Nitrogen fixing
Hickories become large trees in time, requiring 6-12m (20-40ft)
of width, so plant at wide spacing and use the ground between
to intercrop for several years.
Origin and history
Native to the southern Himalayas (India, Nepal, Tibet), the
The flowers are wind pollinated, produced in April to May. Himalayan sea buckthorn is a larger, more tree-like version of
Although all species are monoecious (bearing both male and the better-known European sea buckthorn (H. salicifolia) and
female flowers) and self-fertile like walnuts, very often the male like the latter has edible fruits that are highly valued in its
and female flowers are borne at different times and the overlap native range.
is not always sufficient for good pollination. Better crops are
thus produced when cross-pollination takes place between Description
different tree selections. Male flowers are produced on slender, The Himalayan sea buckthorn is an upright small to medium-
drooping catkins that arise from lateral buds; female flowers are sized tree, reaching 10-12m (33-40ft) high and 3-4m (10-13ft)
borne in a spike at the end of the current season’s shoot. wide. It suckers much less and is less spiny than the European
The fruit ripens and falls in the autumn; the outer husk (outer sea buckthorn. In very mild climates it may become evergreen.
shell) splits along sutures and either releases the hard-shelled Leaves are distinctively willow-like, short-stalked, long,
nut or falls still encasing the nut. narrow and greenish-silvery on both sides.
Hickories are late to leaf out – usually late May or June in Britain The sea buckthorns belong to the family Elaeagnaceae
– and relatively early to drop their leaves in autumn – October in (like Elaeagnus and Myrica) and like all members of that family
Britain. There is thus good potential for growing an undercrop, are nitrogen fixing. Both sea buckthorns here are dioecious –
particularly one that is cropped in late spring. When in leaf they i.e. plants are male or female, and both sexes are needed for
cast a relatively heavy shade. fruiting. It is not possible to sex seedlings before they are 3-4
Grafting of hickories, like walnuts, is difficult, but remains years old.
the only way of propagating named selections at present. The fruits on female trees are round, yellow-orange, 6-8mm
Rootstocks used are normally seedlings of the same species (0.3ins) across (the size of redcurrants) and borne densely along
(or one of the parents), which make strong graft unions. the branches in autumn.
Seeds of most species require three months of cold
stratification before germination will take place. Seeds from Uses
named cultivars have a high chance of growing into good The fruits are used in many ways. They are quite acid raw but
productive, precocious trees themselves. very high in vitamins (A, C, E) and minerals. Methods of using
the fruit include:
Pests and diseases
• Juices and drinks (sweetened). The fresh juice can be
There are few pests and diseases. Squirrels are a serious preserved with honey (four parts juice to one part honey).
pest and may have to be controlled. Hickories, like walnuts, It can then also be used as a sweetener or to make liqueurs.
contain juglone in the leaves (and probably the roots too); this
substance can have detrimental effects on some other plants, • Syrups, jams, marmalades and compotes.
such as apples and the white pines. See pecans (p.152) that • Making a sauce to accompany fish and meat (similar to
share pests and diseases. cranberry sauce).
• The juice can be used in place of lemon juice.
Related species • The juice is used in beers and wines.
Pecans – see p.150.
Although not documented, it is very likely the fruits have similar
European & North American suppliers medicinal uses as the European sea buckthorn.
Europe: ART Sea buckthorns are highly salt and wind-resistant and are excel-
North America: GNN, NRN lent for hedging and shelterbelts as long as there is good light.

102 HICKORIES
Varieties/Cultivars
There are none in cultivation outside the native range. A selec­tion
for use as a street tree, ‘Streetwise’ has been made in the UK
that has been used in London.

Cultivation
Tolerates damp clay soils and can be grown almost anywhere;
the main limiting factor to its growth is its demand for light:
seedlings will not grow at all if shaded, and mature plants
quickly die if trees overshadow them. Also it cannot tolerate
waterlogged soil for very long. A wide range of soil pH is
tolerated.
Because plants are male and female, a mixture is needed for
fruiting to occur – at least one male within a vicinity of 25m
(80ft) of females.
Growth is fast – to 8m (27ft) in 10 years. Fruit is borne early,
after 3-4 years, and fruiting is normally every year.
Fruits ripen in October and hang well on the trees for several
weeks. Because they are so juicy, hand harvesting fruits of trees
can be a messy business! If you have access to a freezer then
you can prune off the heavy fruiting branches and freeze briefly
which makes removing fruits very easy. Himalayan sea buckthorn
When processing fruit, the juice should be exposed to the
air and light for as short a time as possible, and aluminium
pans should not be used. Vitamin levels will decline through
prolonged heating, so minimum cooking times should be
employed. Fruit can be successfully preserved by freezing.
Propagation is normally by seed. Cuttings do not take easily in
my experience. Seed requires a little cold stratification (4-8 weeks)
and can be slow to germinate.

Pests and diseases

There are none of note.

Related species
Sea buckthorn/Seaberry (H. rhamnoides) is described on p.180.

European & North American suppliers

Europe: ART
North America: Not known Fruits of the Himalayan sea buckthorn

HIMALAYAN SEA BUCKTHORN  103

HONEY LOCUST, Gleditsia triacanthos
Deciduous, Zone 3, H7
Edible pulp from pods
Nitrogen fixing

Origin and history A naturally occurring form, f. inermis, is thornless and it is from
this that the thornless ornamental forms have been developed.
The honey locust is a North American tree that is currently
attracting considerable interest in the agroforestry field. It has Uses
occasionally naturalised in central and southern Europe. Other
The pulp around the seeds in the pods is edible, being sweet
common names used for it include sweet bean, sweet locust
and molasses-like, and sugar can be extracted from it. Pods
and honeyshuck.
generally contain 12-14% sugar, although in selected cultivars
Description this rises to up to 40%. Various North American recipes exist for
making a beer from the pulp.
In warm climates the honey locust can grow into a large tree up
to 45m (150ft) tall, but more commonly it grows at most 20m The tender young pods are edible when cooked. Also edible
(70ft) tall with a spread of 15m (50ft). Trees are deep rooted, are the young seeds – raw or cooked, sweet and tasting like raw
long lived and open-growing with a long trunk. Trees frequently peas. Roasted seeds can be used as a coffee substitute.
send up suckers from the roots.
Until recently, the honey locust (and others in the Gleditsia genus)
The trunk and branches are usually densely armed with stout, was thought not to fix nitrogen, but it now appears that it does
sharp, flat thorns, although several thornless forms exist and though not via nodules like other legumes. Trees also accumu-
these are usually used in ornamental plantings. Below most late minerals and are used in land reclamation schemes. If planted
leaves and buds it bears three spines, the central one larger in very nutrient-poor soils though, they will need added fertiliser
than the other two. to enable them to establish.
The leaves are compound, to 20cm (8ins) long, emerging late The flowers provide nectar and pollen for bees. The honey
in the spring, usually missing any late frosts, and fall early in yields are about half of that obtained from apples, with about
the autumn. The small leaflets decompose quickly. They turn a 20-25kg/ha (18-22lb/ac) of honey produced from solid stands
clear bright yellow in the autumn before falling. of trees.
Trees are mainly dioecious (i.e. with male and female flowers Trimmed plants make a thick, impenetrable hedge
mainly on separate trees), although most trees actually bear (especially if thorny forms are used). The trees have also been
some of both sexes of flowers. The flowers are minute, about extensively used as windbreaks in the Great Plains region of
3mm (0.1ins) across and greenish-yellow in colour; they emerge the United States.
in early summer (June to July). They are borne in clusters on
Ornamental varieties are usually male and thornless, pods
long stalks from the current or previous year’s leaf axils, and
being regarded as a nuisance in residential areas!
sometimes on older branches or the main trunk. Flowering
begins at around 5-10 years. Flowers are pollinated by insects The wood is reddish-brown, coarse and straight grained, strong,
including bees. hard, heavy, tough, elastic, highly shock-resistant and very
durable. It is used on a small scale for fence posts, construction
Fruits form on female trees; male trees are not required for pod
and joinery, sleepers, flooring, cabinet work, wheels and fuel.
formation but are desirable for full seed development. The
fruits are pods, 30-45cm (12-18ins) long by 3-4cm (1.2-1.6ins) The leaves contain 0.5% of an alkaloid, triacanthine, which
wide, flat and twisted, dark shining brown. Within the pods are has hypotensive and antianaemic properties (seeds and pods
up to 20 seeds embedded in a brown sugary pulp; the seeds do not contain any toxins). The leaves are used medicinally in
are oblong, dark brown, 9 x 15mm (0.4 x 0.6ins) in size. The many ways; a leaf preparation increases the ability to do heavy
seeds form 20-35% of the weight of pods. Honey locusts are work. Current research is looking at the leaves as a potential
somewhat biennial in nature, bearing heavy crops every other source of anticancer compounds. The bark has also been used
year and light or no crops in the years between. The pods drop medicinally; and the pods have been made into a medicinal
gradually after ripening from October to late winter. tea, parts of the pods being antiseptic.

104  HONEY LOCUST

 Honey locust

Because the leaves emerge late in spring, fall early in autumn, of the trees. The pods and fallen leaves are relished by livestock,
and cast quite a light shade, there is good potential for growing and are eaten as they fall over a period of several months in the
undercrops beneath trees. One of the more promising systems autumn. The trees also provide shade for livestock, and provide
now being investigated is the planting of honey locusts erosion control.
in pastures at low densities of up to 85 per ha (34 per ac).
Grasses and legumes will grow right up to the trunks of trees In these systems, male and female trees should be grown
and pasture forage yields are barely affected by the light shade together, with one male to 10-30 females. This will ensure full

HONEY LOCUST  105

 Cultivation
The honey locust is tolerant of transplanting, heat, drought,
air pollution, salt and high (alkaline) pH. It really prefers a
continental climate with warm summers and tolerates cold
winters. In Britain it only really succeeds in the South, and even
there the seeds only ripen in good summers. The species tends
to be less thorny in Britain than in warmer climes. Growth is
moderately fast.
Any moisture-retentive but well-drained soil is suitable, and a
position in full sun is preferred, though light shade is tolerated
(trees in light shade are less thorny). Established trees are
quite tolerant of exposure, though the branches are somewhat
susceptible to wind damage.
Trees coppice and pollard well, and can be managed in these
ways to provide sustainable yields of quite good quality firewood.
In the southern USA, yields of the ‘first generation’ cultivars
‘Calhoun’ and ‘Millwood’ averaged at 15 and 33kg (33 and 73lb)
of pods per tree per year respectively for 5-10 year old trees.
Yields from these cultivars further north in North America are
reduced, and they are also likely to be so in Britain.
Seeds require scarification – soak prior to sowing by placing
them in very hot water (90°C/194°F) and allow to cool for 24
Ripening pods of honey locust hours. Seeds that have plumped up and absorbed water will
quickly germinate once sown, while some others may wait a
year before germinating. First year growth is typically 50-90cm
seed development, essential to maximise the fodder value (20-36ins). Seeds from thornless forms usually grow into
of the pods and to make the venture economically viable to thornless trees themselves, whereas seeds from thorny trees
livestock farmers. The pods contain 12-14% protein, of which usually give both thorny and thornless forms.
5% is digestible, mostly in the seeds that are similar in nutritive
Named varieties are usually grafted onto seedling rootstocks by
value to soya beans. The whole seeds are digestible by sheep
any standard method. Root cuttings can also be successful.
but not by cattle, so to maximise fodder value for cattle, pods
can be harvested and ground into a pod meal. This meal can be Pests and diseases
directly substituted for oats as a feed supplement on a like for
Trees are generally pest and disease-free. The leaves are readily
like basis. The seeds also have potential as pig food.
browsed by livestock and must be protected if planted in
Varieties/Cultivars pastures etc. The pods are relished by wildlife and domesticated
animals, including cattle, deer, rabbits, squirrels and hares.
Cultivar Origin Description
‘Ashworth’ USA Thornless, pods have a very sweet pulp with a
Some minor insect pests encountered in North America
melon-like flavour. include the mimosa webworm (Homadaula anisocentra),
‘Calhoun’ USA Thornless, pods contain 39% sugars. a seed-feeding weevil larvae (Amblycerus robiniae) and the
European hornet (Vesta crabo). The coral spot fungus (Nectria
‘Millwood’ USA Thornless, pods contain 36% sugars.
cinnabarina) can cause a canker. Wasps may also be attracted
Ornamental cultivars include ‘Bujotii’ (Syn. ‘Pendula’, a to the sweet pulp inside the pods if they can get to it through,
pendulous tree), ‘Elegantissima’ (a thornless shrubby form say, holes pecked by birds.
with persistent foliage in the autumn), ‘Imperial’ (thornless,
Trees are notably resistant to honey fungus.
spreading small tree), ‘Majestic’ (thornless, upright symmetrical
tree), ‘Moraine’ (thornless and sterile tall tree), ‘Nana’ (small- Related species
medium tree), ‘Rubylace’ (young foliage dark red, later
There are other Gleditsia species but none have been improved.
becoming bronze-green), ‘Shademaster’ (tall, vigorous,
thornless tree, foliage persisting very late in autumn), ‘Skyline’ European & North American suppliers
(medium, thornless, conical tree) and ‘Sunburst’ (fast growing,
thornless small tree, leaves golden yellow in spring, becoming Europe: ART
green later, sterile). North America: HSN

106  HONEY LOCUST

JAPANESE PLUM, Prunus salicina and hybrids
Deciduous, Zone 4-6, H6-7
Edible fruit

Origin and history Uses

Contrary to the name, this species originated in China, where it Most Japanese plums are eaten as fresh fruit. They are rich in
was cultivated for thousands of years. It was brought to Japan sugars and carotenes.
200-400 years ago, where it then spread around the world,
The stones contain kernels which are bitter and inedible,
being falsely called ‘Japanese plum’. Most supermarket plums
although an oil can be extracted from the kernels which
both in Europe and the USA are this species, due to its easier
resembles almond oil and can be used for lubricating, cooking
handling characteristics compared with European plums.
and as an illuminant.
Japanese plums produce the most common fresh eating plums
in warmer parts of Europe and the USA. They are larger, rounder Varieties/Cultivars
(or heart shaped), and firmer than European plums and are ‘Santa Rosa’, ‘Burbank’, ‘Shiro’, ‘Beauty’, ‘Gold’, ‘Methley’, ‘Red
primarily grown for fresh market. Beauty’, and ‘Ozark Premier’ are widely grown commercially in
several countries. In addition, ‘Friar’ and ‘Simka’ are popular
Hybrids between plums and apricots have been produced
in the USA. Like European plums, many flesh and skin colours
recently which are said by some to have finer fruits than either
occur in Japanese plum cultivars.
parent. A ‘Plumcot’ is 50% plum, 50% apricot; an ‘Aprium’ is
75% apricot, 25% plum; and the most popular hybrid, the The season of ripening is less than for European plums, ranging
‘Pluot’ is 75% plum, 25% apricot. from early July (early) through late July/early August (mid) to
late August (late).
Description
Japanese plum trees are small to
medium-sized trees, similar to peach in
size. They are smaller and more spreading
than European plums. Japanese plum
trees have rougher bark, more persistent
spurs, and more numerous flowers than
European plums. They are also more
precocious, disease resistant, and vigorous
than European plums.
Flowers are white, borne mostly in umbel-
like clusters of 2-3 individuals on short
spurs, and solitary or 2-3 in axils of one-
year-old wood. Japanese plums bloom
earlier than most European plums and are
therefore more frost prone. Bees are the
main pollinators.
Fruits are large and usually heart shaped
with a bloom. Most varieties require only
three months for fruit development.

Japanese plum, Prunus salicina ‘Najdiena’

JAPANESE PLUM  107

Cultivar Description Cultivar Description
‘Alderman’ Fruit reddish-purple, round, large. Flesh sweet, juicy, ‘Lavina’ From Lithuania. Golden yellow with rosy blush.
clingstone. Requires cross-pollination. Very winter hardy. Medium small; very productive. Outstanding eating quality.
Precocious and productive. Attractive in the landscape – Very cold hardy.
profuse, large white flowers. 
‘Mariposa ‘ Tree upright, requires cross-pollination. Fruit heart shaped
‘Beauty’ An upright tree, partially self-fertile. Fruits heart shaped, to flattish, purplish-black mottled with red. Flesh deep red,
clingstone, greenish-yellow to bright crimson and the flesh fair quality, almost freestone. Ripens late (late August).
colour is amber streaked with scarlet. A regular and prolific
‘Methley’ Fruits reddish-purple. Ripens in July. Self-fertile. Small tree.
cropper.
‘NY 1502’ An advanced selection from the Geneva breeding
‘Bubblegum’ Late season. Flesh has the essence and taste of
programme; ‘Abundance’ x ‘Methley’. Medium-size,
bubblegum! Requires cross-pollination. This variety is
attractive yellow fruit with rosy-red blush.
very hardy and can be grown from zone 3 up. 
Firmer, better quality than ‘Early Golden’, with which it
‘Burbank’ Late season. Requires cross-pollination. This good quality ripens in July. 
plum is round, dark red, medium sized, juicy, aromatic ‘Oblinaja’ From Russia. Large, dark red skin, turning almost black
and clingstone. It ripens unevenly. when dead ripe. Spicy flavour, crisp texture.
‘Burmosa’ Tree spreading, fruits roundish, yellow with red blush; ‘Ozark Fruits reddish-purple, flesh yellow, juicy, clingstone,
flesh colour light amber. Later ripening than Beauty. Premier’ small pit. Fruits hang well on tree
Very productive. Mid to late season.
‘Byrongold’ Recently introduced by USDA breeders at Byron, Requires cross-pollination.
Georgia. Productive at Geneva. Large yellow fruit.
‘Rubysweet’ Another USDA introduction from Byron. Bright red flesh;
‘Crimson’ Skin and flesh deep crimson. Excellent quality; clingstone. medium-large, bronze-red fruit; good eating.
From the Auburn, Alabama breeding programme. Only moderately winter hardy.
Considerable resistance to black knot and bacterial canker.
‘Santa Rosa’ Upright tree, self-fertile. Fruit large, purplish-crimson;
‘Crimson (Syn. ‘BY 8158-50’): A new red-fleshed selection from the flesh amber with red near the thickish skin.
Beauty’ USDA station at Byron, Georgia. Excellent flavour, only A prolific cropper. Mid season.
moderately winter hardy. ‘Satsuma’ Fruits and flesh red, medium sized, oval. Very sweet.
‘Durado’ Tree spreading, requires cross-pollination. Fruit flat to oval, Productive regular cropper.
purple with greenish amber flesh. ‘Shiro’ Mid season. Requires cross-pollination. A round, yellow
plum with a pink blush. It is very juicy, clingstone and fair
‘Early Very early ripening. Requires cross-pollination. A round,
in quality. Early season.
Golden’ golden, freestone plum of medium size with high red
blush. It is firm and of good quality. Trees are very vigorous, ‘Sierra’ Fruit medium-sized, amber splashed with red, olive
outgrowing other plum cultivars. It has a biennial fruiting shaped. Flesh greenish-amber, firm, very sweet.
habit. Mid season (late July/early August).
‘Fortune’ From the USDA breeding programme. The fruit is very ‘Starking Tree upright, hardy, productive, requires cross-pollination.
large with a bright red skin on yellow background, firm Delicious’ Fruit medium-large, dark red with blood-red flesh.
fleshed – perhaps the very best eating of the Japanese Good quality.
plums. Clingstone. Does best on heavier soils. A consistent
cropper. ‘Vampire’ A late season plum with medium-large fruits.
It has an attractive blend of shiny green and ruby red skin.
‘Howard’s Fruit round, large, deep pinkish-red, excellent flavour. The flesh is red and very juicy. Very cold tolerant.
Miracle’
‘Vanier’ Mid-late season, a good pollinator. Requires cross-
‘June Blood’ Fruit medium to large, roundish-conical and dark red. pollination. Fruits medium sized, bright red, clingstone,
Flesh firm, juicy, clingstone, fair quality. with yellow flesh. The quality is good, firm, meaty and
improves after fruit are picked and stored for 2-3 weeks.
‘Kelsey’ Tree of moderate vigour. Fruit heart shaped with greenish- Trees are precocious, vigorous and have an upright
yellow skin and flesh. Flesh juicy, firm, good quality. growth habit.

108  JAPANESE PLUM

 Pollination occurs with other Japanese plums (which all
flower around the same time). As a general rule, Japanese and
European plums will not cross-pollinate because the flowerings
do not overlap much if at all. Plumcots and pluots will also
cross-pollinate with Japanese plums. Cross-pollination is
necessary for commercial production for most cultivars.
‘Bruce’, ‘AU Producer’, ‘Beauty’, ‘Santa Rosa’ (and its sports),
‘Simka’, ‘Casselman’ and ‘Methley’ are self-fertile and do not
require cross-pollination.
Fruit thinning is usually necessary for proper size development
for Japanese plums because they set so abundantly.
Harvesting requires 2-4 pickings over a 7-10 day period. The
fruits can be stored about 2-3 weeks at 0°C/32°F and 90% RH.
Pruning during formative years is light; interior branches and
waterspouts are thinned, and growing scaffolds are headed
Japanese plum ‘Satsuma’ to induce branching. In general little pruning is required,
because the heavy cropping behaviour naturally induces a
semi-dwarf habit.
At maturity, vigorous upright shoots are removed, since fruiting
Cultivation occurs increasingly on spurs on older wood as trees age.
Deep, well-drained soils with pH 5.5-6.5 give best results. Pests and diseases
However, plums are the most tolerant of all stone fruits with The major pest in Europe is the plum fruit moth that can be
respect to heavy soils and waterlogging. Japanese plums do partially controlled using pheromone traps. Having a diverse
better in milder southern areas of the temperate zone or in growing system is the best preventative method. In North
Mediterranean climates. Japanese plums are less cold hardy American plum curculio is the worst pest.
than European plums (similar to peach) and have chilling
requirements ranging from 550-800 hrs (compared with The major disease, as with European plums, is bacterial canker
over 1,000 for European plums – hence the early flowering). (Pseudomonas syringae) – although Japanese plums are
Rainfall during the growing season can reduce production by generally less susceptible to this. Brown rot on fruits
accentuating diseases and causing fruit cracking. (Monilinia fructicola) can be a problem especially in wet seasons.
See plums (p.173) for more details on pests and diseases.
In the UK, Japanese plums should be given a position free from
late spring frosts. Although they flower early, there are reports of Related species
successful crops being grown as far north as northern Scotland.
European plum (Prunus domestica) is described on p.171.
Planted commercially at relatively close in-row spacings
(3-6m/10-20ft), with 5.5-6m (18-20ft) between rows, or in home European & North American suppliers
gardens at 5m (16ft) spacing. Europe: ART, DEA, KPN, PLG, THN
Several different species/selections are used as rootstocks. In North America: AAF, BLN, BRN, DWN, ELS, GPO, OGW, RRN, RTN,
the UK, ‘St. Julien’ is normally used. In the USA, Myrobalan 29C STB, TYT
and ‘Marianna’ 2624 are used most frequently since they are
widely compatible with most cultivars.

JAPANESE PLUM  109

JAPANESE RAISIN TREE, Hovenia dulcis
Deciduous, Zone 6-7, H6
Edible ‘fruit’

Origin and history traditionally used in China to prepare a honey substitute called
‘tree hone’.
Hovenia dulcis is a deciduous tall shrub or tree, so widely
cultivated throughout eastern Asia that its native distribution The tree is used for reforestation of sandy soil in Northern China,
is uncertain; found in shady, moist glens and mountains, it is Inner Mongolia and Argentina.
common in China, Japan and Korea and can be found from
Medicinally, the fruits are used in China as an antispasmodic,
the eastern end to the western end of the Himalayas. It is often
febrifuge, laxative, diuretic and refrigerant. The seeds, which
cultivated there for the curious edible fruit stalks; in the West it
contain several flavonoids, are used in Japanese folk medicine,
is often grown for its handsome polished foliage.
being diuretic and are used in the treatment of alcohol
Note: May have the potential to become weedy in warm overdose; recent research has confirmed that Hovenia extracts
climates. reduce the effect and concentration of alcohol on the body.
The stembark is used in the treatment of rectal diseases.
Description
There are several forms of the species, some making a tree Varieties/Cultivars
15-20m (50-70ft) high in its native range, others only making There are none in cultivation outside the native range.
a small tree or shrub 3-5m (10-16ft) high. In time, the plants
spread nearly as wide as they are high. Cultivation
Leaves are broadly oval or heart shaped, distinctively three- Hovenia is easily grown, thriving in any reasonable well-
veined from the base, lustrous green, and somewhat downy drained garden soil, with shelter from cold winds. Although it
beneath. tolerates partial shade, sun is really needed for good fruiting
and is essential in cooler regions like Britain. Late spring frosts
Inconspicuous flowers are yellowish-green, with a strong sweet
can sometimes damage plants and burn off leaves, but they
fragrance, and borne in clusters from June to July or August.
rejuvenate well. In poor summers in Britain, growth sometimes
Trees are self-fertile.
doesn’t harden off well and some dieback occurs over winter;
Fruits are pea sized, light greyish-brown, not often ripening in it prefers hot continental summers.
cultivation. The fruit stalk swells unevenly after the decay of the
In regions with cool summers, flowering can occur too late for
flower and becomes fleshy, thickened, contorted, reddish and
the fruit stalks to ripen.
sweet. They are ripe in September or October.
Trees rarely exceed 10m (33ft) high in cultivation and growth
Uses is moderate, 30-60cm (1-2ft) per year when young but slowing
The fleshy fruit stalks are edible with a pleasant taste – they when older.
are dryish, sweet and fragrant with a raisin-like or bergamot
The fruit stalks don’t become tasty until very late in the season
pear-like flavour (they have been likened to candied fruit) –
– often after a frost – if harvested too early their flavour is
they are valued and extensively cultivated throughout eastern
bland. They are small and quite fiddly to pick – the Chinese
Asia and used as a raisin substitute. They are also used to make
relegate the task to small children! They form terminally on the
wine. They are being investigated as a high-intensity natural
branches, hence high stalks are difficult to reach – the Chinese
sweetener.
lop off whole large branches but this is not an option where the
The stalks are up to 3cm (1.2ins) long and contain about 18- plant grows more marginally.
23% of sugars in total (mostly fructose, glucose and sucrose).
Propagation is usually by seed. Seeds have an impermeable
They can be eaten fresh or dried to store. In China, where they
seed coat that severely inhibits germination. They need to
are sold in markets, they (and the fruits themselves) are eaten to
be scarified, either by giving a hot water soak using nearly
ameliorate the effects of large quantities of alcohol!
boiling water, or by nicking them with a file. A period of cold
A sweet extract from the seeds, young leaves and twigs was stratification at 5°C (4oF) after scarification improves the

110  JAPANESE RAISIN TREE

percentage of seeds that germinate. Plants grown from seed
usually bear fruit within 7-10 years, though bearing within three
years is possible under good conditions – adequate moisture
and fertility, and a long growing season.

Pests and diseases

Unripened growth is prone to coral spot fungus in winter.
Young plants may need extra protection in winter. There are no
pests of note.
Japanese raisin tree
Related species
None of note.

European & North American suppliers

Europe: ART, BUR
North America: QGN
The curious ‘fruits’ of the Japanese raisin tree
LIME / LINDEN, Tilia species
Deciduous, Zone 3-5, H7
Edible leaves, flowers, seeds
Fibre, Green manure, Timber

Origin and history introduce its manufacture in the 18th century failed because
the keeping qualities were poor; presumably, these could be
The limes/lindens/basswoods are a group of trees from North
overcome nowadays.
America, Europe and Asia, all potentially large trees with
fragrant flowers. The flowers are used in herb teas (see medicinal uses below)
and in confectionery.
There is a long history of the leaves of many lime species being
used for food in many regions; similarly, the flowers have been The sap is edible, tapped and used in the same way as maples.
used (particularly to make herb teas). See maples (p.120) for more details.

Description The charcoal made from the wood is specially used for smoking
certain foodstuffs.
Limes are all large trees with spreading crowns living 200-300
years+ (longer if coppiced or pollarded) originating in mixed The flowers (collected with the bracts) have well-known
woodlands. Trees are quite wind-firm and do not often sucker medicinal properties, and when dried are pharmacologically
(apart from T. x vulgaris which can sucker widely.) called Tiliae flos. They contain 3% mucilage, sugar, wax, tannin,
amino acids, flavonoids (quercetin and kaempferol) and
The bark is smooth and silver-grey. Leaves are broadly heart
traces of an essential oil. They have antispasmodic, diuretic,
shaped, varying in size from small leaved lime (3.5-6cm/1.4-2.4ins
expectorant, haemostatic, nervine and sedative properties and
wide) to large leaved lime (5-12cm/2-5ins wide)
calm the nerves, lower blood pressure, increase perspiration,
Flowers are yellowish-white, very fragrant (sweet scented), in relax spasms and improve digestion. Lime-flower tea has
pendulous clusters on long slender stalks with a leaf-like bract been used for many centuries as an antidote to fever in cold
at the base (the bract assisting with seed dispersal) in summer. and ‘flu sufferers. It is still much used in herbal medicine for
The flowers are insect pollinated, often by bees. hypertension, hardening of the arteries, cardiovascular and
digestive complaints associated with anxiety, urinary infections,
Fruits are round, 6-12mm (0.3-0.5ins) across and thin shelled;
fevers, catarrh, migraine and headaches. The flowers are also
ripening in October, they are very attractive to wildlife including
used commercially in cosmetics, mouthwashes and bath
mice and small mammals.
lotions. The flowers should be picked and dried as soon as they
Lime trees have a deep and wide-spreading root system. open – they reputedly develop narcotic properties with age.
They have a remarkable tenacity for life and are more or less The charcoal is also used medicinally (e.g. for gastric problems),
indestructible: as old stems collapse, new sprouts arise and being an effective vasodilator.
essentially trees coppice themselves; trees which fall over often
Bees are extremely fond of lime flowers, feeding on both nectar
retain part of their root system and sprout not only from the
and pollen, and sometimes also collect the honeydew left by
base, but also from where the stems rest on the ground.
aphids on the leaves. Lime honey made from the flowers is still
Uses a major commercial enterprise in many parts of Europe; it has
a very pleasant slightly minty flavour and a greenish tinge to
The young leaves are edible raw (stalks removed), being mild,
its colour. In Europe, the honey is used for flavouring liqueurs
thick, cooling and mucilaginous. Pleasant eating in salads or
and medicines. Stands of large leaved lime can yield 250-800kg
as a sandwich filling. Coppicing or pollarding may be desirable
honey/ha (223-714lb/ac). Honeydew honey is golden to almost
for leaf harvesting, keeping the plants shrubby and more
black in colour, with a rich flavour reminiscent of dried figs;
leaves within reach; young leaves are produced throughout
some honeydew honeys are highly prized in Europe.
the growing season on coppiced plants. Small leaved lime can
be pollarded every 3-4 years and large leaved lime annually to The young bark (or bast) was formerly much used for rope,
produce a bush no more than 3m (10ft) high. basketry, clothing and shoes, mats and roof coverings. See box
for more details.
The immature fruits, ground up with some flowers, produce
an edible paste much like chocolate in flavour. Attempts to

112 LIME
The bast fibres can also be used to make a paper: trees are
harvested in spring or summer, and steamed until the fibres can
be stripped; the fibres are cooked for two hours with lye, then
beaten in a ball mill. The resulting paper is beige in colour.
Suckers are straight and flexible, and can be used for basketry
(particularly for making handles).
The foliage is much relished by cattle, both green and dried and
Leaf and fruits of basswood, Tilia americana
made into hay; in Norway and Sweden this was an important
agroforestry practice. It is said to impart an unpleasant flavour
to the milk of lactating cows.
The leaves are high in nitrogen and phosphorus, similar to
those of nitrogen-fixing trees like alders and black locust
(small leaved lime has 2.8% N, 0.22% P, 0.9% K; dry weight).
They improve soil structure and fertility over time, acting like Limes coppice strongly, producing long straight poles valued
a green manure, and increase the earthworm population; for sustainable fuel production and turnery uses. The coppicing
they also reduce acidification, raising the pH. Another factor rotation period is usually 25-30 years, but short-rotation coppice
that enriches soils beneath trees is the honeydew secreted by is feasible. Coppiced lime stools are virtually indestructible;
the lime aphid: deposits on the ground of 1kg of sugars/m2 there is one coppice ancient stool at Westonbirt Arboretum in
(1.8lb/yd2) per year have been recorded, and these sugars may the UK that is estimated to be 2,000 years old; its age attributed
stimulate the growth of nitrogen-fixing bacteria around the to fairly long rotation coppicing with occasional layering of
trees. The leaf litter decomposes rapidly. arching stems.
Limes are wind-firm and suitable for including in shelterbelts;
it also makes a good component of a hedge, tolerating Species
frequent cutting. Species Origin Description

Limes are major forest trees cultivated for timber in some T. americana Central and Basswood, lime, linden. Grows to
eastern North 40m (130ft) high. Hardy to zone 3.
regions. The timber has a fairly broad sapwood layer; America Several ornamental varieties.
both sapwood and heartwood are usually whitish-yellow
T. cordata Europe Small leaved lime, littleleaf linden.
(sometimes light brown or reddish). On drying, the timber Grows to 40m (130ft) high. Hardy to
contracts moderately to severely. The dried timber is light zone 3. Several ornamental varieties.
(560kg/m3, 35 lb/ft3 at 15% moisture – one of the lightest T. platyphyllos Europe Large leaved lime. Grows to
broadleaved timbers in Europe) and easy to handle, soft, tough, 40m (130ft) high. Hardy to zone 5.
Several ornamental varieties.
moderately strong, stable, very fine and even grained, pliable,
not durable; it is susceptible to woodworm attack. It is used T. tomentosa Southern Europe Silver lime. Grows to 35m (115ft) high.
Hardy to zone 6. Several ornamental
for making drawing and cutting boards, toys, turnery, piano varieties.
keys, small boxes, barrels and chests, barrel bungs, also for
T. x europaea Europe Common lime, European linden.
carving, veneers, bee hive interiors (because of its freedom from Hybrid of T. cordata and T. platyphyllos,
taints) and good quality charcoal (used for artists’ charcoal grows to 40m (130ft) high. Hardy to
and formerly for gunpowder). In Russia it is used in furniture zone 3. Several ornamental varieties.
Often used as a street tree but suffers
manufacture and for many purposes for which plastics are now from aphid infections much more
used. It accepts preservatives easily and can then be used as a than other limes.
softwood substitute for fencing etc.

LIME 113
 Lime bast cordage in In contrast to the other
phloem tissue components,
northern Europe the bast does not take part in
the process of conduction.
Introduction
Manufacture of lime bast cordage (string In lime, the bast grows in 10-
and rope made from the bark of lime 12 successive layers, more or
trees) has been an unbroken tradition less separated by softer layers
from the Mesolithic (9000-3000 BC) to the of vascular tissue, with the
present day. most recent and smoothest
part of the bast layer near
The cordage was usually manufactured the wood, and the coarsest
by stripping off the bark in midsummer, part near the outer bark. Bast
submerging it in water to dissociate the from trees or branches over
adjacent bast layers, then peeling off 15-20 years old is generally
the outer bark and separating the bast coarse, stiff and less durable
(inner bark) layers in narrow bands; than bast from trees and
these were then spun to make cords, branches 10 years old or less.
which in turn were twisted to make Bast quality is also affected
cordage. by growing conditions.
Lime bast cordage is characterised
by pliability, low specific weight, History
low extensibility and limited water Lime bast cordage has been
absorbance. found on Viking ships from
the 9th century and has been
Cordage was one of the most important a very important article of
tools of Stone Age man as it was crucial trade and use in Norway,
for fishing and construction of traps; Sweden and other northern Lime bast cordage used in the reconstruc-
later it paved the way for ploughing, European countries until tion of a Mesolithic dwelling, Ireland
sailing and artificial irrigation, all very recently. It was mainly
important technical milestones. produced in rural areas and
Historically, cordage has been produced sold to city dealers, and was Silviculture of lime trees for bast
from a wide variety of plant fibres, but the exported, for example to England, during The bast was usually obtained from
bast layer of certain species provides the medieval times. young lime trees or from thicker branches
unique combination of volume, strength of older trees which were pollarded
During the days of sailing ships, demand
and pliability, with lime, elms, oaks, or coppiced, resulting in new straight
was high – the cordage was used for
juniper and willows as the main sources. shoots. The high stump from pollarding
mooring ropes and for the complete
Due to its superior strength, lime has prevented new shoots being browsed by
rigging of small wooden vessels. In larger
been by far the most important of these deer and cattle. Lime trees can tolerate
vessels it was used in the standing parts
sources in Europe. drastic cutting.
of the rigging. Despite the introduction
Bast of hemp cordage in the 15th century, lime Cultivated trees that yielded the best
bast cordage retained its popularity in bast were re-cut every 5-10 years and
Anatomically, bast is part of the
fishing and agriculture in Norway, Sweden produced a bast layer about 2mm
secondary phloem of trees (the vascular
and the Baltic countries, due to its (0.1ins) thick. Over the years and many
system between the dead outer bark and
pliability and limited water absorbance. cycles of cutting and re-growth, the trees
the xylem). The primary function of the
developed a characteristic appearance
phloem is the transport of assimilates and In more recent times, the cordage has
with a thick stump, comparatively thin
nutrients; it is composed mostly of sieve been made throughout the 20th century
branches and dense crown.
tubes (parenchyma and sclerenchyma in Norway and the eastern Baltic area
cells). The latter of these types form dead and used domestically for fishing nets, In lime forests cultivated for bast
strengthening tissue that consists of short bags, lobster pots, indoor shoes, paper, production, trees were carefully spaced
sclerids and long lignified fibres with thick weaving, grafting etc. It was an especially to give good conditions for growth. Trees
cellulose walls. The bast is composed important product during World War II on moist sites were said to produce the
mostly of these fibres. when other cordage was unavailable. toughest bast.

114 LIME
Bast manufacture • Trees or branches could Lime Hemp Manila Nylon
There were three principal ways of be cut in early spring bast
obtaining the bast: (during the ascent of
the sap). The bark was Breaking load (N)
• Most commonly, the trees or branches stripped and the bast Dry 1930 8624 10457 29400
were cut in early summer, around layers could be freed from Wet 2830 – – –
the beginning of June, when the the outer bark without
Elongation (%)
leaves had just grown to full size. prior submerging.
The bark was stripped off the wood Dry 10.7 – 15 45
• The trees were cut in winter
and submerged in fresh water or Wet 15.4 – – –
and were subjected to
seawater for 4-6 weeks for retting,
warm smoke in chimney- Approx weight 5.4 11.4 10.5 9.4
a process during which the pectin
less stoves for 24 hours. (kg/100m)
and lignin components degraded
Again, the bast could be Approx weight 10.8 22.8 21.0 18.8
due to bacterial decay. This caused
separated from the outer (lb/100yd)
a separation of the individual bast
bark without retting.
layers, and released the bast from Specific gravity <1 – 1.48 1.14
the outer bark. The retting partly The latter two techniques,
delignified the bast, weakening it, though not requiring retting, lighter with less elongation under strain.
but this was reduced in seawater, produced strong but stiff bast that could It is also nearly 50% stronger when
hence this was preferred over fresh be spun to form cords without further wet than when dry, making it by far
water. The speed of retting depended treatment. It was usually the first technique the strongest bast fibre from European
on the temperature of the water, that was used though, even though it trees in wet conditions. Dry lime bast
and warm weather could speed the was more work, because this fitted in cordage has a specific gravity under 1.0
process to a few weeks. If whole tree better with farmers’ schedules, with tree – it floats.
segments were submerged, the retting cutting scheduled after hay making.
took longer. Lime bast cordage is resistant to decay.
  When the retting was finished, The next step was spinning the bast to Water absorption is minimal – a crucial
the bast was peeled off the bark in make cords, and in turn the cordage was factor for releasing knots. Limited
long paper-thin bands and the outer made by twisting the cords. The most swelling and low weight made the
bast layers were separated from the usual construction was three 3-4mm cordage ideal for use in fisheries. Due to
stronger and more pliable inner bast (0.1-0.2ins) thick cords (three plied) the retting, it was softer to handle and
to distinguish the different qualities. twisted anti-clockwise. However, lime probably superior in this respect than
bast cordage was made in all dimensions, any contemporary alternatives. This
from thin and slender two-plied softness would have been appreciated in
cordage of 6mm (0.3ins), to 70mm non-industrialised agriculture that
(2.8ins) thick four-plied cordage. included a substantial amount of
Cordage could also be supercoiled manual work without gloves.
to make cables; these consisted of
The low extensibility of lime bast cordage
two or more strands of cordage
was highly valued during the days of
(each made up of 2-8 cords) twisted
sailing ships.
together to form a much stronger
product up to 160mm (6.4ins) thick. Low resistance to wear, laborious
manufacture, and continued competition
These techniques enabled the
from hemp limited its role as cordage
production of a wide range of
in the 20th century. However, the craft
qualities in softness, thickness
is still maintained in parts of Norway,
and strength, depending on
where cordage is sold for about 20
processing and purpose. However,
Euros per metre (2014). The demand
manufacture of bast cordage was
is partly due to the increased interest
very labour intensive.
in traditional wooden vessels where
bast cordage is used for mooring.
Cordage properties Manufacturers are not able to meet the
Lime bast cordage is not as strong current demand and younger people are
as hemp, manila or nylon, but is now learning the craft.

LIME 115
 considered overmature. Because of its
shade tolerance, it can be grown in the
understorey of oak and other species:
it maintains vertical growth under a
canopy of 10% light transmission. On
good sites, growth is around 8m3/ha/year
(4.2yd3/ac/year).
Large leaved lime coppices strongly and
is a common component of both pure
and mixed coppice in Europe. A coppice
rotation to 20-25 years is the norm,
giving yields of about 2.5t of dry wood/
ha/year (1mt/ac/year). Coppice lime
stools show great longevity and appear
almost indestructible. Coppicing on a
shorter rotation may be desirable for leaf
production (see above).
Apart from T. x europaea that is grown
from suckers, limes are usually propagated
by seed. Seed is deeply dormant and
requires 6-9 months of cold stratification.
As seed usually ripens in October this
means that some or all seed sometimes
waits 18 months to germinate in spring.
Pollarded small leaved lime, Tilia cordata
Pests and diseases
Young trees are susceptible to damage
by deer browsing; coppiced plants are
also at risk.
Cultivation Lime aphids (Eucallipterus tiliae) feed on the leaves of most
A wide range of soil conditions is tolerated, but a fertile, well- limes, covering leaves with honeydew, which can blacken them
drained, deep moist loam is preferred. Both acid and alkaline and drip stickily onto anything beneath them. The blackening is
soils are acceptable. Air pollution is also tolerated. due to sooty mould, a fungus. Honeydew deposits are greatest
Full sun is preferred. The tree creates a dense shade beneath in hot, dry weather. Common lime is the most susceptible to
the canopy, with a heavy leaf fall; it also tolerates fairly dense large infestations.
shading from other trees itself and is happy growing as an Limes are resistant to honey fungus (Armillaria), and are a good
understorey. Growth rates are moderate. choice for sites where this is a risk.
Harvesting of flowers should proceed with care, not damaging Limes are susceptible to root damage by Phytophthora spp.
the tree – cut them off from branches, or cut high branch tips off Affected trees often show dieback symptoms; the disease
if necessary. They should be dried in well-ventilated shade or an in encouraged by wet soils and organic mulches. Limes are
artificial drier at 40°C. When properly dried they will reduce to also amoung the trees most often colonised by the common
25% of their fresh weight. mistletoe (Viscum album) that is parasitic on its host.
Trees take 20-30 years before they produce fruit, and then tend
to bear large seed crops every 2-3 years. The fruits/seeds are Related species
collected in October, when the bracts have turned brown, from There are many other lime species, many of which have similar
low branches, or from the ground (trees can be shaken etc.). properties and uses.
Large leaved lime is the only lime species to produce fertile
seed regularly in British conditions. European & North American suppliers
Europe: ALT, ART, BHT, BUC, PHN, TPN
Trees grown for timber are usually done so on a rotation
of 50-70 years, reaching heights of 25-30m (85-100ft) and North America: Obtain from forest tree nurseries (many states
diameters of 30-45cm (12-18ins). Trees over 200 years old are have their own nursery).

116 LIME
LOQUAT, Eriobotrya japonica
Evergreen, Zone 7, H5
Edible fruit

Origin and history Well established trees can tolerate winter lows of -15°C (5°F) or
lower, however flower buds are killed at about -7°C (19°F) and
The loquat or Japanese medlar is indigenous to southeastern
mature flowers at between -3 and -5°C (23 to 26°F). The latter is
China and has been naturalised in Japan for a long time,
the main limitation to its fruiting in Britain, as it flowers in winter.
where it has been cultivated for over a thousand years. It is also
widely grown in Mediterranean regions, where it is known as Uses
the Nispero. It is a small evergreen tree or shrub adapted to a
The fruits are comparable to apples, with a high sugar, acid
subtropical or mild temperate climate that bears fruits with a
and pectin content. Once peeled (easy) they can be eaten as a
succulent tangy flesh.
fresh fruit, used in salads, cooked on their own or in pies or tarts
Description
The loquat is an evergreen tree or shrub Loquat
growing only 3-6m (10-20ft) high, with a
rounded crown, short trunk and woolly
young twigs.
Large leaves are 12-30cm (5-12ins) long
and 7-10cm (3-4ins) wide, dark green
and glossy above, whitish or rusty
coloured and hairy beneath, thick and
stiff with conspicuous veins. The new
growth is sometimes tinged with red.
These large textured leaves are quite
ornamental.
Flowers are small, white and sweetly
fragrant, and are borne in autumn or
early winter in panicles of 30-100 flowers
at the end of branches. Prior to opening
the flower clusters have an unusual
rusty-woolly texture. Pollination is
usually by bees. Some cultivars are self-
sterile, others are only partly self-fertile.
Fruits are borne in clusters of 4-30,
each one oval, rounded or pear shaped,
25-50mm (1-2ins) long with a smooth or
downy, yellow or orange skin, sometimes
blushed red. The succulent tangy flesh
is white, yellow or orange and sweet
to subacid or acid, depending on the
cultivar. Each fruit contains 3-5 large
brown seeds that contain the same
toxins as apple seeds, so they should
not be eaten.
 Orange-fleshed cultivars
Cultivar Origin Description
‘Bessell Brown’ Australia Fruit large, orange, thick skin; flesh very
sweet. Very late season.
‘Big Jim’ USA Fruit roundish-oblong, large, skin pale
orange-yellow, medium thick, easily
peeled. Flesh orange-yellow, very sweet
but with some acidity, excellent flavour.
Tree vigorous, upright, highly productive.
Midseason.
‘Early Red’ Japan Fruit medium-large, pear shaped, borne
(slightly immature, firm fruits are best for cooking), made into in compact clusters. Skin orange-red with
jam, jelly or chutney, and can be made into a wine. dots, tough, acid. Flesh very juicy, sweet.
Very early season.
The loquat is an ingredient of many popular cough remedies in ‘Gold Nugget’ Japan Fruit large, round to oblong. Skin yellow-
the Far East. The leaves are analgesic, antibacterial, antiemetic, (‘Thales’, orange, not thick, tender. Flesh juicy, firm,
antitussive, antiviral, astringent and expectorant. A decoction ‘Placentia’) meaty, sweet. Tree vigorous, upright,
self-fertile. Late season.
of the leaves or young shoots is used as an intestinal astringent
and as a mouthwash. The leaves are harvested as required and ‘Macbeth’ USA Fruit very large, ovoid, yellow, smooth skin;
flesh juicy, sweet. Tree spreading.
can be used fresh or dried with the hairs removed. The flowers Very early season.
are expectorant, and the fruit is slightly astringent, expectorant
‘Mogi’ Japan Fruit small, elliptical, skin light yellow. Flesh
and sedative – used in allaying vomiting and thirst. sweet. Tree self-fertile, cold-sensitive.
The wood is pink, hard, close grained, medium heavy. It has ‘Mrs Cooksey’ New Fruit large, flesh yellow of good flavour.
been used for making rulers and other drawing instruments. (‘Mrs Cookson’) Zealand
‘Oliver’ USA Fruit very large, orange; flesh juicy, firm,
The young branches have been lopped for animal fodder. excellent flavour. Tree vigorous, dense
rounded. Mid to late season.
Varieties/Cultivars ‘Strawberry’ USA Fruit medium sized, yellow flesh.
Cultivars are often grown on quince rootstock (Cydonia ‘Tanaka’ Japan Fruit very large, skin yellow-orange, fresh
oblonga) to produce a dwarfed tree 2.5m (8ft) high of early firm, rich, aromatic, slightly acidic to sweet,
excellent flavour. Tree vigorous, productive.
bearing character (fruiting starts in 2-3 years). The orange- Very late season.
fleshed cultivars tend to be sweeter and better flavoured. ‘Wolfe’ USA Fruit yellow, thick skinned; flesh juicy, firm,
Most of those listed here were bred or selected in California. excellent flavour. Mid season.

Cultivation White-fleshed cultivars

Loquats are generally easy to grow. They grow best in full sun, Cultivar Origin Description
but tolerate some shade. Although wind tolerant, they will do ‘Advance’ USA Fruit pear shaped, medium-large, deep
better with some shelter. Extreme summer heat is detrimental, yellow, borne in large clusters. Skin downy,
thick, tough; flesh melting, very juicy,
and hot dry winds cause leaf scorch. They grow well on most subacid, good flavour. Tree a natural dwarf,
soils as long as the soil is well-drained. resistant to fireblight, self-sterile, a good
pollinator. Mid season.
If terminal shoots become too numerous, causing a decline
‘Benlehr’ USA Fruit oblong, medium sized, skin thin, peels
in vigour, then some pruning is recommended after harvest. easily. Flesh juicy, sweet, excellent flavour.
The objective is to obtain a low head and to remove crossing ‘Champagne’ USA Fruit medium-large, skin deep yellow,
branches and dense growth to let light into the centre of the tree. thick, tough. Flesh melting, juicy, subacid,
very good flavour. Tree self-sterile, heavy
Trees are drought tolerant and in Britain are unlikely to need cropping. Late season.
irrigation. They are also quite light feeders – too much nitrogen ‘Herd’s Australia Fruit large, long, good flavour. Early to mid
reduces flowering. Flowering takes place from October to Mammoth’ season.
February, and fruits ripen from April to July. ‘Premier’ USA Fruit large, skin orange, thick, tough;
flesh subacid. Late season.
Ripe fruit develops a distinctive colour and begins to soften
– in Britain this is likely to be in midsummer. Fruits must be ‘Victory’ Australia Fruit large, oval, yellow-orange; flesh juicy,
(‘Chatsworth sweet. Mid season.
individually clipped as they tend to tear the cluster stem if Victory’)
pulled. Ripe fruits store for 1-2 weeks in a fridge. Loquats often ‘Vista White’ USA Fruit small/medium sized, roundish, light
become biennial bearing, which can be modified somewhat by yellow; flesh very sweet. Very late season.

118 LOQUAT
Ripe loquat fruits

thinning the clusters of flowers and young fruits, eventually to Related species
1-2 fruits per cluster: this ensures good size fruits too.
There are a number of other Eriobotrya species but none very
Loquats make good container plants in a large container. Trees hardy.
can also be espaliered on walls, fences or wires. Wall-grown
trees can fruit well in Britain. European & North American suppliers
Europe: ART, BUR, PLG
The root system is quite shallow, so care should be taken with
soil cultivation near to a tree. North America: RRN, TYT

Pests and diseases

There are few pests of note; birds may peck the ripe fruit, and
deer browse on the foliage. The main diseases of note are
apple scab and fireblight (Erwinia amylovora) and the usual
precautions and action should be taken.

LOQUAT 119
MAPLES, Acer species
Deciduous, Zone 3-6, H6-7
Edible sap
Timber

Origin and history Uses

The maples are a large family of trees and shrubs from North The sap is edible from all species mentioned below, tapped
and Central America, Europe, North Africa and Asia. Many have in late winter or early spring. The sap can be consumed raw
been long used for timber and other uses. They are included immediately, but most of it is processed into sap products,
here for their edible sap. including wines but most commonly syrups such as maple
syrup.
The best-known sap product is probably maple syrup, produced
in North America mainly from the sugar maple (Acer saccharum). The timber from most species is valued for a variety of
The European settlers in America probably got the idea from the uses including flooring, furniture, joinery, cabinet work,
native Americans, who made sugar from the sap both for their utensils, carving, implements, fuel, charcoal, turnery, musical
own use and to trade. instruments, chopping boards, veneers. Also formerly mill-
wheels, dairy implements, draining boards.
Description
The species here are all medium or large woodland trees with
palmate leaves and winged seeds.

Leaves in
autumn (Acer
saccharum)

120 MAPLES
Varieties/Cultivars
Species Origin Description
Acer campestre Europe Field maple is a medium-sized forest edge
tree, tolerating exposure and some shade.
The sap flows are lesser than in sycamore
but the sap is rich in sugar. Hardy to zone 4,
tolerates chalky soil.
Acer Western Oregon maple is a large tree and probably
macrophyllum North the best American maple to grow in the UK
America for sap production. It likes rich, moist soils
in valley sites. The sap flow is considerable
and the sap of high sugar content. Hardy to
zone 6.
Acer Eastern Striped maple is a medium-sized tree and an
pensylvanicum North abundant producer of very sweet sap. Good
America in the UK. Hardy to zone 3-4, prefers acid soil.
Acer platanoides Europe Norway maple is a large tree that grows very
well in Britain. The sap has been used in
Norway and Sweden to make maple sugar.
Hardy to zone 3.
Acer Europe Sycamore is a large tree naturalised
pseudoplatanus in Britain where it grows vigorously. It
is usually tapped just as the buds are
breaking in mid or late March, when the sap
flow is abundant, up to 5.7 litres (10 pints)
per day. The sap contains 1-2 % sugars
and in several parts of Europe (including Acer saccharum tree
Scotland) was traditionally fermented
into a wine. Around 18 litres (4 gallons) of
sap gives 450g (1lb) of maple sugar when
evaporated. Hardy to zone 5-6.
Cultivation
Acer rubrum Eastern Red maple is another large vigorous tree, Grow in sun or light shade in any soil that is reasonably well-
North preferring moist or swampy acid sites in drained but moisture retentive.
America valleys. It is also fairly shade tolerant. The
sap flow from red maples is abundant and For sap production, space trees widely, or thin to achieve a wide
very early, but the sugar content is lower spreading canopy that will maximise sap yields.
than that for the sugar maple (about 1%
sugars in the sap). The sap is also liable to Trees are normally grown from seed. Maple seed is often of low
discolouration. It grows quite well in the UK.
Hardy to zone 3, prefers acid soil.
viability and should not be stored too long. It is also dormant so
requires 2-4 months of cold stratification.
Acer Eastern Silver maple is another large tree that likes
saccharinum North moist soils and grows quite well in the UK.
America The sap flow from silver maples is plentiful, Pests and diseases
and the sap is high in sugars although it is There are many minor pests and disease but few are a problem.
liable to discolouration. The season of flow
is short and variable. Hardy to zone 3. Several species of aphid can infest trees and produce copious
Acer saccharum Eastern Sugar maple is the best-known sap-
amounts of honeydew.
North producing tree. It is a large, vigorous,
America shade-tolerant forest tree with an extensive Related species
shallow root system. Sugar maple prefers
moist, acid, well-drained soils. It grows
There are many other species, most or all of which will also
reasonably well in the UK but prefers a have edible sap.
continental climate. Hardy to zone 3.
Acer saccharum Eastern Black maple is a variety of the above. European & North American suppliers
var. nigrum North It prefers moist, neutral or alkaline soils – Europe: ALT, ART, BHT, BUC, PHN, TPN
America it is found in valley sites on stream banks
and alluvial river bottoms. It is also a very North America: Obtain from forest tree nurseries (many states
good sap producer. Hardy to zone 3.
have their own nursery).

MAPLES 121
 Tapping trees for sap As the season advances the sap becomes the cork is then wedged into the hole
cloudy, yellowish and may develop a which is made about 20-25mm (1ins) in
Growing trees for sap production is not fermented odour – the sap is described as diameter. In either case, make the hole
often coincidental with growing them for buddy. Buddy sap is unacceptable to a size to give a tight fit when the tube is
timber production. The volume of sap syrup production as it has poorer taste connected.
flow is directly related to the leaf area (i.e. and quality.
Choose a location at least 5-10cm (2-4ins)
crown area) of the tree, thus to maximise Each sap run lasts about 2-3 days. to the side and 15cm (6ins) above or
sap production, the aim is to finish with below previous tap holes or wounds.
widely-spaced trees, each with a short Tapping the tree The depth of the hole depends on the
bole and a wide crown. Small-crowned Before tapping, brush the side of the tree size of the tree and the thickness of the
trees will yield little sap, even if they are with a stiff brush to remove loose bark bark. Only the layers just inside the outer
given plentiful side and overhead light. and dirt; then select a spot where the bark bark are alive and contain enough sap to
Another factor that is important for good looks healthy, some way from any scars of flow freely. In small trees (20-30cm/8-12ins
sap production is a moist and humus-rich previous tappings. Trees may be tapped diameter), a 25mm (1ins) deep hole is
forest soil; sap flows are better in these at any convenient height – about 60-90cm usually enough; in larger trees the hole
conditions than where the ground is dry, (2-3ft) fits in with most containers. may need to be 40-50mm (1.5-2ins) deep.
compacted or grass-covered. Ideally, Don’t cut away the bark before boring After drilling, clean the hole of all
forest cover should be almost complete the hole as this damages the tree. shavings.
so that little sunlight reaches the ground Some American authors believe that Only tap a tree in one place, as multiple
in summer. where the hole is made in relation to taps will probably set the tree back too
Trees need to be of at least diameter the compass makes a difference – that much.
20cm (8ins) before they are tapped sap flows on the south side of a tree are Now fit the spile or the plastic tube,
– tapping smaller trees will set them back earlier, but those on the north last longer. either directly wedging it into the hole or
severely. It is also prudent to tap off only by using a demijohn cork as described
The main requisite for making the hole
a proportion of the season’s sap flow, above. Lead the plastic tube into a plastic
is a good sharp and sterile bit (to fit in
to avoid damaging trees; alternatively, food-grade container with a small screw
a brace) with which a clean-cut hole
the whole flow can be harvested, but closure; the cap can be left off with the
can be made; a rusty or blunt bit cuts
trees are only tapped in alternate years. tube leading straight into the container,
a rough hole which can easily become
blocked, stopping the flow. The hole is or a small hole can be made in the screw
Time of tapping
bored angled slightly upwards into the top and the tube fed through it. This latter
Trees are tapped in late winter and early method is preferable as it stops other
spring. The sap flow is dependent on site tree, helping the hole to drain easily.
The diameter of the hole depends on the detritus getting in with the sap.
and weather conditions and may vary
from year to year by several weeks; the method used to collect the sap: Collecting the sap
flow usually lasts for 4-5 weeks between A spile can be inserted tightly into the Containers should be food-grade plastic
mid February and early April. In addition, hole. A spile is a special spout made with lids. Sap should be collected from
southern-sloping sites will yield earlier for tapping sap. The spile has three containers on a daily basis, to avoid
sap than northern slopes. In any case, functions: to transfer sap from the tree spoilage and souring; it should be
the tapping equipment should be in place to a collection container or into tubing; strained and processed immediately.
by mid February so that the early sap flow to hold a collection container or connect Containers for collecting sap and tubes
is not missed. to tubing; and to seal around the should be kept clean and washed with
Good ‘sugar weather’ occurs in late winter taphole. Spiles are available from maple warm water after each sap run. After a
when the days become warm but the equipment suppliers in North America while, tapholes may become clogged
nights are still cool. The flow is checked on (homemade ones whittled from a hollow and can be re-bored.
hot or stormy days, and a long warm spell twig can work).
After tapping
or a heavy freeze may stop the sap flow
A flexible plastic pipe is used to feed the After the tapping has finished, remove
altogether – it will restart when conditions
sap down into a container, and this pipe spiles/tubing carefully. Holes should
are suitable. Sap flows are also usually
(usually 10-15mm/0.4-0.6ins diameter) be washed out then plugged with cork
stronger during the day than at night,
can either be wedged tightly straight plugs of a tight fit. It isn’t wise to re-use
and are highest in the middle of the day.
into the hole, or alternatively can be the same holes the following year, as this
Early sap runs are the most desirable as connected to a demijohn cork via a small increases the risk of infection of holes by
they are usually the sweetest and cleanest. glass tube which passes through the cork; decay fungi.

122 MAPLES
Processing the sap the evaporation should be as quick as deposits have settled out, the syrup can
Process sap as soon as possible. While possible, and should be carried out in be bottled or canned. It will then store at
in the tree, sap is sterile, but it begins a shallow container: a layer of sap no cool temperatures for many months.
to degrade as soon as it is exposed to thicker than 50mm (2ins) should be
concentrated at any time. As the sap Reverse osmosis machines are now used
microorganisms in the air. Filter all sap commercially. These force the raw sap
through course, medium and finally a five concentrates it may be topped up with
dilute sap a couple of times (but not through membranes at high pressure to
micron filter to remove suspended solids. filter out the suspended solids, mainly
too many). On heating, the nitrogenous
The harvested sap is usually made into matter in the sap forms a scum that sugar, allowing the pure water to pass
wine or syrup, although alternatives should be scooped off the surface and through and out of the system. Sap can
include beer, vinegar, and crystalline sugar. discarded; there is also a deposition of be rapidly reduced in this way resulting
mineral matter in the sap. The syrup is in a concentrate with 5% sugar content.
Traditional maple syrup was made by of the correct density when its boiling This concentrate is further processed
boiling down sap to concentrate the sugars. temperature is 4°C/7°F higher than the by evaporation to produce the finished
This was often carried out in a rough-and- boiling point of water for that location product. Total energy use is in the order
ready manner, using metal vessels over (that can change with altitude). After any of a half compared with evaporation only.
wood fires. The syrup easily
burned or scorched and the The sugar maple yields an
finished product was often of average of 45-90 litres (10-20
poor quality. gallons) of sap per tree over the
season in the USA. The average
One simpler, and energy- sugar content is 2%, but this is
efficient way of concentrating likely to be higher at the start
sap is to let it freeze over of the season; there is also a
while it is in fairly deep, variety being sold with reported
open containers. This is sugar content of 4%. When
quite possible in climates evaporated to make maple
where cold frosty nights are syrup, the volume of sap makes
common at tapping time. In approximately one sixteenth
the morning after, the frozen that volume of syrup, and 1.1
ice that is floating on the litres (2 pints) of syrup can
liquid is discarded – this ice give about 450g (1lb) of maple
is nearly all water, and the sugar. Late runs of sap from
solution is thus concentrated. this species, called ‘buddy sap’,
Even with repeated freezes Sugar maple being tapped with a spile dripping when bud break is imminent,
though, the solution will into a bucket are greenish in colour and do
never be concentrated not give a syrup with good
enough to keep, and must flavour or colour.
be used quickly. Another
drawback may be warm Early runs of sap can be
daytime temperatures, which evaporated to a further degree,
encourage the sap to spoil. to make a concentrate that will
crystallise out (a process called
The main disadvantage of ‘sugaring off’) to give maple
evaporation by boiling is sugar. To achieve this degree of
the large amount of fuel concentration, continue boiling
needed to achieve syrup of until the concentrate is boiling at
adequate concentration. a temperature 14-15.5°C/25-28°F
Commercial maple syrup above that of the boiling point of
has about 65% solids (of water at the location. Stir while
which 63-64% are sugars); the concentrate cools a little,
a syrup thinner than this then pour into dry, warm
will soon sour and a thicker moulds. Once cold, store in a
one will tend to crystallise. Sap from several trees can join into a plastic pipe dry place and use exactly as for
To retain maximum flavour, to make collection efficient. common sugar.

MAPLES 123
MEDLAR, Mespilus germanica
Deciduous, Zone 6, H6
Edible fruit

Origin and history Varieties/Cultivars

The medlar has been cultivated for its fruit in orchards Cultivar Origin Description
throughout Europe for many centuries. References to it exist ‘Autumn Southeast Europe Good cropping, good flavour.
from ancient Greece and Rome, and records in England refer to Blaze’
it being cultivated in 1270. ‘Breda Giant’ Southeast Europe Tree with drooping habit.
It originates from southeastern Europe and western Asia but ‘Dutch’ Netherlands A small tree of weeping habit. Heavy
has become naturalised in southern England and other parts of cropping; large, flattened fruit up to
65mm (2.6ins) across of fair flavour.
northern Europe.
‘Grand Sultan’ Southeast Europe
Description ‘Iranian’ Iran Bears conical medium-sized fruits of
excellent flavour.
The medlar is a small, deciduous tree of crooked, picturesque
habit (due to branches forming sharp angles) usually under 6m ‘Large Southeast Europe Heavy cropper, very large fruit. Bold
Russian’ foliage. Tree with drooping habit.
(20ft) high, with dark, twisted bark.
‘Monstrous’ Southeast Europe Large fruits, prolific fruiting.
Young branches are very hairy; older ones are often armed with ‘Nottingham’ UK A loose-shaped tree of medium
stiff, straight spines 12-25mm (0.5-1ins) long. vigour, with straggly growth.
Tolerates heavy soil. Heavy cropping;
The leaves, almost stalkless, are downy on both sides and have fruit 25-40mm (1-1.5ins) across with
a long, blunt, oval shape. They are 5-12cm (2-5ins) long and good flavour.
turn yellow-brown in the autumn. ‘Royal’ France A fairly upright tree. Fruits 1.5ins
(37mm) across, very good flavour.
Flowers are white turning pink as they fade, 25-37mm (1-1.5ins) Heavy cropper.
across, five-petalled, solitary at the end of short leafy branches. ‘San Noyin’ Southeast Europe Small fruits of moderate flavour.
They open in late May and early June. Seedless.
‘Stoneless’ Southeast Europe Small fruits of poor flavour. Seedless.
The distinctive fruits are apple shaped, five-celled with a broad
open eye, downy and yellowish-brown. Fruits are surrounded ‘Westerveld’ Netherlands Small tree of low vigour, fruits 25-40mm
(1-1.5ins) across.
by large, leafy, faded brown sepals. Size varies from 25-65mm
(1-2.6ins) diameter in cultivated forms.
Cultivation
Uses Medlars are not particular as to soil conditions, and tolerate
Fruits ripen over a period of 1-2 weeks. They are delicious eaten semi-shade. They are suitable as an understorey where the
raw, although the seeds have to be spat out (the reason why it canopy trees don’t cast too much shade, or as canopy trees
has lost its appeal since medieval times?). The fruits can also themselves. They are self-fertile and crop well as single trees.
be processed – they make a fine jam, and can be dried in fruit
Medlar cultivars are usually budded or grafted onto a rootstock
leather mixes.
of Quince ‘A’ or ‘C’, Crataegus (hawthorn) or Pyrus (pear) stock.
Several parts of the tree can be used medicinally. The fruit pulp Quince and Crataegus produce a tree 4-6m (13-20ft) high;
is laxative; the leaves contain tannin and are astringent; and the Pyrus a taller tree of 7-7.5m (23-25ft).
seeds are lithontripic (i.e. eliminate small stones from the body)
Little pruning is required; fruits form on both old spurs and
– the seed should only be used under medical supervision
new wood. Some thinning of branches may be necessary.
because of its hydrocyanic acid content. The bark was once
Cultivated forms are often nearly thornless. Trees bear fruit
used as a substitute for quinine but with uncertain results.
some three years after planting. Medlars appreciate organic
mulch in the spring but otherwise require little or no feeding.

124 MEDLAR
 Medlar leaves and flowers

Fruits remain hard until late autumn, then suddenly ripen,

drop from the tree or are eaten by birds who scatter its large,
flat, very hard oblong seeds.
In the UK fruits are normally picked at the end of October after
a frost, still hard, and are stored in a dry cool place to blett or
ripen. In 1-3 weeks the flesh turns soft, sweet and delicious with
a date-baked apple flavour.
In warmer climates, and in the UK in a hot summer, fruit will
ripen on the tree and should be picked before birds eat it.
Fruit should be picked daily over the two-week period it takes
for all fruits to ripen.

Pests and diseases

In the UK there are none of note. As part of the Rosaceae family,
medlar can suffer from fireblight.

Related species
There are none.

European & North American suppliers

Ripening medlar fruits Europe: ART, BLK, COO, DEA, KPN, OFM, THN
North America: AAF, BRN, ELS, TYT

MEDLAR 125
MONKEY PUZZLE TREE, Araucaria araucana
Evergreen, Zone 6, H6
Edible nut
Timber

Origin and history die. Each terminal bud is hidden by a protecting rosette of
immature pale green leaves.
The monkey puzzle tree or Chile pine is a large evergreen tree
of striking appearance, originating from the coastal mountain Male and female flowers are normally borne on separate trees
strip in Chile and Argentina. It has been widely planted as an (the species is dioecious) though occasionally occur together on
ornamental tree in western Europe. one tree. Male flowers are produced on cylindrical catkins forming
Archibald Menzies introduced the species
to England in 1795. While on a survey
Monkey puzzle tree
voyage in South America, he pocketed
some raw nuts that had been put out for
dessert at a dinner with the Governor of
Chile. These he sowed on board ship and
landed five plants back in England.
The name ‘Monkey puzzle’ (well used
in Britain) arose from a chance remark
at a Victorian tree planting ceremony:
“It would certainly puzzle a monkey to
climb that tree”.

Description
The tree grows 15-30m (50-100ft) high
with an erect cylindrical trunk, up to
1m (3ft) in diameter in Europe though
wider in its native habitat, mostly prickly
with either living or dead remains of
leaves. The bases of large trees are often
buttressed. The bark is grey, wrinkled, and
marked with rings formed by old branch
scars as well as with remains of leaves.
Branches are produced in regular tiers
of 5-7; the symmetrical pattern of the
branching is very distinctive. Uppermost
branches are ascending; lower ones
pendulous; they are shed after a few
years as higher branches shade them.
Leaves are 30-40mm (1.2-1.5ins) long,
dark glossy green, broadly triangular,
rigid, hard, leathery and sharp pointed;
they are arranged in close-set,
overlapping spiral whorls completely
hiding the shoot. Leaves remain green
for 10-15 years but may persist on the
tree long after they turn brown and

126  MONKEY PUZZLE TREE

 1 cm

clusters at the tips of shoots, and are brownish with densely

packed scales, 7-12cm (3-5ins) long, shedding pollen in July.
Female cones take two or three seasons to develop; they appear
in spring of the first season, are pollinated in July, and shed
their seeds in August to September of the second or third year.
Female cones are striking globular objects, scattered singularly
and erect on the upper sides of shoots, 10-17cm (4-7ins) across Monkey puzzle nuts
(the size of pineapples) with numerous spirally-ranged golden-
tipped leafy scales. Dozens of cones are usually borne, each
cone bearing 100-300 seeds in their second or third season.
Scales fall away from ripe female cones in late summer, but of course growth will be improved in a sheltered position.
releasing the large seeds. The seeds are purple, ripening light Growth is extremely slow for the first few years, and a height of
red-brown, long and roughly conical, 25-45mm (1-1.8ins) long 2m (6ft) may be attained in 10 years; growth by then should be
by 12-18mm (0.5-0.7ins) wide. reaching 50cm (20ins) per year or more.

Uses Reliable data about fruiting ages and yields is not available, but
fruiting of mature trees in Britain is prolific.
The seeds/nuts, called Chile pine nuts or piñones, are starchy
and have a thin, leathery, easily peeled shell. They can be eaten A problem with cultivation for nuts is that usually, two or more
raw, but are have a better flavour and aroma when boiled, trees are needed for nuts to be produced, and it is almost
steamed or roasted; the taste is reminiscent of chestnuts impossible to determine the sex of trees before they flower,
and plantains. They can also be used for brewing; a spirit is hence it is impossible to buy trees knowing what sex they will
distilled from them in Chile. In Chile they have at times been an be. As trees are always grown from seed, there is a good chance
important food staple. of mixed sexes when several are obtained.
The timber is valuable and pine-like, being resinous, straight Cultivation of the monkey puzzle as a dual purpose tree, for nuts
grained, durable, light, of medium strength, fragrant and pale and timber, is a possibility in mild temperate areas.
yellow. It is used for construction, flooring, joinery and interior Propagation to date has always been by seed. The seeds are
carpentry, furniture and cabinet making, masts and paper pulp. not dormant, and should be sown immediately on receipt in
The resin from the trunk is used medicinally in Chile, probably in warm conditions. Pot up seedlings in winter after the first year of
a similar way to pine resin that is used as a rubefacient, diuretic growth and keep well supplied with nutrients. Plants may reach
and irritant. 30cm (1ft) in three years.

Varieties/Cultivars Pests and diseases

There are none in cultivation. The only one of any consequence is the honey fungus,
Armillaria mellea, which has been known to kill large trees.
Cultivation The normal precautions should be taken.
The species prefers a moist, mild climate and trees in the
west of Britain grow particularly well. When fully established, Related species
temperatures as low as -23°C (-10°F) have been tolerated, but There are none.
the safest areas to grow it are zones 7-8; trees can be killed in
severe winters inland in Britain. European & North American suppliers
Europe: ART, BUR
Preferred conditions are full sun and a deep, acid, moist but
well-drained soil. Trees are wind-firm so shelter isn’t essential North America: FFM

MONKEY PUZZLE TREE  127

MULBERRIES, Morus species
Deciduous, Zone 4-6, H6
Edible fruit, leaves
Silk production

Origin and history Mulberry fruits are eaten fresh, made into jam or mulberry
wine. Mulberry fruit juice is made commercially on a large
The mulberries (Morus species) are a group of temperate and
scale in China where it is very popular; it keeps fresh without
subtropical trees and shrubs, best known for their sweet edible
preservatives for several months. The fruits have recently been
fruit. They have many other uses though, including silkworm
found to possess antioxidant properties.
fodder, sources of rubber and fibres, medicinal uses, and the
valuable timber. Birds are highly attracted to the fruit and will start eating it
before it is fully ripe; because of this, mulberries are sometimes
White mulberry (M. alba, zone 5-6/H6-7) originated from China,
used as sacrificial crops (for example, by cherry growers).
black or common mulberry (M. nigra, zone 5-7, H5-6) from
western Asia and red mulberry (M. rubra, zone 5/H5-6) from the Fruits are also suitable for poultry and pig fodder; as they fall
eastern USA. Russian mulberry (M. alba tatarica, zone 4-5/H7) is when ripe, animals beneath have access to them.
hardier and used in windbreaks. White and red mulberries have
The cooked leaves of several species, notably white mulberry
been hybridised over the last century or more producing hardy,
and its hybrids, can be eaten as a vegetable – very palatable. The
good fruiting varieties.
fresh leaves can be picked throughout the growing season and
Description are steamed for a few minutes or can be placed in layers in pies,
lasagnas etc. Dried mulberry leaf powder is rich in protein and
Mulberries are generally small, irregular, bushy-headed trees,
carbohydrate, and has a distinct fragrant smell. It is used in China
often with leaning trunks, with a rough scaly pink-brown bark.
as a food additive for making buns, bread, cakes and biscuits.
Leaves are alternate, heart shaped or lobed, with toothed edges
and pointed tips. The stems and stem powder are a good media for mushroom
production. In China, the edible Jew’s ear (Auricularia auricula
The flowers are green catkins, wind pollinated; male and female judae) and the medicinal fungus Ganoderma lucidum are
flowers are found on the same tree. Mulberries are monoecious produced on mulberry logs or powder.
and self-fertile.
Mulberries have been used medicinally in the region since
The fruits, like raspberries, are built up of many fruitlets, each ancient times. The root bark in particular has been used as a
pulpy and holding one seed. They have a sharp acid taste until herbal medicine to reduce high blood pressure. Mulberry leaves
fully ripe, when they become sweet and delicious. are rich in gamma-aminobutylic acid, effective against high
Fruit colour varies from white to pink to red and black. blood pressure, and in alanine, effective against hangovers.
Although Morus nigra fruits are nearly always black, the fruits The leaves also contain compounds that can lower the blood
from the other main mulberries (M. alba and M. rubra) can sugar level and thus they are now an important health food,
vary from white to black. taken as mulberry leaf tea, for diabetes.

Uses All parts of the plants contain a milky sap that coagulates into a
type of rubber – a possible temperate rubber crop.
The fruit of most species is sweet and edible raw or cooked;
it can be made into wine, used as a food colouring, and used Several species have fibrous bast fibres beneath the bark that
medicinally as it is slightly laxative and contains many vitamins can be made into rope and paper. Mulberry branches are also
and minerals. The fruits dry easily in a dehydrator (or solar dryer used in China as raw material for paper production.
in a sunny climate). The timber is generally deep yellow, and is hard, strong,
Fruits of black mulberry (M. nigra) are larger than those of white, durable, flexible and coarse grained; it is valued for carving,
red and hybrid mulberries. inlays in cabinet work and musical instruments.
Mulberry fruits turn red, white or purplish-black when they For silk production from the leaves see below. The litter of silk-
ripen, and on average contain 12% sugars (mainly glucose), worm faeces and wasted leaf is also used as a supplementary
though in some varieties it can exceed 20%. They are also rich feed for cattle.
in carotene, vitamins B1, B2 and C.

128 MULBERRIES
 Fruits of black mulberry (Morus nigra)

Varieties/Cultivars
In the descriptions here, A = M. alba, N = M. nigra, R = M.rubra,
AxR = hybrid of M. alba and M. rubra.
Cultivar Origin Description Cultivar Origin Description
‘Agate’ Southeastern A. Bears huge black fruits of good sweet ‘Ivory’ Canada A or AxR. Vigorous, very productive,
Europe flavour. precocious tree; white fruits.
‘Black Beauty’ N. Large black fruits on bushy plants ‘Izvor’ Eastern N. Hardy, good cropper of black fruits.
that grows to 4.5m/15ft high. Europe

‘Black Tabor’ Southeastern A or AxR. Productive tree with black ‘Mystic Red’ USA R. Fruit large, early ripening.
Europe fruits. ‘Noire of Spain’ N. Large black fruits.
‘Capsrum’ Canada AxR. Very productive, precocious, ‘Pakistan’ Pakistan A. Spreading tree, fruits very large,
vigorous tree; black fruits. deep reddish-black. Best in warmer
areas – not very hardy. ‘Pakistan King’
‘Carmen’ Canada AxR. Very productive, precocious, similar.
vigorous tree; white fruits.
‘Paradise’ USA R. Small spreading tree. Fruits white.
‘Chelsea’ UK N. Bears large reddish-black fruits.
‘Pendula’ Unknown A. Small weeping tree to 2.5m/8ft high.
‘Collier’ USA AxR. Medium-sized spreading tree. Fruits black, small, good flavour.
Very productive. Fruits reddish-black.
‘Persian’ Iran N. Very heavy crops of violet-purple
‘Dwarf Bush’ Unknown N. Black fruits on a dwarf tree to fruits on vigorous tree.
2.5m/8ft high.
‘Repsime’ France N. Large black fruits, precocious tree.
‘Dwarf Shah Unknown N. Small tree, fruit large, purple, sweet. ‘San Martin’ A. White fruits on moderate sized tree.
Reza’
‘Sham Dudu’ Syria N. Large black fruits, good cropper.
‘Gelato’ Italy A or AxR. Fruit very sweet, early
ripening. ‘Superberry’ N. Good fruiting selection.

‘Illinois USA AxR. Medium-sized tree, hardy, very ‘Turkeyi’ Unknown Possibly N. Sweet black fruits.
Everbearing’ productive. Black fruits hang well on ‘Wellington’ USA AxR. Heavy cropping tree with reddish-
tree. black fruits.
‘Improved Unknown N. Very large black fruits. ‘White Pakistan’ Pakistan A. Large white fruits, tree not very
Bacchus Noir’ hardy.
‘Italian’ Canada A or AxR. Vigorous, very productive, ‘Whitey’ Unknown A. Large crops of large sweet fruits,
precocious tree; black fruits. very early ripening.

MULBERRIES 129
 Cultivation
Mulberries are usually disease free and thrive in any reasonably
good, well-drained soil. Cultivars are self-fertile.
All species need full sun in cooler climates but tolerate partial
shade in hot sunny climes. Russian mulberry (M. alba tatarica) is
sometimes used in ‘edible windbreaks’, the blossoms not being
damaged by high winds. However many other mulberries have
brittle branches and branch breakages in exposed sites are
common. Black mulberry (M. nigra) is less hardy and demands
a slightly better site than the other species described here.
Mulberries prefer moist soil but are drought tolerant once
established. They do not need fertilising.
Mulberries come into leaf late in the spring, are tolerant of
ground cover competition and grow well with grass beneath;
this makes them a highly promising agroforestry crop in
systems where they form the higher storey.
Named varieties of mulberry start fruiting at a young age, those
of white or red parentage often the first year they are planted.
M. nigra varieties may take 4-5 years. Most varieties ripen their
crop over a long period of six weeks or more between August
and October, making this an ideal home garden tree (also one
reason why mulberries are rarely grown commercially).
Harvesting mulberries is best undertaken by putting a sheet or
tarp on the ground and lightly shaking the branches. All the ripe
fruits will readily fall and can be easily sorted. Mulberries do not
store well and should be eaten or processed within 24 hours.
Dark mulberry fruits will stain fingers and clothing.
For orchard cultivation and systems using understorey crops,
young trees should be planted at 8-10m (27-33 ft) apart.
Planting in the spring is preferable. Some formative pruning
may be desirable in the first few years to establish a strong
framework of 4-5 branches; otherwise only prune to remove
Pollarded white mulberry (Morus alba)
crossing or dead branches. Pruning should be undertaken in
for leaf crop
winter to avoid excess bleeding of sap.
For windbreaks, plant at 2.5-7m (8-20ft) apart. Mulberries stand
clipping well if plants need it.
White mulberries (M. alba) and its hybrids are sometimes
cultivated as a vegetable crop. In this case the trees are planted
densely in rows and coppiced annually at a height of 60-90cm
(2-3ft). The fresh leaves are then picked by hand throughout the
growing season.
Propagation can be either by seed (requiring 16 weeks of
stratification), hardwood cuttings in winter, grafting/budding,
layering or air layering. In addition, some species can be
propagated from softwood cuttings in summer. The use of
mycorrhizal fungi spores as a cuttings dip is reported to increase
the success rate.

130 MULBERRIES
Pests and diseases Related species
One pest in Britain is snails, which graze on the bark, buds and Most mulberries cultivated in Japan belong to M. australis and
leaves of young trees and can kill them. M. alba. Minor species include M. kagayamae and M. boninensis
(indigenous to remote islands). The main species used in China
Birds are sometimes a problem taking the fruits, although on
are Lu mulberry (M. alba var. multicaulis), white mulberry (M. alba),
many varieties the fruits are well hidden underneath leaves. If
mountain mulberry (M. australis) and Guandong mulberry
birds are a problem then using plastic owls or snakes is quite
(M. atropurpurea). Some of these are not very hardy (to zone 8/H4).
effective. Birds will also rarely go for white fruits so you can
choose a white fruited variety from the outset if you know birds European & North American suppliers
are likely to be troublesome.
Europe: ART, KPN, REA
North America: AAF, BLN, DWN, HSN, OGW, STB, TYT

Silk production decades for warm, temperate, cold and a fist from where the shoots emerge. The
snowy regions. non-fist training method is similar except
The production of silk from silkworms that the pruning height is raised each
China is the largest producer of mulberry
feeding on mulberry leaves is called seri- year, allowing a bud above each previous
and silk in the world, with some
culture. It takes place mainly in China and cut to remain. Finally, there is a lateral
626,000ha (1.56 million ac) of mulberry
Japan. Silkworms eat only mulberry leaves branch training method, where branches
resulting in some 432,000 tonnes of fresh
(of several species, but not the black in line with the row are tied down to
cocoon production per year.
mulberry, M. nigra) to make their cocoons, wires, allowing shoots to emerge from
producing silk. Mulberry leaves are rich In Japan there are approximately the horizontal branch buds. Mechanical
in protein and amino acids and there is a 15,000ha (38,000ac) of mulberries for harvesting demands low pruning near to
high correlation between leaf protein level sericulture, including 1,200ha (3,000ac) ground level to prevent stump formation.
and production efficiency of cocoon shell. of densely planted fields. The normal
planting density of trees is 60-100 plants Harvesting methods vary with silkworm
Mulberry contains all the necessary rearing scale and frequency. The two
per ha (24-40 plants/ac i.e. trees spaced
nutrients for the growth and development main methods are spring pruning (for
at 10-13m/33-40ft). In densely planted
of the silkworm (Bombyx mori), and the summer to autumn rearing season)
orchards, aiming at early high yield and
sericulture has been carried out for more and summer pruning (for both spring
mechanical harvesting, over 250 plants/
than 5,000 years. In China it takes 15-18kg rearing and late autumn rearing). There is
ha (100 plants/ac i.e. trees spaced at
(33-40lb) of fresh leaves to produce 1kg also the circle harvesting method (spring
6m/20ft or less) are used.
(2.2lb) of fresh cocoon at the farmer level. pruning and summer pruning alternately
There are various training forms used. every year) and alternate harvesting
Most mulberries cultivated in Japan
Maintenenace of stump height is one method (alternating spring and summer
belong to M. australis and M. alba.
of the typical forms used, with either a pruning to half of the same plant). These
Breeding work in Japan has concentrated low cut (15-30cm, 6-12ins above soil), two methods are adopted to secure
on developing cultivars for leaf a medium low cut (30-50cm, 12-20ins) enough yield by sustaining the tree vigour.
production (for silkworm fodder) with the or a medium cut (50-100cm, 20-39ins).
aims of high yield, high nutritional value, Another typical form is the fist shape Annual Chinese leaf yields from high
and resistance against pests and diseases. method, where the plant is pollarded density plantations are in the region of
Varieties have been released in recent back to the same place each year, forming 25-50t/ha (22,000-44,000lb/ac).

MULBERRIES 131
OAKS, Quercus species
Deciduous and evergreen, Zones 3-9, H3-7
Edible nuts
Timber, bark

Origin and history Uses

The oaks are a large family of trees and shrubs, most deciduous Oaks are well known as timber trees, and many have bark high
but some evergreen, from the Northern Hemisphere. They grow in tannins which has long been used as a source for tanning
in many different climates and situations. leather. Here I have concentrated on the edible acorn uses.
There is a long history of human cultures using acorns as a food Acorns provide a complete vegetable protein and are high
source, often as a staple crop. Early Greek writers referred to the in carbohydrates. They contain 16 amino acids, appreciable
acorn as a wholesome food. The most recent peoples to use amounts of vitamins A and C, and significant quantities of
acorns as a major food source were the native North Americans, calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, potassium and sulphur.
who used them widely well into this century. They are still a They are particularly good used in biscuits, breads and pies.
regular item of commerce in a few countries, notably Korea.
Acorns of the white oak group are often sweeter and less tannic
All oaks bear acorns that are edible. Most species of oak (of which (range: 0.7-2.1% tannins) than those of the black oak group
there are many) produce acorns which are high in tannins, (range: 6.7-8.8%), but species of both groups have been highly
making them bitter and astringent when raw, hence they need regarded as food sources, and there is considerable variation
processing to remove these potentially
harmful substances. Removal of tannins
is, however, extremely easy, and the
resultant acorn meal resembles that from
other nuts in oiliness and flavour.

Description
There are some 600 species of oak varying
from shrubs to very tall trees, deciduous
and evergreen. All produce single-seeded
nuts – acorns – after the male catkins and
small female flowers.
Most species take at least 15 years
before they start to fruit, sometimes up
to 25 years, though there are exceptions:
Q. robur usually starts well before this,
and some individuals flower at 3-5 years
old. Flowering occurs in the spring and the
acorns mature after either 6 or 18 months
depending on the species. Pollination is
via the wind, and hybridisation is common.
American oaks can be divided into two
groups: white oaks and black (or red)
oaks. White oaks mature their acorns
in their first year and have leaves with
rounded lobes, without pointed tips;
in black oaks, acorns take two years
to develop, and leaves have bristles or
pointed tips. Ballota oak acorns (Q. ilex ballota)

132 OAKS
between individual trees of each species. Acorns of the black Species Common names D/E Acorn Zone Habit (in
oak group are generally higher in fats than those of the white cultivation)
oak group. Q. emoryi Emory oak, D 1 7 Small tree
Western black
Acorn beverages have been made, notably coffee substitutes by oak
roasting and grinding: the quality depends on the acorn and the Q. gambelii Gambel oak, D 1 4 Shrub or
technique – Q. muehlenbergii was valued for this purpose in the Shin oak small tree to
USA and Q. robur has been used in Europe. In Turkey, ‘racahout’, 8m
a spiced acorn drink like hot chocolate, was traditionally made Q. gramuntia Holly leaved E 1 8 Small tree
from acorns of Q. ilex well into the 20th century. gramont oak
Q. ilex Holm oak, E 1 7 Large tree
Acorn oil can be extracted by boiling or pressing and is Holly oak
comparable in quality to olive oil: it has been used in North Q. ilex ballota Ballota oak E 1 7
Africa (especially from Q. ilex ballota) and North America
Q. ithaburensis Israeli oak SE 2 7 Small tree
(especially from Q. virginiana) as cooking oil. Some species
contain up to 30% oil, comparable to the best olive varieties. Q. ithaburensis Vallonea oak, SE 2 7 Small tree
ssp. macrolepis Camata

Varieties/Cultivars Q. kelloggii California black D 2 8 Shrub or tree,

oak, Kellogg oak 5-25 m
Key to oak species tables
Q. lobata Valley oak, D 1 7 Shrub or tree
D/E: D = Deciduous, E = evergreen, SE = semi-evergreen. California white
oak
Acorn: 1 = acorns mature the same year as flowering, 2 = acorns Q. lyrata x Comptons oak D 1
mature in two years. virginiana
Q. macrocarpa Burr oak, Mossy D 1 3 Large tree
Zone: Indicates hardiness zone. cup oak, Blue oak
Q. macrocarpa x Bur Gambel oak D 1 Small tree
Species with low-tannin acorns gambelii
Species Common names D/E Acorn Zone Habit (in Q. macroc x Ooti oak D 1 Medium tree
cultivation) muhl x robur
Q. alba White oak, Stave D 1 4 Large tree Q. mongolica Mongolian oak D 1 3 Large tree
oak, Quebec oak
Q. muhlenbergii Chinkapin oak, D 1 4 Large tree
Q. arizonica Arizona white oak SE 1 7 Shrub or Yellow chestnut
small tree oak

Q. aucheri Boz pirnal oak E 2 8 Large shrub Q. prinoides Dwarf chinkapin D 1 5 Suckering
to 5m oak, Chinkapin shrub or tree
oak to 4m
Q. x bebbiana Bebbs oak D 1 4 Large tree
Q. prinus Chestnut oak, D 1 5 Large tree
Basket oak,
Q. bicolor Swamp white oak, D 1 4 Large tree
Rock oak
White oak
Q. x schuettes Schuettes oak D 1 4 Large tree
Q. chrysolepis Canyon live oak, E 2 7 Large shrub
Canyon/Maul oak to medium Q. stellata Post oak, Iron oak D 1 5 Small to
tree medium tree

Q. douglasii Blue oak, D 1 7+ Shrub or tree Q. vacciniifolia Huckleberry oak D 2 6 Prostrate/

Iron oak erect shrub,
0.5-1.8m
Q. dumosa California scrub SE 1 8 Shrub to 4m
oak, Scrub oak Q. virginiana Live oak, E 1 7 Shrub or tree
Virginia live oak

OAKS 133
Species with medium/high-tannin acorns
Species Common names D/E Acorn Zone Habit (in Species Common names D/E Acorn Zone Habit (in
cultivation) cultivation)
Q. acuta Japanese E 7 Large shrub Q. lyrata Overcup oak, D 1 5+ Large tree
evergreen oak Swamp post oak
Q. acutissima Sawtooth oak, D 2 5 Large tree Q. macroocarpa x Bur English oak D 1 Large tree
Korean oak robur
Q. afares Afares oak D 5 Medium tree Q. macrocarpa x D 1 3 Large shrub or
turbinella Burlive small tree
Q. aliena Oriental white oak D 1 5+ Large tree
oak
Q. alnifolia Golden oak E 2 8 Shrub to 2m, or
Q.marilandica Blackjack oak, D 2 5 Small tree,
tree to 8m
Jack oak 6-10m
Q. brantii D 2 7 Shrub or small
Q. michauxii Swamp chestnut D 1 6 Large tree
tree to 10m
oak, Cow oak
Q. castanaeifolia Chestnut leaf oak D 2 6+ Large tree
Q. myrsinifolia E 1 7 Shrub to
Q. cerris Turkey oak D 2 6 Large tree medium tree
Q. coccifera Kermes oak, E 2 6 Bushy shrub, Q. nigra Water oak, D 2 6 Large tree
Grain oak 0.3-1.5m Possum oak
Q. coccinea Scarlet oak, D 2 4 Large tree Q. nuttallii Nuttall oak D 2 6 Large tree
Spanish oak
Q. oblongifolia Mexican blue oak, E 1 7 Shrub or tree
Q. dentata Japanese emperor D 1 5 Large tree Western live oak to 8m
oak, Daimio oak
Q. palustris Pin oak, Spanish D 2 Large tree
Q. ehrenbergii D 7 Shrub or small oak, Swamp oak
tree
Q. pedunculiflora D 1 6 Large tree
Q. ellipsoidalis Northern pin oak, D 2 4 Large tree
Q. petraea Durmast oak, D 1 4 Large tree
Jack oak
Sessile oak
Q. engelmannii E 8
Q. phellos Willow oak, D 2 6 Large tree
Q. faginea Portuguese oak SE 1 7 Shrub or small Peach oak, Pin oak
tree
Q. phillyreoides Ubame oak E 2 7 Shrub or tree,
Q. falcata Southern red oak, D 2 6+ Large tree 3-9m
Swamp red oak
Q. pubescens Downy oak, D 1 5 Medium to large
Q. frainetto Hungarian oak, D 1 6 Large tree Pubescent oak tree
Italian oak
Q. pungens Sandpaper oak E 1 7 Shrub or tree
Q. garryana Oregon white oak, D 1 5+ Small to
Post oak medium tree Q. pyrenaica Pyrenean oak, D 1 7 Shrub or small
Spanish oak to medium tree
Q. glandulifera Konara oak, D 1 5 Medium tree
Glandbearing oak Q. robur English oak, D 1 6 Large tree
Pedunculate oak
Q. glauca Blue Japanese oak E 1 7+ Shrub to
medium tree Q. robur x alba English white oak D 1 3 Large tree

Q. haas D 1 5 Large tree Q. robur x lobata Robata oak D 1 3 Large tree

Q. hartwissiana D 1 5 Large tree Q. robur x turbinella English live oak D 1 3 Shrub or small
tree
Q. x heterophylla Bartram oak D 2 5 Large tree
Q. rubra Red oak, D 2 3 Large tree
Q. x hispanica Lucombe oak, SE 2 6+ Shrub to large Northern red oak
Spanish oak tree
Q. semicarpifolia E 2 8 Shrub
Q. imbricaria Shingle oak, D 2 5 Medium to large
Laurel oak tree Q. shumardii Schumard oak, D 2 5 Large tree
Schneck oak
Q. infectoria Aleppo oak SE 1 6 Small tree to 4m
Q. suber Cork oak E 1 8 Small to large
Q. x kewensis E 2 6 Small tree tree
Q. laevis American turkey oak, D 2 6 Shrub or tree, Q. trojana Macedonian oak D 2 6 Small tree
Scrub oak 6-12m
Q. lamellosa E 8 Shrub or tree Q. undulata Wavyleaf oak D 1 5 Shrub, 1-3m,
rarely tree to 9m
Q. l eucotrichophora E 1 8 Shrub or tree
Q. variabilis Chinese cork oak, D 2 4 Large tree
Q. x libanerris Libanerris oak D 2 6 Large tree Oriental oak
Q. libani Lebanon oak D 2 6 Shrub or tree to Q. velutina Black oak, D 2 4 Large tree
7-8m Smooth-bark oak
Q. lusitanica SE 1 8 Shrub, 0.3-2m, Q. wislizeni Interior live oak, E 2 8 Shrub
often carpets Highland live oak

134 OAKS
Recommended species for use in Britain
Oaks from the continental eastern USA, China and Japan do
not grow or fruit so well in Britain and can suffer autumn frost
damage from unripened shoots; of these the best is Q. rubra
and some of the other red oaks. Q. alba only does well in the
dry southeast of England. The Mediterranean oaks, however,
thrive in Britain’s climate, growing faster here than in their
native areas.
Low-tannin species: Q. agrifolia, Q. ilex, Q. ilex ballota,
Q. itheburensis macrolepis, Q. kelloggii; and possibly Q. douglasii,
Q. dumosa, Q. gramuntia (a confused species – may be part of
Q. ilex), Q. lobata and Q. vacciniifolia.
Medium to high-tannin species: Lithocarpus densiflorus,
Q. cerris, Q. coccifera, Q. frainetto, Q. fruticosa, Q. x hispanica,
Q. x kewensis, Q. libani, Q. palustris, Q. petraea, Q. phillyreioides,
Q. robur, Q. rubra, Q. suber, Q. wislizenii; and possibly Q. alnifolia, Red oak acorns (Q.rubra)
Q. engelmannii, Q. garryana, Q. haas, Q. pubescens, Q. pyrenaica,
Q. trojana.
numerous mycorrhizal associations with fungi which can
Recommended species for specific situations significantly aid their nutrition and health.
For poor soil: Q. ilicifolia, Q. laevis, Q. x libanerris, Q. marylandica, Oaks have long been intercropped with cereals and grassland in
Q. prinoides. Europe and North America, although they usually form wide-
For very alkaline soil: Q. ellipsoidalis, Q. cerris, Q. frainetto, spreading rounded trees that are not compatible with long-term
Q. ilex, Q. macrocarpa x robur, Q. muehlenbergi. alley cropping.

For very acid soil: Q. marylandica, Q. petraea. Oaks are generally hard to propagate by any other means than
seed. Fresh seed in autumn should be sown immediately in
Drought tolerant: Q. alba, Q. aucheri, Q. castaneifolia, Q. chrysolepis, a cold frame, cold greenhouse etc., making sure that rodents
Q. douglasii, Q. gambelii, Q. itheburensis, Q. leucotrichophora, cannot get at the seed. Dormancy varies between species;
Q. macrocarpa x turbinella, Q. macrocarpa, Q. marylandica, some seeds are not dormant, others need up to four months
Q. prinoides, Q. pubescens, Q. pungens, Q. robur x lobata, Q. rubra, of cold, but sowing in autumn is good practice for all species.
Q. suber, Q. velutina, Q. virginiana. Trees should be planted out in their final locations before they
For wet soils: Q. bicolor, Q. ellipsoidalis, Q. lyrata, Q. michauxii, are too large.
Q. nuttalli, Q. petraea, Q. phillyreoides, Q. robur. The first acorns to fall in early autumn are usually bad –
Tolerant of saline soils: Q. virginiana. either empty or eaten by weevils – so it is important to allow
these to fall before starting harvesting. The easiest method is to
Tolerant of maritime exposure: Q. aucheri, Q. ilex. just spread sheets or small-weave nets on the ground beneath
Precocious species (fruiting soon in life): Q. acutissima Gobbler the trees, which are emptied every few days. Where there is
strain (5-8 years), Q. cerris (5-8 years), Q. variabilis. little undergrowth or in urban areas where there is concrete
beneath the trees, the acorns can just be picked off the ground
Cultivation if it is clean.
All oaks like warm summers; warm dry summers tend to favour In heavy mast years (often every 2-3 years), when a very large
heavy crops of acorns: these occur at irregular intervals of 1-5 crop of acorns is produced by most species, there may be so
years depending on the species. many acorns produced that it is relatively safe to allow them
In general, oaks prefer a medium or heavy soil, often a deep to lie for weeks or months below the trees, harvesting a few
fertile loam, and tolerate a range of pH from moderately acid at a time. If some are still there in the spring, they can still be
to moderately alkaline. Most species prefer a moist soil, and harvested, even if they have begun to sprout.
tolerate moderate side shade and exposure. It is a good idea to store harvested acorns for two weeks before
Many species develop deep taproots and are drought-resistant using, to allow them to ripen fully and thus minimise the tannin
when established, but good acorn production requires content. They are also easier to shell after storage.
reasonably fertile soil and sufficient water. Among the oak Acorns can be stored in reasonably good condition for a period
family are species that tolerate extreme aridity, salinity, of up to six months, by providing a cool, moist, rodent and
alkalinity, flooding, and severe heat and cold. Oaks form squirrel-proof store, where the acorns can be piled in layers up

OAKS 135
 Processing acorns a species too; some ranges found are:
Q. alba (0.41-2.54%); Q. rubra (3.72-4.47%);
After harvesting, the acorns need to be and Q. velutina (3.29-6.13%).
shelled and the kernels ground. The best
Traditionally, acorns were ground with a
way of shelling is to cut the acorns in half
pestle and mortar. An easier and quicker
(lengthways) with a sharp knife and use
method is to use a food blender: put the
the point of the knife to prise out each half
acorns into the blender with three times
of the kernel. This method does not take
their volume of water (i.e. three cups of
long to prepare enough kernels to use in a
water per three cups of acorns) and blend
meal. If the acorns are sprouting, the shell
them until they are finely ground.
will have split and can be pulled apart,
and the sprout itself should be discarded. Traditional methods of leaching the
Another method that may work with some ground acorn meal include placing them
species is to soak the acorns in water in a sack in constant running water (may
overnight, causing the shell to split open, take 2-3 hours), or by pouring hot water
when the shell can be removed by hand. over the meal in a strainer. A simpler Shelled half kernels of English
Any mouldy kernels should be discarded (though longer) method, is to allow the oak acorns (Q. robur)
at this point. ground meal to soak in cold water for 3-4
days, changing the water daily. For small
At this stage, the shelled acorn kernels amounts of meal, use large jars (e.g. coffee the leached meal in water for about 15
can be frozen if desired, to be ground and jars): the ground meal will settle to the minutes, stirring constantly to prevent
leached at a later date. bottom and the water above it will darken burning; allow to cool, then freeze to
Most species of oaks produce acorns to brown as the tannins leach into it. To separate the water from the cooked meal;
with moderate to high levels of tannins change the water, just pour off the old thaw when ready to use, and squeeze
which must be leached out before water (take care not to pour out the meal!) remaining water from the cooked meal in
they can be eaten; a few species, and and refill with clean water. The water will a strainer.
occasional isolated trees of others, can get visibly clearer each day, and after 3-4 The cooked acorn meal made is excellent
produce sweet acorns with low enough days the meal can be used. The whole to use as a nut butter in sandwiches or in
tannin levels that they can be used whole process should take place in a cool or cold a dip with sour cream or yoghurt.
directly in cooking etc. The tannins that room, or in a refrigerator if available.
Instead of cooking immediately, the
cause the bitterness in most acorns are Larger quantities of acorns can be leached acorn meal can be dried and
tannic acid, gallic acid and pyrogallol. leached in bowls or buckets, again in a stored for later use as above. Spread the
The concentration of these is 1.5-3 times cool or cold place. meal thinly in trays and dry in a warm
higher in green (immature) acorns than
room or in a dehydrator, stirring regularly
in mature, ripe acorns. The procedure The leached acorn meal needs cooking
to prevent the grains from sticking
to measure tannins is complex and either on its own or in a recipe. In the
together and forming ‘acorn rocks’.
expensive, which is probably the main latter case, just strain the meal from the
reason why more work has not been done last soak water, dry if necessary, and Sweet acorns, with low tannin levels, can
on tannin content of acorns for different add it to the recipe (see below for some be used whole or in halves straight into
species. The tannin content varies within suggestions). In the former case, simmer recipes, e.g. adding to bread etc.

to 15cm (6ins) thick. The layers should be turned regularly to The main pest is likely to be squirrels, and some control may be
prevent mould growth. necessary.
Yields vary widely from species to species and year to year, Related species
many species being alternate bearing. They can reach 7.5t/ha
The tanbark oaks (Lithocarpus species) are closely related and
(6,600lb/ac), with individual trees yielding up to 90kg (200lb –
their acorns (high in tannins) can be used in the same ways.
Q. garryana), 300kg (660lb – Q. ilex) or 900kg (2,000lb – Q. lobata).

Pests and diseases European & North American suppliers

Europe: ART, MCN
A variety of weevils and other insects may eat into the acorns,
typically leaving a small hole visible. Bad nuts tend to fall first North America: OTC. Ken Asmus at Oikos has done fantastic
and should be discarded. work on oak hybrids.

136 OAKS
PAPER MULBERRY, Broussonetia papyrifera
Deciduous, Zone 7, H5
Edible fruit
Paper from bark

Origin and history develop into orange-red, round, sweet juicy fruits, usually
1.5-2cm (0.6-0.8ins) but sometimes up to 3-4cm (1.2-1.6ins)
The paper mulberry has long been used as a fibre plant both
in diameter.
in its native range and also widely across the Pacific Islands,
and it is sometimes surprising to find that this well-known plant The root system is shallow and relatively water-demanding.
of Polynesia is in fact hardy in mild temperate climates. As well Larger trees are prone to windblow in exposed locations.
as being a fibre plant it has edible mulberry-like fruit and
numerous other uses. It is native to Japan and Taiwan and is Uses
naturalised in parts of southeastern Europe. The most significant part of the paper mulberry is its strong,
fibrous bark used in making the native bark cloth known as
Although the tree is fertile in its native range, the plants carried
tapa.
into the Pacific were all male clones, transported and planted
as rootstock or stems. Thus, the female plants with flowers and The bark is also widely used to make fine quality papers. The
fruit are absent there. long, strong fibres of paper mulberry produce very strong,
dimensionally stable papers. In Japan it is the most well-known
The tree was very important in traditional Polynesian culture,
fibre used for making Japanese tissue of varying thicknesses
as its bark supplied one of the most important materials in
(mainly used in the conservation of books and manuscripts)
ancient Polynesia, tapa cloth. Today the tree has disappeared
and Japanese paper or washi. Washi is used in many arts,
from most of its traditional range and is cultivated to any extent
clothing and other objects. The bark fibre can also be used to
only in Tonga, Fiji and Samoa. It is important in these places
make rough cordage.
because it is a major source of handicraft income in the form
of finished tapa cloth. The sweetish fruits are edible, sweet and fine to eat, although
where only male clones are present, such as in the Pacific Basin,
Although it is no longer used in Polynesia for clothing, in Tonga
no fruit is formed. The fruits are fragile and do not transport
and Samoa tapa cloth is still worn during ceremonial occasions
well. In Indonesia, the young leaves are eaten steamed.
such as festivals or dances. It does not last very long when worn
as everyday clothing. The tree is grown in plantations and home
gardens on islands where tapa cloth is still made. It can tolerate
a wide range of environmental extremes and even does well in
The making of wooden anvil using a square
beater made of a hard wood.
temperate climates (its native habitat). tapa cloth Two or three of the strips
Note: Can be invasive in some warm climates. are then felted together by
The bark is stripped from the pounding, helped by the
Description the cut stems by making a stickiness of the bark.
A deciduous tree, it reaches a height of 12m/40ft or more lengthways incision across
Several of the resulting
if allowed to grow, but in practice it is usually harvested by the stem and pulling it off
sheets are often pounded
coppicing at a much shorter height when the stems are about intact to obtain a single long
together in layers to increase
2.5cm/1ins in diameter and 3-4m/10-13ft tall. strip.
the thickness or to cover
Leaves are very variable in shape, even on the same branch, The inner bark or bast is then over thin spots or holes in
they can be cordate or deeply lobed (especially on young separated from the outer the individual sheets. A bit of
plants). They are downy underneath and leak a milky sap bark, and any green matter paste in the sprinkling water
when torn. remaining on the bast is is usually used at this point.
removed using scrapers;
Paper mulberry is dioecious – i.e. male and female flowers are These white tapas are then
the bast is then washed to
borne on separate trees, in May to June in the UK. Male flowers painted or, as in Hawai‘i,
remove the slimy sap.
are pendulous catkins, and bear a lot of pollen and dense printed with decorative
plantings can cause allergy problems in spring. Female flowers The strips are pounded on a designs.

PAPER MULBERRY  137

 Cultivation
Paper mulberries are easy to grow, tolerating most reasonable
well-drained soils and situations. It is quite drought tolerant and
also tolerant of atmospheric pollution (it has been used as a
city street tree).
In the tropics trees are often coppiced annually for a bark
harvest, whereas in cooler climates coppicing every few years
is more appropriate.
Propagation from seed is easy – no pre-treatment is required.
Sow in autumn or spring in a greenhouse. Seed germinates in
1-3 months.
Cuttings of half-ripe wood in July to August and of mature wood
taken in November can also work. It is useful to propagate male
trees that are sometimes used in climates where this species
Female flower and fruits of paper mulberry has the potential to be invasive.

Pests and diseases

There are none of note.
Leaves and other parts have been used across the Pacific for
various medicinal purposes. Leaves and shoots are also used as Related species
animal fodder for pigs and deer.
Paper mulberry is related to the true mulberries (see p.128)
Charcoal from the wood makes one of the best permanent
black inks for tapa designs. European & North American suppliers
Europe: ART, BUR
North America: None known.

The making of Japanese is let in periodically to wash the fibres. also be added to the vat. Nagashi-zuki,
Alternatively, the fibres may be bleached the most common technique for making
tissue and paper using a process called small bleaching sheets of paper, is then employed.
(ko-arai). In this case, it is first placed on The mixture is scooped on a screen and
The inner bark of paper mulberries is boards and beaten with rods before being allowed to flow back and forth across the
harvested in the autumn and spring, placed in a cloth bag and rinsed in clear screen to interlock the fibres. This process
with material from the autumn harvest running water. is ideal for forming thin sheets of paper.
being considered better quality. Bundles The other technique for making paper,
of paper mulberry sticks are steamed in Impurities are removed after bleaching tame-zuki, does not use neri and forms
a cauldron, then stripped of their bark through a process known as chiri-tori. thicker sheets of paper.
and hung in the sun to dry. At this stage Any remaining pieces of bark, hard fibres
or other impurities are picked out by The sheet of paper is placed on a wooden
in the process, it is known as kuro-kawa,
hand or, in the case of very small pieces, board and dried overnight, then pressed
or black bark.
by the use of pins. The remaining material the next day to remove water. After pressing,
To make paper, the black bark must be is rolled into little balls and the balls are the sheets are put on a drying board and
converted into white bark. The stored then beaten to crush the fibres. brushed to smooth them. They are dried
black bark is soaked and then scraped in the sun, then removed from the drying
by hand with a knife to remove the black After being beaten, it is common for the board and trimmed.
outer coat. At this point, it is washed in fibres to be mixed with neri, which is a
mucilaginous material made from the This process is usually undertaken in
water and again placed in the sun to dry.
roots (tubers) of Chinese yam (Dioscorea the cold weather of winter, as pure, cold
White bark is boiled with lye for about opposita). This addition makes the fibres running water is essential. Cold also inhibits
an hour, then left to steam for several float uniformly on water and also helps bacteria, preventing the decomposition
more hours. At this point, it is rinsed to slow the speed of drainage so that a of the fibres. Cold also makes the fibres
with clear water to remove the lye. Then, better-formed sheet of paper will result. contract, producing a crisp feel to the
it is stream bleached (kawa-zarashi). paper. It is traditionally the winter work
The fibres are placed in a stream bed A solution of 30% pulp and 70% water of farmers, a task that supplemented a
around which a dam is built. Clean water is then mixed together in a vat. Neri may farmer’s income.

138  PAPER MULBERRY

PAWPAW, Asimina triloba
Deciduous, Zone 5, H7
Edible fruit

Origin and history brown then black as it over-ripens or is frosted.

The pawpaw is the largest fruit native to the USA and should Within the fruit are two rows of several (two to many) large
not be confused with the tropical paw paw or papaya brown-black flattish seeds, 25mm (1ins) long and 12mm (0.5ins)
(Carica papaya). Asimina triloba is distributed over most of wide with rounded ends; seeds separate readily from the flesh.
the eastern USA and into southeastern Canada, often found in The fruit flesh varies from white to yellow-orange in colour.
the understorey beneath beech and maple trees. Fruits are borne in most years.

Description Pawpaws are relatively short-lived trees, living for 30-80 years,
although their suckering habit usually ensures their survival.
The pawpaw is a deciduous small tree or
large shrub, normally 3-8m (10-26ft) high
but occasionally up to 12m (40ft). It grows
to form a pyramid-shaped tree or shrub,
and is weakly to moderately suckering,
so that in time it can be thicket-forming.
Leaves are large, elliptical, pointed at the
apex and shiny. The graceful, drooping
leaves, which all tend to lie in the same
plane, give the tree a ‘sleepy’ appearance.
Leaves open with or just after the flowers;
they turn a brilliant yellow in the autumn.
The foliage emits a heavy odour when
bruised (disagreeable to some people).
Flowers arise on one-year-old wood, from
the axils of the previous year’s leaves,
4-5cm (1.4-2ins) in diameter and have three
pale green sepals and six petals which are
green at first, turning brown and then a
deep vinous red. Flowers are borne singly
but can potentially give rise to a cluster of
fruits. They have a slightly foetid smell and
do not attract bees; pollination is by flies
and beetles. Flowering takes place around
the same time as for apples, over a two
week period.
Fruits are oblong to banana shaped,
borne in clusters of 3-7. Fruits in the
wild average 8cm (3.6ins) long by 3.5cm
(1.4ins) wide, though fruit from selected
cultivars are often larger (up to 15cm/6ins
long, 7.5cm/3ins wide and weighing up
to 450g/1lb). The skin is usually thin and
smooth, green-yellow at maturity turning Pawpaw flowers

PAWPAW 139
Uses Cultivar Origin Description
The main and best-known use of pawpaw is the edible fruit. ‘Allegheny’ (NP) West Virginia Mid-late season. Fruits small-medium,
Only the yellow-orange fleshed cultivars have good edible flesh; though of excellent flavour – sweet,
rich, with a hint of citrus.
white-fleshed fruits are usually bitter and inedible.
‘Davis’ Michigan Mid-late season. Fruits small/medium
Fruits have a characteristic flavour and aroma and are eaten sized and kidney shaped, to 12cm
raw or cooked, and used for making salads, preserves, pies, (4.7ins) long, 115g (4oz) in weight.
Yellow flesh, green skin. Large seeds;
ice cream, cookies, cakes etc. Pulp can be dried or frozen. The stores well. Hardy to -32°C (-25°F).
flesh is highly nutritious: compared with apples and peaches,
pawpaws are higher in unsaturated fats, proteins, carbohydrate, ‘Ford Amend’ Oregon Early-mid season. Mid-large fruit with
orange flesh and green-yellow skin.
fibre, vitamin C, many minerals and amino acids. Pollinated by sunflower.
Fruits are eaten when they soften; they can be rolled between ‘Glaser’ Indiana Large fruited.
the hands to loosen the seeds in the pulp. They can then be cut ‘IXL’ USA An ‘Overleese’ x ‘Davis’ seedling.
in two and the flesh eaten with a spoon, or can be peeled like Large, long fruit to 230-280g (8-10oz);
a banana. The flesh is custard-like in texture with a rich flavour, very good flavour.
banana-like with added hints of vanilla custard, pineapple ‘Kirsten’ Pennsylvania A Taytwo x Overleese seedling.
and mango.
‘Mary Foos USA Mid-late season. Reliable annual
Occasional cases of individual allergy to fruits have been reported; Johnson’ cropper; large fruit to 230g (8oz),
butter-coloured flesh of good flavour.
this seems to be an allergy to substances in the fruit skins, Yellow skin, few seeds.
especially of fruit not fully ripened.
‘Mitchell’ Illinois Medium-sized oval-round fruit of
The seeds are not edible; they contain asimicin. Crushed seeds excellent flavour. Golden flesh, green-
yellow skin.
were traditionally used medicinally as an emetic and to treat
head lice. ‘NC-1’ USA Early season. ‘Overleese’ x ‘Davis’
seedling. Very large fruits to 340g
The bark contains natural pesticides called acetogenins (12oz); few seeds; yellow flesh
(e.g. asimicin, analobine) that appear to act synergistically and skin.
(i.e. have most effect when the compounds are used together, ‘Overleese’ Indiana Mid-late season. Reliable annual
rather than being isolated and used individually). cropper, very vigorous and productive,
with large oval-round fruits of excellent
The substances asimicin and trilobacin, obtained from the bark, flavour. Relatively few seeds.
Fruits to 340g (12oz), in clusters of 3-5.
show potential for being anticancer agents and are presently Mid-ripening.
under test.
‘Penn Golden’ New York Early season. Golden flesh, yellow skin.
The inner bark is stringy and fibrous. This was traditionally
‘Potomac’ (NP) West Virginia Mid-late season. Fruits large, with
stripped from branches in the early spring and used for string, sweet rich flavour and few seeds.
fishing nets and ropes. Tree very upright.
‘Prolific’ Michigan Mid season. Large fruits, to 200-225g
Varieties/Cultivars (8-9oz), yellow fleshed.
In the past decade the most important cultivar releases are the ‘Rappahannock’ West Virginia Early-mid season. Medium-large
so-called ‘Petersen’ pawpaws, named after Neal Petersen who (NP) fruits that ripen to yellow-green,
sweet refreshing flavour, few seeds.
has single-handedly spent 25 years selecting early maturing Very vigorous, good yields.
varieties with good quality fruits – see the cultivars below Leaves held horizontally.
labelled (NP). ‘Rebecca’s Gold’ California A vigorous tree, upright and non-
suckering. Small fruits, kidney shaped,
Self-fertile cultivars will probably still benefit from cross- 85-170g (3-6oz), yellow flesh.
pollination with another cultivar or seedling plant. Thin, tender skins are green and turn
yellow when ripe. Few, large seeds –
The ripening season can span five weeks from mid September about eight per fruit. Self-fertile.
(early) to late October (very late). ‘SAA-Overleese’ New York Late season. Large, round fruits to
285g (10oz), yellow flesh, few seeds.
Cultivation Green skin. An ‘Overleese’ seedling.

The pawpaw is adapted to a humid continental climate and ‘SAA- New York Medium-sized fruits, 170-225g (7-9oz),
Zimmerman’ few seeds. Yellow flesh and skin.
requires a minimum of 160 frost-free days. Trees grow slowly
but healthily in the UK and flower after 5-6 years from seed. ‘Shenandoah’ West Virginia Mid-late season. An ‘Overleese’
(NP) seedling. Good yields of succulent
A rich, moist, well-drained soil is best, with a pH between 5.0 large fruits with few seeds.
and 7.0 (i.e. slightly acid). Pawpaws need a plentiful supply of ‘Silver Creek’ Illinois Medium-sized fruits.

140 PAWPAW
 Pawpaw fruits

Cultivar Origin Description water throughout the summer and extremely light soils are
‘Sunflower’ Kansas Mid-late season. A spreading, late-
probably unsuitable. Partial shade is tolerated (especially in hot
flowering tree. Reliable annual bearer, climates). Pawpaws put down very deep tap roots and are
with very large fruits of good flavour, quite wind-firm.
in clusters of up to five. Self-fertile.
Fruit to 230g (8oz), butter-coloured The best size to plant out is 30-100cm (12-39ins). The roots
flesh. Yellow skin, few seeds (6-8 per are long and brittle and great care should be taken when
fruit). Pollinated by ‘Davis’. Seedlings
make excellent rootstocks, vigorous transplanting; pot-grown stock will establish better, although all
and compatible with other cultivars. plants resent transplanting. Allow at least 4m (13ft) between trees
‘Susquehanna’ West Virginia Mid-late season. Very large fruits with and mulch well – pawpaws do not like intense competition,
(NP) a sweet rich flavour – very few seeds. especially from grass.
Moderate yields.
‘Sweet Alice’ Ohio A prolific bearer of large clusters of Once planted, pawpaws need very little attention. Only essential
large fruits of good flavour. pruning is necessary (to cut out crossing or dead branches).
‘Taylor’ Michigan Mid season. Small/medium-sized fruits Occasional selective heading cuts may also be used to shorten
in clusters of up to seven; yellow flesh limbs and to induce lateral growth. Fruit is produced on one-
of mild flavour, green skin. Self-fertile. year-old wood, so occasional pruning to stimulate new growth
‘Taytwo’ Michigan Annual bearer; fruits medium-large, may be useful.
to 280g (10oz), and of excellent
flavour. Yellow flesh, light green skin Suckers may start to grow after the trees start bearing fruit;
at maturity.
these sometimes appear up to 3m (10ft) from the original stem.
‘Triple Cross USA Large fruit, good flavour, up to 230g These may be cut off, mown off or left to grow as desired.
No.1’ (8oz).
‘Wabash’ (NP) West Virginia Mid-late season. Fruits medium sized, Pawpaws are believed to have a relationship with a mycorrhizal
excellent sweet rich flavour, few seeds. fungi which improves their health and cropping; in the USA
‘Wells’ Indiana Very large fruits, 340-400g (12-14oz); plants are often sold along with a little earth from beneath
green skin, orange flesh. established plants.
‘Wilson’ Kentucky Medium-sized fruits with yellow skin
and golden flesh of good flavour.

PAWPAW 141
Growth of healthy trees should be in the order of 40cm (16ins) The easiest method of propagation is by seed, and this is how
per year; after 4-6 years, plants should be some 1.5m (5ft) high rootstocks are grown for grafting. Seed should be stratified at
and should begin bearing fruit. 2-4°C (36-39°F) for 60-100 days before sowing. After stratification,
soaking the seed for 24 hours in warm water before planting
Cross-pollination is a necessity for a good fruit set: single trees
improves germination. Plant about 25mm (1ins) deep in deep
rarely produce fruits. Pollination is by insects (the pollen is too
containers that allow for air pruning of the vigorous taproot.
heavy to be distributed by the wind), usually beetles and flies,
Give bottom heat of 27°C (80°F). Germination is slow, as is
and notably the bluebottle (carrion fly). Some growers in the USA
growth for the first year or two.
leave carcasses of wild animals near trees to attract bluebottles!
In fact, lack of pollination appears to be the biggest factor in Root cuttings are often successful: 15cm (6ins) lengths of root
keeping fruit yields low. Hand-pollination may significantly are planted 7cm (2.8ins) deep in the spring. New plants will
increase yields: this is quite easy, by using an artist’s brush to develop in the next season.
transfer pollen between trees or by picking a flower of a different Named cultivars are usually propagated by chip budding or by
tree, removing the petals and inserting into a bloom. Flowers are grafting.
receptive to pollen when a drop of liquid shows on its pistil. Only
pollinate up to 10% of flowers, otherwise too many small fruits Pests and diseases
will form. Check the developing clusters of fruit for overcrowding The pawpaw is remarkably free of pests and diseases. The foliage
and if necessary thin to three fruits per bunch. is sometimes affected by a number of minor leaf spots; in damp
Pawpaws need a moderately hot, humid summer to ripen well climates like the UK, it is often nibbled by slugs and snails –
and develop their best flavour. In the cool maritime conditions care should be taken to protect very young trees. Otherwise, it is
of the UK, cropping is likely to be variable, with poor crops in not attractive to grazing animals (including deer and rabbits).
poor summers. In North America, the pawpaw is host to the zebra swallowtail
butterfly, whose caterpillars eat the foliage and are immune to
Fully ripe fruits fall to the ground, so normally fruits are picked its pesticidal properties.
just before this stage and ripened indoors. The fruits are thin-
skinned and bruise easily: care should be taken on harvesting. A pest of potential economic importance in the USA is the
Some cultivars have thicker more leathery skins that offer larval stage of a small Tortricid moth, Talponia plummeriana,
some protection. commonly called the ‘pawpaw peduncle borer’. This pest, about
2-5mm (0.1-0.2ins) long, burrows into the receptacles beneath
Fruits can be stored cold for many weeks; but after bringing the ovaries, causing the flowers to wither, blacken and drop.
into a warm atmosphere they ripen within a few days. Ripe fruit In some years many flowers can be lost.
must be eaten (or processed) within three days.
Fruits are attractive to a range of wildlife, including deer,
Pawpaw yields are often 20-30 fruits per tree (about 5-7kg/11-15lb) squirrels, foxes and birds.
although newer improved varieties may be double that.
Annual bearing is the norm, though in the UK in poor summers Related species
fruit may not ripen.
The genus Asimina is the only temperate climate representative
In areas with hot summers, the pawpaw has good potential as of the tropical family Annonaceae, which includes the custard
an understorey fruit tree; in cooler areas like the UK it should be apple, soursop and cherimoya.
considered as a sun-demanding orchard crop.
European & North American suppliers
The pawpaw is known to grow well with walnuts, and be
unaffected by the juglone from walnut roots and leaves which Europe: ART, BUR, FTK, KOR, PDB, PFS
is detrimental to several other plant species. A potential North America: DWN, ELS, FFM, GNN, HSN, NRN, OTC, OGW, PPP,
interplanting scheme would be to grow pawpaws between RTN, STB, TBF
grafted walnuts.

142 PAWPAW
PEACHES & NECTARINES, Prunus persica
Deciduous, Zone 5, H7
Edible fruit

Origin and history Peaches are a rich source of protein as almost all essential
amino acids are present. They are also a good source of
The peach originates from China, where its culture dates back
vitamins and minerals, being rich in thiamine, riboflavin,
at least 3,000 years. It was spread via traders to Persia and the
niacin, potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium, iron and zinc.
Mediterranean region, being planted in Greece by 300 BC.
Nectarines are richer in organic acids than peaches.
The Romans carried it throughout their realm and the Spanish
took it to the Americas. The flowers are edible – raw or cooked. They can be added to
salads or used as a garnish, and brewed into a tea.
Nectarines are smooth-skinned mutations of peaches and their
cultivation is identical to that of peaches. Peach kernels contain 40% fat, 31% protein, 15% fibre, 2.2%
sugars. They are usually bitter and inedible due to poisonous
Description hydrogen cyanide; a few cultivars yield sweet kernels that
The peach is a small deciduous tree, usually 3-5m (10-16ft) can be used like almonds. Peach kernel oil is used in food,
high, upright, spreading, open topped, with a rather deep root cosmetics and pharmaceutical preparations (skin creams etc.)
system. in the same ways as apricot kernel oil. Seeds contain up to 45%
oil. After oil extraction, the residue ‘cake’ contains 8% nitrogen
Branches are spreading, with young shoots vigorous, smooth
and is used as fertiliser.
and pinkish.
Peach flowers, leaves, seed and bark are sometimes used
Flowers appear in early spring – around the beginning of March
medicinally. Caution is advised.
– and persist for 2-3 weeks. Flowers are numerous, white or
pink, appearing before the leaves. Peach stones are used for making activated charcoal for filters.
Fruits are variable in size, shape, colour of skin and flesh. A green dye can be obtained from the leaves; a dark grey to
Peaches usually have fuzzy skin. The flesh is juicy, sweet or mild green dye can be obtained from the fruit.
subacid; they have one large stone, free or clinging, which is
hard and deeply pitted and usually bitter. Nectarines do not Varieties/Cultivars
have fuzzy skin; they are usually smaller in size and have a There are thousands of peach and nectarine cultivars (over
greater aroma. 1,000 new ones introduced since 1980 alone), most being
regional in their adaption and not growing so well in other
Trees are not long lived, sometimes only surviving 20-25 years.
locations. Those listed here are used in Britain and colder
Nectarines are a little less hardy than peaches (zone 6/H6).
parts of Europe and North America. The Harrow Ontario peach
Uses breeding programme selections from Canada are also worth
considering for cool regions.
Peaches are best known as a delicious edible fruit. They are
grown both for fresh eating and for processing. Being highly The best dessert peaches tend to be freestone, regular
perishable, they are difficult to transport and store. Processing producers and relatively free from fuzz. Soft-fleshed varieties
is mostly canning and juice/nectar extraction, but on a small (apart from early season ones) are usually freestone.
scale pickling, freezing and drying are used. Poor quality fruits
For canning, fruits should have yellow flesh, a small non-
are often used in wine or brandy making. For canning, half-ripe
splitting pit, good symmetrical size and should mature evenly.
fruits give the best quality of canned product; browning can
Although soft-fleshed varieties are suitable, firm-fleshed
be controlled by dipping of fruit slices in a salt solution prior
clingstone varieties are preferred for their handling and
to canning. For juice, soft-ripe fruits are especially suitable. For
processing qualities, the canned product retaining its shape,
drying, freestone peaches of large size, high sugar content,
clear juice and good colour.
golden yellow flesh and good flavour are used; and drying is
achieved by the sun or in artificial dryers. For drying, white-fleshed sweet cultivars with freestone kernels
are preferred.

PEACHES & NECTARINES  143

 ‘Harrow Beauty’ peaches

144  PEACHES & NECTARINES

In southern Britain, early cultivars ripen about mid July, mid properties of the soil are more important than its fertility: many
season about mid August and late around mid September. small rootlets grow in early spring to supply nutrients and water,
and these need water and oxygen from the soil. Peaches greatly
Peach cultivar Origin Description
dislike any waterlogging, particularly in the growing season
‘Avalon Pride’ USA Fruit yellow fleshed, good quality. when such conditions can kill trees. Old pastureland is usually
Tree highly resistant to peach leaf curl.
ideal. The ideal soil pH is between 5.8 and 6.8.
‘Babcock’ USA Fruit white fleshed, freestone.
Southern and western slopes are more susceptible to frosts
‘Candor’ USA Early-mid season. Fruit yellow fleshed,
excellent quality, freestone. than northern and eastern ones; but a balance needs to be
‘Cardinal’ USA Early-mid season. Fruit yellow fleshed,
struck between warmth of slope (where south is best) and
excellent quality, clingstone. exposure to southerly winds.
‘Dixigem’ USA Mid season. Fruit yellow fleshed, Seedling rootstocks are used in many parts of the world: their
excellent quality, semi-freestone.
seeds are fairly uniform and their performance predictable.
‘Dixired’ USA Early-mid season. Fruit yellow fleshed, Peach x almond hybrids (GF 556, GF 677) are important stocks
good quality, clingstone. Late flowering.
in Europe and the Mediterranean, and can be used on alkaline
‘Elberta’ USA Late season. Fruit yellow fleshed,
good quality, freestone.
soils. On heavy, wet or waterlogged soils, plums and plum
hybrid stocks are used (Brompton, Mussel, Pershore, ‘St. Julien’,
‘Peregrine’ UK Early-mid season. Fruit white fleshed,
excellent quality, freestone. GF 655.2, Damas GF 1869, Pixy), although compatibility can be
a problem with some of these stocks. In Britain ‘St. Julien A’ is
‘Redglobe’ USA Mid-late season. Fruit yellow fleshed,
excellent quality, freestone. the usual stock used, although virus-free Brompton stocks and
‘Redhaven’ USA Early-mid season. Fruit yellow fleshed,
seedling peach are sometimes used to give a more vigorous tree.
good quality, semi-freestone.
Flowers dark pink.
Trees should be planted at a spacing of about 4.5-6m (15-20ft)
apart. Staking is not usually necessary unless the position is
‘Rio Oso Gem’ USA Late season. Fruit yellow fleshed,
excellent quality, freestone. exposed or a dwarfing rootstock is used. Trees should have a
Late flowering. thick organic mulch applied after planting to suppress weeds.
‘Rochester’ USA Mid season. Fruit yellow fleshed, good Protect from rabbits who like the young bark.
quality, freestone. Late flowering.
In temperate areas where sunlight is at a premium, peach
trees are best trained to a vase or goblet shape, to maximise
Nectarine cultivar Origin Description
the amount of sun and air into the tree. In Britain, at present,
‘Lord Napier’ USA Mid season. Fruit white fleshed, the vase shaped bush, half standard or standard trees are only
good quality, freestone.
viable in the south, and wall-trained fan trees are more often
‘Pineapple’ Unknown Late season. Fruit yellow fleshed,
excellent quality, freestone.
grown (especially for nectarines). Peaches can also be grown in
pots – genetic dwarf varieties of both peach and nectarine are
available that are well suited.
Cultivation Peaches bear their fruits on the previous year’s growth, hence
Peaches prefer cool winters and warm to hot summers. The most the production of annual growth is imperative for fruit production.
important limiting factor in temperate regions is the lack of Because of this, trees usually need annual feeding. Peaches
flower bud hardiness either to low dormant temperatures or to appreciate a high-potash feed or mulch – comfrey is ideal. Mulch
frost and freezing conditions in spring. The flowers and young using fresh leaves through the season and/or use a comfrey feed
fruitlets are susceptible to severe damage from frosts and must every few weeks from flowering until the fruits start to ripen.
be protected if necessary for a crop to succeed. At full flowering,
Irrigation is required in dry summers. Peaches require moist
flowers are injured by temperatures of -2.8°C (27°F) and are
roots especially when carrying fruits. In long hot dry spells
killed by -4.9°C (23°F).
of a month or more, water trees well every two weeks. Wall-
Other limiting factors are chilling hours, hailstorms, high humidity trained trees may need more regular watering in dry weather.
and desiccating summer winds. Nectarines require slightly more water than peaches.
High humidity favours attacks from pests and diseases: Most peach cultivars are self-fertile, and pollination occurs both
nectarines are especially susceptible to brown rot in humid via bees (often wild bumble bees because of the time of flowering)
climates. Shelter from storm winds and gales is desirable, but and autogamy (self-fertilisation). In cool weather, hand pollination is
otherwise peaches tolerate wind and an airy position helps sometimes beneficial, using cotton wool on a cane or a camel-
reduce diseases. hair brush, and is best done daily, preferably in sunny weather.
Flowers are receptive for about 4-7 days from their opening.
Peaches can be grown in various soils, but the ideal is a deep,
well-drained sandy loam rich in organic matter (with plum Very often, peaches set a large crop that adversely affects
rootstocks a medium to heavy loam is suitable). The physical the fruit size and flower initiation for the following year.

PEACHES & NECTARINES  145

Fruit thinning is carried out to produce marketable sized fruits, can be collected early in the season and burnt. Nectarines are
to prevent limb breakage of overloaded branches, to promote less susceptible than peaches to leaf infection. Bordeaux
early ripening, to sustain winter hardiness and to stimulate mixture is a reasonably effective preventative control, used
flower initiation for the next year’s crop. If trees are allowed to 3-4 times over winter, starting just after leaf fall until the buds
overcrop then not only will the resulting peaches be small, but swell in late February or early March. Some varieties have
the next year’s flowering and crop will be severely curtailed. some resistance including ‘Avalon Pride’, ‘Dixired’, ‘Redhaven’
and ‘Rochester’.
The fruits mature unevenly, often over a period of 4-5 weeks in
Britain (half that in warmer climes). Yields are highly variable Bacterial canker, dieback and gummosis (Pseudomonas
depending on the cultivar productivity, age, climate, soil, syringae) is caused by a bacteria, leading to circular or
management etc. Full cropping occurs 5-6 years after planting. elongated gumming lesions arising on the bark or outer
In general, standard trees yield 25-36kg/tree (55-79lb/tree), bush sapwood and fruits. Branches may die back or look ill. This and
trees yield 13.5-27kg/tree (30-60lb/tree, or about 300 fruits/tree) peach leaf curl are the two main diseases in Britain. Remove
and a mature fan 9-13.5kg (20-30lb). Nectarine yields are usually cankered wood and encourage vigorous growth by feeding.
half or two-thirds these amounts. Bordeaux mixture can be used in October or November, as
leaves begin to fall, in two applications a fortnight apart, and
Peaches are commercially propagated by budding and grafting
again in February.
onto rootstocks.
Peach powdery mildew (Sphaerotheca pannosa) is occasionally
Peaches grow easily from seed – stratify seeds for three months
a problem on trees (more often under glass in Britain). Although
before sowing. Genetically, peaches are much less variable than
inconspicuous on leaves and shoots, it can blemish fruit.
fruits like apples or pears – every seedling will at least produce
Sulphur sprays are effective.
something edible.
Brown rot (Monilinia fructigena) causes fruits to rot on the
Pests and diseases tree. Dark brown circular spots rapidly spread over the fruit
Aphids are common pests, but do little direct damage. The peach – these should be removed and burnt. The fungus can also
green aphid (Myzus persicae) is responsible for the transmission affect green twigs and flowers. It overwinters usually in rotten
of a number of viruses. Try and attract predators; soft soap can mummified fruit on the tree or ground, but can also survive on
be used if infections are bad. dead flowers or twigs killed the previous year. Nectarines are
more susceptible to brown rot than peaches. It is important to
Scale insects suck the sap from leaves and thus restrict the
remove and destroy mummified fruits. Severe infections may
vigour and productivity of trees. Biological controls exist.
respond to treatment with Bordeaux mixture or sulphur.
Red spider mite is sometimes a problem on wall-trained
Bacterial spot (Xanthomonas campestris pv. pruni) is a
trees, feeding on the undersides of leaves causing the upper
widespread and severe disease in North America and other
surface to develop a fine mottling. Attract predators or use the
areas – worst in hot summer regions. The bacteria affects leaves
biological control Phytoseiulus persimilis.
and fruits, often rendering the fruits unmarketable.
Peach tree borer moths overwinter as larvae beneath the bark.
Silverleaf (Chondrostereum purpureum) is a fungal disease
These attack the tree in spring. The insect is found throughout
causing progressive dieback. Typical symptoms are grey-silvery
North America.
leaves. Cut any dead branches back to 10-15cm (4-6ins) before
Birds, earwigs and wasps can be a nuisance by attacking ripening any stain in the wood. Never prune in winter as this is when
fruits. Small muslin bags tied around fruits will protect them. infection is most likely.
Peach leaf curl (Taphrina deformans) is a fungus which appears Related species
on the leaves soon after bud burst as large blisters, red at first
Peaches are related to almonds, apricots, cherries and plums.
but later swelling and turning white. Affected leaves are
deformed, puckered, rolled and fall early. Infections are worst European & North American suppliers
after cold wet springs, and in trees growing in damp cool
situations. The fungus overwinters in a yeast-like form on buds Europe: ART, BLK BUC, CBS, COO, DEA, FCO, KMR, KPN, OFM,
and shoots. Infection is usually via rain-carried spores, hence PDB, PLG, THN
covering wall-trained fruit with a glass or plastic cover from North America: AAF, BLN, BRN, DWN, ELS, ENO, GPO, HSN, OGW,
December to May will usually prevent infection. Affected leaves RRN, STB, TYT

146  PEACHES & NECTARINES

PEAR, Pyrus communis
Deciduous, Zone 4-5, H7
Edible fruit

Origin and history fruit well; young leaves are more prone to wind damage,
and flowering is earlier and hence more susceptible to late
The common pear is an entirely cultivated form, possibly
spring frosts.
derived from P. caucasica and P. nivalis. The first record of
pears cultivated in Britain is from around 800 AD, when several Description
cultivars were grown for dessert and cooking. Many cultivars
were brought over from France in the 13th and 14th centuries, A medium-sized tree to 15m (50ft) high – less when grafted to
and by the 17th century numerous new varieties were being a dwarfing rootstock – with a conical crown. Branches with
raised and imported from France and Belgium. thorns, although fruiting cultivars lack thorns.
Pears are much longer-lived trees than apples, especially on White flowers in spring are followed by fruits, to 10cm (4ins)
seedling stocks; such trees may live for 2-300 years. Pears generally long in named varieties, which soften when ripe and contain
need more warmth and sunshine than apples to grow and several small seeds.

Pear flowers

PEAR 147
Uses Like other fruit varieties, pears must be grown on rootstocks to
preserve cultivars bred for good fruiting habit. Seedling pear
Pears need no introduction as an excellent fresh and culinary
rootstocks have been used for thousands of years, and remain
fruit. Large commercial operations in many regions supply local
the most common type of stock used in the world today.
markets and the canning market with fruit.
Only comparatively recently have dwarfing and clonal stocks
Although usually eaten fresh, pears also dry well and retain an been developed, and their use has increased rapidly. In North
intense sweet flavour. America the ‘Old Home x Farmingdale’ (‘OHxF’) series is widely
used; whilst in Britain and Europe quince stocks (‘Quince A’,
Varieties/Cultivars ‘Quince C’, ‘BA29’) and ‘Pyrodwarf’ are popular.
European pears are categorised as dessert or culinary.
Nearly all pear cultivars are self-sterile, and hence all need
The ideal dessert pear is juicy or ‘buttery’, with a good sweet- pollen from another cultivar to set a good crop of fruit.
acid blend and a strong delicious aroma. Most dessert pears
Flower buds are formed on terminals of shoots and short spurs
can be used for cooking, but they need to be picked before
two years old or older. Flowering lasts for about 2-3 weeks,
they are fully ripe and cooked very slowly in syrup. True culinary
depending on cultivar. Pollination is via insects, primarily drone
varieties are hardy and prolific, and their fruits are not acid, but
flies and bluebottles, and also by bumble (wild) bees. Flowering
are hard and lacking in flavour and juice; they keep very well.
is rather early to attract much activity from hive bees.
There are too many varieties for a list to appear here. Consult
Trees on dwarfing stocks, such as ‘Quince C’, may need staking
local fruit tree nurseries to find which are best suited to your
permanently. Varieties vary in their growth form, but are often
locality.
described as upright or pendulous; the pyramid form of pruned
Cultivation tree is nearest to the natural growth habit of such varieties,
more so than the bush form. Heavily pruned pears tend to
Pears do well in regions with a warm to hot, dry summer and
become upright, while lightly pruned pears tend to spread.
cool to cold winter. Low humidity aids in controlling fireblight.
Most pendulous pear trees are tip bearers and should only be
If possible, choose a warm sheltered position that isn’t prone pruned lightly because they make few fruiting spurs.
to late frosts. Adequate shelter is necessary to ensure warm
Natural fruitlet drop occurs in June. Most varieties do not need
conditions for pollination and as protection for the fruit and
thinning.
foliage. In Britain, many of the late-ripening cultivars require the
protection of a south or west-facing wall for the production of Time of picking is of great importance; the fruits are not left to
quality fruit and for scab protection. Pears grow well in a variety completely ripen on the tree, but are picked while they are still
of soils (best in sandy loams or clay loams). The common firm (if picked when ripe on the outside, they will be over-ripe
quince stocks are tolerant of wet soils, but are rather susceptible and mealy inside). The best test of readiness is to lift the fruit
to drought; neither do they do well on thin soils over chalk. slightly and twist it gently on the stalk; if it parts easily from the
Pears on quince rootstocks always benefit from a mulch over spur when lifted to the horizontal then it is time to pick. Except
the growing season which retains soil moisture. for late-ripening cultivars, pick selectively because not all fruits
ripen together. Once off the tree, store in a cool place; they will
Pears need good light to fruit: shading reduces fruit yields and
ripen in a short time.
quality, and the formation of flower buds on spurs depends on
light received by the spur leaves. Thus in a forest garden they Fruit of late-ripening cultivars mustn’t be picked too early, or
must almost always be placed as canopy trees as part of the they tend to shrivel and fail to develop their full flavour. Fruit of
tallest layer. The only exceptions are those varieties that are very late-ripening cultivars should be left on the tree as long as
known to tolerate low light levels (for example Jargonelle) and possible, then all picked when the first fruits drop. Typical yields
cooking varieties, which will be most tolerant to low light levels. are 18-45kg (40-100lb) per tree for bush trees.

148 PEAR
 ‘Conference’ pear fruits

Pests and diseases Blossom blight (Pseudomonas syringae pv. syringae) can affect
pears as it does apples; the bacterium causes a blossom blight
Scab (Venturia pirina) is most serious in moist climates, where
and occasionally cankers. Improve soil drainage if possible.
fruits may develop blackish scabs and in severe cases may
crack. On leaves it produces olive-green blotches, and affected Canker (Nectria galligena) causes cankers on stems and
shoots become blistered and scabby. Unlike apples, it affects branches. Susceptibility varies between cultivars. Some control
fruits before leaves; too much nitrogen increases susceptibility. can be given by cutting out all cankered wood from September
Try to encourage good air circulation, shred fallen leaves with to December.
a mower (spores overwinter on leaves) and choose resistant
Brown rot (Monilinia fructigena) is frequently a problem on
cultivars if it is likely to be a problem.
pears, causing fruits to rot, mummify and eventually fall.
Fireblight (Erwinia amylovora) is probably the most serious pear Affected fruits should be removed and burnt.
disease. Originating in North America, it spread to the UK in the
Pear rusts (Gymnosporangium spp.) are fungi which cause
1950s and has spread widely in Europe since. It is sporadic in the
damage on leaves, shoots and fruits of pears in Europe and
UK and really prefers hotter spring weather to thrive than it gets
North America. None are significant in Britain.
here. The fungus, spread by blossom infection, causes the flowers
to blacken and shrivel; it then spreads down the shoots causing Related species
them to die back, and the leaves on affected shoots blacken
Asian pears (see p.21). Perry pears (p.156) are derived from Pyrus
and wither but do not fall. Cut out and burn affected wood,
nivalis with the fruits used to make the alcoholic drink perry.
disinfecting secateurs after each cut. Where trees are rarely
fertilised or pruned, even the most susceptible varieties are European & North American suppliers
rarely seriously damaged. Any practice that encourages sappy
Europe: ART, BLK BUC, CBS, COO, DEA, FCO, KMR, KPN, OFM,
growth should be avoided, hence try not to fertilise in spring
PDB, PLG, THN
and minimise pruning. Similarly, only irrigate (if necessary)
in late summer to aid fruit swelling, as earlier irrigation will North America: AAF, BLN, BRN, CUM, DWN, ELS, ENO, GPO, HSN,
encourage shoot growth. Hawthorn hedges should be avoided. OGW, RRN, STB, TYT

PEAR 149
NORTHERN PECAN, Carya illinoinensis
Deciduous, Zone 6-7, H5-6
Edible nuts

Origin and history nuts are high in monounsaturated fats, and walnuts are high
in polyunsaturated fats, pecans have a blend of both. The fatty
Pecan is native to parts of the USA as far north as Illinois,
acid content is very similar to that of olive oil.
but it is cultivated further north still, into southern Canada.
Traditional southern USA pecan varieties are notorious for An edible oil can be extracted from the kernels of good quality
needing a somewhat long fruit development period, with hot and suitable for any culinary uses. The oil is also used in
sunny weather, and are very unlikely to be a viable crop in cosmetics.
temperate climates.
Pecans can be tapped for the sap, which is concentrated to
The northern varieties of pecans have been selected and bred make a syrup like maple syrup, or made into a wine etc.
in the north of the USA and southern Canada (Ontario) that
Pecan shells, a by-product of nut production, are a commercial
can survive severe cold temperatures in winter, ripen their nuts
commodity in themselves, being used in tannin manufacture,
in relatively short summer seasons, and drop their nuts freely
for charcoal and as abrasives in hand soaps; ground as a
before the first severe frosts. These northern varieties have
meal and used as a filler for plastic wood and veneer wood;
good potential in cooler and temperate regions.
and as a fuel for heating. The ground shell of various sizes is
Description used as a soft grit in non-skid paints, adhesives, dynamite and
polishing materials.
The pecan, Carya illinoinensis, is a large deciduous tree in the
USA, growing 30m (100ft) high or more, with deep furrowed, Pecan wood is not quite as strong as that from many other
irregular brownish-grey bark. However in the UK it is much hickories, but is used similarly. Leaves of pecans, like walnuts,
smaller, not often more than 6m (20ft) high. They can live to a contain the anti-fungal chemical juglone; the leaves were used
great age, 400-500 years, and tend to form upright cylindrical medicinally by native North Americans.
crowns when grown in the open. Pecans have pronounced
taproots that securely anchor the trees if soil conditions allow. Varieties/Cultivars
The ‘standard’ northern varieties have medium to large nut sizes,
Like the other hickories, the leaves are alternate and aromatic.
with kernels cracking out in the high 50%s. Some are grown as
Male flowers are produced on slender, drooping catkins that
early ripening cultivars in southern pecan growing regions. They
arise from lateral buds on the previous year’s wood; female
require a warm summer to ripen their nuts. The best are ‘Colby’,
flowers are borne in clusters on a spike at the end of the current
‘Hirschi’, ‘Kanza’, ‘Major’, ‘Pawnee’, ‘Peruque’, ‘Posey’.
season’s shoot. Pollination is via the wind.
Extra-early northern cultivars ripen 10 days or more before
Fruits are borne in spikes of 3-10 with a slightly 4-winged outer
‘Colby’, have relatively small nuts and kernels 45-52% of nut
leathery skin (the shuck); nuts inside are smooth, light brown,
weight. They require only a moderately warm summer to ripen
thin shelled, sweet and edible. The northern varieties have nuts
their nuts. The best include ‘Campbell NC-4’, ‘Dumbell Lake’,
more the size of large acorns, up to about 3-4cm (1.2-1.6ins) long.
‘Gibson’, ‘James’, ‘Lucas’, ‘Mullahy’, and ‘Stark Hardy Giant’.
Uses Extremely early northern cultivars have small nuts (2.5-3cm/1-1.2ins
The edible kernels from pecan nuts are used in numerous long) which mature extra early (under 140 days from bud break)
ways: baked foods (cakes, breads, cookies, pies, pizzas), dairy on a very cold-hardy tree. Most have kernels under 50% of the
foods (ice creams, yoghurts, cheeses), batters for meat and fish, nut weight and moderately thick shells. They are suitable for
confectionery, breakfast cereals, in sauces and marinades, in the most northerly and cool regions and do not need much
pesto, with vegetables, in salads and raw or roasted as snacks. summer heat to ripen their nuts. They include ‘Carlson #3’,
Note: like other tree nuts, the protein in pecans can cause an ‘Cornfield’, ‘Deerstand’, ‘Fritz Flat’, ‘Fritz Ball’, ‘Green Island
anaphylactic reaction in sensitive individuals. Beaver’, ‘Martzahn’, ‘Snaps Early’.
The nuts are a good source of oleic acid, thiamin, vitamin E,
magnesium, selenium, zinc, protein and fibre. Whilst most

150  NORTHERN PECAN

 Pecans growing on the tree

Young northern pecan tree

Cultivation and acid and alkaline conditions. Transplanting should be

Because of their relatively low yields, pecans are well suited to undertaken with care because of the long fleshy tap root: for
low input, sustainable agricultural systems, where the long-lived their first few years, young trees form a taproot with only a few
multifunctional trees are a valuable resource for food, fuel and lateral feeder roots, and this taproot is usually longer and thicker
high quality timber. than the above-ground stem. If buying or raising plants, either
grow them in open-bottomed containers that air-prune the tap
Pecan is essentially a climax forest tree that competes with
root, or undercut the taproot (at 20-25cm, 8-10ins below ground
other species for space in the forest canopy. It is adapted to rich
level) at least a year before transplanting. They grow faster than
soils in flood plains, and thus does best in a fertile loamy soils
other hickories; planting in tree shelters may be advantageous.
– moist but well-drained. They have a high demand for zinc.
Pecans become large trees in time, requiring 6-12m (20-40ft) of
They need a relatively sheltered site – limb breakages in strong
space, so plant at wide spacing and use the ground between to
winds are likely.
intercrop for several years; often, other fruit trees are interplanted
Pecans prefer a good fertile soil, preferably a deep moisture- for 20-30 years before finally being removed. Grazing cattle and
retentive loam, though they tolerate both light and heavy soils, sheep in pecan orchards is also popular in the USA.

NORTHERN PECAN  151

 to the ground without help, but to aid harvest, branches are
usually shaken or knocked with bamboo poles. Tarpaulins can
be used underneath the trees to catch the nuts. Nut Wizards will
pick up the nuts well.
Trees start bearing nuts after 4-8 years, depending on variety
and climate. For northern cultivars, typical yields rise to 10kg
(22lb) per tree at 10-15 years of age and continue rising to an
average of around 15kg (33lb). Biennial cropping with a large
crop one year and little the next is not uncommon.
‘Lucas’ northern pecan nuts Seeds are not highly dormant but germinate better if kept
cold over winter before sowing in spring. Because pecan has
not been highly bred, seedlings of named cultivars have a
Traditionally, pecan orchards were cultivated in North America high chance of performing as well or better than their parents.
with a leguminous ground cover (often crimson clover, Trifolium Container-grown trees should be grown initially in open-
incarnatum and/or hairy vetch, Vicia villosa). These provided bottomed containers to facilitate air pruning of the taproot
nitrogen for cropping, and good cover for beneficial insects and subsequent fibrous root development. Later, trees can be
that controlled pecan aphid numbers. It is important that any potted up into deep containers but only until they are two years
ground cover crop is managed so as not to interfere with nut old or so, when they should be planted out.
harvesting from the ground in autumn.
Named cultivars are propagated by grafting onto seedling
Trees come into leaf in late April or May, and may be damaged pecan rootstocks. Normal methods work, e.g. whip and tongue,
by late spring frosts. Growth is always slow the first few years but the graft union needs to be kept at 27°C (80°F) for 10-14
after transplanting. days after grafting. This necessitates the use of a hot grafting
Flowering in cool climates usually occurs in mid-late May pipe or heated box/room of some kind.
and early June. Like the hickories, trees are generally not very
self-fertile, so it is common practice to plant more than one Pests and diseases
cultivar to ensure cross-pollination occurs. Pollination is via the Pecan scab (Cladosporium caryigenum) is the most
wind (like walnuts), hence the weather at flowering time can economically important disease in the USA, but it is worst
have large effects on fruit set – wet weather being especially in the southeast and is unlikely to be a problem in cooler
detrimental. northern regions.
Young trees need no extra nutrients. Although pecans have Aphids can sometimes be a problem.
deep taproots, the majority of their feeder roots lie within the Coral spot fungus (Nectria cinnabarina) can be a problem in
top 60cm (2ft) of the soil, and largely below the drip line of the Britain when the new wood doesn’t properly ripen. Symptoms
canopy. For older trees, if a nitrogen-fixing ground cover is used are pinhead-sized salmon-pink pustules on dead and young
then this will probably provide all the extra nitrogen needed. twigs and branches. If seen, infected wood should be cut out;
Another option is to intercrop the pecan trees with nitrogen- don’t leave any dead branch stubs.
fixing trees or shrubs.
Squirrels can be a major problem, especially when crops are
Soil moisture is a major factor in determining the average size of small. They will take nuts from their cases before they open and
nuts produced. Very dry soils in August and September will have fall to the ground. Squirrel numbers must be controlled if they
a significant effect, hence it may be worth considering irrigation become a problem.
if this is likely.
Little pruning is required – just remove branches that are too Related species
low, overcrowded, diseased or damaged by wind or heavy The hickories (p.100).
crops.
European & North American suppliers
As for other nut crops, prior to harvest it is important to prepare
Europe: ART
the ground beneath – it needs to be relatively free of any large
vegetation. Ripe nuts will eventually fall free of the shucks/husks North America: GNN

152  NORTHERN PECAN

PEPPER TREES, Zanthoxylum species
Deciduous, Zone 6, H6
Edible fruit – spice
Leaves – flavouring

Origin and history Uses

Zanthoxylum species are some of the finest spice plants that The main use for the Asiatic species is for the fruits to be used
can be cultivated in temperate climates. Known by some as the as a spice. In Japan, fruits of Z. piperitum are known as the spice
prickly ash family (after the American species), they are better sansho. In China and Korea, several species are used, the most
known as pepper trees in Asia, where they are widely cultivated prized of which is Z. schinifolium, known as Szechuan or Sichuan
as a spice crop, both commercially and in home gardens. pepper (in Chinese it is known as huajiao – ‘flower pepper’ or
shanjiao – ‘mountain pepper’). To confuse the terminology,
N.B. Not to be confused with tropical pepper (Piper species).
several other species are sometimes sold as Szechuan pepper
Description too, notably Z. simulans. In Nepal, Bhutan and Tibet, Z. alatum –
Nepalese pepper – is used (known as Emma in Tibetan), where it
Although there are some 250 species of Zanthoxylum, there are
is prized because few spices can be grown in many places there.
a much smaller number of hardy species. These are deciduous
medium to large spreading and spiny shrubs or small trees. The main spice part is in fact the papery fruit ‘shell’, but usually
They all have very aromatic alternate compound leaves, the the seeds are harvested too (though they are often flavourless),
fragrance varying between species.
The flowers are very small, yellow or green,
borne in bunches from leaf axils or at the
end of shoots; though they are hardly
noticeable (and could not be called
ornamental), bees adore them and facilitate
good pollination. There seems to be some
confusion over whether the flowers are
dioecious (i.e. male and female flowers on
different plants). Our experience in the UK
is that none of the species we have grown
(Z. alatum, Z. giraldii, Z. piperitum, Z. simulans,
Z. schinifolium) are dioecious and all crop
well on their own.
Following pollination, bunches or heads
of fruits form. Each fruit, 4-6mm (0.2ins)
across depending on species, consists of a
single seed surrounded by a very thin flesh,
quite rough on the outer surface. As the
fruit ripens the flesh dries out to become
papery shell-like and changes colour from
green to a reddish or blackish colour. At full
ripeness, the fruit ‘shell’ splits into two and
hinges open, and the black seed inside
ingeniously works its way out of the shell,
to be blown off or washed off by the
weather unless harvested. Most species
ripen their seeds in September or October. Fruits of Z. alatum

PEPPER TREES  153

and the mixture sun dried for a few days. The mixture is referred
to as ‘peppercorns’. Any twiggy parts are separated off and the
remaining dry seeds and fruit shells are stored. Use can be
by simply grinding in a pepper mill; or in Chinese cooking the
mix is often lightly toasted then crushed before adding to the
recipe at the last moment for maximum impact. Star anise and
ginger are often used with it, and it is considered to go well with
fish, duck and chicken dishes. It has a numbing effect on the
Japanese pepper bush (Z. piperitum)
lips when eaten in large doses. In Chinese cuisine, this type of
pungency is important enough to get its own name (ma), and it
is often combined with other hot spices such as chillies. Species
In China, coarse salt and Szechuan pepper are toasted together, All these have fruits used as spice.
cooled and ground – this ‘peppered salt’ is a common table
condiment. Szechuan peppercorns are one of the traditional Species Origin Description
ingredients in the Chinese spice mixture ‘five spice powder’ Z. alatum Eastern China, Nepal pepper, Winged prickly ash.
(Z. armatum) Nepal, Tibet Zone 6. A rounded, spreading small
and also in a Japanese seven-flavour table condiment called tree/large shrub growing 3-5m (10-16ft)
Shichimi togarashi (containing red chillies, Szechuan pepper, high and 4-5m (13-16ft) wide, with mid
tangerine/orange peel, black and white sesame seed, poppy green leaves.
seed, seaweed). Z. americanum North America Prickly ash, Toothache tree.
Zone 3. A spreading shrub, usually 3-4m
The unique flavour and aroma is not pungent like tropical black (10-13ft) high but occasionally more,
pepper, but is characterised by a kind of tingly numbness with with dark green leaves. This plant was
traditionally used by Native Americans
slight lemony or citrusy aroma with more or less pronounced to treat toothache. The anaesthetic
warm and woody overtones. Z. alatum is spicier, Z. schinifolium effect is due to the alkamide constituents
has anise overtones. of the leaves, bark and fruits (especially
unripe fruits).
The fresh seed/fruit shell mix gradually loses its pungent aromatic Z. piperitum China, Japan, Japanese pepper. A shrub or small
flavour over a period of 2-3 years at room temperature. Korea tree, usually 2-3m (7-10ft) high but
occasionally more. The variety ‘Inerme’
It is also available in China as an oil (marketed as Sichuan pepper is spineless and sometimes used
oil or Hwajiaw oil), though it is not clear how this is obtained – for seed production. An important
commercial species for spice
probably the fruits are steeped in another oil. The oil is prized for production in Japan and elsewhere.
stir-fry noodle dishes, again added at the last minute.
Z. planispinum China, Japan, Zone 6. A bushy shrub/small tree 3-4m
The peppercorns are also frequently used to flavour pickles. Korea (10-13ft) high and wide.
Very close botanically to Z. alatum.
The young leaves of all species can be used fresh and pickled as
a flavouring. Older leaves become prickly. Z. schinifolium China, Japan, A bushy shrub/small tree growing
Korea 3-4m (10-13ft) high and wide. The fruits
The fruits, leaves and other parts have been traditionally and root bark are used medicinally
used medicinally from many species for a long time. More in Chinese medicine. The fruit ‘shells’
of this species appear to have some
recent investigations suggest that these species contain many anticancer properties due to their
compounds that are beneficial to health and that may be antioxidant components.
effective at treating a number of diseases. Z. simulans Eastern China, Chinese prickly ash. A spreading shrub/
Taiwan small tree growing 4m (13ft) tall and
Fruits and bark of many species are used to stun fish wide, occasionally more. Leaves, fruits,
(presumably with a numbing effect on them) to enable easy seeds and root bark are all used in
traditional Chinese medicine.
catches from ponds or dammed streams.

154  PEPPER TREES

Cultivation Related species
Zanthoxylum species prefer deep fertile soils that are moisture See above re Citrus.
retentive but well-drained, however they are adaptable and
grow in many soils. They like a position in full sun or semi- European & North American suppliers
shade. Europe: ART, BUR, CRU, OFM
Shoot tips sometimes suffer from a little die-back during winter, North America: RTN
and any dead or damaged wood should be pruned out in early
spring. No other pruning is essential, however, to facilitate easier
harvesting of the fruits it can be advantageous to prune bushes
to a goblet shape (rather like gooseberries), keeping the centre
open to allow light in and for access.
Propagation is by seed (sowing in autumn gives better results)
or by semi-hardwood cuttings in summer (give bottom heat
and a humid atmosphere or mist).

Pests and diseases

Zanthoxylum species are in the same
family – the Rutaceae – as Citrus, and they
are capable of carrying citrus canker, a
serious and difficult to control bacterial
disease. Because of this, the USA has
banned the importation of Sichuan
peppercorns unless heated to around 70°C
(160°F), which of course seriously affects
the flavour and aroma properties.
Otherwise, the genus is fairly untroubled
by pests or diseases. Slugs and snails
sometimes nibble the bark of Z. piperitum
so young plants should be protected.

Ripe fruits of Szechuan pepper (Z. schinifolium) – note seeds

emerging

PEPPER TREES  155

PERRY PEARS, Pyrus nivalis
Deciduous, Zone 6, H6
Edible fruit

Origin and history but the variation is due to other factors as well: the use of
inferior seedling trees, the use of dessert pear varieties
Perry pears have been selected and bred mainly from Pyrus nivalis,
(usually giving weak or flavourless perry), and generally
indigenous to central Europe. These wild pears have long
casual methods of producing the drink. It is now appreciated
been cultivated for perry production – for at least 16 centuries.
that to make good perries, special vintage varieties are
Perry pears were certainly being cultivated in Britain 900 years
necessary and the operation demands considerable
ago, on the estates of the Norman barons after their invasion of
knowledge, skill and attention.
the country.
Another use to which some perry varieties are put is
In England, the cultivation of perry pears has until recently been
ornamental. Some bear large flowers with a strong aroma
restricted to Gloucestershire, Herefordshire and Worcestershire,
where perry has always been a popular drink. The reasons
for this concentration of growing are many: a suitable climate
(sufficient rainfall to maintain trees in a grass sward, sufficient
sun to ripen the fruit), a long orcharding tradition, soils which
support long-lived pear trees but often not apples, the close
availability of mill-stones from the Forest of Dean for the milling
of fruit, and the smallholding tradition which led to the planting
of perry pears rather than apples because perry needs no
blending of juice from different varieties as cider usually does.
In addition, most perry varieties, if the pomace (milled fruit
and juice) is macerated (allowed to stand between milling and
pressing), can be made into a mild bitter-sharp perry similar in
character to the cider popular in this region.

Description
Perry pears are exceptionally long-lived for fruit trees, often
reaching an age of 200-300 years. They sometimes grow into
large trees, 20m (70ft) high and in spread.
White flowers in spring are bee and insect pollinated. Most trees
are not self-fertile and need cross-pollinations.
Fruit of perry pears tend to be smaller than dessert pears and
are astringent to the taste.

Uses
Perry pear fruits differ from eating and culinary pears in mainly
being astringent (i.e. bitter) to varying degrees. This makes
the fruits suitable only for perry production – though there
are exceptions and several varieties have been used as multi-
purpose.
Perry pears need a sunny and warm summer to ripen well, and
this reliance on good summers has been reflected in wide
variation in vintage quality from year to year. This variation in
quality has led to varying opinions of perry over the ages, Perry pears

156  PERRY PEARS

 Perry pear
flowers

and are very striking at blossom time: Barland var. is an Varieties/Cultivars

example. Perry trees are thus sometimes found as park
Only the main cultivars used are listed here. The origins of most
specimens or avenues.
are unknown but many may have been brought from France.
Logs from mature perry pear trees may have a considerable value
All these cultivars are mid season flowering apart from ‘Judge
as timber. It has a fine grain and uniform texture, turns well,
Amphlett’ (which is early season).
and is good for carving and veneers; it has long been used for
furniture making.

Cultivar Description Cultivar Description

‘Blakeney Red’ Medium-large tree; growth vigorous and sturdy; large ‘Hendre Huffcap’ Large tree with a few long upright limbs; smaller branches
spread. Reliable cropper. Fruit small to medium, yellow drooping, well-spurred, susceptible to breakage from
with heavy flush and some russet. Vintage Medium heavy crops. Growth vigorous, slightly floppy; medium
acid, medium tannin perry; pleasant, average quality spread. Regular cropping. Fruit small, greenish-yellow
depending on the fruit condition on milling. with a slight orange flush and some russet. Readily
shaken from the tree. Vintage Low to medium acid,
‘Brandy’ Small to medium tree with small spreading limbs. low tannin perry; pleasant, light, good quality.
Growth vigorous and sturdy. Biennial cropping. Fruit
small, pale green or greenish-yellow with a bright red ‘Judge Amphlett’ Medium-sized tree, limbs with numerous branches of
flush and russet. Vintage Medium acid, low tannin dense twiggy growth. Growth moderately vigorous,
perry; bland, aromatic, dark colour, average quality. sturdy; small spread. Regular cropping. Flowering
early season. Fruit small, yellow or greenish-yellow
‘Brown Bess’ Medium to large tree with several upright limbs. with russet. Vintage Medium acid, low tannin perry;
Growth moderately vigorous, fairly sturdy; large pleasant, light, average quality.
spread. Poor pollinator. Fruit small to medium sized,
green or yellowish-green. Can be easily shaken from ‘Moorcroft’ Large tree with a few long rather upright limbs that
the tree before it is fully ripe. Originally used as a break easily. Growth moderately vigorous, slightly
culinary pear. Vintage Medium acid, low tannin perry; floppy and brittle; large spread. Fruit small to medium
average to good quality. sized, yellow or yellowish green with russet. Ripen over
a long period and are difficult to shake off. Vintage
‘Butt’ Medium to large tree with spreading, drooping limbs. Medium acid, medium tannin perry; astringent,
Growth moderately vigorous, floppy; large spread. quality good to excellent.
Often biennial. Fruit small, yellow or greenish-yellow,
with some russet; flesh tinged yellow. Lies on the ‘Newbridge’ Very large tree with several very upright limbs.
ground for a long time without rotting. Vintage Smaller branches are sparse and brittle. Growth
Medium to high acid, medium to high tannin perry; vigorous, floppy; large spread. Flowers ornamental;
astringent, fruity, average to good quality. The juice poor pollinator. Fruit small, greenish-yellow or yellow
is very slow fermenting and tannin is frequently with russet. Vintage Low acid, low tannin perry;
precipitated during storage. average quality.
‘Gin’ Medium-sized tree with slightly spreading limbs. ‘Thorn’ Small tree of stiff upright compact habit with stout
Branches with heavy conspicuous spur systems. limbs and branches bearing conspicuous spur systems.
Growth moderately vigorous, sturdy; medium spread. Growth moderately vigorous, sturdy; small spread.
Cropping often biennial. Fruit small, green with an Fruit small, yellow with russet and occasionally an
orange flush and a little russet. Vintage Medium acid, orange flush. Vintage Medium acid, low tannin perry;
medium tannin perry; average to good quality. average to good quality.
‘Hellen’s Early’ Very vigorous large tree, usually has a few very tall ‘Winnals Medium to large tree with a sturdy upright limb
limbs with numerous long, often pendulous branches. Longdon’ system, abundantly furnished with small branches.
Growth vigorous, sturdy; medium spread. Poor Growth vigorous, sturdy; large spread. Fruit small to
pollinator. Fruit small, greenish-yellow with a flush and medium sized, greenish-yellow or yellow with a heavy
russet. Vintage Medium acid, low to medium tannin red flush and russet. Vintage Medium to high acid, low
perry; average quality. tannin perry; good quality.

PERRY PEARS  157

 Perry production not mix successfully (two clear perries in cider apple varieties of bittersweet
when blended may produce an opaque varieties with low acidity and medium-
unpalatable product). Fortunately, most high tannin).
Some fruits store well for a month or
perries do not need blending to give
more after falling from the tree, and late Recommended perry pear cultivars
a palatable drink, and the individual
varieties in this category may enable These are mostly cultivars that yield well,
varieties show a fine range of flavours to
milling to continue into January of the are fairly disease free, and whose fruit
suit different palates.
following year in a good harvest season. stores for a reasonable time for the milling
This longer period of time before fruit Various effects of environment, climate, to be carried out.
breakdown commences is of great cultural conditions and age of tree
importance to present-day commercial influence the composition of the juice Harvest Cultivar Milling
growers, to allow for the harvest and obtained from perry pear fruit. season period
transport of fruits to the factory. Hence September ‘Hellens Early’ 1 week
The tannins in the juice of some varieties
most of the recommended varieties ‘Judge Amphlett’ 1 week
are rapidly precipitated, particularly in the
for commercial growers show this trait ‘Moorcroft’ 2 days
presence of solid particles of pear tissue.
(the exception being ‘Moorcroft’, for the
The tannin content of the juice therefore ‘Thorn’ 1 week
exceptional quality of its fruit).
depends on the conditions of milling Early October ‘Blakeney Red’ 1 week
The fruits of other varieties rot soon and pressing, and on the length of time ‘Hendre Huffcap’ 2 weeks
after they have fallen from the tree, the juice has stood; the state of maturity
‘Newbridge’ 1 week
hence much of the fruit needs to be of the fruit can also have a marked
‘Winnal’s 1 week
milled immediately after harvesting. effect on tannin content of the juice. The Longdon’
This means that the fruit is often milled, fermentation process itself is very quick.
Late October ‘Brandy’ 1 month
pressed and the juice fermented as single It is worth noting that over 50% of the
varieties. Even after fermentation, little varieties described here give perries of ‘Brown Bess’ 1 month
blending has historically been practised, medium acidity and low-medium tannin November ‘Butt’ >1 month
for the perries of some varieties will (contrasting with the present emphasis ‘Gin’ >1 month

Cultivation practice when early financial viability is needed in commercial

situations. Only some cultivars crop early (sometimes after 3-4
Perry pears are traditionally grown on seedling pear rootstocks
years) in this system, while others may take 10 years or more.
(P. communis). These are usually allowed to form large standard
Cultivar precocity in bush cultivation is noted in the table above.
trees that are rarely pruned. Quince rootstocks are generally
incompatible with perry varieties; a ‘Beurré Hardy’ interstem Few if any of the perry pear cultivars are self-fertile, and cross-
needs to be used and this leads to slightly quicker bearing, but pollination is essential for good crops.
trees will need staking and they will be much shorter lived. More
Mature trees, planted at wide enough spacing to enable
recently ‘Pyrodwarf’ rootstock has been used as a dwarfing stock.
all-around light penetration, frequently yield crops of 1,000kg
To complicate matters, perry pear cultivars differ widely in (2,200lb), while records of two tonnes per tree in successive
the dimensions of canopy spread at maturity, from 6m (20ft) years are not unknown. Average yields of 25-50t/ha (22,000-
spread (e.g. ‘Thorn’) to 18m (60ft) spread (e.g. ‘Moorcroft’). To 44,000lb/ac) are certainly possible.
allow for maximum density at maturity, planting should be at
It must be remembered that most trees on seedling stocks are
a spacing slightly more (10-20% more) than the likely spread
slow to start fruiting – often 10 years from planting.
of the trees (i.e. 5.5-9m/18-20ft for small spread, 9-13m/30-42ft
for medium spread, 13-20m/42-70ft for large spread). For Some trees require shaking to loosen all their fruits at once
wide-spreading cultivars, this gives plenty of opportunities for for mechanical harvest – their natural fruit drop is prolonged.
intercropping of cereals, vegetables, soft fruit and even other Others drop very quickly. Once the fruit has fallen, it should be
tree fruit (see above). harvested quickly, especially for those varieties with a short
milling time (notably the early varieties).
Bush perry trees can also be used to interplant between
standard trees. These are usually also on seedling rootstocks, Perry farms in the 18th and 19th centuries used trees spaced
but are trained with a 1m (3ft) trunk. This can be an important widely at 18-20m (60-66ft) apart (about 10-12 trees per acre

158  PERRY PEARS

 Traditional undergrazed perry pear orchard with large trees

or 25-30 trees per hectare), with arable crops (usually cereals) done to combat fireblight attacks; susceptible varieties should
grown as an intercrop for many years, reducing gradually to not be planted, and to reduce susceptibility, trees should not be
alleys between the rows, and eventually the whole field was pruned, fertilised or irrigated and no hawthorn hedges nearby
grassed down, but sometimes not until 50 years after planting. should be allowed to flower.
Other intercrops often used on smaller farms were apple and
Perry pears are also resistant to insect pests, only pear midge
plum trees. Thus perry pear cultivation formed part of a long-
having a significant detrimental effect (controlled in the past
lived and sustainable agroforestry system.
by running pigs and poultry beneath the trees). The only other
Pests and diseases significant pest is the bullfinch. See pears, p.149 for more
information on pests and diseases.
A remarkable fact about perry pears is that many of the varieties
still recommended for use today were highly popular 300 Related species
years ago. This seems to be due mainly to the high degree
Pears (p.147) and Asian pears (p.21).
of resistance of the perry pear to the diseases pear scab and
canker and the way in which this resistance is maintained as European & North American suppliers
the variety ages. More recently, fireblight has become a serious
Europe: ART, DEA, THN
problem though, especially with the later-flowering varieties.
The large size of perry pear trees means that very little can be North America: CUM, OGW

PERRY PEARS  159

PERSIMMONS, Diospyros kaki and hybrids
Deciduous, Zone 6, H6
Edible fruit

Origin and history Persimmons have long been cultivated in China and Japan and
there are many examples there of long-lived grafted trees up to
The persimmon family (Diospyros) comprises some 500 species
600 years old forming huge gnarled specimens.
of deciduous and evergreen trees and shrubs, mainly from the
tropics and subtropics. The species of interest to gardeners and Description
agroforesters are characterised by having edible fruits, ranging
Kaki persimmons are deciduous large shrubs or small trees.
from 1.5-6cm (0.6-0.8ins) in diameter. This species is the best
Trees in Britain normally grow erect to a height of about 6m
known – the kaki or oriental persimmon from China and Japan.
(20ft) (but may reach twice this in warmer climes), with a
This is a major fruit crop in as diverse localities as Japan, rounded crown and a network of slender branches.
China, Korea, western North America, Italy and Israel (where it is
The leaves are distinctively glossy dark green. Flowers are
called the Sharon fruit). Though the tree is almost unknown in
small; female flowers occur singly, borne from buds near the
Britain, and then usually only for its spectacular autumn colour,
tips of mature shoots; male flowers are usually borne from
fruits are borne in most summers in the southeast of England
leaf axils on small weak shoots, occurring in clusters of 2-3.
and with careful choice there is good potential for success in
Kaki persimmons are usually dioecious, so male and female
growing suitable cultivars for fruit (and even more if the climate
flowers are borne on separate plants. Flowering occurs well after
continues to warm up).

Persimmon leaves are glossy and handsome

the last frosts, usually in June or July, and lasts about two Kaki wood is dark brown and very hard, and is an excellent
weeks. Pollination is carried out by insects. substitute for ebony; it is used for sculpture and craft work,
golf club heads and furniture.
Fruits are round, flat, conical or lobed (often tomato shaped);
yellow, orange or reddish; 5-8cm (2-3.2ins) across. They are Varieties/Cultivars
borne on short stalks and bear a large (5cm, 2ins), persistent,
Kaki cultivars are divided into four groups, depending on
4-lobed calyx. They require a reasonably warm summer to ripen
whether fruits are astringent or non-astringent, and on their
properly, then ripening in October, November or December,
response to pollination:
often after the leaves fall.
Unripe fruits of the astringent group are exceedingly astringent Astringent Pollination Constant (PC)
Better adapted to cooler regions. Fruits are not affected by pollination.
(like sloes) and pucker the mouth. With these, tannins that cause E.g. ‘Great Wall’, ‘Hachiya’,
astringency in the flesh decrease ‘Hiratanenashi’, ‘Honan Red’,
The leaves turn to bright orange-red colours in the autumn. as the fruit softens and becomes ‘Kostata’, ‘Mazelli’, ‘Saijo’, ‘Tecumseh’,
edible. ‘Tone Wase’, ‘Triumph’
Uses Pollination variant (PV)
Persimmon fruits are edible and delicious when fully ripe and Flesh around seeds is darker when
free of astringency; non-astringent cultivars can be eaten when pollination occurs.
E.g. ‘Gailey’, ‘Lantern’, ‘Yamagaki’
still firm and crunchy, astringent cultivars when soft and juicy.
Fruits can also be dried, frozen, cooked in fruit recipes (pies, Non-astringent Pollination Constant (PC)
Better adapted to warmer Mature fruits are edible when still firm.
cakes, bread, desserts etc.) and made into preserves. They have regions. With these, the tannins Fruits are not affected by pollination.
also been fermented to make a brandy and vinegar. They are either disappear after pollination E.g. ‘Fuyu’, ‘Hana Fuyu’, ‘Hiyakume’,
particularly high in vitamin A – the highest of all common fruits. (PV) or are completely absent ‘Jiro’, ‘Okugosho’, ‘Twentieth Century’
(PC) but only if the climate is
warm enough (otherwise some Pollination variant (PV)
The peel from ripe fruit has been dried, powdered and used as Tannins disappear if over 4-5 seeds
astringeny can remain).
a sweetener. The seeds from fertilised fruits can be roasted and form (and fruits are then edible when
made into a coffee. The leaves are traditionally pickled with still firm), otherwise partly astringent.
E.g. ‘Kaki Tipo’, ‘Nishimura Wase’,
radishes in Japan to improve the flavour of the latter. ‘Shogatsu’
The astringent substance in some unripe persimmons Over 1,000 cultivars have been selected in Japan and 800 in
(leucodelphinidin), called kaki-tannin, is the basis of an China; most of the cultivars used elsewhere in the world have
industry itself in Japan. It was once widely used (and still is been imported from Japan.
used) to paint clothes and paper, making the materials very
durable. It is also used medicinally to reduce high blood Favoured cultivars for recent commercial plantings outside
pressure, and as a deproteinising agent in the brewing of sake Japan are: ‘Fuyu’, ‘Hachiya’ and ‘Hana Fuyu’ in the USA; ‘Aizu
(Japanese rice wine). Mishirazu’, ‘Amankaki’, ‘Fuyu’, ‘Hana Fuyu’, ‘Izu’, ‘Hiratanenashi’,
‘Kaki Tipo’ and ‘Suruga’ in Italy; and ‘Triumph’ in Israel.
The pulp of unripe fruit is used in the cosmetic industry as the Older cultivars used in southern Europe include ‘Kostata’,
basis for face-packs because of its firming qualities. ‘Lycoperiscum’ and ‘Mazelii’ in Italy and ‘Sahutii’ and ‘Wiesneri’
The fruits (unripe, ripe and dried) and calyces (collected at in France.
flowering) are used in traditional Chinese medicine. Only astringent cultivars are recommended for drying (non-
Bees find the flowers attractive, with both honey and bumble astringent fruits become tough), in particular ‘Hachiya’, ‘Saijo’
bees freely visiting the flowers for nectar and pollen. and ‘Sheng’.

The bark and unripe fruits, both high in tannins, can be used
for tanning.

PERSIMMONS 161
 Persimmon fruits

Cultivation Persimmon wood easily splits and it is important to train main

limbs with a wide crotch angle.
Kaki persimmons are quite adaptable to a range of climatic
conditions, and will grow where average annual temperatures Pruning of both young and mature trees need only be quite light.
are between 10-22°C (50-72°F) and grow best between 13-19°C Because fruiting takes place at the tips of the previous season’s
(55-66°F). growth, these shoots should not be cut back. Light pruning to
promote an annual renewal of fruiting branches is desirable;
Good shelter is very important as persimmons are very sensitive
this also minimises the biennial habit that many persimmons
to wind; young foliage is easily damaged and fruits are prone
can develop. Note that heavy fruiting often results in the
to wind rub. In Britain, a sheltered, south-facing situation is
death of fruiting twigs which self-prune the following season.
essential for fruiting; a warm wall is also suitable. The young
Pruning should allow good light penetration into the canopy.
growth in spring is frost tender, so frosty areas prone to late
spring and early autumn frosts should be avoided. Mature persimmon trees usually have one main, short growth
flush in spring when soil water is not usually in short supply,
A wide range of soil types is tolerated, although the ideal is a
hence irrigation is rarely needed. Young trees may benefit
deep, fertile, well-drained soil with a slightly acid pH (6.0-6.5).
from watering, especially the year after they are planted, if the
Good drainage is essential in damper climates like Britain.
summer is very dry.
Cultivars are normally grown on seedling Diospyros kaki
Persimmons are rather lighter feeders than many tree crops,
or D. lotus rootstocks. D. lotus is often used in cooler regions
requiring about half the nutrient inputs of apples, for example.
(where the astringent cultivars are more suited), since astringent
Early spring is the best time for application, ready to fuel the
cultivars usually form good graft unions and D.lotus is more cold
spurt of growth that takes place after bud burst. In practice, on
hardy than D. kaki. All Diospyros seedlings produce long slender
a fertile soil, few additions may be necessary and it is better to
taproots that are easily broken.
under-feed than over-feed.
Plant at 3.5-5m (12-16 ft) spacing. Staking is needed for the first
Although trees with male flowers are required for seeded full-
2-3 years.
sized fruits, female flowers can set fruit without pollination (i.e.
Persimmon trees left to grow freely assume a round-headed parthenocarpically, without seeds) leading to smaller, seedless
shape. Although fruiting will continue in unpruned trees, some fruits. With non-astringent cultivars in particular, though,
formation pruning at least is advisable to create a strong tree pollination can be desirable to reduce natural fruit drop and
capable of bearing crops. Trees are usually trained to a modified improve fruit quality (size, shape, colour). Where pollination is
central leader system or a vase system, though other systems required, cultivars that produce abundant male flowers should
are sometimes used, including trellis and espalier systems. be planted.

162 PERSIMmONS
Persimmons yield about a third that of apples, i.e. 9-18kg (20-40lb)
per tree when young, rising to 15-60kg (33-130lb) per tree at
maturity. Fruiting starts about 3-5 years after planting, and full
cropping is reached after 8-15 years. Biennial cropping is very
common, especially with late-maturing cultivars.
In Britain, fruits will take until late autumn to ripen (usually
October or November); the fruits can be harvested after leaf
fall if necessary. Frosts will in fact aid the ripening process
and remove the astringency from fruits (see below), but after
frosting the fruits must be eaten very quickly.
Persimmon fruits being traditionally dried in Japan
Harvest should take place when fruits are well-developed
and of the characteristic colour (orange or red) for the cultivar.
The best way to harvest is to clip the fruit stems with secateurs,
leaving the calyx attached. Alcohol treatment: Alcohol vapour accelerates ripening – one
traditional method in Japan was to store fruits in empty sake
Fruits can be stored for 2-6 months if placed in sealed plastic casks. Fruits can be sprayed/sprinkled with any strong spirit and
bags in a fridge near to 0°C. At room temperatures, non- sealed in plastic bags for 1-2 weeks to ripen.
astringent fruits have a shelf life of 10-30 days; packing fruits
in pine needles extends shelf life longer than other materials. Cooking: Astringency is accentuated by cooking, but can be
Astringent fruits have a shorter shelf life once the astringency is removed by the addition of half a teaspoon of baking soda per
removed – 7-14 days. cup of pulp.
Astringency caused by tannins in the fruit can be removed in Cultivars are usually grafted or budded onto seedling root-
several ways: stocks. Root cuttings may also succeed. Seeds of D. kaki are not
dormant and should be sown in spring in deep cell containers.
Allow to over-ripen: Astringency disappears when fruits are
allowed to over-ripen, becoming very soft. Pollen-Constant Pests and diseases
(PC) cultivars are the best for this. Ethylene softens the fruit
Although a wide range of pests and diseases are noted in
very quickly, hence on a small scale placing apples with
Japan, very few of these exist in western Europe or North
persimmons in a plastic bag rapidly softens the fruits and
America. Two minor diseases that may occur here are grey
removes astringency.
mould (Botrytis cinerea) causing discoloured patches on
Drying: A traditional use in Japan, and especially suited to leaves, and bacterial blast (Pseudomonas syringae pv. syringae).
astringent cultivars. A combination of artificial dryers (at 35°C) A probable pest is birds attacking fruits, particularly with late
and sun drying is used there, but only the former is suitable maturing cultivars which may be virtually leafless at maturity,
in damper climes. Whole fruits are peeled and skewered on exposing the highly coloured fruit.
bamboo spears to dry, the drying fruits occasionally being
kneaded for 40-120 seconds to accelerate drying and prevent Related species
them becoming hard and woody; they make an attractive white Date plum (D. lotus, p.75) has small edible fruits 2cm (0.8ins)
product when sugars crystallise on the surface of the fruit. across. American persimmon (D. virginiana) is described on p.11.
Freezing: Another traditional method, very easy in these European & North American suppliers
days of freezers. The fruits become very soft after freezing
Europe: ART, FCO, PDB, PLG
and are most suitable for using as pulp rather than eating
from the hand. North America: AAF, BLN, CHO, DWN, ELS, OGW, STB, TYT

PERSIMMONS 163
PINE NUTS, Pinus species
Evergreen, Zone 2-7, H6-7
Edible seed

Origin and history Species

The pines are a large family of well-known evergreen conifers The species with best potential in Britain for bearing cones are:
ranging from shrubs to tall trees, originating from around the
• East: P. albicaulis, P. armandii, P. ayacahuite, P. flexilis
Northern Hemisphere.
• North and west: P. cembra, P. sibirica
All or most species of pines bear edible pine nuts, although the
• Southeast: P. cembroides, P. gerardiana, P. sabiniana,
ones you’ll find in the shops are nearly always from the stone
P. torreyana
pine, Pinus pinea. Some edible pine seeds are very small, fiddly
to shell and not really worth troubling with – here I concentrate • South and west: P. jeffreyi, P. pinea
on the species with large seeds. • North: P. koraiensis

Description
Species Origin Description
The species here range from small tree/large shrubs originating
from Mexico to tall trees from Asia and North America. All have Pinus albicaulis Western North Whitebark pine
America A small tree, usually reaching 10m
distinctive aromatic needles and resinous wood. (32ft) but occasionally to double that,
and shrubby at low altitudes.
Uses The cones do not open when ripe,
but instead fall intact from the tree;
Although pines are very important timber trees, growing them they must be broken up to release
for edible seed is not really compatible with growing for timber. the seeds. Seeds are wingless,
10mm (0.4ins) long. Hardy to zone 3.
For cone and seed production, trees need to be widely spaced
to maximise the number of branches and the canopy area – Pinus armandii West and Chinese white pine, Armand’s pine,
central China David’s pine
the opposite of timber production. A large tree reaching 20m (65ft) high,
with widely spreading, horizontal
Pine nuts can be used in many ways. The species with nuts branches. Flowering begins quite
high in carbohydrates (P. monophylla and P. quadrifolia) are early, around 12 years of age.
best eaten cooked; the others can be eaten raw or cooked. Seeds are reddish-brown, wingless,
12mm (0.5ins) long. Hardy to zone 5.
They make good snacks and add valuable protein to salads.
To cook, they are usually roasted but they can be included in Pinus ayacahuite Mexico Mexican white pine
A large tree reaching 30m (100ft)
dishes, confections etc. high with a spreading head of
branches. Cones gape open when
The low carbohydrate/high oil species make an excellent nut ripe, releasing seeds 9mm (0.4ins)
butter simply by mashing up the nuts. All species can have nuts long that are brown with dark
ground into a flour (in the same way chestnuts can) and be stripes and wings 25mm (1ins) long.
Flowering begins at an early age.
used in recipes, breads etc. Hardy to zone 7.
A high quality oil can be pressed from the nuts and used in Pinus cembra Alps Swiss stone pine, Arolla pine,
salads or for cooking; the cake residue is a good livestock feed. Russian cedar
Usually a small or medium-sized tree,
Another use that is popular in Siberia is to steep nuts in vodka growing 10-20m (32-65ft) high.
Cones do not open, but fall from the
to make a stimulating tonic! tree with their seeds in the spring of
their third year. Seeds are reddish-
One use of pines that may be compatible with seed production brown, unwinged, 12mm (0.5ins) long.
is tapping them for pine resin. This is an important commercial Hardy to zone 4.
product.

164  PINE NUTS

Species Origin Description Species Origin Description
Pinus Southwest Mexican pinyon, Mexican stone pine, Pinus Western North Sugar pine, Lambert pine
cembroides USA, Mexico Mexican nut pine lambertiana America A tree reaching 100m (300ft) in its
A small tree to 8m (25ft) high, with native habitat. Seeds are nearly
a rounded crown, short stem and black, 15mm (0.6ins) long with
outspread branches. Seeds are 2cm (0.8ins) long brown wings.
blackish and wingless, thick shelled, Hardy to zone 7. Susceptible to white
20mm (0.8ins) long. Hardy to zone 7. pine blister rust.
Pinus coulteri California and Coulter’s pine, Big cone pine Pinus Southwest Singleleaf pinyon
Mexico A large, straight-stemmed tree to monophylla USA A medium-sized tree to 15m (50ft)
25-30m (80-100ft) high with a loose, (Syn. P. cembroides high, usually multi-stemmed, with a
open, pyramidal crown and very var. monophylla) flat crown. Needs a hot, dry position.
stout, wide-spreading branches. Seeds 20mm (0.8ins) long.
Most cones do not open to release Hardy to zone 6-7.
their seeds. Seeds are black, 20mm
Pinus pinea Mediterranean Stone pine, Umbrella pine,
(0.8ins) long with a 25mm (1ins) wing.
Italian stone pine
Hardy to zone 7.
A medium or large tree reaching
Pinus edulis Southwest Piñon pine, Pinyon pine 15-25m (50-80ft) high, with a broadly
(Syn. P. cembroides USA, Mexico A tree to 15m (50ft) high, usually arched, umbrella-shaped crown and
var. edulis) multi-stemmed with an irregular horizontal branches. Hardy to zone 7.
habit. Seeds are thick shelled, 20mm This is the most important source
(0.8ins) long. Young trees start to of pine kernels for commerce, being
bear nuts when they are about 25 especially valuable in Spain, Portugal
years old and heavy crops are not and Italy. The seeds are called
borne until trees are about 75 years pignolias and are 20mm (0.8ins) long.
old. This time factor is responsible for It is an easy tree to grow, being pest
there being no cultivated orchards of and disease free and tolerating most
pinyons. Hardy to zone 5. soils. The trees thrive in wind and
are often planted in shelterbelts with
Pinus flexilis Western North Limber pine plants around 5m (16ft) apart. If they
America A variable tree, 10-25m (32-80ft) high are grown specifically for pine nut
becoming broadly rounded with age. production, then plant at 10m (32ft)
Seeds 12mm (0.5ins) long. apart. Cones are produced from
Hardy to zone 2-3. about 10 years onwards.
Pinus gerardiana Tibet, Kashmir Chilgoza pine, Gerard’s pine, Pinus quadrifolia California Parry pinyon, Four-leaved nut pine
and North Nepal nut pine (Syns. P. A pyramidal, becoming flat-crowned
Afghanistan A small tree in cultivation reaching parrayana, tree to 15m (50ft) high, with thick
10m (32ft) high, but double that in its P. cembroides spreading branches. Seeds 13mm
native region. Dense, rounded crown var. parrayana) (0.5ins) long. Hardy to zone 7.
and short, spreading branches.
The shell around the kernel is papery Pinus sabiniana California Digger pine
and much thinner than in the stone A medium or large tree growing
pine. Seeds 25mm (1ins) long. 12-21m (40-70ft) high, often multi-
Hardy to zone 7. stemmed. Seeds are dark brown,
25mm (1ins) long with 1cm (0.4ins)
Pinus jeffreyi Western North Jeffrey pine long wings. Hardy to zone 7.
America A large tree reaching 30-60m (100-200ft)
or more. Seeds are 12mm (0.5ins) Pinus sibirica North Russia, Siberian pine, Siberian cedar,
long and have 3cm (1.2ins) wings. (Syn. P. cembra Siberia Cedar pine
Hardy to zone 5. var. sibirica) and North A large narrowly conical tree to
Mongolia 33m (110ft) high often with a more
Pinus koraiensis Manchuria, Korean pine, Korean white pine, rounded crown as a young tree. Trees
Korea and Korean nut pine start to bear cones at 20-25 years of
North Japan A pyramidal tree of loose conical age. Heavy seed years occur every 2-3
habit, reaching 20-30m (65-100ft) years. Cones contain about 150 seeds
high. Trees start to bear cones at called ‘cedar nuts’, 13mm (0.5ins) long.
20-25 years of age, heavy seed years Hardy to zone 3.
occurring every 2-3 years. Seeds
16mm (0.7ins) long. Hardy to zone 3. Pinus torreyana California Torrey pine, Soledad pine
A small to medium tree 6-15m (20-50ft)
high, broad, open. Seeds are dark
brown, speckled, 25mm (1ins) long,
with a ring-like wing. Hardy to zone 7.

PINE NUTS  165

 Opened cones of stone pine, Pinus pinea

Cultivation are required for cones to open; or they can be stored in a cool
airy shed over the winter until the following summer, when they
All pines should be planted in full sun with little side shade.
can be air dried. Beware of rodent, squirrel and bird predation
Most of them also need good drainage and do not like heavy
on cones - they are all very fond of pine nuts.
soils.
Yields are hard to quantify for most species because of lack of
Most pines flower in June and cones ripen the following year
any data. Most species do not start to produce cones until they
(i.e. second year) or the year after that (third year). In some
are 20-25 years old (the main reason that few people can be
species, cones naturally open and drop their seeds (e.g. P. edulis,
tempted to plant nut pines), although P. pinea starts
P. koraiensis, P. pinea); in others, cones fall from the tree intact
production at 9-10 years of age and P. armandii at about 12 years.
with the seeds (e.g. P. albicaulis, P. cembra). With the latter kind,
Yields for P. pinea in Italy are 5-15kg (11-33lb) per tree per year –
cones can simply be gathered from the ground if predation isn’t
with 100 trees per hectare this gives yields of 500-1500kg/ha or
too bad. With the former, seeds can be collected on sheets
440-1320lb/ac.
beneath trees (shaking trees if necessary) or cones must be
harvested from trees before they open. There is usually a period Pine seeds require varying amounts of cold treatment
of about a month between cones ripening and opening, and in (stratification) before they are sown. Seeds should be sown in a
this period cones should be cut or knocked off the tree with a well-drained compost, preferably in deep cells or pots, covered
long pole/hook/pruner and collected – take care not to damage with 1cm (0.4ins) of compost and kept at about 19°C (65°F). Very
the tree as rough harvesting can significantly reduce productivity. high temperatures can inhibit germination. When germination
Some pines are adapted to release their seeds after a forest fire occurs, a long taproot will grow before the shoot even emerges;
and these (e.g. P. gerardiana, P. sabiniana) may need to have if seedlings are to be transplanted out of a seed tray then care
their cones heated to open. must be taken not to damage the roots.
Once the cones are collected, they can either be air dried Beware of rodent damage to seeds – keep pots/trays off
immediately – 2-4 weeks of dry warm weather or artificial drying the ground and protect. Because of the high risks of rodent

166  PINE NUTS

Tapping pines for resin Tapping the tree for intensive tapping for 4-8 years before
In general, the greater the diameter felling. Alternatively a narrow face can
of the tree and the larger the crown, be cut for long-term (20 years or more)
Virtually all pines will yield resin if the greater the resin yields. Trees are tapping at a lesser rate. A wide face may
tapped. Key factors that determine the normally only tapped when they are at be up to one-third the circumference of
commercial feasibility for tapping are least 20-25cm (8-10ins) in diameter and the tree, while a narrow face is typically
the quality (terpene content) and 15-20 years old. Considerable tree-to- 10cm (4ins) wide.
quantity of resin obtained. Nowadays, tree variations exist in terms of yield, Traditionally, two iron gutters are nailed
only the hard (diploxylon) pines are but on average such trees yield 3-4kg to the tree just below where the face is to
commercially tapped, in both planta- (6.5-9lb) of resin per tree. be cut, and an iron collecting reservoir
tions and natural stands. Important
Warm summer temperatures aid high held in place beneath by nails to collect
hardy commercial species at present
resin flow, whereas long periods of high the resin. More modern methods involve
are P. brutia, P. halepensis, P. massoniana,
rainfall slow resin flow. tying a specially designed plastic bag to
P. pinaster, P. radiata, P. roxburghii,
the tree, held flush beneath the face
P. sylvestris. If done properly, using methods that with wire tied around the tree; this is
Crude resin is a thick, sticky, fluid material, involve removal of bark only, tapping simpler, cheaper and quicker, and does
opaque and milky-grey in colour. trees can cause little damage to trees and not risk contamination of resin with iron;
they may be tapped for up to 20 years though it is more difficult to remove the
Whole unprocessed resin has a
resin from the bags without waste.
number of traditional uses. Numerous
medicinal uses have been documented. A horizontal strip of bark, 25mm (1ins)
In Greece, the addition of pine resin high, is removed across the width of the
to white wine, to make retsina, is a face, just above the collection system,
national tradition. It can be used as a to cause resin to flow.
sealant in outdoor wood joins, and
Commercially, a paste of sulphuric
also to seal mushroom logs at
acid with various lubricant/surficant/
inoculation.
adhesive materials is applied to the top
Pine resin is usually distilled to yield edge of the freshly exposed face (the
two products: turpentine and rosin, ‘streak’) to stimulate and maintain resin
in the ratio one part turpentine to flow. This is optional – without it, flow is
4-6 parts rosin. For many years these less and for a shorter time; in the past,
were used in an unprocessed form in the wood was wounded instead, which
the manufacture of soaps, paints, damaged trees much more.
papers and varnishes; but nowadays
Maintenance involves collection of
they are the raw materials used in
the resin, re-wounding of the tree, and
the production of a wide range of
application of the stimulant at suitable
products.
intervals, usually about every two
Turpentine is used in the manufacture weeks. On each visit, a further 20mm
of chemicals and pharmaceuticals, Home tapping of a Monterey pine (0.8ins) of bark is removed above the
printing inks, gums and synthetic (P. radiata) existing face, and sulphuric acid paste
resins, asphaltic products, adhesives applied to the top edge.
or more. Traditional methods that involve
and plastics, furniture, paint, varnish
some removal of woody tissue may not At the end of the season, the collection
and lacquer, insecticides, products for
affect tree survival much and trees with system is re-installed where the last
railways and shipyards, disinfectants,
old tapping scars often grow healthily. removal of bark was made, so a second
rubber, shoe polish and related
season of tapping can be carried out.
materials. Initially the rough outer bark is first
This is repeated each year until the
removed from the area at the base
Rosin is used in paper sizing, chemicals height of the face is too great for a person
of the tree and slightly up the tree to
and pharmaceuticals, adhesives, to reach comfortably. Where narrow
make collection easier.
printing inks, rubber compounds, faces have been cut, it is then possible
surface coatings, brewing, mineral A wide or narrow face can be prepared, to start another face next to the first;
beneficiation, applied to bows of depending on the intended use of trees. thus it is possible to work a total of four
musical instruments, applied to Plantation pines destined for saw timber or five faces, each for 4-5 years, if trees
belting to prevent slippage. of pulpwood often have a wide face cut are large enough.

PINE NUTS  167

damage, it is not recommended to sow seeds outside in beds
unless you are sure that rodent control is adequate. Other pests
that will eat seeds if they can get to them include squirrels,
birds and (in North America) chipmunks.
Cells or pots with seedlings in should have a thin layer of pine
needles or soil added from beneath an established pine tree,
to allow for mycorrhizal infection around the seedling roots.
These symbiotic fungi are essential for plants to grow and
remain healthy. Without such fungal infection, seedlings will
simply stop growing after a couple of years and die.
Seedlings do not need shading except in very hot and sunny
locations. If seedlings are planted outside in nursery rows,
mulch them in the autumn to avoid problems of frost heave,
which can be very damaging. Edible kernels of Siberian pine, commercially
called ‘cedar nuts’
Pests and diseases
Many different rust fungi can attack pines. The worst is white
pine blister rust (Cronartium ribicola) which can seriously
damage the American white pines, but which is not present
in Europe.
In Britain the most serious disease is fomes root rot and butt rot
caused by the fungus Heterobasidion annosum but this is much
less common on isolated trees.
Various insect pests can be harmful including the pine shoot
moth (Rhyacionia buoliana) whose caterpillars bore into shoots
of young trees.

European & North American suppliers

Europe: ALT, ART, BUR, TPN
North America: GNN, TYT, also state forest tree nurseries Unshelled seeds of stone pine, Pinus pinea

168  PINE NUTS

PLUM YEWS, Cephalotaxus species
Evergreen, Zone 6-8, H4-6
Edible fruits

Origin and history

The plum yews are a genus of evergreen
trees and shrubs, originating in eastern
Asia from the Himalayas to China, Japan
and Korea. All species appear rather like
yews, but with larger (usually longer)
needles. Like yews, the plum yews
are shade tolerant (being woodland
understorey plants) and dioecious, with
male and female flowers on different
plants, and with fruit borne only on female
plants. The hardier species perform very
well in moist temperate areas and are
valuable for hedging, ground cover,
edible fruits and the medicinal compounds
in their leaves. Only the hardier species
are described here.

Description
The evergreen plum yews have soft leaves
that are needle-like, spirally arranged but
neatly ranked in pairs on an even plane;
they have a distinct midrib above. Leaves
persist for 3-4 years before falling.
Although plants are normally dioecious,
occasionally monoecious plants occur Leaves and fruits of Japanese plum yew, C. harringtonia
with both sexes of flower; plants have also
been known to change sex. Female plants
also sometimes produce fruits with infertile
seeds in the absence of male plants. Male
flowers are borne in small round heads in the leaf axils of young for fruit, five females should be grown with one male for
shoots; female flowers are cup shaped, borne singly or in twos pollination. One of the best of the genus for good and tasty
or threes in the basal scales of very young shoots. Flowering fruit is C. harringtonia var. nana, which is unfortunately very
normally occurs in April to May, and flowers are wind pollinated. hard to get hold of.
Fruits (botanically naked seeds with fleshy arils) are roundish Some species also have edible seeds, notably C. harringtonia.
or ellipsoid drupe-like fruits, fleshy on the outside, with a single Plum yews make good screens and hedges for damp shady
hard almond-shaped resinous seed inside; they are stalked and areas, though they do not like very exposed positions. All
resinous. Fruits are generally juicy and attractive, and when species will coppice/regrow well if cut and thus will respond
squeezed hard exude a delicious-smelling milky resin. well to clipping or cutting back. Fruiting can still be heavy in
shady sites and the genus has very good potential for fruiting
Uses hedges where few other species will do well. These species are
The fruits are edible from the species listed here. They have a also sometimes recommended for the southern USA where
sweet butterscotch/pine resin flavour. When growing plants true yew does not thrive.

PLUM YEWS  169

The shrubbier species make an excellent, if slow growing, Cultivation
ground cover for shady positions. C. harringtonia var. koreana
Plum yews are understorey trees and shrubs, and they require
and var. nana are particularly effective through suckering and
a moist, cool and semi-shady location to thrive; they are very
layering and in time can form thickets.
tolerant of deep shade (even of other conifers) and survive but
Most Cephalotaxus species have many chemicals in common in do not thrive in full sun.
their leaves (see below) and insecticidal effects can be achieved
All species grow in a wide range of soils, light to heavy and acid
with their use.
or alkaline; but they prefer a moist and well-drained soil. Dry or
The medicinal effects from chemical compounds in the leaves gravelly soils are disliked and only C. harringtonia var. drupacea
of several species have been known about in China for some tolerates chalky soils.
time, and are becoming more widely known. These compounds
Young plants should be planted out in the spring. Plum yews
(e.g. harringtonine, homoharringtonine, hainanolide) have
are generally pest and disease free and the chemicals in their
anticancer properties, and are effective against blood cancers
leaves make it unlikely that rabbits, deer etc. will touch them.
(e.g. some forms of leukaemia); others have anti-tumour
The leaves should be regarded as being poisonous though.
properties. C. fortunei, C. harringtonia and C. sinensis are all
Growth is slow, generally 10-20cm (4-8ins) per year.
known to have anticancer compounds in their leaves.
Seeds require 13 weeks of stratification, and are slow
The oil obtained from the seeds of C. harringtonia and its varieties
germinating. A proportion may not germinate until the second
has been used to burn as an illuminant. The other species, also
spring after sowing.
with oily seeds, can probably be used in the same way.
Greenwood cuttings of current growth may be taken off
Varieties/Cultivars terminal shoots (not side
Species Origin Description branches) in summer or
autumn, and given rooting
Cephalotaxus fortunei Central and Chinese Plum Yew, Chinese Cowtail Pine, Fortune’s Plum Yew.
southwest China Zone 6-7/H5-6. hormone treatment and mist,
In its habitat a tree to 12m (40ft) high, it is usually only a shrub a humid environment and
in cultivation to 5-6m (16-19ft) high, often multi-stemmed warmth. The take rate is
and erect. Edible fruits are ellipsoid, juicy, attractive, resinous,
25-33mm (1-1.3ins) long and 12-16mm (0.2-0.7ins) wide, quite low.
bluish-green becoming olive-brown when ripe. Lime tolerant.
C. harringtonia North China, Korea, Japanese Cowtail Pine, Harrington Plum Yew, Japanese Plum Pests and diseases
Japan Yew. Zone 6-7/H5-6. There are none of significance.
Usually a shrub to 5m (16ft) high in cultivation, with a broad
round head and outspread branches. Edible fruits are olive-
green turning purple-brown when ripe, 20-30mm (0.8-1.2ins) Related species
long with a small prickly tip; oily and astringent when unripe. The hardiest plum yews are
C. harringtonia var. drupacea Central and Japanese Plum Yew, Plum fruited Yew. Zone 6-7/H5-6. the shrubby C. harringtonia
western China, Japan A small tree or bushy shrub, 5-10m (16-33 ft) high, with wide var. koreana and var. nana.
spreading branches and developing into large mounds with a
wide rounded crown. Edible fruits pear shaped, attractive, oily, These are hardy as far north
resinous, brown or olive-green ripening purple, 3cm (1.2ins) as southern Sweden in
long on a short stalk. Thrives on chalky soil. Europe and Nova Scotia/
C. sinensis Central and Chinese Plum Yew. Zone 7, H5. Boston in North America.
western China A shrub or small tree, 2-5m (6-16ft) high in cultivation with
brownish, shredding bark. Edible fruits are egg shaped,
25mm (1ins) long by 17mm (0.7ins) wide, bluish. European & North
C. wilsoniana China, Taiwan Zone 8, H4. American suppliers
A small tree similar to C. fortunei, to 5m (16ft) high in
cultivation with pendulous branches. Edible fruits 18-25mm
Europe: DUN, MCN
(0.7-1ins) long by 10mm (0.4ins) wide. North America: PIR

170  PLUM YEWS

PLUM & GAGE, Prunus domestica
Deciduous, Zone 5, H6-7
Edible fruit

Origin and history

Plum species are found throughout the Northern Hemisphere,
mostly in the temperate regions. The common garden plum,
Prunus domestica, is just one of these species but has had
more work done in breeding cultivars than most of the others.
Many of the plum cultivars bred in the 20th century are in fact
hybrids of one kind or another, with particular species brought
in to the parentage to achieve certain traits.

Description
Trees grow to 9m (30ft) high, and may be erect, spreading or
pendulous. Usually thornless. The leaves appear at the same
time or after the flowers in April. Fruits vary from very small to
very large, oval to round, blue, purple, yellow, red or green
with a heavy bloom; the flesh is firm and of good quality.
Stones vary from free to clinging. Many hundreds of cultivars
have been developed.
Gages or gage plums are a sub-group of plum – tree growth of
these is usually intermediate between the damson and garden
plum. Fruits are small-medium in size, round, mostly green or
golden, juicy, sweet and with a rich distinctive flavour.

Uses
Use fresh or cooked. Plums contain (per unit weight) more
carbohydrate, vitamins A and B (niacin), calcium, phosphorus
and potassium than apples. They may be frozen straight from
the tree without blanching or cooking.
Plums and gages can be dried after de-stoning in halves, and ‘Valor’ plums
are an excellent constituent of fruit leathers, mixing well with
other (stronger flavoured) fruits.
shade tolerant, doing well even on north-facing walls (notably
Varieties/Cultivars ‘Czar’). Many plums considered as ‘cooking’ in fact make quite
acceptable dessert quality, for example, ‘Czar’ and ‘Pershore’.
There are hundreds of cultivars and it would need a whole book
to list them. Try and find which cultivars do well in your region. Cultivation
Greengages are generally less vigorous than plums, and have Trees are nearly always grown on a specific rootstock that is
round green/yellow/translucent fruit with a richer taste than chosen for tolerance of soil conditions and/or resistance to
plums. They prefer sheltered locations with plenty of sun. pests or diseases.
Dessert plums do not generally make good cooking plums Plum rootstocks
because they are not acid enough. They need a sunny location,
The most successful stocks for garden plums (Prunus domestica)
and all (especially earlier flowering) cultivars certainly prefer
are from the species itself, and selections of ‘St. Julien’ (P. insititia),
shelter from cold winds.
Myrobalan (P. cerasifera) and ‘Marianna’ (P. cerasifera x
Cooking plums, more acid than dessert plums, are quite munsoniana).

PLUM & GAGE  171

 Greengage fruits

In some east European countries, myrobalan seedlings are Where the risk of late frosts cannot be completely avoided,
widely used; in Germany, stocks include the seed-propagated choose late-flowering cultivars or those with some frost-
stocks Myrobalan, and Black Damas and Damas d’Orleans tolerance.
(St. Julien types), while clonal stocks include ‘Ackermann’,
Plum varieties are either self-sterile, partly self-fertile or fully
‘Brompton’, ‘St. Julien A’, ‘GF655-2’, ‘Marianna’ and ‘Marianna
self-fertile. Unless self-fertile, cross-pollination is required by
GF8-1’. In Britain, recommended stocks include ‘Pixy’, ‘Common
another plum flowering at the same time for a good crop to
Plum’, ‘St. Julien A’, ‘Pershore’, ‘Brompton’ and ‘Myrobalan B’.
set. Pollination is via bees and other insects and sheltered
For a long time, some European plums have been propagated conditions greatly favour their activity, especially as plums
from suckers dug up from under mature trees such as ‘Pershore flower quite early when cold winds can be common.
Yellow Egg’, ‘Cambridge Gage’, ‘Warwickshire Drooper’,
Formation pruning is recommended to create strong, well-
‘Aylesbury Prune’ and ‘Common Mussel’; subsequently, some of
angled branches, especially as plums can crop so heavily that
these have been used as stocks for other cultivars.
if unthinned, the crop can cause branch breakages that are
Because plum culture often involves several species, always a route for bacterial canker to become a problem.
incompatibility between rootstocks and scions is quite a
Plums require good levels of nitrogen, moderate of potash,
common occurrence. The Myrobalan and Marianna selections
and lower levels of phosphate. Mulching with compost or
have come to predominate in rootstock use partly because of
farmyard manure is beneficial but extra nitrogen is usually
their wide range of compatibility.
needed. If possible, mulch from 15cm (6ins) from the trunk
Yields vary so widely with plum cultivars that it is difficult to out to the drip line.
give figures for likely yields of fruit. More vigorous rootstocks
When a good set has occurred, fruit thinning is worth
generally bear larger yields.
undertaking: a very heavy crop may break branches and
For consistent fruiting, plums need a sunny, sheltered site significantly damage the tree; in addition, fruits will be small
and reasonable freedom from spring frosts to ensure good and lacking in flavour. Fruitlets can be thinned to 5-10cm
pollination and fruit set. Most soils on the acid side are suitable (2-4ins) apart in June. If you haven’t thinned and a huge crop
(ideally pH 6.0 to 6.5); anything more alkaline than pH 6.5 may is developing, erect branch props (forked sticks are best) to
give rise to lime-induced chlorosis. Badly drained and sandy prevent breakages.
soils are also best avoided.

172  PLUM & GAGE

Fruit should be harvested when firm ripe, preferably over two or these should be removed and burnt. The fungus can also
three pickings. Watch out for wasps on fruit, especially in rainy affect green twigs and flowers. It overwinters usually in rotten
seasons when fruits (notably gages) are more prone to splitting mummified fruit on the tree or ground, but can also survive on
skins followed by invasion of rots. As picking continues, any dead flowers or twigs killed the previous year. Severe infections
broken branches should be pruned off as they are seen. may respond to treatment with Bordeaux mixture.

Pests and diseases Blossom wilt (Monilinia laxa) causes severe blossom and twig
blighting: sudden withering of the flowers occurs, then twigs die
Bacterial canker and shothole (Pseudomonas syringae pv.
in large numbers for 3-4 weeks. Fruits can also be affected, with
morsprunorum) causes elliptical cankers on trunks and scaffold
the same symptoms as with brown rot. The fungus overwinters
branches, sometimes spreading to girdle a branch or the whole
in twig cankers, blighted flowers and mummified fruit. Such
tree. The dormant buds of infected trees may fail to grow in the
rotted fruit should always be removed and destroyed. Severe
spring. The disease is favoured by a moist climate, hence the
infections can be controlled by using Bordeaux mixture as the
importance in the wetter regions of choosing cultivars that have
flowers begin to open (and if necessary again at full blossom).
some resistance. Other factors implicated in increased canker
susceptibility are lack of nitrogen and pruning at the wrong time Wasps may damage ripe fruits. Bad attacks may necessitate
(in winter). Bordeaux mixture can give some control, applied early picking of fruit. Attract predators like dragonflies.
monthly throughout the autumn. Aphids cause distorted leaves and occasionally fruits. Eggs
Silver leaf (Chondrostereum purpureum) is a fungus that enters overwinter on trees. Best control is to encourage predators,
the tree at a fresh wound on the trunk or branches. The invaded e.g. By growing umbellifers nearby.
wood becomes brown and the leaves become silvery in Winter moths/caterpillars of various species cause some
appearance. Branches or the whole tree can be killed. Cut out defoliation of the tree by eating the young foliage. They over­
dead branches to 15cm (6ins) beyond the point where the winter in the soil, so a good control is to use grease bands on
wood is stained. Trees are much less susceptible to infection in the trunk in late October to trap females on their way to lay eggs.
summer and autumn than in winter and spring.
Plum curculio (Conotrachelus nenuphar) in North America is
Sharka disease is a serious viral disease caused by the plum pox a weevil with foliage-feeding adults and fruit-feeding larvae.
virus. The symptoms are pale spots and blotches on the leaves, Growing garlic or horseradish around the base of the tree is
and fruits (which are useless) showing uneven ripening and supposed to help.
dark bands/rings in the flesh. It is spread by the peach-potato
aphid, Myzus persicae, which lays its eggs on peaches and Related species
nectarines. Affected plants must be removed and destroyed.
Cherry plum (Prunus cerasifera) – see p.58; Japanese plum
The disease is serious in mainland Europe but less so in Britain,
(Prunus spp.) – see p.107; Bullaces and damsons (P. domestica
although it does exist. Several cultivars are resistant.
ssp. Insititia) – see p.50.
Plum fruit moth (Cydia funebrana) caterpillars (called red plum
maggots) are pink and red and bore into the ripening fruits. European & North American suppliers
Control by using pheromone traps (one per three trees between Europe: ART, BLK ,BUC, CBS, COO, DEA, FCO, KMR, KPN, OFM,
June and August). PDB, PLG, THN
Brown rot (Monilinia fructigena) causes fruits to rot on the tree. North America: AAF, BLN, BRN, CUM, DWN, ELS, ENO, GPO, HSN,
Dark brown circular spots rapidly spread over the fruit – OGW, RRN, STB, TYT

PLUM & GAGE  173

QUINCE, Cydonia oblonga
Deciduous, Zone 4-6, H6-7
Edible fruit

Origin and history Although quinces have a low chilling requirement, they flower
The native region of the quince is not precisely known, but later in the spring than pears, because some vegetative growth
it is probably wild only in parts of Asia including Armenia, must occur before the flowers appear.
Azerbaijan, Georgia, Turkestan, Iran and Saudi Arabia. It has
been cultivated in Mediterranean regions for millennia and has Uses
become naturalised in many parts; the fruit was highly regarded Quinces have long been grown for flavouring apple pies, ices and
by the Greeks and Romans, and was the ‘golden apple’ that confections. In warm temperate and tropical regions, the fruits
Paris awarded to Aphrodite as a symbol of love, marriage and can become soft, juicy, and suitable for eating raw; but in cooler
fertility. It is still an important fruit crop in its native region and temperate areas like Britain, they do not ripen so far. Here, raw
in South America (Argentina produces 20,000 tonnes annually). quince fruits are hard, gritty, harsh and astringent, but after a
few weeks of storage the flesh softens and astringency
It was introduced to Britain at an early date (first accounts of
decreases to a point where some people find them edible.
its cultivation are from 1275) and was commonly grown in the
16th-18th centuries, when it was usually used for making quince Most people prefer to eat quinces after cooking, though. They are
marmalade. Its cultivation reached a peak there in the 18th and delicious stewed, baked, made into fruit butter etc. – almost
19th centuries, then declined with the
increase in popularity of soft fruits.

Description
The quince is a thornless shrub or small
tree, 4-6m (13-20ft) high and 3-4.5m
(10-15ft) in spread, with crowded
gnarled branches and a low crooked
habit. Young branchlets are covered with
a pale greyish wool.
Leaves are oval or elliptical, turning a
rich yellow in autumn.
Flowers are 5cm (2ins) across, pink or
white, solitary at the end of short twigs,
produced in May or early June, after the
leaves. Trees are self-fertile, with a good
fruit set in both cool and hot climates;
pollination is via bees.
Fruits are light golden-yellow, green
or orange, usually pear shaped (but
sometimes round and apple shaped)
and very fragrant. The fruit pulp is firm,
aromatic and always contains gritty cells.
Individual fruits can weigh up to 0.5kg
(1.1lb) or more, and ripen late in the
autumn.
Flowers on quince ‘Meeches Prolific’

174 QUINCE
anything that can be done with apples can be done with Varieties/Cultivars
quinces, and they need a similar length of cooking as apples;
The following cultivars are a selection of the more popular
only add sugar after they become soft and start to change
cultivars available.
colour. A single slice added to an apple pie is enough to add a
subtle flavour. Quince flesh turns pink when cooked. Cultivar Origin Description

Individual fruits can be baked in halves, with the juice becoming ‘Champion’ USA Bears heavy crops of large, roundish to pear
shaped, greenish-yellow fruits of delicate
a pink syrup in the dish. Other recommendations are to add flavour. Flesh yellow, tender, only slightly
a few slices to roasting meats or a little cooked quince to astringent. Fruits at a young age; mid season
casseroles. ripening. Tree vigorous, very productive,
bears at an early age.
Quinces contain high levels of pectin, which ensures that any ‘Krymsk’ Ukraine Fruits pear shaped, golden, softens on
jelly made with them in it will set easily. Quince jelly is a popular (=‘Aromatnaya’) ripening. Tree somewhat resistant to quince
recipe. Quince paste is still widely made in France (cotignac) leaf blight.
and Spain (membrilo), while in Argentina and Chile a quince ‘Meeches USA Fruits bright golden-yellow, pear shaped,
spread (dulce de membrilo) is made. Prolific’ of excellent flavour, less downy than most,
early ripening – a week before ‘Vrajna’;
Wine and cider can be made from the fruit. The wine was fruit borne at an early age (three years).
Good heavy cropper, vigorous, slow growing.
popular when quinces were very common in Britain in the The fruits keep well.
19th century, the wine reputed to benefit asthma sufferers. ‘Portugal’ UK Flowers are large, pale rose, ornamental.
Fruits are bumpy and irregular (oblong-pear
In Medieval times, quince marmalade was popular in Britain. shaped), 10cm (4ins) long and 9cm (3.6ins)
This required peeled and quartered fruits which were boiled wide at the thickest part, tapering to the
in red wine, strained, boiled again in honey and spiced wine, stalk; skin deep yellowish-orange, covered
with grey down; mild flavour, juicier than
then after cooling and setting, sliced into pieces and served most. Fruit ripens earlier than most. Slow
as a dessert in the same way as membrillo (quince jelly) is in to start cropping and shy bearing. Has a
Spain today. variable growth habit, the trees looking
somewhat gangly with large, untidy looking
The fruits are so fragrant that a single fruit can fill a room with leaves. Very vigorous, becoming large and
its rich fruity scent; indeed, quinces were once popular as room spreading; not quite as hardy as some.
deodorisers. ‘Serbian Gold’ Serbia Bears large fruits, roundish-pear shaped.
(=‘Lescovacz’) Tree somewhat resistant to quince leaf
Quinces are very widely used as pear rootstocks, and have been blight.
since at least since the 14th century in France. Numerous clonal ‘Vrajna’ Serbia Fruits very large, pear shaped, very fragrant,
selections have been made for modern use, including the a clear shiny gold, with a softer flesh than
many, excellent flavour. Good cropper.
well-known Quince A and C. Suited to fan training; very vigorous,
erect growth.

Cultivation
Quinces grow and fruit readily in most climates. Almost any soil
is suitable (a deep moist fertile loam is ideal), but shelter and sun
are important; very alkaline soils usually cause chlorosis. Trees
do tolerate quite deep shade but are unlikely to crop there.
Quinces can be trained to a single trunk to make a small tree,
or can be grown as a bush with multiple stems; space trees
4.5-6m (15-20ft) apart. In less favoured districts it can be trained
as a fan or espalier against a wall. Trees only need staking for

QUINCE 175
 Quince fruits

a few years. Quince rootstocks can themselves be used for fruit is carried on spurs and on tips of the previous summer’s
quince – Quince A or Quince C making a slightly dwarfed tree. growth, and after initial framework training, almost no pruning is
Pear rootstocks make a larger tree. Rootstocks are not essential, required; the minimum of winter pruning should be carried out
although trees on their own roots may sucker. to remove any dead wood and keep the centre of the tree open.
Trees are self-fertile, and generally very reliable croppers. Propagation is possible by several methods: hardwood cuttings
taken in winter can take readily. Named varieties are usually
Trees may need occasional moderate feeding, but in rich soils
grafted onto quince rootstocks.
this may be very occasional or unnecessary.
Fruits turn from green to yellow as they ripen. They should be Pests and diseases
left on the tree as long as possible to achieve the best flavour, Quinces are generally free of pests and diseases. One serious
but must be picked before frosts; October or early November disease in wetter climates is leaf blight (Entomosporium
in Britain. The fruit stem lacks a well-defined abscission layer, maculatum) that causes dark patches on leaves, which fall early;
so fruit should be cut from the tree to avoid tearing the stem it can spread to fruits. In severe cases, rake up and compost or
out of the flesh. Handle the fruit carefully – although hard, burn fallen leaves in autumn. Bordeaux mixture can be sprayed
they bruise easily. when leaves open in spring.
Good yields are 15kg (33lb) per tree at 7-8 years after planting, Related species
To store fruit, lay them in a single layer, preferably not touching, Quince was formerly included with the more shrubby flowering
on slats or straw-lined trays, and keep in a cool dry shed; they quinces (Chaenomeles spp.).
should store for 2-3 months. Don’t store them near apples or
other fruit as these will gain a quincey flavour. European & North American suppliers
Initial framework training consists of winter pruning to cut back Europe: ART, BLK, CBS, COO, DEA, KMR, KPN, OFM, THN
leaders by a third of the season’s growth to an outward bud; North America: AAF, BLN, BRN, HSN, OGW, RRN, RTN, TYT

176 QUINCE
ROWAN & SERVICE TREE, Sorbus species
Deciduous, Zone 2-6, H6-7
Edible fruit

Origin and history produced at the end of short branches and from the leaf axils in
May to June, with pollination via insects.
Rowan or mountain ash, Sorbus aucuparia, grows throughout
Europe as far north as the polar forest limit. It occurs from Fruits are apple or pear shaped (sometimes both on the
lowlands up to the mountain pine belt (about 1,600m, 5,000ft). same tree), to 4cm (1.6ins) long, yellowish-green to brownish,
It is commonly seen in hedgerows, woods, along roads and on reddish on the sunny side. They contain 2-4 flattish-round
walls. In Britain it is found in woods, scrub and mountain areas seeds. The fruits can be apple or pear shaped.
up to 1,000m (3,200ft) where few other broadleaved trees will
grow at all. It is considered weedy in some parts of the USA. Uses – Rowan
The bright red fruits are edible when cooked and sweetened –
Service tree, Sorbus domestica, is a native tree of much of
they are bitter and astringent raw, although slightly improved
central and southern Europe, North Africa and Asia Minor;
in some varieties (see p.179 for cultivar descriptions. Large
also in Britain. It has been cultivated for ages for its fruits,
quantities of raw fruit can cause stomach upsets). They can be
which are often pressed for juice; the ancient Romans are
made into a jelly (i.e. a sieved jam) on their own or with other
credited with introducing it to the wine-growing regions of
fruits – for example in ‘hedgerow jelly’ made of rowanberries,
Europe. The service tree can live to a great age, often to 300
rose hips, sloes and elder berries. They can also be used in
years, sometimes to 500 or 600 years. It is a relatively rare
compotes, syrups, ciders (traditional in Wales and the Scottish
species, found on the edge of forests, banks etc., and in fact is
Highlands), wines, vinegar, liqueurs and sauces (with game);
so rare in some parts of Europe that it is considered endangered
and may be dried (quickly) and used in tea or steeped in water
there. It often occurs as scattered, isolated trees, typically on
as a beverage. Dried berries of the sweeter varieties can be used
calcareous soils.
as a raisin substitute. Dried fruits have also been ground and
mixed with cereals to make a flour.
Description
The rowan is a small or medium-sized tree, occasionally Fruits should be harvested between July and September,
multistemmed, growing 5-15m (16-50ft) high with a bushy, before the birds (particularly thrushes) take them; only collect
sparse open ovoid crown. The bark is greyish-brown and on fully ripe fruits in good condition. They should always be eaten
old trees it peels off in papery strips. in moderation. Dried and cooked fruits retain a considerable
amount of the vitamins.
Leaves are compound, up to 20cm (8ins) long, with 9-19 leaflets.
Flowers are creamy white, 8-10mm (0.3-0.4ins) in diameter, The leaves and flowers are used in herbal teas.
in large flattened clusters, appearing in May and June. The fruits have mild medicinal effects, being slightly laxative,
anti-inflammatory and diuretic; they slightly lower blood
Fruits are almost round, normally 7mm (0.3ins) in diameter,
pressure, promote gall formation and stimulate menstrual
starting yellow, ripening to scarlet in colour. They are carried in
discharge. They are used for rheumatic and menstrual pain,
large, dense bunches and ripen between July and September.
and in the treatment of kidney disorders. The parasorbic acid is
If not taken by birds they will persist into early winter.
a kidney irritant, but this changes to the non-toxic sorbic acid
The service tree (sometimes called the checker tree) is a medium on cooking or drying. The fruits are also a traditional remedy for
to large-sized tree, often growing to 10-15m (30-50ft) in Britain, scurvy due to their vitamin C content. The bark has been used
but to 20m (70ft) high in Continental Europe, occasionally as an astringent for diarrhoea etc.
considerably more. It has open spreading branches and a
The wood is not durable but is dense, strong and hard (similar
fairly spreading crown. It has rough scaly bark, like a pear tree
to apple wood) with purplish-brown heartwood and pale yellow
and is deep rooting.
sapwood, difficult to split, elastic and fine grained; it makes
Leaves are compound, 12-22cm (5-9ins) long, with 11-21 good fuel and is sometimes used for turnery, carving, fencing
leaflets. They turn orange-red or yellow in the autumn. White stakes, furniture, spinning wheels and engraving. It was used in
flowers are borne in conical clusters 6-10cm (2.4-4ins) wide, cooperage for the poles and hoops of barrels; also for handles

ROWAN & SERVICE TREE  177

of agricultural implements and wheel
spokes.
All parts of the tree contain tannins and
may be used for tanning and dyeing
black.
The tree’s hardiness makes it especially
useful in shelterbelts, notably in upland
areas.
The rowan is often used as a rootstock for
ornamental Sorbus.
The nectar and pollen are of value to
honey and bumble bees. It is also of good
value to other wildlife.

Uses – Service tree

The fresh hard fruits are not very edible –
they are quite astringent. They can ripen
on the tree and be eaten straight from the
tree in some seasons. The hard unripe
fruits can be stored for up to 2-3 months
to season and slowly soften. Most will
ripen after 2-3 weeks. Rowan fruits
The fruits are edible when bletted
(ripened to the point of incipient decay),
then being sweet and delicious, with a tropical fruit taste, much which may total 45g per litre of juice) since the late 1800s.
like medlars. When ready to eat, the skin turns brown and the The proportion of service fruit juice added to the mixture
fruit will be very soft; the flesh will be white or light brown. Fruits before fermentation varies: with acid apples, 0.3-1%, with
that are frosted on the tree may ripen very quickly. sweet apples, up to 2-3%.
The fruits are processed into quality marmalades, wines, Fruits destined for use to make a spirit need to be ripe and
liqueurs, pure spirit and are dried (after bletting). They can be sweet.
soaked in alcohol to make a liqueur (much like sloes to make
The fruits are long known for their medicinal effects against
slow gin). They were formerly used in Britain (Kent) and France
diarrhoea. Modern pharmacy uses them for colic and digestive
(Brittany) to make a cider or perry-like drink; also in France
complaints.
for centuries, the fruit juice has been distilled to make an
outstanding spirit, Cormier or Sorbier de Montagne. The bark is rich in tannins and was formerly used in the tanning
industry.
In central Europe (e.g. the Frankfurt area), the juice pressed
from fruits is used by the cider industry. Hard, unripe fruits are The timber is of fine quality, dark reddish-brown, fine grained,
required, which still have some astringency desirable in ciders hard to split, very hard, tough and heavy (one of the heaviest in
– if the fruits are soft then their acidity will be too low. Service Europe), and wears well, but is rare in commerce. It is valued for
fruit juice has been added to ciders to improve taste, colour veneers, snooker cues, furniture and woodworking planes; and
and keeping properties (the latter due to phenolic compounds, was formerly used for spindles of presses and other tough jobs.

178  ROWAN & SERVICE TREE

Varieties/Cultivars It is fast growing and coppices strongly, regenerating well
when cut.
Many ornamental and a few good fruiting cultivars of rowan
have been selected. The more interesting selections are listed Fruiting begins about the age of 10 and it is a prolific fruiter by
here: 15 years of age, giving crops every year or sometimes every
other year. Yields of better-fruiting selections (e.g. ‘Edulis’) may
Rowan cultivar Origin Description
reach 15kg (32lb) per mature tree.
‘Beissneri’ Unknown Fruits are not bitter. Young bark
is coral red, leaves somewhat Seeds are widely dispersed by birds and natural regeneration
incised. is common.
‘Cardinal Royal’ USA Upright habit, profuse bright
red fruits. Fruits can be collected from July to September.
var. Edulis Czech Republic The fruits are larger (1cm, 0.4ins Rowan seeds need 16 weeks of cold stratification (remove seeds
(‘Moravica’) in diameter) and not bitter from fruits before sowing or else they may stay dormant for a
but are still very sour; they are
carried in heavier bunches. further year). A short period of warm stratification prior to this
A vigorous hardy tree with may increase germination. Seeds must be sown early in the
larger leaves. spring to avoid further dormancy problems caused by high
‘Nana’ Unknown Shrubby; fruits larger than the seedbed temperatures. About 70% of seeds germinate after
species. stratification, but far fewer survive into seedlings. Alternatively,
‘Rossica’ Russia Russian mountain ash. Has seeds can be sown immediately after harvesting and exposed
larger (12-15mm, 0.5-0.6ins
diameter), less bitter (but still
to the winter weather.
sour) fruits; wider leaves.
‘Rossica Major’ Russia Strong growing, upright, with
Cultivation – Service tree
large leaflets. Very large deep Service tree thrives in warm regions, but is also very happy in
red fruits (15mm+, 0.6ins+ in Britain and northern Europe. It prefers a dryish climate; in wet
diameter), not bitter but sour.
regions it can suffer from canker. It is frost resistant and hardy
‘Sheerwater Seedling’ UK A vigorous, upright small tree
with particularly large clusters
to zone 5-6/H6-7. Most soils are tolerated, including alkaline
of orange-red fruits which ripen soils. Rainfall in the range of 25-100cm (10-39ins) per year is
and drop early. acceptable, so long as the trees are not waterlogged. Part shade
var. xanthocarpa Unknown Fruits are amber-yellow, not is tolerated, but trees fruit better in sun. Some wind exposure is
taken so quickly by birds. tolerated.

Service tree variety Origin Description

Mature trees need a spacing of 10-15m (33-50ft), but they will
take many years to reach this size. They can be planted at a
‘Rosie’ UK Fruits large, pear shaped, borne
in abundance at a young age. much closer spacing, and thinned out in time, or be planted at
a wider spacing and the ground between trees intercropped
with other crops. Trees can also be included in mixed woodland
Cultivation – Rowan plantings, where they will thrive; for good cropping, they need
good light conditions, so neighbouring trees may need to be
Rowan tolerates most soils including those of extreme acidity
periodically thinned.
but is not very long lived on shallow chalk soils. It prefers lighter
soils and dislikes heavy clay or limestone. It will not grow in Fruiting begins by the age of about 10. The fruits are picked at
waterlogged conditions. It thrives best in open positions and is the end of September or into October, either by shaking off or
very wind tolerant, and is regarded as a light-demander, though collecting after having fallen (they fall just before they are ripe).
it tolerates part shade. It is very drought hardy. It is extremely With large trees, fruits must be shaken or knocked down onto
hardy, to zone 2/H7. tarpaulins.

ROWAN & SERVICE TREE  179

 SEA BUCKTHORN /
SEABERRY,
Hippophaë rhamnoides
Deciduous, Zone 3, H7
Edible fruit
Nitrogen fixing

Seeds require 17 weeks of cold stratification, and germination is Origin and history
spread out over a long period. First year seedlings are typically
The common sea buckthorn (seaberry, sallowthorn, sandhorn),
20-40cm (8-16ins) high.
Hippophaë rhamnoides, is often grown as a garden shrub but
Pests and diseases rarely as a culinary or medicinal plant, the fruits often described
in Britain as ‘sour and inedible’; however, in many parts of
The most serious potential disease of both species is fireblight
Europe and Asia it is highly valued for its fruit which is very high
(Erwinia amylovora) though this prefers the whitebeam side of
in nutrients and is processed into foods much in the same way
the Sorbus family. Cultivated trees showing fireblight symptoms
as sloes are in Britain.
(blackened leaves and dieback of shoots) should have diseased
parts cut out and burnt. A legend tells how the ancient Greeks used sea buckthorn leaf
in a diet for race horses, hence its botanical name ‘hippophae’ –
Rowan and service tree are readily browsed by deer.
shiny horse. According to another legend, sea buckthorn leaves
Related species were the preferred food of Pegasus – the flying horse – and were
allegedly helpful in getting him airborne!
Whitebeams – the other half of the Sorbus family (see p.211).
Description
European & North American suppliers
This is a deciduous shrub native to Europe (including Britain)
Europe: ALT, ART, BHT, BUC, BUR, MCN, PHN, THN, TPN and Asia, found growing in the wild in open and exposed
North America: DWN, FFM places on well-drained soils from sea level on coastlines to
high mountains. It spreads via suckering – in some regions
(e.g. southern USA) it is regarded as an invasive weed.
Plants usually grow as a tree or shrub to 3-5m (10-16ft) high.
Young plants are covered with silvery grey scales. Branches are
numerous, stiff and thorny, becoming black where the silvery
scales have fallen. Fruiting begins at an age of 3-5 years.
Leaves are distinctively willow-like. They are alternate and short-
stalked, long and narrow and glossy silvery on both sides.
Flowers are very small (3mm, 0.1ins) and inconspicuous,
yellow-green, appearing in March to April (before the leaves)
in the leaf axils of the previous year’s shoots, in short spikes or
racemes; the species is dioecious, so male and female flowers
are borne on different plants. Female flowers are stalked, and
where attached to the shoots, a thorny short shoot often forms.
Pollination is by wind.
Fruits, produced in abundant dense clusters, are bright orange-
yellow on short stalks, rounded or oval, 6-10mm (0.2-0.4ins)
long (though up to 15mm, 0.6ins in cultivars), juicy with an acid
yellow juice. Fruits ripen in September onwards to November.
Fruits of service tree ‘Rosie’ The fruits contain one hard, black seed.
Being a nitrogen fixer enables it to thrive and colonise very poor
and sandy soils.

180  ROWAN & SERVICE TREE

 ‘Hergo’ sea buckthorn tree

Uses The leaves are also high in nutrients and are sometimes used in
herbal tea mixtures (after being dried and ground).
Edible
One hundred grams of fruit pulp contains in the order of 10mg Medicinal
provitamin A (this represents 100-200 daily doses for an adult), Fruits exhibit polyphenol activity, containing such rare fatty
40-300mg vitamin C, 160mg vitamin E, vitamins B1 and B2, 15-28mg acids and alkaloids as nervonic and serotonin, reputed to
carotenoids, flavonoids (especially rutin), 3-8% oils, fatty acids, protect the human central nervous system from toxins such as
3-9% sugars, malic and tartaric acid, tannins, volatile oils, radioactivity.
potassium, iron, boron selenium and manganese. Fruits contain
The freshly pressed juice can be taken against colds, febrile
an average protein content of 30% and leaves 20%.
conditions, tiredness, exhaustion etc. The juice is widely used
The juice extraction rate is about 70%. Methods of using the fruit to make vitamin-rich medications used in the treatment of
include: hypovitaminosis, infectious diseases and during convalescence;
• Juices and drinks (sweetened). The fresh juice can be also for cosmetic preparations such as face creams and
preserved with honey (four parts juice to one part honey). toothpaste.
It can then also be used as a sweetener or to make liqueurs. Fruits are used in traditional Chinese medicine as a stomachic,
• Syrups, jams, marmalades and compotes. antidiarrhoeal and antitussive.
• Making a sauce to accompany fish and meat (similar to Medicinal uses of sea buckthorn are well documented in
cranberry sauce). Asia and Europe. Clinical tests on medicinal uses were first
• The juice can be used in place of lemon juice. initiated in Russia during the 1950s. The most important
• The juice is used in beers and wines. pharmacological functions attributed to sea buckthorn oil are:
anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, pain relief, and promoting
When processing fruit, the juice should be exposed to the regeneration of tissues. More than ten different drugs have been
air and light for as short a time as possible, and aluminium developed from sea buckthorn in Asia and Europe and are
pans should not be used. Vitamin levels will decline through available in different forms, such as liquids, powders, plasters,
prolonged heating, so minimum cooking times should be films, pastes, pills, liniments, suppositories and aerosols.
employed. Fruit can be successfully preserved by freezing.

SEA BUCKTHORN  181

Other uses
Sea buckthorn is highly salt and wind-resistant and is excellent
for hedging and shelterbelts as long as there is good light.
In Russia, it is often interplanted with Norway spruce (Picea
abies) as a nurse, and several years of fruit crops are obtained
before the spruce overtake and shade out the Hippophaë.
Because of its suckering and invasive habit in open areas, one of
the major uses is for soil reclamation during reforesting projects
on degraded soils (China) and for dune reclamation (Holland).
Stems, roots, foliage and fruit all impart a yellow dye.
Cultivation
The timber, though always small in dimensions, is sometimes
used for turnery and rake teeth: it is fine grained, hard and of Although sea buckthorn is found wild on well-drained soils,
average heaviness. it tolerates damp clay soils and can be grown almost anywhere;
the main limiting factor to its growth is its demand for light:
Sea buckthorn oil extracted from seeds is popular in cosmetic seedlings will not grow at all if shaded, and mature plants quickly
preparations, such as facial cream, hand cream, lip balm, die if trees overshadow them. Also it cannot tolerate waterlogged
deodorant, and oil for body massage. soil for very long. A wide range of soil pH is tolerated.
Sea buckthorn leaves, pulp and seed residues are used for Because plants are male and female, a mixture is needed.
animal feed. For many animal and bird species, sea buckthorn Commercial operations use about one male per six females,
is an important source of food or provides shelter. often using a mixed row of male/female plants every third row,
with the two rows between all female. Rows are planted 3m
Varieties/Cultivars (10ft) apart with plants at 1m (3ft) apart in the row.
This list does not include Russian cultivars that are less suited
to western European conditions. Growth is some 5m (16ft) in 10 years, and reaches 60cm (2ft)
per year. Fruit is borne early, after 3-4 years, but if not allowed
Cultivar Origin Description to spread via suckering, plants are short lived and after 10-12
‘Askola’ Germany Female, fruits heavily with medium-large years, fruiting declines rapidly. Fruiting is regular, normally
dark orange oval fruits. Early ripening every year.
(August).
‘Dorana’ Germany Female, a smaller slower-growing bush,
Hard pruning is tolerated, and because fruit is mainly produced
bears medium-large fruits. Does not sucker on the most recent 1-3 years of wood, a pruning regime similar
much. Early ripening (August). to that for blackcurrants (cutting out a third to a quarter of all
‘Frugana’ Germany Female, upright, fairly vigorous bush wood, choosing the oldest wood, at the base each year) can be
bearing good crops of medium-large light undertaken if fruit production is the primary objective.
orange fruits. Early ripening (August).
‘Hergo’ Germany Female, upright bush bears medium-large, The leaves as a tea crop should be harvested preferably from
light orange fruits. Early ripening (August). male plants only, during late June and mid July, so as not
‘Juliet’ Sweden Female to interfere with the fruit set on the female plants. The best
‘Leikora’ Germany Female, a rounded vigorous shrub, bears
nutritional time period is after fruit appearance (a minute green
large deep orange fruits. Late ripening berry on the female plant).
(mid September to mid October).
Fruits are collected when they start to ripen in September, while
‘Orange Energy’ Germany Female, bears heavy crops of large
(‘Habego’) yellowish-orange fruits. Mid season still firm; they are juicy, sour and difficult to pick from the thorny
(September). branches.
‘Polmix’ Germany A series of males bushes (‘Polmix’ 1, 2 and Fruit harvesting is the only time consuming operation in
3). ‘Polmix 1’ flowers a little earlier and
‘Polmix 3’ a little later. growing sea buckthorn. The relatively small fruit size, short
‘Romeo’ Sweden Male pollinator
pedicel, force required to pull off each fruit, the density of
fruit on the branch, and the thorniness of the plant, are the
‘Silver Star’ Germany Male. A rounded dense-growing dwarf
cultivar growing 1-1.5m (3-5ft) high and disadvantages during harvesting.
wide.
Hand picking can yield 7kg (15lb) fruit per hour, nevertheless
‘Sirola’ Germany Female, columnar bush with small thorns a proportion of the fruits will burst. Also it can be a painful
and few suckers, bears large reddish-
orange fruits on longer stalks than normal, business when you get scratched and the acid juice runs down
sweeter than most. Very early ripening your hand and wrist! If hand picking off trees, it is easiest to put
(July to August). a sheet or tarp on the ground and drop fruits as they are picked.

182  SEA BUCKTHORN

Hand picking is faster if many of the fruiting
branches are cut off, they can then be
stripped of fruit more comfortably. The
vigorous bushes are thus pruned to keep a
little smaller at the same time. Make sure
you allow enough new growth to fruit the
following year.
Mechanical harvesting is sometimes used
commercially, but requires machines that
shake the bushes very vigorously, leading
to lots of debris falling with the fruits, which
must be sorted.
Another commercial technique, which can
also be used on a small scale, is to cut off Sea buckthorn fruits are borne very densely along branches
fruiting shoots as above. These are then
placed in a freezer and as soon as the fruits
have frozen, the shoots can be tapped and
all the fruits will fall off easily. Some leaves taken in November or December, using new season wood
will fall too, so these must be sorted, but it remains a very quick in lengths of 20-25cm (8-10ins). Place directly in the ground,
way to harvest. If birds leave fruits on bushes over the winter leaving a few centimetres above soil level.
(they don’t always), then you could pick in situ like this after a
heavy frost or in freezing temperatures – no doubt this is what Pests and diseases
people did millennia ago when gathering the nutrient-rich fruits. There are none of note.
The fruits store in cool conditions for a week or so, and frozen
for at least a year. Related species
Himalayan sea buckthorn (Hippophae salicifolia) – see p.102.
Breeding work has been going on in Russia, central and eastern
Europe since the 1930s to produce cultivars with larger fruits European & North American suppliers
and which are free of thorns.
Europe: ART, COO
Propagation is normally by seed, or layering; several other
North America: RTN
methods are feasible. Vegetative methods are necessary to
obtain plants of known sex. Until seedlings reach flowering
age there is no way of distinguishing males from females; from
flowering age onwards, the sex can be determined in winter
from the buds, which are conical and conspicuous on male
plants and small and rounded on females.
Seed requires stratification for 3-15 months in moist sand: some
seed will germinate after three months’ stratification, but some
may not germinate for a further year.
Softwood cuttings: taken in July, give bottom heat and mist;
no hormone rooting powder is needed. Hardwood cuttings:

SEA BUCKTHORN  183

SERVICEBERRY / JUNEBERRY, Amelanchier species
Deciduous, Zone 4, H7
Edible fruit

Origin and history

The Amelanchier family is a group of some 25 shrubs and small
trees, most originating from North America. They are known
by a large number of common names, including serviceberry,
Juneberry, snowy mespilus, shadblow, sarvis, sarvisberry,
maycherry, shadbush, shadberry, shadblossom, shadflower,
sugar pear, wild pear, lancewood, boxwood, Canadian medlar
and saskatoon.
Only a few species are tree-like, which are the ones mentioned
here: A. canadensis, A. lamarckii and A. laevis. These are trees or
large shrubs, 5-10m (16-32ft) high from North America.

Description
Amelanchier species are in general very hardy and adaptable
plants, found in the wild at woodland edges, stream banks and
in hedges. They are mostly slender plants, often scaly barked,
with unarmed branches and slender branchlets.
Leaves turn bright to bright yellow and reds in the autumn.
Showy white flowers, perfect,* in racemes on the previous year’s
growth, open around the same time as the leaves unfold in April
and May. Pollination is via bees and other insects; plants are
partly self-fertile but they fruit better with more than one plant.
Fruits are round, 6-18mm (0.3-0.7ins) across, dark red-purple and
usually ripen in June (USA) and July (UK). Fruits of A. canadensis
and A. lamarckii are 7-10mm (0.3-0.4ins) across; those of A. laevis
are larger, to 18mm (0.7ins) across.

Uses
Fruits of all species are edible: in most they are sweet and juicy.
Fruit of some species is good raw; otherwise it is generally
excellent cooked, used in jams or for making wine.
The fruit was used by the native North Americans for various
medicinal purposes such as treating sore eyes and diarrhoea.
Amelanchiers are widely used in hedges for erosion control,
provide good bee forage in the early spring, and the fruits are Amelanchier canadensis in flower
attractive to birds and other wildlife.

*  Meaning the flower has both stamens and carpels

184 SERVICEBERRY
Varieties/Cultivars
These tree Amelanchiers have not been bred for fruiting,
however the following ornamental cultivars have good
potential.
Cultivar Origin Description
‘Autumn A. lamarckii Multi-stemmed shrub to 6m (20ft) high;
Brilliance’ productive and vigorous. Hardy to zone 2.
‘Ballerina’ A. lamarckii Large shrub or small tree to 5m (15ft) high.
Large flowers followed by large crops of
Fruits of Amelanchier laevis
red fruits with good flavour.
‘Cumulus’ A. laevis Small tree 6-9m high with abundant
flowers and fruits, the latter 12 x 9mm (0.5
x 0.4ins), dark reddish-purple.
‘Forest A. lamarckii Small tree 6-7.5m high with leathery green
Prince’ leaves, abundant flowers and red fruits.
‘Majestic’ A. laevis Medium tree 6-9m high, abundant flowers
and fruits 12 x 10mm in size.
‘Prince A. laevis Upright tree to 3m (10ft) high; hardy to
Charles’ zone 3. Fruit blue, 10mm (0.4ins).
‘Princess A. lamarckii Spreading upright tree to 6m (20ft) high,
Diana’ hardy to zone 3. Heavy bearer of purple-
blue fruit, 9mm (0.4ins) across.
Often bears in first year after planting.
‘Reflection’ A. canadensis Small tree 6-7.5m high with numerous
or A. lamarckii flowers and blue-black fruits.
‘R J Hilton’ A. laevis Small tree to 5m high, abundant flowers
and very sweet fruits, 10mm (0.4ins)
across.
‘Tradition’ A. canadensis Tree 7.5-10m high, fruits abundant,
or A. lamarckii blue-black
Fruits and leaves of Amelanchier lamarckii
Cultivation
Amelanchiers tolerate slight part shade and thrive in almost
any soil, preferring a moist fertile soil. Fruiting is best in full sun.
Pruning is usually unnecessary. to birds!). You may need to scare birds off while the fruits are
ripening.
Most plants are propagated by seed or grafting. Seed requires
a 3-5 month period of cold stratification, and germination may Related species
improve by preceding this with a scarification or four week
As part of the Rosaceae, Amelanchier is related to apples, pears
warm stratification. Some varieties of Amelanchier are grafted
etc.
onto rowan (Sorbus aucuparia) or Cotoneaster acutifolia.

Pests and diseases European & North American suppliers

Europe: ART, BUC, BUR, COO, THN
Birds are attracted by the fruits, particularly due to their early
season ripening and purple colour (one of the most attractive North America: Not known

SERVICEBERRY 185
SIBERIAN PEA TREE, Caragana arborescens
Deciduous, Zone 2, H7
Edible seed, young pods
Nitrogen fixing

Origin and history The seed have great wildlife value in its native range; and the
species is used as a supplementary reindeer food in the far
Caragana species are a group of shrubs belonging to the
north.
legume family, mostly originating from central Asia, of which
C. arborescens (from Siberia and Mongolia) is one of the Siberian pea tree is recommended as a self-forage species for
largest. The Latin names come from the Mongolian name for chickens – the seeds will fall and be avidly consumed where
C. arborescens ‘caragan’. This species is the commonest of the chickens have access.
Caraganas found in gardens.
Because it is a nitrogen-fixing plant, it enriches the soil nearby
Description and inputs nitrogen into the system. The rhizobium with which
Caragana arborescens is a deciduous shrub (of occasional
tree-like habit) growing to 5-6m (16-20ft) high and 4m (13ft)
width, with an upright habit. It is vigorous and free growing,
with long, sparsely branched shoots that carry small stiff
spines at each joint.
Leaves are alternate and pinnate. Flowers are borne from buds
on the previous year’s wood, and are typical of legumes, being
yellow, cup shaped and 18mm (0.7ins) long. Flowering occurs
in May. Pollination is via bees, usually wild bumblebees.
Pods develop from flowers, looking like small pea pods
(hence the common name); they are 4-5cm (1.6-2ins) long,
borne on slender stalks of a similar length, and are smooth,
cylindrical and enclose 3-6 roundish or oblong seeds, each
2.5-4mm (0.1-0.2ins) in diameter. The pods ripen to amber or
brown from June or July onwards and seeds fall by August.
The seeds ripen well in Britain.

Uses
The young pods are eaten as a vegetable, lightly cooked. The pods
become tough later in the season.
The seeds are rich in fats and protein (12% and 36% respectively),
about the size of lentils and can be cooked and used in any
way that beans are used (the cooked flavour is somewhat bland,
so best used in spicy dishes). The young raw seeds have a
pea-like flavour although it is not clear whether they should be
eaten raw in much quantity.
The tree is widely used in windbreaks in North America and the
former USSR, particular on open prairies for farm shelter and
outdoor screening in towns and cities.
Some use has been made in wildlife-erosion control plantings
in North America; it is a good soil stabiliser with an extensive
root system. Flowers and foliage of Siberian pea tree

186  SIBERIAN PEA TREE

 extracted by light sifting, beating and fanning. Seed yield is
13-20% of fresh pod yield.
The seeds can be stored in the dry for many years at room
temperature. They can be soaked and cooked in the same way
as with other beans.
Seed propagation is the norm; seeds germinate better after a
Green pods of Siberian pea short period of stratification and/or soaking in warm water prior
to planting.

Pests and diseases

it nodulates is the clover and lupin group, and these are usually There are none of note.
freely circulating, so addition of inoculant is rarely necessary.
It can be used in polyculture systems, and is sometimes grown Related species
with black walnut (Juglans nigra) where it increases the Siberian pea is a legume hence related to peas, beans etc.
growth of the walnut crop for several years until it is shaded out.
In Britain, where it requires maximum sunlight, it is really only European & North American suppliers
feasible to combine it with smaller species than itself. Europe: ART, BUR, COO
A fibre is obtained from the bark and used for rope. North America: Many forest tree nurseries supply this.
An azure blue dye can be obtained from the leaves.
It is a source of nectar and pollen, particularly for bumblebees.

Varieties/Cultivars
There are no improved cultivars for better yields.

Cultivation
Siberian pea prefers a continental climate with hot dry
summers and cold winters, and grows reasonably well in Britain
(especially in the East), given a good sunny site. They do not
need a rich soil but need good drainage and tolerate sandy
alkaline soils. They tolerate drought, full exposure to wind,
and industrial air pollution. They are resistant to honey fungus.
No pruning is normally required.
Plants take 3-5 years to reach seed-bearing age, and good crops
occur nearly every year.
Siberian pea tree seeds
Young pods can be harvested as a vegetable, in June and early
July.
For seed harvest, the pods should be collected in July or early
August as they begin to open (the window for harvest is less
than two weeks). The pods should be spread out to dry in a
protected area until they pop open; the seeds are then easily

SIBERIAN PEA TREE  187

SNOWBELL TREE,
Halesia carolina (H. tetraptera)
Deciduous, Zone 5, H7
Edible young fruit

Origin and history

Also known as the silverbell tree, this small tree originates from
moist woods in North America.

Description
A small tree or large shrub to 6m (20ft) high. Bears masses of
white bell-shaped flowers in mid spring – very ornamental.
Pollination is via bees and trees are self-fertile. Following the
flowers are light green fruits, 1.5-3cm (0.6-1.2ins) long, four-
winged, hanging beneath branches. The fruits turn darker
brown as they ripen in autumn.

Uses
The green fruits are eaten for a period of 3-4 weeks in
midsummer as soon as they are large enough. At the end of
this period they become tough. The fruits have a cucumber-like
flavour and a moist crunchiness that is delightful. They can be
used in salads, stir-fries, pickles etc.
The flowers are edible, used in salads.
Flowers on the bare branches of snowbell tree
Varieties/Cultivars
There are none selected for fruiting.

Cultivation
The tree fruits best in sun, but otherwise is unfussy, tolerating
shade. Likes an acid soil and is not happy in alkaline soils.
Propagate by seed or layering. Seeds need three months of cold
stratification, and germination can sometimes be improved by
giving three months of warm stratification first.

Pests and diseases

There are none of note.

Related species
H. monticola is a larger tree whose fruits may also be edible in
the same ways.

European & North American suppliers

Europe: ART, BUR
North America: FFM
Young fruits on snowbell tree

188  SNOWBELL TREE

SOUR CHERRY, Prunus cerasus
Deciduous, Zone 3, H7
Edible fruit

Origin and history Only a small number of the many cultivars are described
here, concentrating on the most common and commercially
Also known as pie cherry. Originates from Europe and western
important ones.
Asia.
Note that ‘Sour cherry’ is often applied to cultivars and Cultivar Origin Description
selections of other species and hybrids. ‘Montmorency’ France Flowers late, fruit ripens late. Fruit roundish,
medium to large, bright red, glossy, flesh
Description red, firm, acid, juicy (red), good quality;
stem long. Tree of medium vigour and
Trees varying from small and round, to large and spreading; dwarf habit; heavy cropping. Commercially
most often small, 5-8m (16-27ft) high, and when grown on their important in the USA.
own roots they sucker. White flowers in late April to early May ‘Morello’ Unknown Flowers late, fruit ripens late. Fruit roundish-
oblong, large, dark red-black, glossy;
are followed by blackish-red round fruits. Fruits are acid, the flesh very dark red, slightly fibrous, acid,
flesh varying from almost colourless through shades of red to slightly bitter, juicy (red), very good quality,
nearly black. excellent for jams and cooking; stone
medium to large. Tree vigorous when young,
The naturally occurring variety frutescens is naturally dwarfing, weak later, making a small, round-headed,
pendulous tree; resistant to bacterial canker.
reaching only 1m (3ft) high. It is found in high mountainous
areas where it suckers to form colonies. The fruits are sour with ‘Nabella’ Unknown Late ripening, red fruits that hang well on the
tree. Tree vigorous when young, weak later,
colourless juice. making a small, round-headed, pendulous tree.

Uses ‘North Star’ USA Flowers mid season, fruits late ripening.
Fruit round, medium, bright mahogany red,
Fruits are edible, usually cooked, or made into preserves. glossy; flesh red, firm, acid, juicy (red), good
An important commercial species with numerous cultivars. flavour, excellent for jams and cooking.
Stone free. Tree of low vigour – very small
Edible gum exudation from the trunk; also used in fabric (only 2-4m high), with dense foliage; heavy
cropping, resistant to bacterial canker.
printing as an adhesive.
‘Surefire’ USA Flowers very late. Fruit heart shaped,
Edible oil from the kernel (needs refining before use); also used medium sized, bright red; flesh firm, acid;
in perfumery. small stone. Tree of moderate vigour, semi-
upright with relatively few branches.
It has edible leaves that can be used in teas and pickles.
Fruit stalks and juice are used medicinally. Cultivation
Various selections have been made for use as sour and sweet Sour cherries are rather easier to cultivate than sweet cherries,
cherry rootstocks. as they form small trees, most are self-fertile, and they will
Bee plant in April to May. tolerate considerable shade. They are also less susceptible
to the ravages of bacterial canker than sweet cherries. A wide
Timber is used for turnery, inlay, musical instruments, and
range of soils are tolerated, and sour cherries can tolerate
furniture.
occasional waterlogging.
Can be used in hedges as it is fairly wind tolerant.
The usual forms are bush, half standard and fan. Bushes reach
Varieties/Cultivars 3-3.6m (10-12ft) high, whilst fans can be trained 2.1-2.4m (7-8ft)
high and 3.6-4.5m (12-15ft) in spread. Sour cherries can also
The dark-fleshed types with red juice (var. austera) are classified
be grown as pyramids; commercial mechanically harvested
as morello or griotte, the light fleshed forms (var. caproniana)
orchards are now trained using the modified central leader
with colourless juice as amarelle or Kentish, and the types with
system. A dwarfing rootstock is preferable, e.g. Colt.
very small, dark, bitter fruit (var. marasca) as marasca (used to
make a distilled liqueur and a speciality jam). Standard recommendations for feeding sour cherries are

SOUR CHERRY  189

 Fruits of sour cherry ‘Morello’

Sour cherry is beautiful when flowering

190  SOUR CHERRY

sometimes wildly high. Trees need very little feeding when
young – a mulch of compost or manure will be quite sufficient.
Cropping trees will need some input, though. Cherries hardly
respond at all to additions of phosphorus, hence do not aim to
add this specially; their requirements for potash are moderate
and for nitrogen moderate to high. There is some evidence
that low nitrogen levels can make trees more susceptible to
bacterial canker.
Mature trees should have annual applications of 5g potash
(K2O) + 10g nitrogen (N) per square metre of rooting area. This
can be achieved organically very easily with small amounts
of compost or manure applied (2kg/m2 or 5lb/yd2), or by the
addition of cut organic material e.g. from cut comfrey plants – Sour cherry tree in flower
one plant should produce enough material for 1.5m2/1.8yd2 of
rooting area at the above rates in a year. Increase the nitrogen
input if trees aren’t making sufficient new growth.
Trees should be mulched to a minimum diameter of 1.2m (4ft). Average yields of 13-18kg (30-40lb) per bush can be expected;
They won’t suffer in dry weather if not watered, but the danger is fans (e.g. on a north wall) may yield 5-9kg (12-20lb).
that a sudden and heavy downpour of water onto a dry soil can
cause fruit splitting when they are near to ripening. Mulching will Sour cherries don’t store for long, but preserve well by freezing,
help retain soil moisture, and irrigation can be used in a steady, cooking, jamming etc.
moderate method to minimise splitting in a dry summer. Sour cherries are usually propagated by budding (usually
Sour cherries fruit largely on the young shoots which were chip budding) in July to August or grafting (usually whip and
made the previous summer, hence unpruned trees tend to crop tongue grafting) in March to April, onto the relevant rootstock
only on the outer edge of the crown, the centre tending to be (see sweet cherries, p.195 for rootstock options). Several sour
unfruitful. The advantages of unpruned trees are that the work cherry cultivars (including Montmorency) are easily propagated
is reduced and that the chances of infection by bacterial canker on their own roots from softwood or semi-hardwood cuttings
are much reduced. under mist.

To stimulate a constant supply of new replacement wood (and Pests and diseases
maximise crop), a proportion of the older wood can be cut out See sweet cherry (p.196); sour cherry can suffer from the same
each year. Large pruning cuts may be at risk of canker infection. pests and diseases but is generally hardier and less susceptible
Most sour cherries are self-fertile and late flowering; they will, (especially to bacterial canker) than sweet cherry.
however, cross-pollinate with late-flowering sweet cherries.
Netting is highly desirable to protect the ripening fruits from bird
Related species
predation (especially starlings); this is much easier with wall- Sweet cherry (Prunus avium) – see p.194.
trained fans than bush trees.
European & North American suppliers
The cherries on most cultivars should be picked by cutting the
Europe: ART, BLK BUC, CBS, COO, DEA, FCO, KMR, KPN, OFM,
stalks with scissors, as pulling them off with stalks intact is liable
PDB, PLG, THN
to spoil the fruits or tear the bark, increasing the risk of fungal
infection. Cultivars with fruits that separate easily from the stalks North America: AAF, BLN, BRN, CUM, DWN, ELS, ENO, GPO, HSN,
include ‘Montmorency’ and ‘North Star’. OGW, RRN, STB, TYT

SOUR CHERRY  191

STRAWBERRY TREE, Arbutus unedo
Evergreen, Zone 6, H6
Edible fruit

Origin and history The fruits contain 80.2% water, 11.2% total sugars, 0.76%
protein, 8.2mg vitamin C per 100g. The total percentage of
The strawberry tree is usually planted as an ornamental
sugars compares favourably with mainstream fruits, and the
evergreen shrub, being very beautiful in the late autumn and
vitamin C levels are above those of, for example, pears, peaches
early winter when the fruits ripen and flowering occurs; it also
and plums. The seeds contain 32-39% oils (oleic, palmatic,
has ornamental bark. It is named because of the fruit’s vague
linoleic).
resemblance to strawberries (another common name is
‘cane apples’). Apart from their fresh use, the fruits can be used in making
marmalade, jams and preserves; syrups and candied products,
The main area of origin is the Mediterranean region of southern
wine and a distilled spirit. In Corsica and Sardinia, a wine called
Europe and Asia Minor; it is also native to southern Ireland,
Vino di corbezzoli is made by fermenting the fruits (the tree is
where it is known as the ‘Killarney strawberry tree’ and found
called Corbezzola). This contains 9-10% alcohol and has a flavour
in young oakwoods.
similar to cider. The wine is also distilled to produce a good
‘brandy’ of 25-30° and to extract an alcohol of 85 degrees proof.
Description
Grows naturally as an erect, graceful evergreen rounded shrub Also in Sardinia and Corsica, a well-known sweet, very aromatic,
reaching 2.5-6m (8-20ft) high, occasionally higher – up to 9m bitter honey is collected from bees which have fed on nectar
(30ft) or more in Ireland. Has a gnarled appearance when old. from the flowers. The bitterness is due to the glucoside arbutin
in the nectar. Nectar production is good and the flowers last
The bark becomes fissured and rusty-reddish with age, peeling 70-120 days; at peak flowering each tree can bear 1,700 flowers.
and flaking in thin strips.
The plant has been used medicinally for a long time. The
Young shoots are dark red, ending in minute purplish-red buds. principal parts used are the leaves (though the bark has similar
Dark, tough, leathery leaves cover the branches thickly and properties). The leaves are astringent, antiseptic, diuretic and
persist for 2-3 years. anti-inflammatory. They are an effective renal antiseptic and
the glucoside arbutin in them is a good disinfectant of the
Drooping clusters (5cm/2ins across) of small (1cm/0.4ins) uro-genital tract.
white or pink-tinged urn-shaped flowers open at intervals from
October to December. The flowers are rich in nectar and are The strawberry tree is a valuable forage plant in the
honey-scented. Plants are self-fertile. Mediterranean region, producing leaves and fruits of good
energy value that are capable of digestion by pasture animals.
At the same time as the flowers appear, the green round fruits They are readily browsed in the autumn and winter, despite the
(usually 15-20mm/0.6-0.8ins across) – formed during the leaves’ high tannin content. Leaves contain 45.2% dry matter,
previous year – turn yellow, orange and then deep scarlet as of which 7.9% is crude protein, 20.4% crude fibre and 8.5%
they ripen. The flesh is yellow, sweet and fragrant. crude fat. Tannins form 16.3% dry matter of leaves and 3.2%
dry matter of the bark and wood.
Uses
The leaves, due to their high tannin content, can be used for
The fruits are edible when raw or cooked; their use documented
tanning leather etc.
since Greek and Roman times. There is much debate on the
value of fruits, often described in gardening books as ‘bland’ or Arbutus unedo coppices strongly, and the branches have a
‘tasteless’. If the fruits are picked before being fully ripe, they are variety of industrial and traditional forestry uses: a tannin is
rather tasteless, mealy and very gritty (just like an unripe pear extracted from the leaves, bark and wood; a grey dye is
would be). However, when fully ripe, the grittiness is no more extracted from the bark which is used in industrial dyeing.
than that in pears, and the fruits are sweet, juicy and often with The poles are used for fuelwood, charcoal, as supports and
a good delicate flavour. The quality varies, naturally, from tree for small turnery items; and traditionally for Greek flutes.
to tree. Young shoots can be used for basketry.

192  STRAWBERRY TREE

 Strawberry tree

A good bee plant, being a source of nectar and pollen in late Cultivation
autumn and early winter.
Strawberry tree prefers a well-drained but moist, neutral to
acid soil with good nutrient levels; it is unusual in the Ericaceae,
Varieties/Cultivars in that calcareous soils are tolerated. Though wind-firm (and
Various ornamental cultivars have been selected, but little work tolerating maritime exposure when established), young plants
seems to have been done towards improving the size or quality should be given shelter from cold drying winds.
of fruit. A large-fruited strain is reputedly grown from seed in
It is drought hardy, but long summer droughts will reduce crops.
Portugal, where the fruits are sold in markets; and some trees
Atmospheric pollution is also tolerated.
are known to produce fruits of 25-40mm (1-1.5ins) diameter and
of good flavour. There is good scope for selecting forms with Established plants resent root disturbance; plants should be pot
good fruits within a short period of time. grown and planted out at an early age.
Cultivar Origin Description Growth is slow to moderate, the plant reaching about 2.5m (8ft)
‘Elfin King’ Unknown A dwarf, growing only 2m (6ft) high, making
high in 10 years.
a bushy shrub. Flowers early and profusely,
fruiting at an early age.
Fruiting is best in mild temperate climates – Britain is ideal,
especially in maritime areas. It thrives in full sun or partial
‘Compacta’ Unknown Dwarf form, growing much denser, which does
not flower or fruit as well as the species. shade, and is quite suitable for a light position in a forest or
woodland garden.
‘Rubra’ Ireland A free-fruiting form with pinky-red flowers.
Flowers and fruits after only 2-3 years; fruits are, Flowering and fruiting generally begins at an early age, 3-5 years.
however, somewhat smaller than the species.
Fruits ripen between October and December and should be left

StRAWBERRY TREE  193

 SWEET CHERRY,
Prunus avium
Deciduous, Zone 3, H7
Edible fruit
Timber

Origin and history

Also known as wild cherry, gean and mazzard.
Naturally found as a wild upright tree in woodlands throughout
Europe and western Asia, and long used for both timber and
fruit.
Strawberry tree fruits
Description
on the tree to fully ripen. Watch out for bird predation, though, Vigorous trees growing to 18m (60ft) high, occasionally more,
as they can relish the fruit. with a pyramidal upright form.
Pruning is generally unnecessary, and severe pruning tends to White flowers in April to May are followed by blackish-red or
stunt growth and dramatically reduce the crop. yellow fruits, ripening in July to August. Fruit buds are mainly
on spurs. Wild sweet cherries can bear fruit with varying colours,
Propagation is usually by seed, cuttings or grafting.
shapes, tastes and sizes and are sometimes small and bitter.
The seed is very small, and requires 4-6 weeks of stratification.
Sow on the surface of an acid seedbed in a shady position in Uses
a greenhouse and keep moist until germination. Soaking dry Edible fruit – raw or cooked. Many cultivars have been selected
seed for a few days in warm water prior to sowing can help. and bred.
Germination may take 2-3 months and seedlings are prone to
damping off. The initial two oblong seed leaves are followed by Edible gum exudation from trunk.
small shiny green primary leaves, fringed with long hairs; the The fruit stalks and fruit are used medicinally. The stalks are
normal adult foliage does not appear until the following year. diuretic and anti-uricaemic.
Cuttings of mature wood of the current season’s growth, taken Bee plant: source of nectar and pollen for honey and bumble
in November to December, sometimes take. Use a well-drained bees in April.
compost.
The bark contains varying amounts of tannins, in some trees
Grafting is sometimes used for varieties, a common splice or high enough amounts to be of use for tanning.
ship graft is used.
Various selections have been made for use as sweet cherry
Pests and diseases rootstocks including wild selections (‘Mazzard’ – wild mazzard
The strawberry tree is generally pest and disease free. It is occa- selections were first used for rootstocks by the Greeks and
sionally affected by phytophthora root rot (notably on wet soils Romans around 330-400 BC).
where it isn’t at home in any case); and is sometimes attacked An important forestry tree with valuable timber, used for
by the viburnum whitefly, Aleurotrachelus jelinekii. It is considered furniture, musical instruments, veneer, inlays, fuel.
somewhat susceptible to honey fungus (Armillaria spp.).
Varieties/Cultivars
Related species
There are hundreds of cherry cultivars and generally you should
The Californian madrone (Arbutus menziesii) is less hardy but
find out which do well in your locality. There is not space here
also has edible fruit.
to list them all, but worth a special mention are several cultivars
European & North American suppliers bred in recent decades in British Columbia, Canada which are
disease resistant and mostly self-fertile – including ‘Celeste’,
Europe: BUC, BUR, THN ‘Lapins’, ‘Penny’, ‘Stella’, ‘Summer Sun’, ‘Sunburst’, ‘Sweetheart’
North America: RTN, TYT and ‘Van’.

194  STRAWBERRY TREE

 Flowering sweet cherry tree

Cherry rootstocks More recently, the dwarfing rootstock ‘Gisela’ has become
popular both for home use and commercially, as this dwarfs
The primary cherry rootstocks of use in the world are seedlings
trees to 2-3m (7-10ft) and makes trees easier to net against birds.
or clonal selections of Prunus avium ‘Mazzard’ and of Prunus
mahaleb (‘St Lucie’ cherry). French horticulturalists were the Cultivation
first to use ‘Mahaleb’ rootstocks in 1768, which proved the best
A wide range of soils are tolerated, as long as they are well
rootstock for most sweet cherries on calcareous droughty soils
drained. The ideal is a slightly acid medium loam; shallow soils
in France; tried in Britain in the early 1800s though, it was found
and badly drained soils are unsuitable.
that although it dwarfed cherries, it did not adapt well to British
soils. In North America both ‘Mazzard’ and ‘Mahaleb’ stocks Space trees on vigorous rootstocks (‘F12/1’) at 12-15m (40-50ft)
have been used, with the former generally more popular. apart; because of these large spacings required for mature
trees, there are possibilities for intercropping etc. Alternatively,
Present-day commercial growers in the UK have used the
planting can be at higher density, with alternate trees removed
vigorous ‘Mazzard’ clone ‘F 12/1’ for the last 50 years and the
by thinning after some years.
semi-vigorous ‘Colt’ for 20 years. In France, Italy and Spain,
‘Mahaleb’ seedlings or the clonal selection ‘SL 64’ are used for Space trees on semi-vigorous rootstocks (‘Colt’, ‘Mahaleb’) at
gravely, calcareous, droughty soils and ‘Mazzard’ seedlings for 6-7.5m (20-25ft) apart to make half standard or bush trees.
heavy soils. German growers use ‘Mazzard’ seedlings and ‘F 12/1’.
Dwarf trees on ‘Gisela’ rootstocks can be spaced at 4m (13ft)
In North America, ‘Mahaleb’ stocks are still used for sweet
apart.
cherries in arid states (Utah, Montana, Colorado, California)
with well-drained soils, and for most sour cherries; otherwise, Trees need very little feeding when young – a mulch of compost
‘Mazzard’ stocks are mostly used, with a small usage of ‘Colt’. or manure will be quite sufficient. Cropping trees will need

SWEET CHERRY  195

 Sweet cherry cultivars are propagated by budding (usually chip
budding) in July to August or grafting (usually whip and tongue
grafting) in March-April, onto the relevant rootstock.

Pests and diseases

Bullfinches may feed on the buds during the winter. Trees can
be netted if attacks are bad. Ash trees (Fraxinus excelsior) are
good sacrificial trees, with bullfinches much preferring ash keys
(seeds) if available.
Birds eat the ripening fruits, especially starlings. Netting is the
only practical solution.
Cherry slugworms are black, slimy, slug-like larvae that graze
away the upper leaf surface. Damage occurs in two flushes,
in May to June and July to August, but is rarely serious on
established trees.
Aphids, especially the cherry blackfly (Myzus cerasi), infest
young shoots causing severe leaf curling and checking growth.
Its alternative hosts, which it flies to after feeding on cherries,
‘Rainier’ sweet cherry fruits
are bedstraw (Galium spp.) and speedwells. Small trees/fans
can be sprayed if necessary with soft soap; otherwise, try to
encourage aphid predators.

some input, though. Cherries hardly respond at all to additions Bacterial canker (Pseudomonas syringae) is the most serious
of phosphorus, hence do not aim to add this specially; their cherry disease, causing elliptical cankers on trunks and branches,
requirements for potash and nitrogen are low to moderate. sometimes spreading to girdle a branch of the whole tree.
There is some evidence that low nitrogen levels can make trees The disease is favoured by a moist climate, a lack of nitrogen,
more susceptible to bacterial canker; on the other hand, high and by pruning in winter. Bordeaux mixture can give some
nitrogen levels encourages sappy growth and aphid attacks. control, applied monthly throughout the autumn. Cultivar
resistance/susceptibility varies widely, and where possible,
Trees should be mulched to a minimum diameter of 1.2m (4ft). resistant cultivars should be planted.
Make sure that trees against walls do not become too dry at Silver leaf (Chondrostereum purpureum) is a fungus that enters
the roots – mulching helps. In dry weather over the summer, the tree at a fresh wound on the trunk of branches. The invaded
watering is recommended (especially for wall-trained fans) to wood becomes brown, the leaves become silvery, and whole
keep the soil moist, as a sudden application of water can cause branches or the tree can be killed. To treat, cut out dead
ripening fruits to split. branches to 15cm (6ins) beyond the point where the wood is
Netting is highly desirable to protect the ripening fruits from stained. Susceptibility is highest in winter and spring.
bird predation (especially starlings); this is much easier with Brown rot (Monilinia fructigena) causes fruits to rot on the tree.
wall-trained fans or dwarf trees. Dark brown circular spots rapidly spread over the fruit, which
Most of the flowers on sweet cherries are borne on long-lived should be removed and burnt. The fungus can also affect green
(10-12 year) spurs on two-year and older wood while very few twigs and flowers. It usually overwinters in rotten mummified
are borne near the bases of one-year-old shoots. Pollination is fruit on the tree or ground (these should be collected and
via bees and other insects. destroyed), but also on dead flowers or twigs killed the previous
year. Severe infections may respond to Bordeaux mixture.
Many older sweet cherry varieties are self-sterile and thus need
to be planted with a pollinator, although more recent selections Related species
are often self-fertile. Sour cherry (Prunus cerasus) – see p.189.
Cherries can be left on the tree until they are fully ripe, unless
they start cracking because of wet weather. Pick them with the European & North American suppliers
stalk intact unless they detach easily and are to be used quickly. Europe: ART, BLK BUC, CBS, COO, DEA, FCO, KMR, KPN, OFM,
Fresh cherries soon lose their quality, but do freeze well. PDB, PLG, THN
Bushes, half standard and standard trees can give average yields North America: AAF, BLN, BRN, CUM, DWN, ELS, ENO, GPO, HSN,
of 14-54kg (30-120lb) of fruit annually, fans 5-14kg (12-30lb). OGW, RRN, STB, TYT

196  SWEET CHERRY

SWEET CHESTNUT, Castanea species
Deciduous, Zone 4-6, H6-7
Edible fruit
Timber

Origin and history fairly self-sterile, usually because the male and female flowering
periods do not overlap (the male flowers are usually earlier).
Chestnuts have for many years been, and remain today, a major
Hence more than one selection is usually needed for good
world nut crop. In Europe, after a low was reached in the 1970s,
crops of nuts. Flowering (yellow catkins which are borne from
increasing acreages of chestnuts have been planted, with new
the leaf axils of young shoots) occurs in June and July, with
varieties and less rugged terrain for planting reducing the role of
nuts usually ripening in October within prickly burrs. Although
the traditional mountain orchards.
largely wind pollinated, the flowers attract bees who feed on
I’ll concentrate here on the species that are most useful from an the nectar.
edible point of view. These are:
Uses
European sweet chestnut – Castanea sativa. The best-known
All sweet chestnuts have edible seeds – usually cooked by
edible and timber species, originating from southern Europe,
boiling, baking or drying, or grinding to a flour then used. Unlike
Asia Minor and North Africa. Hardy to zone 5-6.
most nuts, chestnuts are low in fats and hence are more akin to
Japanese sweet chestnut – Castanea crenata. Widely used in cereals than other eating nuts.
Japan but also hybridised with the Euro­
pean species as below. Hardy to zone 4-6.
Hybrid sweet chestnut – European x
Japanese. The French have bred some
excellent productive and disease-resistant
varieties by hybridising these two species.
Hardy to zone 5.
Chinese sweet chestnut – Castanea
mollissima from central and Northern
China. Widely used in China and
sometimes in the USA. Hardy to zone 4-5.

Description
C. crenata is a small tree to 9m (30ft) high,
resembling C. sativa.
C. mollissima is a medium/large-sized tree
growing 12-20m (40-70ft) high.
C. sativa and the hybrids are broad
crowned trees growing eventually to 30m
(100ft) high or more.
The chestnuts are deciduous and all have
alternate, parallel-ribbed, conspicuously
toothed leaves, always oblong or oval in
shape.
All species are monoecious in flowering
habit – i.e. male and female flowers are Sweet chestnut flowers. Male flowers are catkins, females are like tiny
both borne on plants, but most plants are chestnut burrs

SWEET CHESTNUT  197

 Sweet chestnut ‘Vignols’ in full flower

Seeds can be somewhat astringent raw (usually due to the Nut types
inner skin or pellicle attached to the kernel) and are rich in Rather usefully, the French have long divided fruits from
carbohydrates (C. sativa nuts contain approximately 43%). chestnut trees into two categories: marrons and châtaignes
The roasted seeds can be made into a coffee. (there are no equivalent English terms). The categorisation is
Some varieties are particularly used for chestnut flour. To make dependent on whether or not individual nuts have a single,
flour, the nuts must be dried, then shelled and ground. The flour whole kernel or several smaller kernels within a single outer skin
is often mixed with wheat flour or other foodstuffs; it is used to divided by a thin papery inner skin (the pellicle). Marrons have
make a thick soup, porridge, in stews, to make bread, pancakes, a single whole kernel within a nut; châtaignes have 2-5 kernels
thin cakes/biscuits and chestnut fritters. within the single shell, with the kernel partitioned between
each seed with a papery skin. Both types can have several nuts
The timber of C. sativa is brownish-yellow, coarse and straight within a single spiny burr.
grained, durable, hard, strong, light; it is used for fuel and
charcoal, joinery, furniture, cooperage, fencing, sleepers and Since few trees produce 100% of one kind of nut or another,
cellulose manufacture; the wood is very susceptible to ‘shake’. a variety is defined as a Marron if on average, under 12% of
The bark is used for tanning. Good bee plant, providing nectar, the nuts are partitioned; if under the same conditions, a tree
pollen and honeydew. Can be coppiced for hedging. Used in produces on average over 12% of partitioned nuts, it is a
the Bach Flower Remedies™. A hair shampoo is made from the châtaigne.
skins and leaves of fruits. The distinction is important because most commercial growers
of chestnuts want to grow marrons because they are easier
Varieties/Cultivars to process, and easier to sell, being easier to peel and use.
There are numerous cultivars and hybrids from across the Châtaignes are more fiddly to eat than marrons but they can be
world. Those listed here are some of the most useful from a useful for drying.
home scale and commercial aspect.

198  SWEET CHESTNUT

 Cultivation
All species have similar requirements: they prefer well-drained
loamy soils (tolerating light, medium, heavy, poor and dry soils,
but not heavy clay), and an acid or neutral pH (one of the few
productive fruiting trees which tolerate very acid soils). They are
averse to alkaline soils but sometimes tolerate some limestone
soils. All species are drought tolerant, and prefer full sun. There
are no dwarfing rootstocks for chestnuts yet.
Most species coppice well, and can form an understorey in
open woodland if shrubby or so treated. All species are resistant
to honey fungus (Armillaria spp.).
Most species are best adapted to continental climates, with hot
summers and cold winters. In Britain, C. sativa, C. crenata and
Burrs growing after flowering its hybrids can do well, but there is not enough summer heat for
C. mollissima.
Cultivar Origin Description
Only a small proportion of trees and a few named cultivars
‘Belle Épine’ France C. sativa. Pollinator. Nuts are large marrons, produce abundant pollen and these pollinators are best grown
ripen mid-late season, good quality but do
not store well. in a mixture with any other varieties.
‘Bouche de France Hybrid. Nuts are large marrons, ripen early, Pollination of chestnut is bound up with weather conditions at
Betizac’ good quality.
flowering time. Pollen is liberated in warm, dry conditions, and
‘Bournette’ France Hybrid. Partial pollinator. Nuts are medium the wind efficiently transports this pollen in conditions of low
to large marrons, ripen mid season, good
quality. humidity. This is fine in Mediterranean conditions, but in moister
climes like Britain and western France, good pollination often
‘Colossal’ California Hybrid of C. crenata, C. mollissima and
C. sativa, developed around 1880. Nuts large occurs via insects, particularly bees (both wild bumblebees and
mid season ripening. honey bees), also via butterflies, beetles and syrphids.
‘Dorée de France Syn. Marron de Lyon. C. sativa. Nuts are large
Lyon’ round châtaigne-type, ripen mid to late
Cold or wet weather throughout the flowering period can
season, good quality. lead to very poor pollination and subsequent nut production;
‘Laguépie’ France C. sativa. Partial pollinator. Nuts medium to excessive rain washes the pollen from the catkins to the ground.
large châtaignes, ripen mid to late season. However, flowering is in late June/early July when conditions
‘Layeroka’ Canada Hybrid of C. mollissima and C. sativa. are more likely to be good.
Nuts medium sized, mid season ripening.
Given good conditions, pollination best occurs when the
‘Maraval’ France Hybrid. Partial pollinator. Nuts are medium to pollen-producing tree is up to 40m away from the variety to be
large marrons, ripen mid to late season.
pollinated. In practice, this means that at least every fourth tree
‘Maridonne’ France Hybrid. Nuts very large marrons, ripen late
season.
in any direction is a pollinator.
‘Marigoule’ France Hybrid. Partial pollinator. Nuts are large Plant trees at 12-15m (40-50ft) apart in their final positions.
marrons, ripen early season, excellent quality. This leaves a lot of space between trees, and many growers
‘Marlhac’ France Hybrid. Nuts are large marrons, ripen mid plant at a closer spacing (e.g. 7.5m/25ft) and thin out after
season. 10-15 years – this gives greater early production.
‘Marron France C. sativa. Nuts are medium and large marrons,
Comballe’ ripen mid to late season. Little pruning is needed. As tip bearing trees, the canopy surface
‘Marron de France C. sativa. Pollinator. Nuts are large, dark should be maximised.
Goujounac’ marrons, ripening mid season.
Once cropping is good, trees will need feeding with nitrogen
‘Marsol’ France Hybrid. Partial pollinator. Nuts are large and potassium to maintain crops and nut size. Nitrogen-fixing
marrons, ripen mid to late season.
trees are one option to provide this element, for example in
‘Numbo’ USA C. sativa. Nuts are large round marrons, ripen nearby windbreaks. In areas prone to very dry summer/autumn
mid season.
weather, irrigation may also be required.
‘Précoce France Hybrid. Partial pollinator. Nuts are medium to
Migoule’ large châtaignes, early ripening. Cropping of named cultivars begins at 4-5 years from planting,
‘Verdale’ France C. sativa. Pollinator. Nuts are medium-sized and rises to a maximum after about 12-15 years. Average
châtaignes, early ripening – often used for yields then are in the order of 15kg (33lb) per tree for C. sativa
drying.
selections, and 25kg (55lb) per tree for hybrids (3 t/ha or
‘Vignols’ France Hybrid. Pollinator. Nuts are large marrons, 2,640lb/ac for sativa; 5t/ha or 4,400lb/ac for hybrids.)
early ripening – excellent quality.

SWEET CHESTNUT  199

1 cm 1 cm 1 cm

1 cm 1 cm 1 cm

Nuts of some sweet chestnut cultivars. Clockwise from top left:

‘Belle Epine’, ‘Marron Comballe’, ‘Marron de Goujounac’, ‘Marlhac’, ‘Marigoule’, ‘Vignols’

Harvest is undertaken when the nuts are mature and fall Pests and diseases
(either within or falling out from the burrs). The period of harvest
Ink disease (Phytophthora cinnamomi and P. cambivora)
can occur from mid September for the earliest cultivars to late
This is a widely distributed fungal disease, serious in some
October/early November for the latest. It is particularly important
mature chestnut orchards in Europe, which attacks the root
to ensure a very quick harvest of nuts after they fall as a prolonged
bark, starting at the extremities of the fine root hairs and
period on the soil favours pests and pathogenic fungi. Nuts
progressing along larger and larger roots and finally attacking
should be harvested daily (or at least every other day) for the
the base of the trunk. The roots cease growing and crack,
typical 10-12 day period of nut fall for a particular cultivar.
releasing a flow of sap which turns black from the oxidation
Commercially nuts are machine harvested either direct from of tannins; the name of the disease comes from the oozing of
the ground or via collecting nets. However there is always a this black liquid from the tree base in the latter stages of the
mixture of burrs, leaves and nuts harvested like this that require attack. The attack on the root system is accompanied by the
mechanical separation. progressive death of the uppermost shoots and little by little
the whole crown.
On a smaller scale of up to a few acres/hectares, it is more
efficient to hand harvest. Traditionally, children did the job Phytophthora is not always fatal – plants can recover if
(they have less far to bend!) but the invention of some great hand conditions are favourable. Resistant cultivars (all C. crenata
tools called Nut Wizards makes harvest fast and not backbreaking. varieties and many hybrids like Marigoule and Maraval) can
Of course some nuts fall within the burrs, so these have to be withstand and recover from attacks.
opened either by hand or by half-kicking with the heel.
The best form of preventative measure is to plant only in well-
Chestnuts are perishable and do not store for more than a few drained soils. Wet and poorly-drained soils, especially heavy
weeks before starting to mould. Longer-term storage is best by clays, suit the fungi perfectly.
drying the nuts; then they will store for years.

200  SWEET CHESTNUT

Chestnut blight (Endothia parasitica or Cryphonectria and before long all the diseased parts were isolated, dried up,
parasitica) died and fell off. These strains are now deliberately introduced
Chestnut blight was imported into North America in the late where the disease appears.
1800s and proceeded to decimate the native American chestnut
Two species of moth lay their eggs on chestnut leaves. Their
(C. dentata) population. It was first found in Europe in Italy in
larvae can then burrow into developing nuts and eat the kernels
1938 and is now present in all chestnut growing regions except
within. These species (chestnut moth/Pammene juliana, and
the UK. The Japanese (C. crenata) and Chinese (C. mollissima)
chestnut codling moth/Lespeyresia splendana) cause significant
chestnuts have variable resistance to the disease.
damage in commercial orchards and often result in insecticide
This parasitic fungus attacks the aerial parts of trees, infecting sprays. On a smaller scale, with regular harvesting and
them via a natural or artificial wound (including pruning cuts, collection/destruction of infected nuts (which often fall first),
grafting etc.) on a branch or shoot. Flat filaments form beneath damage is minor.
the exterior surface of the bark, and these secrete toxins that
Chestnut weevil or curculio (Balaninus elephas or Curculio
force the cambium cells to collapse and blacken. The plant
elephas) is a tawny-grey weevil, 9-10mm (0.4ins) long, which
reacts in defence by forming a barrier of cork beneath the
lays eggs on the developing nuts and whose larvae eat into
areas attacked, but when the fungus is of a normally virulent
them as they develop. The larvae pupate overwinter in the
strain it is able to attack this barrier as it forms and soon
soil beneath trees. Other weevils/curculios (notably Curculio
penetrates to the wood. When the attack reaches the wood,
sayi and C. caryatrypes in North America) attack the nuts in
the plant is unable to form barriers beneath it and the canker it
similar ways. Some control of weevil numbers can be achieved
has formed continues to spread in height and width, eventually
by running poultry beneath the trees before and after nut
girdling the branch.
harvesting.
Once a branch is girdled, the upper part dies, the leaves on it
Oriental chestnut gall wasp (Dryocosmus kuriphilus) is a tiny
drying up and reddening (appearing burnt); this is often masked
gall-forming all-female wasp; the wasps lay their eggs in the
by the bushy advantageous shoots that are often produced just
terminal buds and the developing larvae cause shoots to
beneath the canker. Very large cankers are soon produced as
become stunted. This has caused considerable damage in the
the fungus accumulates reserves from the shoot activity and
southeast USA. There is also considerable research taking place
before long (often within three years on susceptible trees) the
in Asia on biological control via the use of parasitic wasps that
main trunk is girdled. At this stage trees often shoot from the
prey on this species.
base as if they have been coppiced.
Other animal pests that may need to be fenced out or
Enormous numbers of fruiting pustules, the size of a pin-head,
controlled include squirrels, rabbits, deer and rats.
develop on the infected bark and during moist weather, long
orange-red tendrils, made up of millions of spores sticking Chestnut rootstocks are sometimes grown from seed. Chestnut
together, exude from the pustules. The huge numbers of spores seeds are not dormant and should be sown in a well-drained
ensure that the disease spreads very quickly; they are normally compost in autumn.
windborne, but can also be carried on the feet or beaks of birds,
Varieties are propagated by grafting or (for the hybrids) by
also on insects, small mammals and slugs.
micropropagation.
As the disease progressed in Italy, a biological control naturally
emerged: these are the so-called hypovirulent strains of the European & North American suppliers
fungus. It was observed that new bark arose around the
Europe: ART, PCO
cankered tissue that wasn’t attacked by the disease; this bark
drove back the edges of the cankers and grew beneath them North America: BRN, CHO, ECN, GNN, NRN, OGW, RTN

SWEET CHESTNUT  201

TOON, Toona sinensis
Deciduous, Zone 5, H7
Edible leaves

Origin and history Uses

The toon is a well-known and highly valued perennial vegetable The young leaves of Chinese toon are used extensively as a
in many parts of southern and southeastern Asia, yet its edible vegetable in China, and are one of the most popular seasonal
qualities are hardly known elsewhere, where this tree is usually vegetables. Toon is very aromatic, combining a pungent roasted
only grown as an ornamental. garlic aroma with raw onion flavour. The vegetable is used in
four forms:
Toona sinensis (formerly Cedrela sinensis) has several common
names including Chinese cedar, Chinese mahogany, red toon Fresh young leaves and shoots up to 20cm (8ins) from trees that
and of course the Chinese toon. The vegetable itself is usually are usually kept low and shrubby by harvesting; these have a
just called toon. robust flavour.
Thought to be originally native to eastern,
central and southwestern China, it is
now found growing wild in Nepal, Korea,
Japan, Taiwan, northeastern India,
Myanmar, Thailand, Malaysia and western
Indonesia.
It is by far the most cold-tolerant species
in the Meliaceae (mahogany family) and
the only member of the family that can be
cultivated successfully in northern Europe
and many parts of North America.

Description
Chinese toon is a deciduous tree, which
normally grows to 8m (27ft) tall and
30cm (12ins) trunk diameter, but
occasionally larger. It has brown bark,
smooth on young trees, becoming scaly
or shaggy on older trees. It is hardy to
zone 5 (about -25oC).
The compound leaves are large with 10-20
leaflets, usually without a terminal leaflet.
Flowers are produced in summer in
panicles, 20-30cm (8-12ins) long at the
branch tips. Each flower is 4-5mm (0.2ins)
in diameter, with five white or pale pink
petals.
The fruit is a capsule, 2-3.5cm (0.8-1.4ins)
long, containing several winged seeds.

Toon tree in spring

202 TOON
Dried leaves and shoots. Used more as a spice.
Shoots of young seedlings grown densely in punnets or trays
under protection and harvested wholly; these have a more
delicate flavour.
Sprouted seeds, used like other sprouts like mung beans.
In China, plants with red young leaves are considered of better
flavour than those with green young leaves. Both types of plant
have green leaves after a few weeks in spring.
The fresh young leaves contain 84% water, 6.3-9.8% protein,
vitamins B1, B2 and are high in vitamins C and E. They are
medium to high in beta-carotene, and high in calcium and iron.
They are very aromatic and are valued for stir-fries (especially
with eggs), salads, frying, pickling, seasoning etc. Classic dishes
include fried egg with toon, and a tofu and blanched toon
salad. Toon shoot and walnut salads are also popular.
In a scientific evaluation of the antioxidant activity, ascorbic
acid (vitamin C) content and total phenolic content of 20 tested
vegetables, Chinese toon came top in antioxidant activity, top in
total phenolics, and above average in vitamin c content.
An increasing volume of Chinese toon products (pickled,
canned and dried) are exported overseas.
The fruit, bark and roots are used in traditional Chinese
medicine for a wide variety of conditions.
The timber is hard and reddish. It is highly valued for furniture
making.
Outside of Asia the tree is more often valued as an ornamental
tree.

Varieties/Cultivars
An ornamental cultivar, ‘Flamingo’ is widely grown in Europe
and North America, which has pinkish-purple young foliage.
This can also be used as a vegetable. Harvested toon leaves

Cultivation
Seeds of Chinese toon are tricky to germinate. Seeds should
be either cold stratified for 2-3 months, and/or soaked in warm Yield from shrubby trees is about 0.5kg (1.1lb) per plant per year.
water (25oC/-14oF or so) for 24 hours prior to sowing. Keep warm Fresh leaves and shoots can be dried quite easily either in warm
at 25oC after sowing for best germination. Pot up as they grow ambient temperatures or with extra heat. The dried material is
and plant out when large enough. usually crumbled to a powder and then used as a spice.
Commercially, Chinese toon is also propagated by root cuttings. Protected cultivation of Chinese toon (in polytunnels or
Take 3cm (1.2ins) long root cuttings in spring, pot up and keep greenhouses) is now widely practised in China to allow for fresh
warm. Grow on the young plants until planting out. toon to be harvested in the winter, especially during Chinese
Toona sinensis prefers well-drained fertile soils, and tolerates New Year holidays.
a wide range of pH (5.5-8.0). It is tolerant of humid climates and
requires minimum annual average temperatures of 8-10oC Pests and diseases
(46-50oF). Full sun is required. There are none of note.
Keeping trees shrubby is easy, and mostly achieved by European & North American suppliers
harvesting young shoots, and plants can be maintained at a
Europe: ART, BUR
height of 1.5m or so. In parts of Asia, Toona sinensis is often
intercropped with lower growing herbs or vegetables. North America: Uncommon – seeds are more easily available.

TOON 203
WALNUT, Juglans regia
Deciduous, Zone 4-5, H6-7
Edible nuts
Timber

Origin and history

delineated by the chilling requirements of 500-1,500 hours per
The walnut has been used as a source of food for thousands
year below 7°C (44oF). The northern limit is delineated by the
of years. The nuts were eaten by prehistoric peoples in Europe,
susceptibility of the young shoots and flowers to frost damage
and the trees were cultivated extensively for several thousand
in the spring, when even a few hours at -1 to -3°C (30-37oF)
years in Persia (Iran), the nuts being traded throughout the
will cause damage. Early frosts in the autumn can also cause
region. It was later cultivated in ancient Greece and Italy.
damage to new shoots, causing them to die back, particularly
The natural range is from the Carpathian Mountains in Poland in young trees where vegetative growth continues later into the
to the Middle East and the Himalayas. The southern limit is growing season.

Walnut orchard leafing out in late spring

204 WALNUT
 Female and male walnut flowers

Description ripe in September or October and the nuts drop to the ground.
Nuts are borne in 10-15 years from seedling trees, though after
Walnut is a moderately fast growing, broad-headed deciduous
about five years for selected cultivars.
tree growing to 18-30m (60-100ft) tall and 12-18m (40-60ft)
broad. The tree branches boldly in an irregular way, with a maze Persian walnuts produce very large, strong taproots and,
of stout twigs at the top. when young, few lateral roots. Fibrous roots are slow to develop.
The roots, as well as the leaves and the rain washing off leaves,
The light green compound leaves have 5-7, sometimes more,
exhibit allelopathy, i.e. they have toxic effects on a number of
leaflets. The leaves are strongly scented, especially when
plants, particularly Ericaceae, Potentilla sp., apples and white
crushed. They are high in nitrogen, phosphorus and potash
pines (Pinus Strobus).
and decompose quickly after leaf fall, speeding nutrient cycling.
In the autumn they turn yellowish-brown before falling. Walnuts are shade intolerant and long-lived trees.
Bud break occurs in mid April to late May, depending on the Uses
cultivar, and leaf fall occurs in early November.
Nuts can be eaten raw, salted or pickled. Nuts must have an
The inconspicuous flowers open before or around the same oil content of at least 50% to store well; nuts with 30-50% oil
time as the leaves. Walnut is wind pollinated and monoecious content have a higher moisture content and tend to shrivel in
– i.e. produces both male and female flowers. Male flowers are store, so must be eaten straight away or preserved. The nuts are
very numerous, borne on slender pendulous catkins 5-10cm also used in confections and cakes; they can be ground into a
(2-4ins) long which grow from lateral buds on wood of the flour and used as a flavouring in both sweet and savoury dishes,
previous season’s growth. Female flowers, in small, short spikes, much like chestnut flour.
are borne terminally on the current season’s growth. (A few
For pickling, fruit should be picked young and tender before the
precocious cultivars will also bear female flowers on lateral
nuts become woody, in late June or early July.
growth.)
Oil can be pressed from the ripe nuts (sometimes over 50% by
It is common for male and female flowers to mature at different
weight of kernels). The oil can be used raw in salads, for cooking
times (called dichogamy) whereby pollination may not occur.
or as a butter substitute. The oil tends to go rancid quite quickly.
In some cultivars, pollen is released too early (called protandrous),
in others too late (called protogynous) for effective pollination Leaves can be used to make a tea (usually for medicinal
of all flowers. purposes – see below). The leaves can also be used to brew a
wine.
The fruits, developing from the female flowers, are hard-shelled
nuts, surrounded by a thin fleshy husk 37-50mm (1.5-2ins) The sap of the tree is edible, tapped in the same way as that of
across, and produced in clusters of 1-3. The husks split when the sugar maple.

WALNUT 205
The finely-ground shells are used in the stuffing of ‘agnolotti’ Bark of the tree and the husks have been dried and used as a
pasta. tooth cleaner. They can also be used fresh.
The timber is very stable, scarcely warps or checks at all, and The leaves contain juglone that is insecticidal, and thus they
after proper seasoning swells very little. The wood is uniform act as an insect repellent; in former times, horses were rested
and straight grained, fairly durable, slightly coarse (silky) in beneath walnuts to relieve them of insect irritation. Leaves can
texture so easily held, strong, of medium density and can be crushed for greater effect. They also show some herbicidal
withstand considerable shock. It is easy to work and holds effects.
metal parts with little wear or risk of splitting. The heartwood is
mottled with brown, chocolate, black and pale purple colours Varieties/Cultivars
intermingled. Some of the most attractive wood comes from In Britain it is vital to grow reliable late leafing and flowering
the root crown area from which fine burr walnut veneers can cultivars with resistance to late spring and early autumn frosts,
be obtained. and adaption to cool summers.
The timber is mostly used for veneers; also for rifle butts, high The hardiness of cultivars varies widely, from some California
class joinery, plywood and wooden bowls. It makes excellent varieties hardy only to zone 7, to others (from mountainous areas
firewood. In former times it was used for the wheels and bodies of Europe) hardy to zone 4. These hardy cultivars (often called
of coaches. Carpathian varieties) do best in zones 6-7.
Several parts of the tree have medicinal uses. To ensure the fullest nut production, both protandrous
(group A) and protogynous (group B) cultivars should be grown,
• The leaves have alterative, anthelmintic, astringent,
ensuring cross-pollination; certain varieties are known to be
depurative, detergent and laxative properties, and are used
good pollinators for others.
for the treatment of skin fungal diseases. Leaves should be
picked in June or July in fine weather, and dried quickly in a Recommended cultivars for the UK include ‘Broadview’,
shady, warm, well-ventilated place. ‘Buccaneer’, ‘Chandler’, ‘Corne du Perigord’, ‘Fernor’, ‘Fernette’,
• Male inflorescences are made into a broth and used in the ‘Fertignac’, ‘Franquette’, ‘Hartley’, ‘Marbot’, ‘Mayette’, ‘Meylanaise’,
treatment of coughs and vertigo. ‘Parisienne’, and ‘Ronde de Montignac’.
• The nuts are antilithic, diuretic and stimulant. There are hundreds of walnut varieties from around the world,
• The cotyledons are used in the treatment of cancer. Walnut too many to list here. You are advised to find what is used
has a long history of folk use in the treatment of cancer; regionally where you are.
some extracts from the plant have shown anticancer activity.
Cultivation for nuts
• The juice of the green husks, boiled with honey, is a good
gargle for sore throats. Walnut varieties are usually grafted onto a rootstock in the
same family. In Europe, only seedling Juglans regia is used,
• The oil from nuts is anthelmintic and can be used for colic however in North America (particularly California) J. hindsii
and skin diseases. and the hybrid Paradox rootstock are sometimes used for their
• The rootbark is astringent. resistance to nematodes and root diseases.
• The husks and shells are sudorific, especially when green. The best sites are sheltered, sunny sites, mid slope on slight
The green husks can be boiled to produce a dark yellow dye. south or southwest facing slopes free from unseasonable frosts
The green husks are also a good source of tannin. (young growth and flowers are damaged by even short spells
below –2°C/28oF). Full overhead light and ample side light is
The leaves and mature husks yield a brown dye used on wool
required.
(with alum or no mordant) and to stain skin. The leaves and
husks can be harvested and dried for later use. The soil should be moist, well drained and fertile, ideally with a
pH of between 6 and 7 (though pH 4.5-8.3 is tolerated). A deep
A golden-brown dye is obtained from the catkins in early
medium loam is preferred, without a hardpan or a high water
summer. It does not require a mordant.
table. Juglans regia does not like light, sandy soils or very
The oil has been used for making varnishes, polishing wood, heavy soils.
in soaps and as a lamp oil.
If using one main variety and a second mainly as a pollinator,
The nuts can be used as a wood polish. Simply crack open the recommendations are now to plant one tree in eight
the shell and rub the kernel into the wood to release the oils. upwind as a pollinator – in an orchard, one row in eight
Wipe off with a clean cloth. should be of the pollinator, and the row should preferably be
perpendicular to the prevailing wind.
The dried husks are used to paint doors, window frames etc.
as a preservative (it probably protects the wood due to its Walnuts’ spreading habit requires a spacing at maturity of
tannin content). 9-15m (30-50ft), depending on the vigour of the variety.

206 WALNUT
 1 cm 1 cm 1 cm

Walnut cultivars. Clockwise from top left:

‘Fernor’, ‘Franquette’, ‘Hartley’, ‘Fernette’, ‘Chandler’, ‘Corne du Perigord’

1 cm 1 cm 1 cm

Trees can initially be planted at much closer spacings (say, leaves to decompose under the trees results in good recycling
at half the mature spacing), and thinned out after 8-15 years of both nitrogen and potassium.
before serious competition for light begins. In such systems,
Irrigation should not be necessary unless rainfall is under
greater earlier production is achieved per acre; although
60cm (2ft) per year or is particularly uneven in spread. Moisture
establishment costs are higher, and in cool climates there
shortage early in the season leads to small nuts; a deficit later
may be greater risk of disease problems.
can lead to a failure to mature wood. If irrigation is given, it must
Recent plantings in warm-weather areas have often been made avoid wetting the foliage as this will favour attacks of walnut
using hedgerow plantings at around 6.6m x 3.3m (22 x 11ft), blight.
with trees trained into fruiting walls; but this system is not
Prior to harvesting, the ground cover beneath trees may require
likely to be suitable for cooler areas because of the increased
preparation – for example, mowing of grass quite short.
risk of disease.
The husks around the nuts split at maturity (usually in September
Newly planted trees should be well mulched to a minimum
or October) and allow the nuts to drop free. Shaking or tapping
diameter of 1m (3ft) as they are susceptible to grass
the branches may aid the drop of nuts.
competition.
Nuts should be collected daily. On a home or small commercial
The nutrient requirements for walnuts are similar to those for
scale, using Nut Wizard hand harvesting tools is the best way to
chestnuts, and consist of a need for nitrogen and potassium.
harvest. On a larger scale mechanical harvesters are used.
Excess nitrogen makes walnuts much more susceptible to
walnut blight. Little extra feeding is needed until the trees are If the nuts are to be stored they need to be dried thoroughly,
actually cropping well (8-10 years), after which some feeding especially in damp climates like Britain. Nuts need to be laid
is recommended. Nitrogen can sometimes be supplied by in trays, only a couple of nuts deep, and dried using warm air
nitrogen-fixing intercrops or windbreaks. Also, leaving the (25-40°C/77-104oF) blown over them, to a moisture level of 8%

WALNUT 207
or less. A dehydrator works well for small quantities.
Yields gradually rise until full cropping potential at the age of
about 30 in the UK (less in warmer climes). They can then be
50-75kg (110-165lb) per tree – 5-7.5t/ha (4,400-6,600lb/ac).
Growing walnuts from seed is easy – seed requires 16 weeks of
cold stratification. Protect seed well over winter and spring from
rodents.
Grafting walnuts varieties is quite difficult because the graft
unions on walnuts heal best at about 27°C (80°F). Commercially,
growers use hot grafting pipes or other innovative methods to
keep the graft unions warm but the roots and tops of the young
grafts cool at the same time in spring.

Pests and diseases

There are two potential serious diseases and a number of pests.
Walnut blight (Xanthomonas campestris pv. juglandis)
A common and damaging disease wherever walnuts are grown. The author harvesting
The bacterium causes small black angular spots, particularly walnuts with a Nut Wizard
towards the tips of the leaflets; large withered patches arise as
they spread over the leaf surface (but leaves do not fall); black
patches on shoots may lead to girdling and dieback; and black
Damage occurs in two ways: by early-season destruction of
blotches and sunken lesions arise on the fruits. Up to 80% of the
the kernel, or by late season shell and kernel staining as a
crop may be lost in a bad attack, and the male catkins may also
result of feeding in the husk. Control may be achieved by using
be destroyed.
pheromone traps to trap the male moths from mid spring
The disease is most damaging when cool wet weather occurs onwards; many growers spray in addition.
at flowering time. Nuts may be attacked at any time during the
Walnut husk flies (Rhagoletis sp.) in North America are a group
season, but infection takes place almost exclusively during wet
of insects that feed on the green husk of nuts, often producing
weather. Older wood is not subject to the disease, and even
a staining and off-flavouring of the kernel. Many growers spray
new shoots outgrow susceptibility in time.
for control.
The bacterium overwinters in healthy dormant buds and
Wildlife pests are the worst predators of nuts in trees – mainly
catkins, and can readily infect young shoots through wounds.
squirrels and sometimes crows. Indirect controls should always
Early-leafing cultivars are susceptible to earlier and more
be taken to minimise the risk of damage by:
serious attacks of the disease. In Britain and other damp
climates it is essential to choose less susceptible cultivars Not siting nut groves adjacent to forest.
(such as those recommended above). Preventative measures
Keeping grass or ground cover beneath trees short to reduce
included avoiding soil acidity, avoiding wetting the foliage via
wildlife cover.
irrigation, and reducing nitrogen fertiliser use. Many commercial
growers in Europe use copper fungicides for control. Encouraging predators such as hawks and owls by erecting
3-6m (10-20ft) poles for perching.
Walnut leaf blotch (Gnomonia leptostyla)
Also known as Walnut anthracnose, and common leaf spot Harvesting nuts rapidly (daily) when they mature.
fungus. This occurs throughout Europe and North America. In addition, squirrel numbers (that is grey squirrels in Britain,
The fungus causes brown blotches on leaves and young fruits; not red) may need to be reduced by trapping or shooting.
severe attacks result in defoliation and the blackening of the
young green nuts, which fall prematurely. The disease appears Related species
in late May – early June and is favoured by wet weather. Spores
Black walnut (Juglans nigra) – see p.39, butternuts (Juglans
overwinter on dead leaves on the ground.
cinerea) – see p.52, heartnut (Juglans ailantifolia var.
Control is fairly good by raking up fallen leaves and burning or cordiformis) – see p.97.
composting at high temperatures. Cultivars from less maritime
locations (e.g. eastern Europe) appear to be more susceptible. European & North American suppliers
Europe: ART, COO, PCO
Codling moth (Laspeyresia pomonella) is the major insect
pest in Europe, which can destroy up to 30% of the crop. North America: BRN, CHO, ELS, FFM, GNN, NRN, RTN

208 WALNUT
WAX MYRTLES, Myrica species
Evergreen, Zone 6-7, H5-6
Edible leaves
Wax from fruits
Nitrogen-fixing

Origin and history With Myrica cerifera, several parts have medicinal uses. The leaves
The wax myrtles (or bayberries) are deciduous and evergreen show some antimalarial activity (they also repel fleas and moths).
shrubs and trees, and belong to the group of actinorhizal plants, The bark, leaves and roots have all been used medicinally
that is temperate region plants that form associations with (the root bark was the ‘official’ drug, containing the triterpenes
Frankia species of fungi in root nodules, which fix atmospheric taraxerol, taraxerone and myricadiol). Being bitter and astringent,
nitrogen for the plant.
Only the two tree-sized species are described here, although the
shrubby species have similar uses.

Description
Leaves are alternate and often with resin glands; flowers are
inconspicuous, without sepals and petals, in small dense
catkins. All species are dioecious to a large extent, i.e. male
and female flowers form on different plants. The fruit is a small
round drupe, often with a waxy coating.
See below under varieties for species descriptions.

Uses
The leaves are aromatic, resembling bay (Laurus nobilis) to a
degree, and can be used similarly as a flavouring.
The wax which coats the small fruits of all species has been
used mainly to make candles which are quite brittle, aromatic
and don’t smoke when put out. Other uses for the wax include
soaps, ointments, leather polishes, etching, and medicinal
mixtures. One litre of M. cerifera fruit yields 50g of wax; the wax
melts at 47-49oC (116-120oF), so is easily melted off fruits in hot
water, and skimmed off the surface. It is harder and more brittle
than beeswax.
Bee plant. The flowers of all species are attractive to bees.
Hedging. All species tolerate wind and maritime exposure, and
can be used for an informal hedge.
All are green manure plants, increasing the amounts of nitrogen
in the soil and making available significant amounts to other
nearby plants. M. cerifera has been recorded as accumulating
120kg/ha (106lb/acre) of nitrogen per year, making it one of the
best temperate nitrogen-fixing shrubs.
Dyes can be obtained from the fruits, fresh or dried.
The wood of these species is heavy, very hard, strong, brittle,
and close grained. Californian wax myrtle (Myrica californica)

WAX MYRTLES  209

 it stimulates the circulation, increases perspiration, and is
antibacterial. The root bark is used as a commercial flavour
ingredient in some soft drinks in the UK.

Varieties/Cultivars
Myrica californica – Californian bayberry, Californian wax myrtle.
An upright evergreen tree from western North America, growing
4-10m (13-33ft) high. Leaves are not as strongly scented as the
other species. Flowers are usually monoecious (both sexes on
the same plant). Fruits are 4-6mm (0.2ins) across, deep purple
with a white waxy coat. Tolerates very acid and wet soils.
Hardy to zone 7 (H5).
Wax-covered fruits of Californian wax myrtle Myrica cerifera – Bayberry, Wax myrtle.
An evergreen slender upright small tree from southeastern
North America (naturalised in southern England), growing to
9-12m (30-40ft) high. Fruits are 2-3mm (0.1ins) across, greyish-
white, waxy, in clusters of 2-6, and can hang on the plant for
several years. Hardy to zone 6 (H6). ‘Myda’ is a large-fruited
female form of low growth.

Cultivation
These species prefer acid or neutral moist soils, and tolerate
considerable shade as well as strong winds.
Plants are usually grown from seed. The seeds have a coating of
wax that should be removed before sowing – either gently rub
the seeds between sheets of sandpaper, or soak them in hot
water to melt the wax. Give a short stratification before sowing;
germination tends to be slow and irregular.

Pests and diseases

None of note.

Related species
Bog myrtle (Myrica gale) is a shrubby relative that is better
known and shares many of the same uses.

European & North American suppliers

Europe: ART, BUR
North America: uncommon

Wax myrtle (Myrica cerifera)

210  WAX MYRTLES

WHITEBEAMS, Sorbus species
Deciduous, Zone 5-6, H6-7
Edible fruit

Origin and history Flowers are white and are followed by round or oval fruits
reddish or russet-brown and speckled in appearance.
Sorbus is a large family often divided into the rowans and the
whitebeams. Mostly small trees, the whitebeams originate
mainly from Europe and Asia in open landscapes. Uses
The fruits when fully ripe have soft, fairly sweet flesh that is rich
Description in vitamins A and C, and in pectin. It can be eaten raw, or made
Small trees growing to 10m (33ft), occasionally larger to 15m into jellies, conserved, made into wine, liqueur or vinegar, or can
(50ft) high. be dried.
Whitebeams have simple leaves (as opposed to compound in Full ripeness may not be achieved on the tree – as ripeness
rowans), the leaves with a white downy layer beneath the leaves approaches, birds may start to eat fruit; sweetness is also
(and sometimes on top) that gives them a whitish colour. increased by fruits being exposed to freezing temperatures.

Fruits of whitebeam, Sorbus aria

WHITEBEAMS 211
Thus fruit may need to be picked slightly underripe, then Sorbus torminalis – Wild service tree
bletted like medlars (allowed to ripen in store until soft) and/or
Usually a small tree of 10-13m (30-40ft) from southwest
temporarily frozen in a freezer.
Asia through Europe. The tree suckers freely, and is often an
The timber is similar to that of apple, being fine grained, indicator of an ancient woodland site. Fruits are ellipsoid, dark
heavy, strong, hard and difficult to split; it has a decorative russety-brown with fine dark dots, 12-18mm (0.5-0.7ins) long,
grain and colour. It is valued for veneer, musical and measuring ripening in September. Hardy to zone 6/H6.
instruments, cabinet work, turnery, carving and makes good
firewood. Cultivation
These species tolerate many different growing conditions –
Varieties/Cultivars acid and alkaline soils, air pollution, exposure, sun or dappled
Sorbus aria – Whitebeam shade.
Usually a small tree 6-12m (20-40ft) high from Europe. Fruits are Propagation is usually by seed or grafting. Seeds of these species
8-10mm (0.3-0.4ins) across, orange-red, ripening September or are dormant and require 3-4 months of cold stratification.
October. Hardy to zone 5/H7. Grafting using Sorbus aria rootstock is usually successful.
‘Wilfred Fox’ is a selection with fruits 20mm (0.8ins) across. Pests and diseases
Sorbus devoniensis – Devon sorb apple Sorbus share several pests with apples and pears, notably
One of a number of whitebeam/wild service-type hybrids found woolly aphid and pear leaf blister mite. Ideally do not grow next
across the UK. This one is a small tree 6-12m (20-40ft) high. to these species.
Fruits 12-18mm (0.5-0.7ins) across, reddish-brown, ripen in Species of rust fungus (Gymnosporangium spp.) can affect
October. Hardy to zone 6/H6. leaves. Its alternate host is junipers (Juniperus spp.) so ideally
‘Devon Beauty’ is a selection that fruits heavily at a young age. do not grow near to these species.

Sorbus thibetica – Tibetan whitebeam Related species

A medium-sized tree to 12-15m (40-50ft) high and diameter Rowans (p.177) are the other part of the Sorbus family.
from Tibet. Leaves very large and ornamental, especially when
budding out. Fruits 20mm (0.8ins) across, brownish, ripen in European & North American suppliers
October. Hardy to zone 6 / H6. Europe: ART, BHT, BUC, BUR, COO, PHN, TPN
‘John Mitchell’ is the main cultivar grown. North America: Forest tree nurseries may have some Sorbus species

Fruits of Devon sorb apple Fruits of wild service tree

212 WHITEBEAMS
WILLOWS, Salix spp.
Deciduous, Zone 2-5, H7
Medicinal
Branches for basketry

Origin and history Description

The willows comprise a large number of trees and shrubs, Tree willows can make large trees with open crowns. Leaves are
mainly from the Northern Hemisphere. Here we are only long and narrow. Fluffy catkin flowers are followed by downy
considering some of the tree willows and their uses. seeds that are wind dispersed over long distances. When the
breeze is blowing the seeds, the air can be filled with them.
Tree willows are common riverside plants where their large
shallow root systems help stabilise riverbanks.

White willow (Salix alba), a common riverside tree

WILLOWS 213
 The timber is straight and fine grained, heartwood pinkish,
not particularly strong or heavy, but flexible. Used traditionally
for furniture/cabinet work/inlay, paper pulp, turnery and small
articles, tool handles, ship and boat building, agricultural
implements, boxes, crates and pallets, shoes/clogs, toothpicks,
ply, trugs, brakes. And of course cricket bats.
A rooting liquid can easily be made to aid rooting of cuttings
(to use instead of hormone rooting liquids and powders).
Chop willow stems into small pieces and soak in water for
24 hours. Drain the liquid off and use this as the rooting liquid.
Newly taken cuttings should be dipped in it for 30-60 minutes
before striking into compost. The liquid will keep in fridge
temperatures for up to a week.

Varieties/Cultivars
Salix alba – White willow
White willow is a large European tree growing to 25m (80ft) high,
usually found by riverbanks. It tolerates most soils but prefers
damp ones. It needs full sun. It is very tolerant of cutting. Hardy
to zone 2/H7.
Var. caerulea is the cricket bat willow, the wood of which is still
used commercially to make bats.
Salix amygdaloides – Peach-leaved willow
Tree to 20m (70ft) high from western North America. Hardy to
zone 5/H7.
A plantation of cricket bat willows
(Salix alba var. caerulea) Salix fragilis – crack willow
European and Asian tree to 25m (80ft) high, hardy to zone 5/H7.
Uses Salix laevigata – red willow
All willows contain medicinal compounds in the inner bark. Tree to 15m (50ft) from the southwestern USA, hardy to zone 5/H7.
Herbalists use that from white willow (Salix alba). Trees are Branches are reddish.
usually grown in pastures and pollarded regularly and bark
stripped from 2-6 year old branches in spring or early autumn. Cultivation
The bark contains salicylic acid, flavonoids and tannins Easy to cultivate, though with these tree species care should
(up to 20%) and is anti-inflammatory, analgesic, febrifuge, be taken over their extensive shallow root systems – they can
antirheumatic and astringent. Salicylic acid was the forerunner damage drainage systems for example.
of aspirin and has many of the same analgesic and anti-
inflammatory actions – unlike aspirin, it does not thin the Grow in any reasonably moist soil in full sun.
blood or irritate the stomach lining. Propagate via cuttings. Hardwood cuttings 30cm (12ins) long
In almost every case where today one uses cardboard, plastic in winter are easiest although cuttings at any time of year
or plywood as packing materials, 200 years ago this need have a good chance of succeeding. These tree willows can be
would have been met by basketwork. Fruits and vegetables propagated by much larger hardwood cuttings 2.4-3m (8-10ft)
were gathered from fields in baskets; and fish, poultry and dairy long as well. This is useful to ensure a clean straight trunk free
produce were all packed into baskets for the journey to town of side branches e.g. for cricket bat production.
markets. Bulky items like manure or rubble were transported in
baskets, and many other items were made from willow such as Pests and diseases
beer strainers, travelling trunks, etc. There are many minor pests and diseases but most trees in a
diverse planting remain healthy.
Willow wands for basketry are cut on a one-year coppice
system, commercially from densely planted beds but any willow European & North American suppliers
in any situation can be coppiced similarly. The best willows for
Europe: ALT, PHN, TPN
basketry comes from various shrubby species rather than trees,
however willow cut from trees can be perfectly adequate. North America: Forest tree nurseries

214 WillowS
PART 2|CHOOSING TREES
Choosing trees for your particular site and region can
sometimes be a difficult task. To help, I have begun the process
below, starting with climate type and then hardiness level.
This then leads to lists of trees that have the best chance of
being well suited to your conditions. Use these lists as a starting
point, as your own specific conditions may well require them
to be narrowed down further.

Climate types
These climate classifications are based on the Köppen system
with adaptations that make them more applicable to plant
adaptations.

DRY SEMI-ARID Continental climate, hot summers, MILD MID- MEDITERRANEAN Hot and dry summers, mild wet
cold winters, annual rainfall around LATITUDE winters. Irrigation required.
250mm (10ins). Irrigation required. contd
Europe: Western Spain, southern
North America: Great plains of the France, Portugal, Italy, Greece,
Midwest USA southeastern Mediterranean
North America: Southwest coast of
Zone 3 – page 217 the USA (+ see below)
Zone 4 – page 217
Zone 5 – page 217 Zone 8-9 – page 220
Zone 6 – page 217
Zone 7 – page 218
Zone 8 – page 218 DRY MEDITERANEAN Hot and dry summers, dry mild
winters. Irrigation essential.

MILD MID- HUMID Hot humid summers and mild Europe: Southern and mid Spain
LATITUDE SUBTROPICAL winters, large storms in winter and North America: Southwest coast of
thunderstorms in summer. the USA (+ see above)

North America: Southeastern USA Zone 8-9 – page 221

Zone 6 – page 218

Zone 7 – page 218 COLD MID- CONTINENTAL Warm summers and cold snowy
Zone 8 – page 219 LATITUDE winters.

Europe: Germany, eastern Europe,

MARINE TEMPERATE Mild and rainy all year, close proximity Scandinavia
to ocean (50-100 miles), very humid. North America: Northeastern USA,
Canada
Europe: Western half of Britain,
western Ireland, western France Zone 1 – page 221
North America: Pacific Northwest of Zone 2 – page 221
the USA and southwest Canada Zone 3 – page 221
Zone 4 – page 222
Zone 7 – page 219 Zone 5 – page 222
Zone 8 and 9 – page 219 Zone 6 – page 222
Zone 7 – page 222
TEMPERATE Mild and rainy all year, 100-250 miles
(80-160km) from ocean, humid. HUMID Hot summers and cold snowy
CONTINENTAL winters.
Europe: Eastern half of Britain,
eastern Ireland, eastern France, Europe: Few parts of southeastern
Belgium, Netherlands Europe
North America: Inland Pacific North America: Mid-eastern USA
Northwest of the USA
Zone 4 – page 223
Zone 7 – page 220 Zone 5 – page 223
Zone 8-9 – page 220 Zone 6 – page 223

216  CHOOSING TREES

Tree lists for different climates Hazel Corylus spp.
Heartnut Juglans ailantifolia var. cordiformis
Treat these lists as an initial list for your climate. Some of the
Sweet chestnut (Chinese) Castanea mollissima
trees on your zone’s list may only just be hardy where you are,
Sweet chestnut (Japanese) Castanea crenata
so you may still need to source hardier selections, or varieties
Walnut Juglans regia
to suit your particular situation. You may have a pest or disease
that is not around in other regions of similar climate so you may
need to find a resistant variety. So although most trees on your
list should be able to grow where you are, there may be some SEMI-ARID – ZONE 5
that cannot! As for semi-arid zones 3-4 plus:
Fruit trees
Apricot Prunus armeniaca
SEMI-ARID – ZONE 3
Bullace/Damson Prunus domestica insititia
The majority of these tree crops will require irrigation in Cathay quince Chaenomeles cathayensis
semi-arid conditions. Chinese dogwood Cornus kousa var. chinensis
Fruit trees Date plum Diospyros lotus
Apple Malus domestica (hardy varieties) Pawpaw Asimina triloba
Autumn olive Elaeagnus umbellata Peach and nectarine Prunus persica
Buffalo berry Shepherdia argentea Plum/Gage Prunus domestica
Cherry plum Prunus cerasifera Whitebeams Sorbus spp.
Crab apples Malus spp.
Rowan Sorbus aucuparia Nut trees
Sour cherry Prunus cerasus Bladdernut Staphylea spp.
Sweet cherry Prunus avium Chinkapin Castanea pumila
Hickories Carya spp.
Nut trees Sweet chestnut (/European) Castanea sativa
Butternut Juglans cinerea Sweet chestnut (/hybrid) Castanea crenata x sativa
Oaks Quercus spp.
Pine Pinus spp. Other trees
Beech Fagus sylvatica
Other trees Snowbell tree Halesia carolina
Black locust Robinia pseudoacacia Toon Toona sinensis
Honey locust Gleditsia triacanthos
Lime/linden Tilia spp.
Maples Acer spp. SEMI-ARID – ZONE 6
Siberian pea Caragana arborescens As for semi-arid zones 3-5 plus:
Fruit trees
Blue bean Decaisnea fargesii
SEMI-ARID – ZONE 4
Che Cudrania tricuspidata
As for semi-arid zone 3 plus: Chinese quince Pseudocydonia sinensis
Fruit trees Fig Ficus carica
American persimmon Diospyros virginiana Medlar Mespilus germanica
Asian pear Pyrus spp. Perry pear Pyrus nivalis
Cornelian cherry Cornus mas Persimmon Diospyros kaki and hybrids with D. virginiana
Hawthorns Crataegus spp. Service tree Sorbus domestica
Japanese plum Prunus spp. Strawberry tree Arbutus unedo
Mulberries Morus spp.
Pear Pyrus communis Nut trees
Quince Cydonia oblonga Almond Prunus dulcis
Serviceberry/Juneberry Amelanchier spp. Northern pecan Carya illinoinensis

Nut trees Other trees

Black walnut Juglans nigra Japanese raisin tree Hovenia dulcis
Buartnut Juglans x bixbyi Pepper trees Zanthoxylum spp.
Ginkgo Ginkgo biloba Wax myrtles Myrica spp.

CHOOSING TREES  217

SEMI-ARID – ZONE 7 Sea buckthorn/Seaberry Hippophae rhamnoides
As for semi-arid zones 3-6 plus: Service tree Sorbus domestica
Serviceberry/Juneberry Amelanchier spp.
Fruit trees Sour cherry Prunus cerasus
Loquat Eriobotrya japonica Strawberry tree Arbutus unedo
Paper mulberry Broussonetia papyrifera Sweet cherry Prunus avium
Whitebeams Sorbus spp.
Nut trees
Golden chinkapins Chrysolepis and Castanopsis Nut trees
Almond Prunus dulcis
Other trees Black walnut Juglans nigra
Bay Laurus nobilis Bladdernut Staphylea spp.
Eucalyptus Eucalyptus spp. Buartnut Juglans x bixbyi
Butternut Juglans cinerea
Chinkapin Castanea pumila
SEMI-ARID – ZONE 8 Ginkgo Ginkgo biloba
Hazel Corylus spp.
As for semi-arid zones 3-7 plus:
Heartnut Juglans ailantifolia var. cordiformis
Fruit trees Hickories Carya spp.
Citrus and hybrids Monkey puzzle Araucaria araucana
Northern pecan Carya illinoinensis
Oaks Quercus spp.
Pine Pinus spp.
HUMID SUBTROPICAL – ZONE 6
Sweet chestnut (Chinese) Castanea mollissima
Fruit trees Sweet chestnut (European) Castanea sativa
American persimmon Diospyros virginiana Sweet chestnut (hybrid) Castanea crenata x sativa
Apple Malus domestica Sweet chestnut (Japanese) Castanea crenata
Apricot Prunus armeniaca Walnut Juglans regia
Asian pear Pyrus spp.
Autumn olive Elaeagnus umbellata Other trees
Blue bean Decaisnea fargesii Alder Alnus cordata
Buffalo berry Shepherdia argentea Alder Alnus glutinosa
Bullace/Damson Prunus domestica insititia Alder Alnus incana
Cathay quince Chaenomeles cathayensis Alder Alnus rubra
Che Cudrania tricuspidata Alder Alnus sinuata
Cherry plum Prunus cerasifera Beech Fagus sylvatica
Chinese quince Pseudocydonia sinensis Birches Betula spp.
Chinese dogwood Cornus kousa var. chinensis Black locust Robinia pseudoacacia
Cornelian cherry Cornus mas Honey locust Gleditsia triacanthos
Crab apples Malus spp. Japanese raisin tree Hovenia dulcis
Date plum Diospyros lotus Lime/Linden Tilia spp.
Elderberry Sambucus nigra Maples Acer spp.
Fig Ficus carica Pepper trees Zanthoxylum spp.
Hawthorns Crataegus spp. Siberian pea Caragana arborescens
Japanese plum Prunus spp. Snowbell tree Halesia carolina
Medlar Mespilus germanica Toon Toona sinensis
Mulberries Morus spp. Wax myrtles Myrica spp.
Pawpaw Asimina triloba Willows Salix spp.
Peach and nectarine Prunus persica
Pear Pyrus communis
Perry pear Pyrus nivalis
Persimmon Diospyros kaki and hybrids with D. virginiana
HUMID SUBTROPICAL – ZONE 7
Plum yew Cephalotaxus spp. As for humid-subtropical zone 6 plus:
Plum/Gage Prunus domestica Fruit trees
Quince Cydonia oblonga Bentham’s Cornel Cornus capitata
Rowan Sorbus aucuparia Himalayan sea buckthorn Hippophae salicifolia

218  CHOOSING TREES

Loquat Eriobotrya japonica Sweet cherry Prunus avium
Paper mulberry Broussonetia papyrifera Whitebeams Sorbus spp.

Nut trees Nut trees

Golden chinkapins Chrysolepis and Castanopsis Black walnut Juglans nigra
Bladdernut Staphylea spp.
Other trees Buartnut Juglans x bixbyi
Bay Laurus nobilis Butternut Juglans cinerea
Chinkapin Castanea pumila
Ginkgo Ginkgo biloba
HUMID SUBTROPICAL – ZONE 8 Golden chinkapins Chrysolepis and Castanopsis
As for humid-subtropical zones 6-7 plus: Hazel Corylus spp.
Heartnut Juglans ailantifolia var. cordiformis
Fruit trees Hickories Carya spp.
Citrus and hybrids Monkey puzzle Araucaria araucana
Northern pecan Carya illinoinensis
Oaks Quercus spp.
Pine Pinus spp.
MARINE TEMPERATE – ZONE 7
Sweet chestnut (European) Castanea sativa
Fruit trees Sweet chestnut (hybrid) Castanea crenata x sativa
American persimmon Diospyros virginiana Sweet chestnut (Japanese) Castanea crenata
Apple Malus domestica Walnut Juglans regia
Asian pear Pyrus spp.
Autumn olive Elaeagnus umbellata Other trees
Bentham’s Cornel Cornus capitata Alder Alnus cordata
Blue bean Decaisnea fargesii Alder Alnus glutinosa
Bullace/Damson Prunus domestica insititia Alder Alnus incana
Cathay quince Chaenomeles cathayensis Alder Alnus rubra
Che Cudrania tricuspidata Alder Alnus sinuata
Cherry plum Prunus cerasifera Bay Laurus nobilis
Chinese dogwood Cornus kousa var. chinensis Beech Fagus sylvatica
Chinese quince Pseudocydonia sinensis Birches Betula spp.
Cornelian cherry Cornus mas Black locust Robinia pseudoacacia
Crab apples Malus spp. Eucalyptus Eucalyptus spp.
Date plum Diospyros lotus Honey locust Gleditsia triacanthos
Elderberry Sambucus nigra Japanese raisin tree Hovenia dulcis
Fig Ficus carica Lime/linden Tilia spp.
Hawthorns Crataegus spp. Maples Acer spp.
Himalayan sea buckthorn Hippophae salicifolia Paper mulberry Broussonetia papyrifera
Japanese plum Prunus spp. Pepper trees Zanthoxylum spp.
Loquat Eriobotrya japonica Siberian pea Caragana arborescens
Medlar Mespilus germanica Snowbell tree Halesia carolina
Mulberries Morus spp. Toon Toona sinensis
Pawpaw Asimina triloba Wax myrtles Myrica spp.
Peach and nectarine Prunus persica (hardier types) Willows Salix spp.
Pear Pyrus communis
Perry pear Pyrus nivalis
Plum yew Cephalotaxus spp.
Plum/Gage Prunus domestica MARINE TEMPERATE – ZONE 8 and 9
Quince Cydonia oblonga As for marine temperate zone 7 plus:
Rowan Sorbus aucuparia
Sea buckthorn/Seaberry Hippophae rhamnoides Fruit trees
Service tree Sorbus domestica Citrus and hybrids
Serviceberry/Juneberry Amelanchier spp.
Sour cherry Prunus cerasus
Strawberry tree Arbutus unedo

CHOOSING TREES  219

TEMPERATE – ZONE 7 Heartnut Juglans ailantifolia var. cordiformis
Fruit trees Hickories Carya spp.
American persimmon Diospyros virginiana Monkey puzzle Araucaria araucana
Apple Malus domestica Northern pecan Carya illinoinensis
Apricot Prunus armeniaca Oaks Quercus spp.
Asian pear Pyrus spp. Pine Pinus spp.
Autumn olive Elaeagnus umbellata Sweet chestnut (European) Castanea sativa
Bentham’s Cornel Cornus capitata Sweet chestnut (hybrid) Castanea crenata x sativa
Blue bean Decaisnea fargesii Sweet chestnut (Japanese) Castanea crenata
Buffalo berry Shepherdia argentea Walnut Juglans regia
Bullace/Damson Prunus domestica insititia
Cathay quince Chaenomeles cathayensis Other trees
Che Cudrania tricuspidata Alder Alnus cordata
Cherry plum Prunus cerasifera Alder Alnus glutinosa
Chinese dogwood Cornus kousa var. chinensis Alder Alnus incana
Chinese quince Pseudocydonia sinensis Alder Alnus rubra
Cornelian cherry Cornus mas Alder Alnus sinuata
Crab apples Malus spp. Bay Laurus nobilis
Date plum Diospyros lotus Beech Fagus sylvatica
Elderberry Sambucus nigra Birches Betula spp.
Fig Ficus carica Black locust Robinia pseudoacacia
Hawthorns Crataegus spp. Eucalyptus Eucalyptus spp.
Himalayan sea buckthorn Hippophae salicifolia Honey locust Gleditsia triacanthos
Japanese plum Prunus spp. Japanese raisin tree Hovenia dulcis
Loquat Eriobotrya japonica Lime/Linden Tilia spp.
Medlar Mespilus germanica Maples Acer spp.
Mulberries Morus spp. Pepper trees Zanthoxylum spp.
Paper mulberry Broussonetia papyrifera Siberian pea Caragana arborescens
Pawpaw Asimina triloba Snowbell tree Halesia carolina
Peach and nectarine Prunus persica Toon Toona sinensis
Pear Pyrus communis Wax myrtles Myrica spp.
Perry pear Pyrus nivalis Willows Salix spp.
Persimmon Diospyros kaki and hybrids with D. virginiana
Plum yew Cephalotaxus spp.
Plum/Gage Prunus domestica TEMPERATE – ZONE 8
Quince Cydonia oblonga As for temperate zone 7 plus:
Rowan Sorbus aucuparia
Fruit trees
Sea buckthorn/Seaberry Hippophae rhamnoides
Citrus and hybrids
Service tree Sorbus domestica
Serviceberry/Juneberry Amelanchier spp.
Sour cherry Prunus cerasus
Strawberry tree Arbutus unedo MEDITERRANEAN – ZONE 8-9
Sweet cherry Prunus avium Fruit trees
Whitebeams Sorbus spp. Apple Malus domestica
Apricot Prunus armeniaca
Nut trees Asian pear Pyrus spp.
Almond Prunus dulcis Bentham’s Cornel Cornus capitata
Black walnut Juglans nigra Bullace/Damson Prunus domestica insititia
Bladdernut Staphylea spp. Che Cudrania tricuspidata
Buartnut Juglans x bixbyi Cherry plum Prunus cerasifera
Butternut Juglans cinerea Chinese quince Pseudocydonia sinensis
Chinkapin Castanea pumila Citrus and hybrids
Ginkgo Ginkgo biloba Cornelian cherry Cornus mas
Golden chinkapins Chrysolepis and Castanopsis Crab apples Malus spp.
Hazel Corylus spp. Date plum Diospyros lotus

220  CHOOSING TREES

Fig Ficus carica Date plum Diospyros lotus
Hawthorns Crataegus spp. Fig Ficus carica
Japanese plum Prunus spp. Loquat Eriobotrya japonica
Loquat Eriobotrya japonica Peach and nectarine Prunus persica
Medlar Mespilus germanica Persimmon Diospyros kaki and hybrids with D. virginiana
Mulberries Morus spp. Quince Cydonia oblonga
Paper mulberry Broussonetia papyrifera Strawberry tree Arbutus unedo
Peach and nectarine Prunus persica
Pear Pyrus communis Nut trees
Persimmon Diospyros kaki and hybrids with D.virginiana Almond Prunus dulcis
Plum yew Cephalotaxus spp. Sweet chestnut (Chinese) Castanea mollissima
Plum/Gage Prunus domestica Sweet chestnut (European) Castanea sativa
Quince Cydonia oblonga Sweet chestnut (hybrid) Castanea crenata x sativa
Service tree Sorbus domestica Sweet chestnut (Japanese) Castanea crenata
Strawberry tree Arbutus unedo Walnut Juglans regia
Sweet cherry Prunus avium
Other trees
Nut trees Bay Laurus nobilis
Almond Prunus dulcis Pepper trees Zanthoxylum spp.
Black walnut Juglans nigra Toon Toona sinensis
Buartnut Juglans x bixbyi
Butternut Juglans cinerea
Chinkapin Castanea pumila CONTINENTAL – ZONE 1
Ginkgo Ginkgo biloba Other trees
Golden chinkapins Chrysolepis and Castanopsis Birches Betula spp.
Hazel Corylus spp.
Heartnut Juglans ailantifolia var. cordiformis
Hickories Carya spp.
CONTINENTAL – ZONE 2
Northern pecan Carya illinoinensis
Oaks Quercus spp. As for continental zone 1 plus:
Pine Pinus spp. Fruit trees
Sweet chestnut (Chinese) Castanea mollissima Apple Malus domestica (very hardy selections)
Sweet chestnut (European) Castanea sativa Buffalo berry Shepherdia argentea
Sweet chestnut (hybrid) Castanea crenata x sativa Crab apples Malus spp. (hardiest)
Sweet chestnut (Japanese) Castanea crenata Rowan Sorbus aucuparia
Walnut Juglans regia
Nut trees
Other trees Pine Pinus spp.
Alder Alnus cordata
Bay Laurus nobilis Other trees
Eucalyptus Eucalyptus spp. Alder Alnus incana
Honey locust Gleditsia triacanthos Siberian pea Caragana arborescens
Japanese raisin tree Hovenia dulcis Willows Salix spp.
Lime/Linden Tilia spp.
Pepper trees Zanthoxylum spp.
Toon Toona sinensis CONTINENTAL – ZONE 3
As for Continental zones 1-2 plus:
DRY MEDITERRANEAN – ZONE 8-9 Fruit trees
Fruit trees Autumn olive Elaeagnus umbellata
Apricot Prunus armeniaca Cherry plum Prunus cerasifera
Asian pear Pyrus spp. Sea buckthorn/Seaberry Hippophae rhamnoides
Che Cudrania tricuspidata Sour cherry Prunus cerasus
Chinese quince Pseudocydonia sinensis Sweet cherry Prunus avium
Citrus and hybrids

CHOOSING TREES  221

Nut trees Nut trees
Butternut Juglans cinerea Bladdernut Staphylea spp.
Oaks Quercus spp. Chinkapin Castanea pumila
Hickories Carya spp.
Other trees Sweet chestnut (/European) Castanea sativa
Alder Alnus glutinosa Sweet chestnut (/hybrid) Castanea crenata x sativa
Black locust Robinia pseudoacacia
Honey locust Gleditsia triacanthos Other trees
Lime/Linden Tilia spp. Alder Alnus rubra
Maples Acer spp. Beech Fagus sylvatica
Snowbell tree Halesia carolina
Toon Toona sinensis
CONTINENTAL – ZONE 4
As for continental zones 1-3 plus:
CONTINENTAL – ZONE 6
Fruit trees As for continental zones 1-5 plus:
American persimmon Diospyros virginiana
Fruit trees
Asian pear Pyrus spp.
Blue bean Decaisnea fargesii
Cornelian cherry Cornus mas
Che Cudrania tricuspidata
Hawthorns Crataegus spp.
Chinese quince Pseudocydonia sinensis
Japanese plum Prunus spp.
Fig Ficus carica
Mulberries Morus spp.
Medlar Mespilus germanica
Pear Pyrus communis
Perry pear Pyrus nivalis
Quince Cydonia oblonga
Persimmon Diospyros kaki and hybrids with D. virginiana
Serviceberry/Juneberry Amelanchier spp.
Plum yew Cephalotaxus spp.
Service tree Sorbus domestica
Nut trees
Strawberry tree Arbutus unedo
Black walnut Juglans nigra
Buartnut Juglans x bixbyi
Nut trees
Ginkgo Ginkgo biloba
Almond Prunus dulcis
Hazel Corylus spp.
Monkey puzzle Araucaria araucana
Heartnut Juglans ailantifolia var. cordiformis
Northern pecan Carya illinoinensis
Sweet chestnut (Chinese) Castanea mollissima
Sweet chestnut (Japanese) Castanea crenata
Other trees
Walnut Juglans regia
Alder Alnus cordata
Japanese raisin tree Hovenia dulcis
Other trees
Pepper trees Zanthoxylum spp.
Alder Alnus sinuata
Wax myrtles Myrica spp.

CONTINENTAL – ZONE 5
CONTINENTAL – ZONE 7
As for continental zones 1-4 plus:
As for continental zones 1-6 plus:
Fruit trees
Fruit trees
Apricot Prunus armeniaca
Bentham’s Cornel Cornus capitata
Bullace/Damson Prunus domestica insititia
Himalayan sea buckthorn Hippophae salicifolia
Cathay quince Chaenomeles cathayensis
Loquat Eriobotrya japonica
Chinese dogwood Cornus kousa var. chinensis
Paper mulberry Broussonetia papyrifera
Date plum Diospyros lotus
Elderberry Sambucus nigra
Nut trees
Pawpaw Asimina triloba
Golden chinkapins Chrysolepis and Castanopsis
Peach and nectarine Prunus persica
Plum/Gage Prunus domestica
Other trees
Whitebeams Sorbus spp.
Bay Laurus nobilis
Eucalyptus Eucalyptus spp.

222  CHOOSING TREES

HUMID CONTINENTAL – ZONE 4 HUMID CONTINENTAL – ZONE 5
Fruit trees As for humid continental zone 4 plus:
American persimmon Diospyros virginiana
Fruit trees
Apple Malus domestica
Bullace/Damson Prunus domestica insititia
Asian pear Pyrus spp.
Cathay quince Chaenomeles cathayensis
Autumn olive Elaeagnus umbellata
Chinese dogwood Cornus kousa var. chinensis
Buffalo berry Shepherdia argentea
Date plum Diospyros lotus
Cherry plum Prunus cerasifera
Elderberry Sambucus nigra
Cornelian cherry Cornus mas
Pawpaw Asimina triloba
Crab apples Malus spp.
Peach and nectarine Prunus persica
Hawthorns Crataegus spp.
Plum/Gage Prunus domestica
Japanese plum Prunus spp.
Whitebeams Sorbus spp.
Mulberries Morus spp.
Pear Pyrus communis
Nut trees
Quince Cydonia oblonga
Bladdernut Staphylea spp.
Rowan Sorbus aucuparia
Chinkapin Castanea pumila
Sea buckthorn/Seaberry Hippophae rhamnoides
Hickories Carya spp.
Serviceberry/Juneberry Amelanchier spp.
Sweet chestnut (/European) Castanea sativa
Sour cherry Prunus cerasus
Sweet chestnut (/hybrid) Castanea crenata x sativa
Sweet cherry Prunus avium
Other trees
Nut trees
Beech Fagus sylvatica
Black walnut Juglans nigra
Snowbell tree Halesia carolina
Buartnut Juglans x bixbyi
Toon Toona sinensis
Butternut Juglans cinerea
Ginkgo Ginkgo biloba
Hazel Corylus spp.
Heartnut Juglans ailantifolia var. cordiformis HUMID CONTINENTAL – ZONE 6
Oaks Quercus spp. As for humid continental zones 4-5 plus:
Pine Pinus spp. Fruit trees
Sweet chestnut (Chinese) Castanea mollissima Blue bean Decaisnea fargesii
Sweet chestnut (Japanese) Castanea crenata Che Cudrania tricuspidata
Walnut Juglans regia Chinese quince Pseudocydonia sinensis
Fig Ficus carica
Other trees Medlar Mespilus germanica
Birches Betula spp. Perry pear Pyrus nivalis
Black locust Robinia pseudoacacia Persimmon Diospyros kaki and hybrids with D. virginiana
Honey locust Gleditsia triacanthos Plum yew Cephalotaxus spp.
Lime/Linden Tilia spp. Service tree Sorbus domestica
Maples Acer spp. Strawberry tree Arbutus unedo
Siberian pea Caragana arborescens
Willows Salix spp. Nut trees
Monkey puzzle Araucaria araucana
Northern pecan Carya illinoinensis

Other trees
Alder Alnus cordata
Japanese raisin tree Hovenia dulcis
Pepper trees Zanthoxylum spp.
Wax myrtles Myrica spp.

CHOOSING TREES  223

Late flowering fruit and nut trees Shade-tolerant tree crops
to miss spring frosts These trees all tolerate partial shade quite happily (in terms of
These trees all flower late and rarely suffer from spring frost growth). However no trees fruit better in shade than in more
damage to flowers. open sunny conditions, and the amount of fruit decreases
with increasing shade.
American persimmon Diospyros virginiana
Bentham’s Cornel Cornus capitata American persimmon Diospyros virginiana
Bladdernut Staphylea spp. Bay Laurus nobilis
Blue bean Decaisnea fargesii Beech Fagus sylvatica
Chinese dogwood Cornus kousa var. chinensis Bladdernut Staphylea spp.
Chinkapin Castanea pumila Elderberry Sambucus nigra
Cornelian cherry Cornus mas (flowers early but frost resistant) Hawthorns Crataegus spp.
Date plum Diospyros lotus Hazel Corylus spp.
Elderberry Sambucus nigra Lime/Linden Tilia spp.
Fig Ficus carica Maples Acer spp.
Golden chinkapins Chrysolepis and Castanopsis Medlar Mespilus germanica
Honey locust Gleditsia triacanthos Oaks Quercus spp.
Medlar Mespilus germanica Pawpaw Asimina triloba
Monkey puzzle Araucaria araucana Plum yew Cephalotaxus spp.
Mulberries Morus spp.
Paper mulberry Broussonetia papyrifera
Pepper trees Zanthoxylum spp.
Persimmon Diospyros kaki and hybrids
Strawberry tree Arbutus unedo
Sweet chestnut (Chinese) Castanea mollissima
Sweet chestnut (European) Castanea sativa
Sweet chestnut (hybrid) Castanea crenata x sativa
Sweet chestnut (Japanese) Castanea crenata
Walnut Juglans regia (late-flowering selections)

Fruit and nut trees for

short season climates
These trees all flower and ripen their crops within about five
months and by the end of September.
Apple Malus domestica (early varieties)
Cherry plum Prunus cerasifera
Cornelian cherry Cornus mas
Crab apples Malus spp. (early types)
Elderberry Sambucus nigra
Mulberries Morus spp.
Pear Pyrus communis (early varieties)
Plum/Gage Prunus domestica (early varieties)
Rowan Sorbus aucuparia
Sea buckthorn/Seaberry Hippophae rhamnoides (early varieties)
Serviceberry/Juneberry Amelanchier spp.
Sour cherry Prunus cerasus
Sweet cherry Prunus avium
Sweet chestnut – hybrid Castanea crenata x sativa (early varieties)

224  CHOOSING TREES

Suppliers List
Europe FTK Flora Toskana
Schillerstr. 25, 89278 Nersingen, Germany
ALT Alba Trees www.flora-toskana.de
Lower Winton, Gladsmuir, East Lothian EH33 2AL, UK KMR Ken Muir
www.albatrees.co.uk Honeypot Farm, Rectory Road, Weeley Heath, Clacton-
ART Agroforestry Research Trust on-Sea, Essex CO16 9BJ, UK
46 Hunters Moon, Dartington, Totnes, Devon TQ9 6JT, UK www.kenmuir.co.uk
www.agroforestry.co.uk KOR KORE Nursery
BHT British Hardwood Tree Nursery Warren Fields Farm, Trellech, Monmouth, Gwent
Norton Road, Snitterby, Nr. Gainsborough, Lincolnshire NP25 4PQ, UK
DN21 4TZ, UK www.korewildfruitnursery.co.uk
www.britishhardwood.co.uk KPN Keepers Nursery
BLK Blackmoor Nursery Gallants Court, East Farleigh, Maidstone, Kent ME15 0LE, UK
Blackmoor, Liss, Hampshire GU33 6BS, UK www.keepers-nursery.co.uk
www.blackmoor.co.uk MCN Mallet Court Nursery
BUC Buckingham Nurseries Marshway, Curry Mallet, Taunton, Somerset TA3 6SZ, UK
14 Tingewick Road, Buckingham MK18 4AE, UK www.malletcourt.co.uk
www.buckingham-nurseries.co.uk OFM Otter Farm
BUR Burncoose Nurseries http://shop.otterfarm.co.uk
Gwennap, Redruth, Cornwall TR16 6BJ, UK PCO Pépinière Coulié
www.burncoose.co.uk Le Sorpt, 19600 Chasteaux, France
CBS Chris Bowers and Sons www.coulie.com
Whispering Trees Nurseries, Wimbotsham, Norfolk PDB La Pépinière du Bosc
PE34 3QB, UK Route de Lodève, 34700 Saint Privat, France
www.chrisbowers.co.uk www.pepinieredubosc.fr
CCN Cross Common Nursery PFS PflanzenSpezl
The Lizard, Helston, Cornwall TR12 7PD, UK Germany
www.crosscommonnursery.co.uk http://pflanzenspezl.de
CIT The Citrus Centre PHN Perrie Hale Forest Nursery
West Mare Lane, Pulborough, West Sussex RH20 2EA, UK Northcote Hill, Honiton, Devon EX14 9TH, UK
www.citruscentre.co.uk www.perriehale.co.uk
COO Cool Temperate PLG Pépinières Louis Gauthier
Newtons Lane, Cossall, Nottinghamshire NG16 2YH, UK 187 Chemin des Paluds, 13670 St Andiol, France
www.cooltemperate.co.uk http://pepinieres-gauthier.fr
CRU Crug Farm Plants REA
Reads Nursery
Griffith’s Crossing, Caernarfon, Gwynedd LL55 1TU, UK Douglas Farm, Falcon Lane, Ditchingham, Bungay,
www.mailorder.crug-farm.co.uk Suffolk NR35 2JG, UK
DEA Deacons Nursery www.readsnursery.co.uk
Moor View, Godshill, Isle of Wight PO38 3HW, UK THN Thornhayes Nursery
www.deaconsnurseryfruits.co.uk St Andrews Wood, Dulford, Cullompton, Devon
DUN Dulford Nurseries EX15 2DF, UK
Cullompton, Devon EX15 2BY, UK www.thornhayes-nursery.co.uk
www.dulford-nurseries.co.uk TPN Trees Please Nursery
FCO Frederic Cochet Dilston Haugh Farm, Corbridge, Northumberland
48 Ch De St Pierre, 07200 Aubenas, France NE45 5QY, UK
www.cochetfrederic.com www.treesplease.co.uk

SUPPLIER LIST  225

North America

AAF Aarons Farm HFT Hardy Fruit Trees

PO Box 800, Sumner, GA 31789, USA P.O. Box 5754, Sainte-Julienne, Quebec J0K 2T0, Canada
www.aaronsfarm.com www.hardyfruittrees.ca
BLN Bay Laurel Nursery HSN Hidden Springs Nursery
Bay Laurel Garden Center, 2500 El Camino Real, 170 Hidden Springs Lane, Cookeville, TN 38501, USA
Atascadero, CA 93422, USA www.hiddenspringsnursery.com
www.baylaurelnursery.com MAC Mckenzie Farms
BRN Burnt Ridge Nursery and Orchards 2115 Olanta Hwy, Scranton, SC 29591, USA
432 Burnt Ridge Road, Onalaska, WA 98570, USA http://mckenzie-farms.com
www.burntridgenursery.com MES Mori Essex Nurseries Inc
CHO Chestnut Hill Outdoors 1695 Niagara Stone Rd, R.R.#2, Niagara-on-the-Lake,
15105 NW 94 Ave, Alachua, FL 32615, USA Ontario L0S 1J0, Canada
www.realtreenursery.com www.moriessex.com
CUM Cummins Nursery NRN Nolin River Nut Tree Nursery
1408 Trumansburg Rd, Ithaca NY 14456, USA 797 Port Wooden Rd, Upton, KY 42784, USA
www.cumminsnursery.com www.nolinnursery.com
DDN Digging Dog Nursery OTC Oikos Tree Crops
31101 Middle Ridge Rd, Albion, CA 95410, USA P.O. Box 19425 Kalamazoo, MI 49019-0425, USA
www.diggingdog.com www.oikostreecrops.com
DWN Dave Wilson Nursery OGW One Green World
19701 Lake Road, Hickman, CA 95323, USA 6469 SE 134th Ave, Portland, OR, 97236-4540 USA
www.davewilson.com www.onegreenworld.com
ECN Empire Chestnut Company PIR Piroche Plants Inc
3276 Empire Road SW, Carrollton, OH 44615-9515, USA 20542 McNeil Road, Pitt Meadows, BC V3Y 1T9, Canada
www.empirechestnut.com www.pirocheplants.com
ELS Edible Landscaping PPP Petersen Pawpaws
361 Spirit Ridge Ln., Afton, VA 22920, USA P.O. Box 128, Harpers Ferry, WV 25425, USA
http://ediblelandscaping.com www.petersonpawpaws.com
ENO England’s Orchard QGN Quackin’ Grass Nursery
2338 Highway 2004, Mckee, KY 40447, USA 16 Laurel Hill Road, Brooklyn, CT 06234, USA
www.nuttrees.net www.quackingrassnursery.com
FFM Forest Farm RRN Rolling River Nursery
14643 Watergap Rd, Williams, OR, USA P.O. Box 332, Orleans, CA 95556, USA
www.forestfarm.com www.rollingrivernursery.com
FRF Far Reaches Farm RTN Raintree Nursery
1818 Hastings Avenue, Port Townsend, WA 98368, USA 391 Butts Road, Morton, WA 98356, USA
www.farreachesfarm.com www.raintreenursery.com
GNN Grimo Nut Nursery STB Stark Bros.
979 Lakeshore Rd, Niagara-on-the-Lake, Ontario P.O. Box 1800, Louisiana, MO 63353, USA
LOS 1JO, Canada www.starkbros.com
www.grimonut.com TBF Tripple Brook Farm
GPO Grandpa’s Orchard 37 Middle Road, Southampton, MA 01073, USA
P.O. Box 773, Coloma, MI 49038, USA www.tripplebrookfarm.com
www.grandpasorchard.com TYT Ty Ty Nursery
4723 US Hwy. 82 West, TyTy, GA 31795, USA
www.tytyga.com

226  SUPPLIER LIST

Seed suppliers Journals

Europe Journals
Agroforestry Research Trust Agroforestry News
46 Hunters Moon, Dartington, Totnes, Devon TQ9 6JT, UK Quarterly journal published by the Agroforestry Research Trust
www.agroforestry.co.uk www.agroforestry.co.uk

B and T World Seeds Fruit Gardener

Paguignan, 34210 Aigues-Vives, France Journal of the California Rare Fruit Growers
www.b-and-t-world-seeds.com www.crfg.org/fg

Chiltern Seeds The Nutshell

Crowmarsh Battle Barns, 114 Preston Crowmarsh, Wallingford Journal of the Northern Nut Growers Association
OX10 6SL, UK www.northernnutgrowers.org
www.chilternseeds.co.uk
Permaculture magazine
Forestart Quarterly journal from Permanent Publications
The Seed Unit, Ladymas Lane, Hadnall, Shrewsbury, Shropshire www.permaculture.co.uk
SY4 4AL, UK
www.forestart.co.uk The Permaculture Activist
North American quarterly journal
Sandeman seeds www.permacultureactivist.net
14 Hanover Street, London W1S 1YH, UK
www.sandemanseeds.com Tree Cropper
ournal of the New Zealand Tree Crops Association
North America www.treecrops.org.nz
Angelgrove Tree Seed Company
141 HartPath Rd, P.O. Box 74, Riverhead, Harbour Grace, NL A0A
3P0, Canada
www.trees-seeds.com

F. W. Schumacher Co, Inc.

P.O. Box 1023, Sandwich, MA 02563-1023, USA
www.treeshrubseeds.com

J. L. Hudson
Box 337, La Honda, CA 94020-0337, USA
www.jlhudsonseeds.net

Prairie Moon Nursery

32115 Prairie Lane, Winona, MN 55987, USA
www.prairiemoon.com

Sheffield’s Seed Company

269 Auburn Road, Route 34, Locke, NY 13092, USA
https://sheffields.com

SUPPLIER LIST  227

Photograph 56 Pancrat
59 Konrad Kurzacz
acknowledgments 60 Herzi Pinki
61 Right: Amada44
Page 66 At by At
35 Coed Hills Forest Garden Project 71 CarTick
58 KPG Payless2 74 John Severns
107 Fotokon 76 Σ64
114 Top and bottom: Graeme Warren, UCD School of 77 JMK
Archaeology, University College Dublin
78 H Zell
115 Graeme Warren, UCD School of Archaeology, University
80 Amanda Slater
College Dublin
82 4028mdk09
156 StockHouse
84 H Zell
159 Gloucestershire Orchard Trust
85 James Field
86 Aomorikuma
The following photographs are under Creative Commons
license at Wikimedia Commons. 87 H Zell
Page 88 MPF
5 3268zauber 89 Hamachidori
9 Nehrams2020 90 VoDeTan2
12 Jean-Pol Grandmont 93 Cillas
14 Thaumaturgist 105 Bostonian13
16 Left: Jorg Hempel 106 Yuriy Kvach
16 Right: orchidgalore 109 Erin Silversmith
17 Left: Glysiak 111 Top: A.Barra
17 Right: Sven Teschke 111 Bottom: mauroguanandi
20 PierreSelim 117 Forest and Kim Starr
23 Top and bottom: Sage Ross 119 Jean-Pol Grandmont
27 Giancarlo Dessi 120 Famartin
28 4028mdk09 121 Bruce Marlin
30 MarsmanRom 125 Top: Mel Etitis
31 A Barra 125 Bottom: Takkk
42 Gero Brandenburg 129 Anastasija1984
44 Left: Jean-Pol GRANDMONT 139 Krzysztof Ziarnek
48 Matt Lavin 144 Sage Ross
49 Matt Lavin 147 Rillke
51 ModWilson 149 Glysiak
53 H Zell 151 Right: Jerry Payne
55 Pancrat 160 Kenpei

228  PHOTO ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

162 Forest and Kim Starr
163 Sakurai Midori
166 Luis Garcia
171 Glysiak
172 Martinvl
176 Dietrich Krieger
178 4028mdk09
184 Kenpai
185 Top: Vanessa Richins
185 Bottom: TraceyR
186 Blaine Hansel
187 Top: Anna reg
190 Top: Glyciak
190 Bottom: Burim Syla
191 Boksi
195 Benjamin Gimmel
196 dnak
202 willow
210 Bottom: Forest & Kim Starr
211 Julie Anne Workman
212 Right: Rosenzweig
213 Willow
214 Mattinbgn

PHOTO ACKNOLWEDGEMENTS  229

Books to e mpower you r
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“Martin celebrates the sheer practical value of trees and
explores the uses we have found for them, past and present,
that makes them not just things of beauty, but icons of
resilience, resourcefulness and regeneration.”
Hugh Fearnley-Whittingstall
multi-award-winning writer and broadcaster
widely known for his uncompromising commitment
to seasonal, ethically produced food

Everybody knows of apple and pear trees, but what about

autumn olives, butternuts and Cornelian cherries? Trees for
Gardens, Orchards and Permaculture offers a diverse range of
beautiful, productive and multi-functional trees that can be
used for fruits, nuts, medicines and timber, and can be grown
in Europe, North America and beyond.

Research shows that agroforestry can double food production

in entire regions within 10 years. This book is a call to diversify –
we can have our apple and pear trees – and we can have alders
to fertilise them, trees with edible leaves like lime, with toon
planted in between. We can plant nut trees to yield energy-rich
crops, whether for carbohydrates in chestnuts or for healthy
oils in walnuts, and birch and maple trees for nutritious sap.
For a very small investment in time and money, we can
significantly increase the productivity of our plots and improve
our own resilience in the face of an unpredictable climate.

This book also includes a section on choosing trees by climate

type and winter hardiness, enabling the reader to quickly and
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PRINT ISBN 971 856232166 Permanent Publications

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