Introduction to Magnetic Particle Inspection

Magnetic particle inspection (MPI) is a nondestructive testing method used for defect detection.
MPI is fast and relatively easy to apply, and part surface preparation is not as critical as it is for
some other NDT methods. These characteristics make MPI one of the most widely utilized
nondestructive testing methods.

MPI uses magnetic fields and small magnetic particles (i.e.iron filings) to detect flaws in
components. The only requirement from an inspectability standpoint is that the component being
inspected must be made of a ferromagnetic material such as iron, nickel, cobalt, or some of their
alloys. Ferromagnetic materials are materials that can be magnetized to a level that will allow the
inspection to be effective.

The method is used to inspect a variety of product forms including castings, forgings, and
weldments. Many different industries use magnetic particle inspection for determining a
component's fitness-for-use. Some examples of industries that use magnetic particle inspection
are the structural steel, automotive, petrochemical, power generation, and aerospace industries.
Underwater inspection is another area where magnetic particle inspection may be used to test
items such as offshore structures and underwater pipelines.

Basic Principles

In theory, magnetic particle inspection (MPI) is a relatively simple concept. It can be considered
as a combination of two nondestructive testing methods: magnetic flux leakage testing and visual
testing. Consider the case of a bar magnet. It has a
magnetic field in and around the magnet. Any place that
a magnetic line of force exits or enters the magnet is
called a pole. A pole where a magnetic line of force exits
the magnet is called a north pole and a pole where a line
of force enters the magnet is called a south pole.

When a bar magnet is broken in the center of its length, two complete bar magnets with magnetic
poles on each end of each piece will result. If the magnet is just cracked but not broken
completely in two, a north and south pole will form at each edge of the crack. The magnetic field
exits the north pole and reenters at the south pole. The
magnetic field spreads out when it encounters the small
air gap created by the crack because the air cannot
support as much magnetic field per unit volume as the
magnet can. When the field spreads out, it appears to
leak out of the material and, thus is called a flux leakage
field.

If iron particles are sprinkled on a cracked magnet, the

particles will be attracted to and cluster not only at the poles at the ends of the magnet, but also at
the poles at the edges of the crack. This cluster of particles is much easier to see than the actual
crack and this is the basis for magnetic particle inspection.

The first step in a magnetic particle inspection is to magnetize the component that is to be
inspected. If any defects on or near the surface are present, the defects will create a leakage field.
After the component has been magnetized, iron particles, either in a dry or wet suspended form,
are applied to the surface of the magnetized part. The particles will be attracted and cluster at the
flux leakage fields, thus forming a visible indication that the inspector can detect.

History of Magnetic Particle Inspection

Magnetism is the ability of matter to attract other matter to itself. The ancient Greeks were the
first to discover this phenomenon in a mineral they named magnetite. Later on Bergmann,
Becquerel, and Faraday discovered that all matter including liquids and gasses were affected by
magnetism, but only a few responded to a noticeable extent.

The earliest known use of magnetism to inspect an object took place as early as 1868. Cannon
barrels were checked for defects by magnetizing the barrel then sliding a magnetic compass
along the barrel's length. These early inspectors were able to locate flaws in the barrels by
monitoring the needle of the compass. This was a form of nondestructive testing but the term
was not commonly used until some time after World War I.
In the early 1920’s, William Hoke realized that
magnetic particles (colored metal shavings) could
be used with magnetism as a means of locating
defects. Hoke discovered that a surface or
subsurface flaw in a magnetized material caused
the magnetic field to distort and extend beyond
the part. This discovery was brought to his
attention in the machine shop. He noticed that the
metallic grindings from hard steel parts (held by a
magnetic chuck while being ground) formed
patterns on the face of the parts which
corresponded to the cracks in the surface.
Applying a fine ferromagnetic powder to the parts
caused a build up of powder over flaws and
formed a visible indication. The image shows a
1928 Electyro-Magnetic Steel Testing Device
(MPI) made by the Equipment and Engineering Company Ltd. (ECO) of Strand, England.

In the early 1930’s, magnetic particle inspection was quickly replacing the oil-and-whiting
method (an early form of the liquid penetrant inspection) as the method of choice by the railroad
industry to inspect steam engine boilers, wheels, axles, and tracks. Today, the MPI inspection
method is used extensively to check for flaws in a large variety of manufactured materials and
components. MPI is used to check materials such as steel bar stock for seams and other flaws
prior to investing machining time during the manufacturing of a component. Critical automotive
components are inspected for flaws after fabrication to ensure that defective parts are not placed
into service. MPI is used to inspect some highly loaded components that have been in-service for
a period of time. For example, many components of high performance racecars are inspected
whenever the engine, drive train or another system undergoes an overhaul. MPI is also used to
evaluate the integrity of structural welds on bridges, storage tanks, and other safety critical
structures.

Magnetism

Magnets are very common items in the workplace and household. Uses of magnets range from
holding pictures on the refrigerator to causing torque in electric motors. Most people are familiar
with the general properties of magnets but are less familiar with the source of magnetism. The
traditional concept of magnetism centers around the magnetic field and what is know as a dipole.
The term "magnetic field" simply describes a volume of space where there is a change in energy
within that volume. This change in energy can be detected and measured. The location where a
magnetic field can be detected exiting or entering a material is called a magnetic pole. Magnetic
poles have never been detected in isolation but always occur in pairs, hence the name dipole.
Therefore, a dipole is an object that has a magnetic pole on one end and a second, equal but
opposite, magnetic pole on the other.

A bar magnet can be considered a dipole with a north pole at one end and south pole at the other.
A magnetic field can be measured leaving the dipole at the north pole and returning the magnet
at the south pole. If a magnet is cut in two, two magnets or dipoles are created out of one. This
sectioning and creation of dipoles can continue to the atomic level. Therefore, the source of
magnetism lies in the basic building block of all matter...the atom.

The Source of Magnetism

All matter is composed of atoms, and atoms are composed of

protons, neutrons and electrons. The protons and neutrons are
located in the atom's nucleus and the electrons are in constant
motion around the nucleus. Electrons carry a negative electrical
charge and produce a magnetic field as they move through
space. A magnetic field is produced whenever an electrical
charge is in motion. The strength of this field is called the
magnetic moment.

This may be hard to visualize on a subatomic scale but

consider electric current flowing through a conductor. When
the electrons (electric current) are flowing through the
conductor, a magnetic field forms around the conductor. The
magnetic field can be detected using a compass. The magnetic field will place a force on the
compass needle, which is another example of a dipole.

Since all matter is comprised of atoms, all materials are affected in some way by a magnetic
field. However, not all materials react the same way. This will be explored more in the next
section.

Diamagnetic, Paramagnetic, and Ferromagnetic Materials

When a material is placed within a magnetic field, the magnetic forces of the material's electrons
will be affected. This effect is known as Faraday's Law of Magnetic Induction. However,
materials can react quite differently to the presence of an external magnetic field. This reaction is
dependent on a number of factors, such as the atomic and molecular structure of the material, and
the net magnetic field associated with the atoms. The magnetic moments associated with atoms
have three origins. These are the electron orbital motion, the change in orbital motion caused by
an external magnetic field, and the spin of the electrons.

In most atoms, electrons occur in pairs. Electrons in a pair spin

in opposite directions. So, when electrons are paired together,
their opposite spins cause their magnetic fields to cancel each
other. Therefore, no net magnetic field exists. Alternately,
materials with some unpaired electrons will have a net magnetic
field and will react more to an external field. Most materials can
be classified as diamagnetic, paramagnetic or .ferromagnetic.

Diamagnetic metals have a very weak and negative

susceptibility to magnetic fields. Diamagnetic materials are
slightly repelled by a magnetic field and the material does not retain the magnetic properties
when the external field is removed. Diamagnetic materials are solids with all paired electron
resulting in no permanent net magnetic moment per atom. Diamagnetic properties arise from the
realignment of the electron orbits under the influence of an external magnetic field. Most
elements in the periodic table, including copper, silver, and gold, are diamagnetic.

Paramagnetic metals have a small and positive susceptibility to magnetic fields. These materials
are slightly attracted by a magnetic field and the material does not retain the magnetic properties
when the external field is removed. Paramagnetic properties are due to the presence of some
unpaired electrons, and from the realignment of the electron orbits caused by the external
magnetic field. Paramagnetic materials include magnesium, molybdenum, lithium, and tantalum.

Ferromagnetic materials have a large and positive susceptibility to an external magnetic field.
They exhibit a strong attraction to magnetic fields and are able to retain their magnetic properties
after the external field has been removed. Ferromagnetic materials have some unpaired electrons
so their atoms have a net magnetic moment. They get their strong magnetic properties due to the
presence of magnetic domains. In these domains, large numbers of atom's moments (1012 to 1015)
are aligned parallel so that the magnetic force within the domain is strong. When a ferromagnetic
material is in the unmagnitized state, the domains are nearly randomly organized and the net
magnetic field for the part as a whole is zero. When a magnetizing force is applied, the domains
become aligned to produce a strong magnetic field within the part. Iron, nickel, and cobalt are
examples of ferromagnetic materials. Components with these materials are commonly inspected
using the magnetic particle method.

Magnetic Domains

Ferromagnetic materials get their magnetic properties not only because their atoms carry a
magnetic moment but also because the material is made up of small regions known as magnetic
domains. In each domain, all of the atomic dipoles are coupled together in a preferential
direction. This alignment develops as the material develops its crystalline structure during
solidification from the molten state. Magnetic domains can be detected using Magnetic Force
Microscopy (MFM) and images of the domains like the one shown below can be constructed.

Magnetic Force Microscopy

(MFM) image showing the
magnetic domains in a piece of
heat treated carbon steel.
During solidification, a trillion or more atom moments are aligned parallel so that the magnetic
force within the domain is strong in one direction. Ferromagnetic materials are said to be
characterized by "spontaneous magnetization" since they obtain saturation magnetization in each
of the domains without an external magnetic field being applied. Even though the domains are
magnetically saturated, the bulk material may not show any signs of magnetism because the
domains develop themselves and are randomly oriented relative to each other.

Ferromagnetic materials become magnetized when the magnetic domains within the material are
aligned. This can be done by placing the material in a strong external magnetic field or by
passing electrical current through the material. Some or all of the domains can become aligned.
The more domains that are aligned, the stronger the magnetic field in the material. When all of
the domains are aligned, the material is said to be magnetically saturated. When a material is
magnetically saturated, no additional amount of external magnetization force will cause an
increase in its internal level of magnetization.

Unmagnetized Material   Magnetized Material

Magnetic Field Characteristics

Magnetic Field In and Around a Bar Magnet

As discussed previously, a magnetic field is a change in energy within a volume of space. The
magnetic field surrounding a bar magnet can be seen in the magnetograph below. A
magnetograph can be created by placing a piece of paper over a magnet and sprinkling the paper
with iron filings. The particles align themselves with the lines of magnetic force produced by the
magnet. The magnetic lines of force show where the magnetic field exits the material at one pole
and reenters the material at another pole along the length of the magnet. It should be noted that
the magnetic lines of force exist in three dimensions but are only seen in two dimensions in the
image.
It can be seen in the magnetograph that there are poles all along the length of the magnet but that
the poles are concentrated at the ends of the magnet. The area where the exit poles are
concentrated is called the magnet's north pole and the area where the entrance poles are
concentrated is called the magnet's south pole.

Magnetic Fields in and around Horseshoe and Ring Magnets

Magnets come in a variety of shapes and one of the more common is the
horseshoe (U) magnet. The horseshoe magnet has north and south poles
just like a bar magnet but the magnet is curved so the poles lie in the same
plane. The magnetic lines of force flow from pole to pole just like in the
bar magnet. However, since the poles are located closer together and a
more direct path exists for the lines of flux to travel between the poles, the
magnetic field is concentrated between the poles.

If a bar magnet was placed across the end

of a horseshoe magnet or if a magnet was
formed in the shape of a ring, the lines of magnetic force would
not even need to enter the air. The value of such a magnet where
the magnetic field is completely contained with the material
probably has limited use. However, it is important to
understand that the magnetic field can flow in loop within a
material. (See section on circular magnetism for more
information).

General Properties of Magnetic Lines of Force

Magnetic lines of force have a number of
important properties, which include:

 They seek the path of least resistance

between opposite magnetic poles. In a
single bar magnet as shown to the right,
they attempt to form closed loops from
pole to pole.
 They never cross one another.
 They all have the same strength.
 Their density decreases (they spread out)
when they move from an area of higher
permeability to an area of lower
permeability.
 Their density decreases with increasing
distance from the poles.
 They are considered to have direction as if
flowing, though no actual movement
occurs.
 They flow from the south pole to the north
pole within a material and north pole to
south pole in air.

Magnetic Field Produced by a Coil

When a current carrying conductor is formed into a loop or several loops to form a coil, a
magnetic field develops that flows through the center of the loop or coil along its longitudinal
axis and circles back around the outside of the loop or coil. The magnetic field circling each loop
of wire combines with the fields from the other loops to produce a concentrated field down the
center of the coil. A loosely wound coil is illustrated below to show the interaction of the
magnetic field. The magnetic field is essentially uniform down the length of the coil when it is
wound tighter.
The strength of a coil's magnetic field increases not only with increasing current but also with
each loop that is added to the coil. A long, straight coil of wire is called a solenoid and can be
used to generate a nearly uniform magnetic field similar to that of a bar magnet. The
concentrated magnetic field inside a coil is very useful in magnetizing ferromagnetic materials
for inspection using the magnetic particle testing method. Please be aware that the field outside
the coil is weak and is not suitable for magnetizing ferromagnetic materials.

Quantifying Magnetic Properties

(Magnetic Field Strength, Flux Density, Total Flux and
Magnetization)

Until now, only the qualitative features of the magnetic field have been discussed. However, it is
necessary to be able to measure and express quantitatively the various characteristics of
magnetism. Unfortunately, a number of unit conventions are used (as shown in the table below).
SI units will be used in this material. The advantage of using SI units is that they are traceable
back to an agreed set of four base units - meter, kilogram, second, and Ampere.

SI Units SI Units CGS Units

Quantity  
(Sommerfeld) (Kennelly) (Gaussian)
Field H A/m A/m oersteds
Flux Density
 tesla tesla gauss
(Magnetic Induction)
Flux  weber weber maxwell
Magnetization M A/m - erg/Oe-cm3
The units for magnetic field strength H are ampere/meter. A
magnetic field strength of 1 ampere/meter is produced at the
center of a single circular conductor with a one meter diameter
carrying a steady current of 1 ampere.

The number of magnetic lines of force cutting through a plane of a

given area at a right angle is known as the magnetic flux density,
B. The flux density or magnetic induction has the tesla as its unit.
One tesla is equal to 1 Newton/(A/m). From these units, it can be
seen that the flux density is a measure of the force applied to a
particle by the magnetic field. The Gauss is the CGS unit for flux density and is commonly used
by US industry. One gauss represents one line of flux passing through one square centimeter of
air oriented 90 degrees to the flux flow.

The total number of lines of magnetic force in a material is called magnetic flux,. The strength
of the flux is determined by the number of magnetic domains that are aligned within a material.
The total flux is simply the flux density applied over an area. Flux carries the unit of a weber,
which is simply a tesla- meter2.

The magnetization is a measure of the extent to which an object is magnetized. It is a measure of

the magnetic dipole moment per unit volume of the object. Magnetization carries the same units
as a magnetic field: amperes/meter.

Conversion between CGS and SI magnetic units.

 

 The Hysteresis Loop and Magnetic Properties

A great deal of information can be learned about the magnetic properties of a material by
studying its hysteresis loop. A hysteresis loop shows the relationship between the induced
magnetic flux density (B) and the magnetizing force (H). It is often referred to as the B-H loop.
An example hysteresis loop is shown below.
The loop is generated by measuring the magnetic flux of a ferromagnetic material while the
magnetizing force is changed. A ferromagnetic material that has never been previously
magnetized or has been thoroughly demagnetized will follow the dashed line as H is increased.
As the line demonstrates, the greater the amount of current applied (H+), the stronger the
magnetic field in the component (B+). At point "a" almost all of the magnetic domains are
aligned and an additional increase in the magnetizing force will produce very little increase in
magnetic flux. The material has reached the point of magnetic saturation. When H is reduced to
zero, the curve will move from point "a" to point "b." At this point, it can be seen that some
magnetic flux remains in the material even though the magnetizing force is zero. This is referred
to as the point of retentivity on the graph and indicates the remanence or level of residual
magnetism in the material. (Some of the magnetic domains remain aligned but some have lost
their alignment.) As the magnetizing force is reversed, the curve moves to point "c", where the
flux has been reduced to zero. This is called the point of coercivity on the curve. (The reversed
magnetizing force has flipped enough of the domains so that the net flux within the material is
zero.) The force required to remove the residual magnetism from the material is called the
coercive force or coercivity of the material.

As the magnetizing force is increased in the negative direction, the material will again become
magnetically saturated but in the opposite direction (point "d"). Reducing H to zero brings the
curve to point "e." It will have a level of residual magnetism equal to that achieved in the other
direction. Increasing H back in the positive direction will return B to zero. Notice that the curve
did not return to the origin of the graph because some force is required to remove the residual
magnetism. The curve will take a different path from point "f" back to the saturation point where
it with complete the loop.
From the hysteresis loop, a number of primary magnetic properties of a material can be
determined.

1. Retentivity - A measure of the residual flux density corresponding to the saturation

induction of a magnetic material. In other words, it is a material's ability to retain a
certain amount of residual magnetic field when the magnetizing force is removed after
achieving saturation. (The value of B at point b on the hysteresis curve.)
2. Residual Magnetism or Residual Flux - the magnetic flux density that remains in a
material when the magnetizing force is zero. Note that residual magnetism and retentivity
are the same when the material has been magnetized to the saturation point. However, the
level of residual magnetism may be lower than the retentivity value when the
magnetizing force did not reach the saturation level.
3. Coercive Force - The amount of reverse magnetic field which must be applied to a
magnetic material to make the magnetic flux return to zero. (The value of H at point c on
the hysteresis curve.)
4. Permeability, - A property of a material that describes the ease with which a magnetic
flux is established in the component.
5. Reluctance - Is the opposition that a ferromagnetic material shows to the establishment
of a magnetic field. Reluctance is analogous to the resistance in an electrical circuit.

Permeability

As previously mentioned, permeability is a material property that describes the ease with which a
magnetic flux is established in a component. It is the ratio of the flux density to the magnetizing
force and is represented by the following equation:


It is clear that this equation describes the slope
of the curve at any point on the hysteresis loop.
The permeability value given in papers and
reference materials is usually the maximum
permeability or the maximum relative
permeability. The maximum permeability is the
point where the slope of the B/H curve for the
unmagnetized material is the greatest. This point
is often taken as the point where a straight line
from the origin is tangent to the B/H curve.

The relative permeability is arrived at by taking

the ratio of the material's permeability to the
permeability in free space (air).
 (relative) = (material) /air
where: air = 1.256 x 10 -6
H/m

The shape of the hysteresis loop tells a great deal about the material being magnetized. The
hysteresis curves of two different materials are shown in the graph.

Relative to other materials, a material with a

wider hysteresis loop has:

 Lower Permeability
 Higher Retentivity
 Higher Coercivity
 Higher Reluctance
 Higher Residual Magnetism

Relative to other materials, a material with the

narrower hysteresis loop has:

 Higher Permeability
 Lower Retentivity
 Lower Coercivity
 Lower Reluctance
 Lower Residual Magnetism.

In magnetic particle testing, the level of residual magnetism is important. Residual magnetic
fields are affected by the permeability, which can be related to the carbon content and alloying of
the material. A component with high carbon content will have low permeability and will retain
more magnetic flux than a material with low carbon content.

In the two B-H loops above, which one would indicative of a low carbon steel? Answer

Magnetic Field Orientation and Flaw Detectability

To properly inspect a component for cracks or other defects, it is important to understand that the
orientation between the magnetic lines of force and the flaw is very important. There are two
general types of magnetic fields that can be established within a component.

A longitudinal magnetic field has magnetic lines of force that

run parallel to the long axis of the part. Longitudinal
magnetization of a component can be accomplished using the
longitudinal field set up by a coil or solenoid. It can also be
accomplished using permanent magnets or electromagnets.
A circular magnetic field has magnetic lines of force that run
circumferentially around the perimeter of a part. A circular
magnetic field is induced in an article by either passing current
through the component or by passing current through a
conductor surrounded by the component.

The type of magnetic field established is determined by the method used to magnetize the
specimen. Being able to magnetize the part in two directions is important because the best
detection of defects occurs when the lines of magnetic force are established at right angles to the
longest dimension of the defect. This orientation creates the largest disruption of the magnetic
field within the part and the greatest flux leakage at the surface of the part. As can be seen in the
image below, if the magnetic field is parallel to the defect, the field will see little disruption and
no flux leakage field will be produced.

An orientation of 45 to 90 degrees between the magnetic field and the defect is necessary to form
an indication. Since defects may occur in various and unknown directions, each part is normally
magnetized in two directions at right angles to each other. If the component below is considered,
it is known that passing current through the part from end to end will establish a circular
magnetic field that will be 90 degrees to the direction of the current. Therefore, defects that have
a significant dimension in the direction of the current (longitudinal defects) should be detectable.
Alternately, transverse-type defects will not be detectable with circular magnetization.
 Watch this short movie showing the effect of field direction on indication visibility. (775 KB
mov)

Magnetization of Ferromagnetic Materials

There are a variety of methods that can be used to establish a magnetic field in a component for
evaluation using magnetic particle inspection. It is common to classify the magnetizing methods
as either direct or indirect.

Magnetization Using Direct Induction (Direct Magnetization)

With direct magnetization, current is passed directly through the component. Recall that
whenever current flows, a magnetic field is produced. Using the right-hand rule, which was
introduced earlier, it is known that the magnetic lines of flux form normal to the direction of the
current and form a circular field in and around the conductor. When using the direct
magnetization method, care must be taken to ensure that good electrical contact is established
and maintained between the test equipment and the test component. Improper contact can result
in arcing that may damage the component. It is also possible to overheat components in areas of
high resistance such as the contact points and in areas of small cross-sectional area.
There are several ways that direct magnetization
is commonly accomplished. One way involves
clamping the component between two electrical
contacts in a special piece of equipment. Current
is passed through the component and a circular
magnetic
field is
established
in and
around the
component.
When the

magnetizing current is stopped, a residual

magnetic field will remain within the component. The
strength of the induced magnetic field is proportional to
the amount of current passed through the component.

A second technique involves using clamps or prods, which are attached or placed in contact with
the component. Electrical current flows through the component from contact to contact. The
current sets up a circular magnetic field around the path of the current.

Magnetization Using Indirect Induction (Indirect Magnetization)

Indirect magnetization is accomplished by using a strong external magnetic field to establish a

magnetic field within the component. As with direct magnetization, there are several ways that
indirect magnetization can be accomplished.

The use of permanent magnets is a low cost method of establishing a magnetic field. However,
their use is limited due to lack of control of the field strength and the difficulty of placing and
removing strong permanent magnets from the component.

Electromagnets in the form of an adjustable

horseshoe magnet (called a yoke) eliminate
the problems associated with permanent
magnets and are used extensively in industry.
Electromagnets only exhibit a magnetic flux
when electric current is flowing around the
soft iron core. When the magnet is placed on
the component, a magnetic field is established
between the north and south poles of the
magnet.

Another way of indirectly inducting a magnetic field in a material is by using the magnetic field
of a current carrying conductor. A circular magnetic field can be established in cylindrical
components by using a central conductor. Typically, one or more cylindrical components are
hung from a solid copper bar running through the inside diameter. Current is passed through the
copper bar and the resulting circular magnetic field establishes a magnetic field within the test
components.

The use of coils and solenoids is a third method

of indirect magnetization. When the length of a
component is several times larger than its
diameter, a longitudinal magnetic field can be
established in the component. The component is
placed longitudinally in the concentrated magnetic
field that fills the center of a coil or solenoid. This
magnetization technique is often referred to as a
"coil shot."

Magnetizing Current

As seen in the previous pages, electric current is often used to establish the magnetic field in
components during magnetic particle inspection. Alternating current and direct current are the
two basic types of current commonly used. Current from single phase 110 volts, to three phase
440 volts, are used when generating an electric field in a component. Current flow is often
modified to provide the appropriate field within the part. The type of current used can have an
effect on the inspection results, so the types of currents commonly used will be briefly reviewed.

Direct Current
Direct current (DC) flows continuously in one direction at a constant voltage. A battery is the
most common source of direct current. As previously mentioned, current is said to flow from the
positive to the negative terminal. In actuality, the electrons flow in the opposite direction. DC is
very desirable when inspecting for subsurface defects because DC generates a magnetic field that
penetrates deeper into the material. In ferromagnetic materials, the magnetic field produced by
DC generally penetrates the entire cross-section of the component.  Conversely, the field
produced using alternating current is concentrated in a thin layer at the surface of the component.

Alternating Current
Alternating current (AC) reverses in direction at a rate of 50 or 60 cycles per second. In the
United States, 60 cycle current is the commercial norm but 50 cycle current is common in many
countries. Since AC is readily available in most facilities, it is convenient to make use of it for
magnetic particle inspection. However, when AC is used to induce a magnetic field in
ferromagnetic materials, the magnetic field will be limited to narrow region at the surface of the
component. This phenomenon is known as the "skin effect" and occurs because induction is not a
spontaneous reaction and the rapidly reversing current does not allow the domains below the
surface time to align. Therefore, it is recommended that AC be used only when the inspection is
limited to surface defects.

View a short video on the AC versus DC. (195 KB mov)

Rectified Alternating Current

Clearly, the skin effect limits the use of AC since many inspection applications call for the
detection of subsurface defects. However, the convenient access to AC, drives its use beyond
surface flaw inspections. Luckily, AC can be converted to current that is very much like DC
through the process of rectification. With the use of rectifiers, the reversing AC can be converted
to a one directional current. The three commonly used types of rectified current are described
below.

Half Wave Rectified Alternating Current (HWAC)

When single phase alternating current is passed through a rectifier, current is allowed to flow in
only one direction. The reverse half of each cycle is blocked out so that a one directional,
pulsating current is produced. The current rises from zero to a maximum and then returns to zero.
No current flows during the time when the reverse cycle is blocked out. The HWAC repeats at
same rate as the unrectified current (60 hertz typical). Since half of the current is blocked out, the
amperage is half of the unaltered AC.

This type of current is often referred to as half wave DC or pulsating DC. The pulsation of the
HWAC helps magnetic particle indications form by vibrating the particles and giving them
added mobility. This added mobility is especially important when using dry particles. The
pulsation is reported to significantly improve inspection sensitivity. HWAC is most often used to
power electromagnetic yokes.

Full Wave Rectified Alternating Current (FWAC) (Single Phase)

Full wave rectification inverts the negative current to positive current rather than blocking it out.
This produces a pulsating DC with no interval between the pulses. Filtering is usually performed
to soften the sharp polarity switching in the rectified current. While particle mobility is not as
good as half-wave AC due to the reduction in pulsation, the depth of the subsurface magnetic
field is improved.

Three Phase Full Wave Rectified Alternating Current

Three phase current is often used to power industrial equipment because it has more favorable
power transmission and line loading characteristics. This type of electrical current is also highly
desirable for magnetic particle testing because when it is rectified and filtered, the resulting
current very closely resembles direct current. Stationary magnetic particle equipment wired with
three phase AC will usually have the ability to magnetize with AC or DC (three phase full wave
rectified), providing the inspector with the advantages of each current form.

Longitudinal Magnetic Fields

Distribution and Intensity

When the length of a component is several times larger

than its diameter, a longitudinal magnetic field can be
established in the component. The component is often
placed longitudinally in the concentrated magnetic field
that fills the center of a coil or solenoid. This
magnetization technique is often referred to as a "coil
shot."

The magnetic field travels through the component from

end to end with some flux loss along its length as shown
in the image to the right. Keep in mind that the magnetic
lines of flux occur in three dimensions and are only
shown in 2D in the image. The magnetic lines of flux are
much denser inside the ferromagnetic material than in air
because ferromagnetic materials have much higher
permeability than does air. When the concentrated flux
within the material comes to the air at the end of the
component, it must spread out since the air can not
support as many lines of flux per unit volume. To keep
from crossing as they spread out, some of the magnetic
lines of flux are forced out the side of the component.

When a component is magnetized along its complete

length, the flux loss is small along its length. Therefore, when a component is uniform in cross
section and magnetic permeability, the flux density will be relatively uniform throughout the
component. Flaws that run normal to the magnetic lines of flux will disturb the flux lines and
often cause a leakage field at the surface of the component.

When a component with considerable length is magnetized using a solenoid, it is possible to

magnetize only a portion of the component. Only the material within the solenoid and about the
same width on each side of the solenoid will be strongly magnetized. At some distance from the
solenoid, the magnetic lines of force will abandon their longitudinal direction, leave the part at a
pole on one side of the solenoid and return to the part at a opposite pole on the other side of the
solenoid. This occurs because the magnetizing force diminishes with increasing distance from
the solenoid.  As a result, the magnetizing force may only be strong enough to align the magnetic
domains within and very near the solenoid. The unmagnetized portion of the component will not
support as much magnetic flux as the magnetized portion and some of the flux will be forced out
of the part as illustrated in the image below. Therefore, a long component must be magnetized
and inspected at several locations along its length for complete inspection coverage.
Solenoid - An electrically energized coil of insulated wire, which produces a magnetic field
within the coil.

Circular Magnetic Fields

Distribution and Intensity

As discussed previously, when current is passed through a solid conductor, a magnetic field
forms in and around the conductor. The following statements can be made about the distribution
and intensity of the magnetic field.

 The field strength varies from zero at the center of the component to a maximum at the
surface.
 The field strength at the surface of the conductor decreases as the radius of the conductor
increases when the current strength is held constant. (However, a larger conductor is
capable of carrying more current.)
 The field strength outside the conductor is directly proportional to the current strength.
Inside the conductor, the field strength is dependent on the current strength, magnetic
permeability of the material, and if magnetic, the location on the B-H curve.
 The field strength outside the conductor decreases with distance from the conductor.

In the images below, the magnetic field strength is graphed versus distance from the center of the
conductor. It can be seen that in a nonmagnetic conductor carrying DC, the internal field strength
rises from zero at the center to a maximum value at the surface of the conductor. The external
field strength decrease with distance from the surface of the conductor. When the conductor is a
magnetic material, the field strength within the conductor is much greater than it was in the
nonmagnetic conductor. This is due to the permeability of the magnetic material. The external
field is exactly the same for the two materials provided the current level and conductor radius are
the same.

The magnetic field distribution in and The magnetic field distribution in and around
around a solid conductor of a a solid conductor of a magnetic material
nonmagnetic material carrying direct carrying direct current.
 current.

When the conductor is carrying alternating current,

the internal magnetic field strength rises from zero at
the center to a maximum at the surface. However, the
field is concentrated in a thin layer near the surface of
the conductor. This is known as the "skin effect." The
skin effect is evident in the field strength versus
distance graph for a magnetic conductor shown to the
right. The external field decreases with increasing
distance from the surface as it does with DC. It should The magnetic field distribution in and
be remembered that with AC the field is constantly around a solid conductor of a magnetic
varying in strength and direction. material carrying alternating current.

In a hollow circular conductor there is no magnetic field in the void area. The magnetic field is
zero at the inside wall surface and rises until it reaches a maximum at the outside wall surface.
As with a solid conductor, when the conductor is a magnetic material, the field strength within
the conductor is much greater than it was in the nonmagnetic conductor due to the permeability
of the magnetic material. The external field strength decreases with distance from the surface of
the conductor. The external field is exactly the same for the two materials provided the current
level and conductor radius are the same.

The magnetic field distribution in and The magnetic field distribution in and around
around a hollow conductor of a a hollow conductor of a magnetic material
 nonmagnetic material carrying direct
carrying direct current.
current.

When AC is passed through a hollow circular

conductor, the skin effect concentrates the magnetic
field at the outside diameter of the component.
The magnetic field distribution in and
  around a hollow conductor of a magnetic
material carrying alternating current.
 

As can be seen in the field distribution images, the

field strength at the inside surface of hollow
conductor carrying a circular magnetic field produced
by direct magnetization is very low. Therefore, the
direct method of magnetization is not recommended
when inspecting the inside diameter wall of a hollow
component for shallow defects. The field strength
increases rather rapidly as one moves in from the ID,
so if the defect has significant depth, it may be
detectable. However, a much better method of The magnetic field distribution in and
magnetizing hollow components for inspection of the around a nonmagnetic central conductor
ID and OD surfaces is with the use of a central carrying DC inside a hollow conductor
conductor. As can be seen in the field distribution of a magnetic material .
image to the right, when current is passed through a
nonmagnetic central conductor (copper bar), the magnetic field produced on the inside diameter
surface of a magnetic tube is much greater and the field is still strong enough for defect detection
on the OD surface.

Demagnetization

After conducting a magnetic particle inspection, it is usually necessary to demagnetize the

component. Remanent magnetic fields can:

 affect machining by causing cuttings to cling to a component.

  interfere with electronic equipment such as a compass.
 create a condition known as "arc blow" in the welding process. Arc blow may cause the
weld arc to wonder or filler metal to be repelled from the weld.
 cause abrasive particles to cling to bearing or faying surfaces and increase wear.

Removal of a field may be accomplished in several ways. This random orientation of the
magnetic domains can be achieved most effectively by heating the material above its curie
temperature. The curie temperature for a low carbon steel is 770oC or 1390oF. When steel is
heated above its curie temperature, it will become austenitic and loses its magnetic properties.
When it is cooled back down, it will go through a reverse transformation and will contain no
residual magnetic field. The material should also be placed with it long axis in an east-west
orientation to avoid any influence of the Earth's magnetic field.

It is often inconvenient to heat a material above it curie

temperature to demagnetize it, so another method that
returns the material to a nearly unmagnetized state is
commonly used. Subjecting the component to a reversing
and decreasing magnetic field will return the dipoles to a
nearly random orientation throughout the material. This
can be accomplished by pulling a component out and
away from a coil with AC passing through it. The same
can also be accomplished using an electromagnetic yoke
with AC selected. Also, many stationary magnetic particle
inspection units come with a demagnetization feature that
slowly reduces the AC in a coil in which the component is
placed.

A field meter is often used to verify that the residual flux

has been removed from a component. Industry standards
usually require that the magnetic flux be reduced to less than 3 gauss after completing a magnetic
particle inspection.

Measuring Magnetic Fields

When performing a magnetic particle inspection, it is very important to be able to determine the
direction and intensity of the magnetic field. As discussed previously, the direction of the
magnetic field should be between 45 and 90 degrees to the longest dimension of the flaw for best
detectability. The field intensity must be high enough to cause an indication to form, but not too
high to cause nonrelevant indications to mask relevant indications. To cause an indication to
form, the field strength in the object must produce a flux leakage field that is strong enough to
hold the magnetic particles in place over a discontinuity. Flux measurement devices can provide
important information about the field strength.

Since it is impractical to measure the actual field strength within the material, all the devices
measure the magnetic field that is outside of the material. There are a number of different
devices that can be used to detect and measure an external magnetic field. The two devices
commonly used in magnetic particle inspection are the field indicator and the Hall-effect meter,
which is also called a gauss meter. Pie gauges and shims are devices that are often used to
provide an indication of the field direction and strength but do not actually yield a quantitative
measure. They will be discussed in a later section.

Field Indicators
Field indicators are small mechanical devices that utilize a soft iron
vane that is deflected by a magnetic field. The X-ray image below
shows the inside working of a field meter looking in from the side.
The vane is attached to a needle that rotates and moves the pointer for
the scale. Field indicators can be adjusted and calibrated so that
quantitative information can be obtained.
However, the measurement range of field
indicators is usually small due to the
mechanics of the device. The one shown to
the right has a range from plus 20 gauss to
minus 20 gauss. This limited range makes
them best suited for measuring the residual
magnetic field after demagnetization.

A field indicator is shown checking for

residual magnetism in this movie. (194 MB
mov)

Hall-Effect (Gauss/Tesla) Meter

A Hall-effect meter is an electronic device that
provides a digital readout of the magnetic field
strength in gauss or tesla units. The meters use a
very small conductor or semiconductor element at
the tip of the probe. Electric current is passed
through the conductor. In a magnetic field, a force
is exerted on the moving electrons which tends to
push them to one side of the conductor. A buildup
of charge at the sides of the conductors will
balance this magnetic influence, producing a
measurable voltage between the two sides of the
conductor. The presence of this measurable
transverse voltage is called the Hall-effect after
Edwin H. Hall, who discovered it in 1879.
The voltage generated Vh can be related to the external
magnetic field by the following equation.

Vh = I B R h / b

Where:
Vh is the voltage generated.
I is the applied direct current.
B is the component of the magnetic field that is at a right
angle to the direct current in the Hall element.
Rh is the Hall Coefficient of the Hall element.
b is the thickness of the Hall element.

Probes are available with either tangential (transverse) or

axial sensing elements. Probes can be purchased in a wide
variety of sizes and configurations and with different
measurement ranges. The probe is placed in the magnetic
field such that the magnetic lines of force intersect the major
dimensions of the sensing element at a right angle. Placement
and orientation of the probe is very important and will be discussed in a later section.

Portable Magnetizing Equipment for

Magnetic Particle Inspection

To properly inspect a part for cracks or other defects, it is important to become familiar with the
different types of magnetic fields and the equipment used to generate them. As discussed
previously, one of the primary requirements for detecting a defect in a ferromagnetic material is
that the magnetic field induced in the part must intercept the defect at a 45 to 90 degree angle.
Flaws that are normal (90 degrees) to the magnetic field will produce the strongest indications
because they disrupt more of the magnet flux.

Magnetic Fields:
A field of force that exists around a magnetic body or a current carrying conductor.
Therefore, for proper inspection of a component, it is important to be able to establish a magnetic
field in at least two directions. A variety of equipment exists to establish the magnetic field for
MPI. One way to classify equipment is based on its portability. Some equipment is designed to
be portable so that inspections can be made in the field and some is designed to be stationary for
ease of inspection in the laboratory or manufacturing facility. Portable equipment will be
discussed first.

Permanent magnets
Permanent magnets are sometimes used for magnetic
particle inspection as the source of magnetism. The two
primary types of permanent magnets are bar magnets and
horseshoe (yoke) magnets. These industrial magnets are
usually very strong and may require significant strength to
remove them from a piece of metal. Some permanent
magnets require over 50 pounds of force to remove them
from the surface. Because it is difficult to remove the
magnets from the component being inspected, and
sometimes difficult and dangerous to place the magnets,
their use is not particularly popular. However, permanent
magnets are sometimes used by divers for inspection in
underwater environments or other areas, such as explosive
environments, where electromagnets cannot be used.
Permanent magnets can also be made small enough to fit
into tight areas where electromagnets might not fit.

Electromagnets
Today, most of the equipment used to create
the magnetic field used in MPI is based on
electromagnetism. That is, using an electrical
current to produce the magnetic field. An
electromagnetic yoke is a very common piece
of equipment that is used to establish a
magnetic field. It is basically made by
wrapping an electrical coil around a piece of
soft ferromagnetic steel. A switch is included
in the electrical circuit so that the current and, therefore, the magnetic field can be turned on and
off. They can be powered with alternating current from a wall socket or by direct current from a
battery pack. This type of magnet generates a very strong magnetic field in a local area where the
poles of the magnet touch the part being inspected. Some yokes can lift weights in excess of 40
pounds.

Portable yoke with battery pack Portable magnetic particle kit

View a short movie on portable magnetic yokes. (716 KB mov)

Prods
Prods are handheld electrodes that are pressed against
the surface of the component being inspected to make
contact for passing electrical current through the
metal. The current passing between the prods creates a
circular magnetic field around the prods that can be
used in magnetic particle inspection. Prods are
typically made from copper and have an insulated
handle to help protect the operator. One of the prods
has a trigger switch so that the current can be quickly
and easily turned on and off. Sometimes the two prods
are connected by any insulator (as shown in the
image) to facilitate one hand operation. This is
referred to as a dual prod and is commonly used for
weld inspections.

If proper contact is not maintained between the prods and the component surface, electrical
arcing can occur and cause damage to the component. For this reason, the use of prods are not
allowed when inspecting aerospace and other critical components. To help prevent arcing, the
prod tips should be inspected frequently to ensure that they are not oxidized, covered with scale
or other contaminant, or damaged.

The following applet shows two prods used to create a current through a conducting part. The
resultant magnetic field roughly depicts the patterns expected from an magnetic particle
inspection of an unflawed surface. The user is encouraged to manipulate the prods to orient the
magnetic field to "cut across" suspected defects.

Portable Coils and Conductive Cables

Coils and conductive cables are used to establish a longitudinal magnetic field within a
component. When a preformed coil is used, the component is placed against the inside surface on
the coil. Coils typically have three or five turns of a copper cable within the molded frame. A
foot switch is often used to energize the coil. Conductive cables are wrapped around the
component. The cable used is typically 00 extra flexible or 0000 extra flexible. The number of
wraps is determined by the magnetizing force needed and of course, the length of the cable.
Normally, the wraps are kept as close together as possible. When using a coil or cable wrapped
into a coil, amperage is usually expressed in ampere-turns. Ampere-turns is the amperage shown
on the amp meter times the number of turns in the coil.

Portable Coil Conductive Cable

Watch these short movies showing a cable being used to establish magnetic fields in parts. 
Cable wrapped around part (690 KB mov). Cable wrapped through the part (425 KB mov).
Portable Power Supplies
Portable power supplies are used to provide the necessary electricity to the prods, coils or cables.
Power supplies are commercially available in a variety of sizes. Small power supplies generally
provide up to 1,500A of half-wave direct current or alternating current when used with a 4.5
meter 0000 cable. They are small and light enough to be carried and operate on either 120V or
240V electrical service. When more power is necessary, mobile power supplies can be used.
These units come with wheels so that they can be rolled where needed. These units also operate
on 120V or 240V electrical service and can provide up to 6,000A of AC or half-wave DC when
9 meters or less of 0000 cable is used.

Stationary Equipment for

Magnetic Particle Inspection

Stationary magnetic particle inspection equipment

is designed for use in laboratory or production
environment. The most common stationary system
is the wet horizontal (bench) unit. Wet horizontal
units are designed to allow for batch inspections of
a variety of components. The units have head and
tail stocks (similar to a lathe) with electrical contact
that the part can be clamped between.   A circular
magnetic field is produced with direct
magnetization. The tail stock can be moved and
locked into place to accommodate parts of various
lengths. To assist the operator in clamping the parts,
the contact on the headstock can be moved
pneumatically via a foot switch.

Most units also have a movable coil that can be moved into place so the indirect magnetization
can be used to produce a longitudinal magnetic field. Most coils have five turns and can be
obtained in a variety of sizes. The wet magnetic particle solution is collected and held in a tank.
A pump and hose system is used to apply the particle solution to the components being
inspected. Either the visible or fluorescent particles can be used. Some of the systems offer a
variety of options in electrical current used for magnetizing the component. The operator has the
option to use AC, half wave DC, or full wave DC. In some units, a demagnetization feature is
built in, which uses the coil and decaying AC.

To inspect a part using a head-shot, the part is clamped

between two electrical contact pads. The magnetic
solution, called a bath, is then flowed over the surface of
the part. The bath is then interrupted and a magnetizing
current is applied to the part for a short duration, typically
0.5 to 1.5 seconds. (Precautions should be taken to prevent
burning or overheating of the part.) A circular field
flowing around the circumference of the part is created. Leakage fields from defects then attract
the particles to form indications.

When the coil is used to establish a longitudinal magnetic

field within the part, the part is placed on the inside
surface of the coil. Just as done with a head shot, the bath
is then flowed over the surface of the part. A magnetizing
current is applied to the part for a short duration, typically
0.5 to 1.5 seconds, just after coverage with the bath is
interrupted. (Precautions should be taken to prevent
burning or overheating of the part.) Leakage fields from
defects attract the particles to form visible indications.

The wet horizontal

unit can also be used to establish a circular magnetic
field using a central conductor. This type of a setup is used
to inspect parts that have an open center, such as gears,
tubes, and other ring-shaped objects. A central
conductor is an electrically conductive bar that is
usually made of copper or aluminum. The bar is
inserted through the opening and the bar is then clamped
between the contact pads. When current is passed through
the central conductor, a circular magnetic field
flows around the bar and enters into the part or parts
being inspected.

Multidirectional Equipment for

Magnetic Particle Inspection

Multidirectional units allow the component to

be magnetized in two directions,
longitudinally and circumferentially, in rapid
succession. Therefore, inspections are
conducted without the need for a second shot.
In multidirectional units, the two fields are
balanced so that the field strengths are equal
in both directions. These quickly changing
balanced fields produce a multidirectional
field in the component providing detection of
defects lying in more than one direction.
Just as in conventional wet-horizontal systems, the electrical current used in multidirectional
magnetization may be alternating, half-wave direct, or full-wave. It is also possible to use a
combination of currents depending on the test applications. Multidirectional magnetization can
be used for a large number of production applications, and high volume inspections.

To determine adequate field strength and balance of the rapidly changing fields, technique
development requires a little more effort when multidirectional equipment is used. It is desirable
to develop the technique using a component with known defects oriented in at least two
directions, or a manufactured defect standard. Quantitative Quality Indicators (QQI) are also
often used to verify the strength and direction of magnetic fields.

Lights for
Magnetic Particle Inspection

Magnetic particle inspection can be performed

using particles that are highly visible under white
light conditions or particles that are highly visible
under ultraviolet light conditions. When an
inspection is being performed using the visible
color contrast particles, no special lighting is
required as long as the area of inspection is well
lit. A light intensity of at least 1000 lux (100 fc) is
recommended when visible particles are used, but
a variety of light sources can be used.

When fluorescent particles are used, special

ultraviolet light must be used. Fluorescence is
defined as the property of emitting radiation as a
result of and during exposure to radiation.
Particles used in fluorescent magnetic particle
inspections are coated with a material that produces light in the visible spectrum when exposed
to near-ultraviolet light. This "particle glow" provides high contrast indications on the
component anywhere particles collect. Particles that fluoresce yellow-green are most common
because this color matches the peak sensitivity of the human eye under dark conditions.
However, particles that fluoresce red, blue, yellow, and green colors are available.

Ultraviolet Light
Ultraviolet light or "black light" is light in the 1,000 to 4,000 Angstroms (100 to 400nm)
wavelength range in the electromagnetic spectrum. It is a very energetic form of light that is
invisible to the human eye. Wavelengths above 4,000A fall into the visible light spectrum and
are seen as the color violet. UV is separated according to wavelength into three classes: A, B,
and C. The shorter the wavelength, the more energy that is carried in the light and the more
dangerous it is to the human cells.

Class Wavelength Range

UV-A 3,200–4,000 Angstroms
 UV-B 2,800–3,200 Angstroms
UV-C 2,800–1,000 Angstroms

The desired wavelength range for use in nondestructive testing is between 3,500 and 3,800A
with a peak wavelength at about 3,650A. This wavelength range is used because it is in the UV-
A range, which is the safest to work with. UV-B will do an effective job of causing substances to
fluoresce, however, it should not be used because harmful effects such as skin burns and eye
damage can occur. This wavelength of radiation is found in the arc created during the welding
process. UV-C (1,000 to 2,800A) is even more dangerous to living cells and is used to kill
bacteria in industrial and medical settings.

The desired wavelength range for use in NDT is obtained by filtering the ultraviolet light
generated by the light bulb. The output of a UV bulb spans a wide range of wavelengths. The
short wavelengths of 3,120 to 3,340A are produced in low levels. A peak wavelength of 3650A
is produced at a very high intensity. Wavelengths in the visible violet range (4050A to 4350A),
green-yellow (5460A), yellow (6220A) and orange (6770A) are also usually produced. The filter
allows only radiation in the range of 3200 to 4000A and a little visible dark purple to pass.

Basic Ultraviolet Lights

UV bulbs come in a variety of shapes and sizes. The more common types are the low pressure
tube, high pressure spot, the high pressure flood types. The tubular black light is similar in
construction to the tubular fluorescent lights used for office or home illumination. These lights
use a low pressure mercury vapor arc. Tube lengths of 6 to 48 inches are common. The low
pressure bulbs are most often used to provide general illumination to large areas rather than for
illumination of components to be inspected. These bulbs generate a relatively large amount of
white light, which is concerning since inspection specifications require less than two foot-
candles of white light at the inspection surface.

Flood lights are also used to illuminate the inspection

area, since they provide even illumination over a large
area. Intensity levels for flood lamps are relatively low
because the energy is spread over a large area. They
generally do not generate the required UV light intensity
at the given distance that specifications require.

Spot lights, on the other hand, provide concentrated

energy that can be directed to the area of inspection. A
spot light will generate a six inch diameter circle of high
intensity light when held fifteen inches from the
inspection surface. One hundred watt mercury vapor
lights are most commonly used, but higher wattages are
available.

In the high pressure mercury vapor spot or flood lamps, UV light is generated by a quartz tube
inside the bulb. This tube contains two electrodes that establish an arc. The distance between
electrodes is such that a starting electrode must be used. A resister limits the current to the
starting electrode that establishes the initial arc that vaporizes the mercury in the tube. Once this
low level arc is established and the mercury is vaporized, the arc between the main electrodes is
established. It takes approximately five minutes to "warm up" and establish the arc between the
main electrodes. This is why specifications require a "warm up time" before using the high
pressure mercury vapor lights. Flood and spot black lights produce large amounts of heat and
should be handled with caution to prevent burns. This condition has been eliminated by newer
designs that include cooling fans. The arc in the bulb can be upset when exposed to an external
magnetic field, such as that generated by a coil. Care should be taken not to bring the lamp close
to strong magnetic fields, but if the arc is upset and extinguished, it must be allowed to cool
before it can be safely restarted.

High Intensity Ultraviolet Lights

The 400 watt metal halide bulbs or "super lights" can be
found in some facilities. This super bright light will
provide adequate lighting over an area of up to ten times
that covered by the 100 watt bulb. Due to their high
intensity, excessive light reflecting from the surface of a
component is a concern. Moving the light a greater
distance from the inspection area will generally reduce
this glare. Another type of high intensity light available is
the micro-discharge light. This particular light produces
up to ten times the amount of UV light conventional
lights produce. Readings of up to 60,000 uW/cm2 at 15
inches can be achieved.

Magnetic Field Indicators

Determining whether a magnetic field is of adequate strength and in the proper direction is
critical when performing magnetic particle testing. As discussed previously, knowing the
direction of the field is important because the field should be as close to perpendicular to the
defect as possible and no more than 45 degrees from normal. Being able to evaluate the field
direction and strength is especially important when inspecting with a multidirectional machine,
because when the fields are not balanced properly, a vector field will be produced that may not
detect some defects.

There is actually no easy-to-apply method that permits an exact measurement of field intensity at
a given point within a material. In order to measure the field strength, it is necessary to intercept
the flux lines. This is impossible without cutting into the material and cutting the material would
immediately change the field within the part. However, cutting a small slot or hole into the
material and measuring the leakage field that crosses the air gap with a Gauss meter is probably
the best way to get an estimate of the actual field strength within a part. Nevertheless, there are a
number of tools and methods available that are used to determine the presence and direction of
the field surrounding a component.

Gauss Meter or Hall Effect Gage

A Gauss meter with a Hall Effect probe is commonly used to measure the tangential field
strength on the surface of the part. As discussed in some detail on the "Measuring Magnetic
Fields" page, the Hall effect is the transverse electric field created in a conductor when placed in
a magnetic field. Gauss meters, also called Tesla meters, are used to measure the strength of a
field tangential to the surface of the magnetized test object. The meters measure the intensity of
the field in the air adjacent to the component when a magnetic field is applied.

The advantages of Hall effect devices are: they provide a quantitative measure of the strength of
magnetizing force tangential to the surface of a test piece, they can be used for measurement of
residual magnetic fields, and they can be used repetitively. Their main disadvantages are that
they must be periodically calibrated and they cannot be used to establish the balance of fields in
multidirectional applications.

Quantitative Quality Indicator (QQI)

The Quantitative Quality Indicator (QQI) or Artificial Flaw Standard is often the preferred
method of assuring proper field direction and adequate field strength. The use of a QQI is also
the only practical way of ensuring balanced field intensity and direction in multiple-direction
magnetization equipment. QQIs are often used in conjunction with a Gauss meter to establish the
inspection procedure for a particular component. They are used with the wet method only, and
like other flux sharing devices, can only be used with continuous magnetization.

The QQI is a thin strip of either 0.002 or 0.004 inch thick AISI 1005 steel. A photoetch process
is used to inscribe a specific pattern, such as concentric circles or a plus sign. QQIs are
nominally 3/4 inch square, but miniature shims are also available. QQIs must be in intimate
contact with the part being evaluated. This is accomplished by placing the shim on a part etched
side down, and taping or gluing it to the surface. The component is then magnetized and particles
applied. When the field strength is adequate, the particles will adhere over the engraved pattern
and provide information about the field direction. When a multidirectional technique is used, a
balance of the fields is noted when all areas of the QQI produce indications.

Some of the advantages of QQIs are: they can be quantified and related to other parameters, they
can accommodate virtually any configuration with suitable selection, and they can be reused with
careful application and removal practices. Some of the disadvantages are: the application process
is somewhat slow, the parts must be clean and dry, shims cannot be used as a residual magnetism
indicator as they are a flux sharing device, they can be easily damaged with improper handling,
and they will corrode if not cleaned and properly stored.
Above left is a photo of a typical QQI shim. The photo on the right shows the indication
produced by the QQI when it is applied to the surface a part and a magnetic field is established
that runs across the shim from right to left.

Pie Gage

The pie gage is a disk of highly permeable material divided into four, six, or eight sections by
nonferromagnetic material. The divisions serve as artificial defects that radiate out in different
directions from the center. The diameter of the gage is 3/4 to 1 inch. The divisions between the
low carbon steel pie sections are to be no greater than 1/32 inch. The sections are furnace brazed
and copper plated. The gage is placed on the test piece copper side up and the test piece is
magnetized. After particles are applied and the excess removed, the indications provide the
inspector the orientation of the magnetic field.

The principal application is on flat surfaces such as weldments or steel castings where dry
powder is used with a yoke or prods. The pie gage is not recommended for precision parts with
complex shapes, for wet-method applications, or for proving field magnitude. The gage should
be demagnetized between readings.

Several of the main advantages of the pie gage are that it is easy to use and it can be used
indefinitely without deterioration. The pie gage has several disadvantages, which include: it
retains some residual magnetism so indications will prevail after removal of the source of
magnetization, it can only be used in relatively flat areas, and it cannot be reliably used for
determination of balanced fields in multidirectional magnetization.

Watch this short movie to see a Pie field gage in action (600KB mov).

Slotted Strips

Slotted strips, also known as Burmah-Castrol Strips, are pieces of highly permeable
ferromagnetic material with slots of different widths. They are placed on the test object as it is
inspected. The indications produced on the strips give the inspector a general idea of the field
strength in a particular area.

Advantages of these strips are: they are relatively easily applied to the component, they can be
used successfully with either the wet or dry method when using the continuous magnetization,
they are repeatable as long as orientation to the magnetic field is maintained, and they can be
used repetitively. Some of the disadvantages are that they cannot be bent to complex
configuration and they are not suitable for multidirectional field applications since they indicate
defects in only one direction.

Magnetic Particles

As mentioned previously, the particles that are used for magnetic particle inspection are a key
ingredient as they form the indications that alert the inspector to defects. Particles start out as
tiny milled (a machining process) pieces of iron or iron oxide. A pigment (somewhat like paint)
is bonded to their surfaces to give the particles color. The metal used for the particles has high
magnetic permeability and low retentivity. High magnetic permeability is important because it
makes the particles attract easily to small magnetic leakage fields from discontinuities, such as
flaws. Low retentivity is important because the particles themselves never become strongly
magnetized so they do not stick to each other or the surface of the part. Particles are available in
a dry mix or a wet solution.

Dry Magnetic Particles

Dry magnetic particles can typically be purchased in red,
black, gray, yellow and several other colors so that a high
level of contrast between the particles and the part being
inspected can be achieved. The size of the magnetic
particles is also very important. Dry magnetic particle
products are produced to include a range of particle sizes.
The fine particles are around 50 m (0.002 inch) in size,
and are about three times smaller in diameter and more
than 20 times lighter than the coarse particles (150 m or
0.006 inch).  This make them more sensitive to the
leakage fields from very small discontinuities. However,
dry testing particles cannot be made exclusively of the
fine particles. Coarser particles are needed to bridge large discontinuities and to reduce the
powder's dusty nature. Additionally, small particles easily adhere to surface contamination, such
as remnant dirt or moisture, and get trapped in surface roughness features.  It should also be
recognized that finer particles will be more easily blown away by the wind; therefore, windy
conditions can reduce the sensitivity of an inspection. Also, reclaiming the dry particles is not
recommended because the small particles are less likely to be recaptured and the "once used"
mix will result in less sensitive inspections.

The particle shape is also important. Long, slender

particles tend align themselves along the lines of magnetic
force. However, research has shown that if dry powder
consists only of long, slender particles, the application
process would be less than desirable. Elongated particles
come from the dispenser in clumps and lack the ability to
flow freely and form the desired "cloud" of particles
floating on the component. Therefore, globular particles
are added that are shorter. The mix of globular and
elongated particles result in a dry powder that flows well
and maintains good sensitivity. Most dry particle mixes
have particles with L/D ratios between one and two.

Wet Magnetic Particles

Magnetic particles are also supplied in a wet suspension such as water or oil. The wet magnetic
particle testing method is generally more sensitive than the dry because the suspension provides
the particles with more mobility and makes it possible for smaller particles to be used since dust
and adherence to surface contamination is reduced or eliminated. The wet method also makes it
easy to apply the particles uniformly to a relatively large area.

Wet method magnetic particles products differ from dry powder products in a number of ways.
One way is that both visible and fluorescent particles are available. Most nonfluorescent particles
are ferromagnetic iron oxides, which are either black or brown in color. Fluorescent particles are
coated with pigments that fluoresce when exposed to ultraviolet light. Particles that fluoresce
green-yellow are most common to take advantage of the peak color sensitivity of the eye but
other fluorescent colors are also available. (For more information on the color sensitivity of the
eye...see the material on penetrant inspection.)
The particles used with the wet method are smaller in size than those used in the dry method for
the reasons mentioned above. The particles are typically 10 m (0.0004 inch) and smaller and
the synthetic iron oxides have particle diameters around 0.1 m (0.000004 inch). This very small
size is a result of the process used to form the particles and is not particularly desirable, as the
particles are almost too fine to settle out of suspension. However, due to their slight residual
magnetism, the oxide particles are present mostly in clusters that settle out of suspension much
faster than the individual particles. This makes it possible to see and measure the concentration
of the particles for process control purposes. Wet particles are also a mix of long slender and
globular particles.

The carrier solutions can be water or oil-based. Water-based carriers form quicker indications,
are generally less expensive, present little or no fire hazard, give off no petrochemical fumes, and
are easier to clean from the part. Water-based solutions are usually formulated with a corrosion
inhibitor to offer some corrosion protection. However, oil-based carrier solutions offer superior
corrosion and hydrogen embrittlement protection to those materials that are prone to attack by
these mechanisms.

Suspension Liquids

Suspension liquids used in the wet magnetic particle

inspection method can be either a well refined light
petroleum distillate or water containing additives.
Petroleum-based liquids are the most desirable
carriers because they provided good wetting of the
surface of metallic parts. However, water-based
carriers are used more because of low cost, low fire
hazard, and the ability to form indications quicker
than solvent-based carriers. Water-based carriers
must contain wetting agents to disrupt surface films
of oil that may exist on the part and to aid in the
dispersion of magnetic particles in the carrier. The
wetting agents create foaming as the solution is
moved about, so anti-foaming agents must be added.
Also, since water promotes corrosion in ferrous materials, corrosion inhibitors are usually added
as well.

Petroleum based carriers are primarily used in systems where maintaining the proper particle
concentration is a concern. The petroleum based carriers require less maintenance because they
evaporate at a slower rate than the water-based carriers. Therefore, petroleum based carriers
might be a better choice for a system that gets only occasional use or when regularly adjusting
the carrier volume is undesirable. Modern solvent carriers are specifically designed with
properties that have flash points above 200oF and keep nocuous vapors low. Petroleum carriers
are required to meet certain specifications such as AMS 2641.

Dry Particle Inspection

In this magnetic particle testing technique, dry particles
are dusted onto the surface of the test object as the item is
magnetized. Dry particle inspection is well suited for the
inspections conducted on rough surfaces. When an
electromagnetic yoke is used, the AC or half wave DC
current creates a pulsating magnetic field that provides
mobility to the powder. The primary applications for dry
powders are unground welds and rough as-cast surfaces.

Dry particle inspection is also used to detect shallow

subsurface cracks. Dry particles with half wave DC is the
best approach when inspecting for lack of root penetration
in welds of thin materials. Half wave DC with prods and
dry particles is commonly used when inspecting large
castings for hot tears and cracks.

Steps in performing an inspection using dry particles

Prepare the part surface - the surface should be

relatively clean but this is not as critical as it is with liquid penetrant inspection. The surface
must be free of grease, oil or other moisture that could keep particles from moving freely. A thin
layer of paint, rust or scale will reduce test sensitivity but can sometimes be left in place with
adequate results. Specifications often allow up to 0.003 inch (0.076 mm) of a nonconductive
coating (such as paint) and 0.001 inch max (0.025 mm) of a ferromagnetic coating (such as
nickel) to be left on the surface. Any loose dirt, paint, rust or scale must be removed.
Apply the magnetizing force - Use permanent magnets, an electromagnetic yoke, prods, a coil
or other means to establish the necessary magnetic flux.
Dust on the dry magnetic particles - Dust on a light layer of magnetic particles.
Gently blow off the excess powder - With the magnetizing force still applied, remove the
excess powder from the surface with a few gentle puffs of dry air. The force of the air needs to
be strong enough to remove the excess particles but not strong enough to dislodge particles held
by a magnetic flux leakage field.
Terminate the magnetizing force - If the magnetic flux is being generated with an
electromagnet or an electromagnetic field, the magnetizing force should be terminated. If
permanent magnets are being used, they can be left in place.
Inspect for indications - Look for areas where the magnetic particles are clustered.

Wet Suspension Inspection

Wet suspension magnetic particle inspection,

more commonly known as wet magnetic particle
inspection, involves applying the particles while
they are suspended in a liquid carrier. Wet
magnetic particle inspection is most commonly
performed using a stationary, wet, horizontal
inspection unit but suspensions are also available
in spray cans for use with an electromagnetic yoke. A wet inspection has several advantages over
a dry inspection. First, all of the surfaces of the component can be quickly and easily covered
with a relatively uniform layer of particles. Second, the liquid carrier provides mobility to the
particles for an extended period of time, which allows enough particles to float to small leakage
fields to form a visible indication. Therefore, wet inspection is considered best for detecting very
small discontinuities on smooth surfaces. On rough surfaces, however, the particles (which are
much smaller in wet suspensions) can settle in the surface valleys and lose mobility, rendering
them less effective than dry powders under these conditions.

Steps in performing an inspection using wet suspensions

Prepare the part surface - Just as is required with dry particle inspections, the surface should
be relatively clean. The surface must be free of grease, oil and other moisture that could prevent
the suspension from wetting the surface and preventing the particles from moving freely. A thin
layer of paint, rust or scale will reduce test sensitivity, but can sometimes be left in place with
adequate results. Specifications often allow up to 0.003 inch (0.076 mm) of a nonconductive
coating (such as paint) and 0.001 inch max (0.025 mm) of a ferromagnetic coating (such as
nickel) to be left on the surface. Any loose dirt, paint, rust or scale must be removed.
Apply the suspension - The suspension is gently sprayed or flowed over the surface of the part.
Usually, the stream of suspension is diverted from the part just before the magnetizing field is
applied.
Apply the magnetizing force - The magnetizing force should be applied immediately after
applying the suspension of magnetic particles. When using a wet horizontal inspection unit, the
current is applied in two or three short busts (1/2 second) which helps to improve particle
mobility.
Inspect for indications - Look for areas where the magnetic particles are clustered. Surface
discontinuities will produce a sharp indication. The indications from subsurface flaws will be
less defined and lose definition as depth increases.

Inspection Using Magnetic Rubber

The magnetic rubber technique was developed for detecting very fine cracks and is capable of
revealing finer cracks than other magnetic techniques. Additionally, the technique can be use to
examine difficult to reach areas, such as the threads on the inside diameter of holes, where the
molded plugs can be removed and examined under ideal conditions and magnification if desired.
The tradeoff, of course, is that inspection times are much longer.

The techniques uses a liquid (uncured) rubber containing suspended magnetic particles. The
rubber compound is applied to the area to be inspected on a magnetized component. Inspections
can be performed using either an applied magnetic field, which is maintained while the rubber
sets (active field), or the residual field from magnetization of the component prior to pouring the
compound. A dam of modeling clay is often used to contain the compound in the region of
interest. The magnetic particles migrate to the leakage field caused by a discontinuity. As the
rubber cures, discontinuity indications remain in place on the rubber.
The rubber is allowed to completely set, which takes from 10 to 30 minutes. The rubber cast is
removed from the part. The rubber conforms to the surface contours and provides a reverse
replica of the surface. The rubber cast is examined for evidence of discontinuities, which appear
as dark lines on the surface of the molding. The molding can be retained as a permanent record
of the inspection.

Magnetic rubber methods requires similar magnetizing systems used for dry method magnetic
particle tests. The system may include yokes, prods, clamps, coils or central conductors.
Alternating, direct current, or permanent magnets may be used to draw the particles to the
leakage fields. The direct current yoke is the most common magnetization source for magnetic
rubber inspection.

Continuous and Residual

Magnetization Techniques

In magnetic particle inspection, the magnetic particles

can either be applied to the component while the
magnetizing force is applied, or after it has been stopped.
Continuous magnetization describes the technique where
the magnetizing force is applied and maintained while
the magnetic particles are dusted or flowed onto the
surface of the component. In a wet horizontal testing
unit, the application of the particles is stopped just before
the magnetizing force is applied; but, since particles are
still flowing over and covering the surface, this is
considered continuous magnetization. Residual
magnetization, on the other hand, describes the technique
where the magnetizing force is applied to magnetize the
component and then stopped before applying the
magnetic particles. Only the residual field of the magnetized component is used to attract
magnetic particles and produce an indication.

The continuous technique is generally chosen when maximum sensitivity is required because it
has two distinct advantages over the residual technique. First, the magnetic flux will be highest
when current is flowing and, therefore, leakage fields will also be strongest. Field strength in a
component depends primarily on two variables: the applied magnetic field strength and the
permeability of the test object. Viewing the upper right portion of the hysteresis loop below, it is
evident that the magnetic flux will be the strongest when the magnetizing force is applied. If the
magnetizing force is strong enough, the flux density will reach the point of saturation. When the
magnetizing force is removed, the flux density will drop to the retentivity point. The two gray
traces show the paths the flux density would follow if the magnetizing force was applied and
removed at levels below that required to reach saturation. It can be seen that the flux density is
always highest while the magnetizing current is applied. This is independent of the permeability
of a material.

 
However, the permeability of the material is very important. High permeability materials do not
retain a strong magnetic field so flux leakage fields will be extremely weak or nonexistent when
the magnetizing force is removed. Therefore, materials with high magnetic permeability are not
suited for inspection using the residual technique. When the residual technique is used to inspect
materials with low permeability, care should be taken to ensure that the residual field is of the
necessary strength to produce an indication. Defects should be relatively large and surface
breaking to have a high probability of detection using the residual method.

The second advantage of the continuous technique is that when current is used to generate the
magnetizing force, it can provide added particle mobility. Alternating or pulsed direct current
will cause the particles to vibrate and move slightly on the surface of the part. This movement
allows the particles to travel to leakage sites. More particles mean brighter indications compared
to those formed using the residual technique.

One disadvantage of the continuous method is that heating of the component occurs when using
direct magnetization. For example, when prods are used, they may create areas of localized
heating when the continuous technique is used. This may be acceptable on components that will
be further processed (removing this condition), but machined or in-service components may be
adversely affected by this condition.

While generally not recommended, the residual technique does have its uses. It is commonly
used in automated inspection systems to inspect materials with high retentivity. To speed
throughput, automated systems often magnetize the parts and then submerge them in an agitated
magnetic particle bath or pass them through a spray station. Closely controlled automated
systems provided good results using the residual magnetism technique.
 Field Direction and Intensity

Field Direction
As discussed previously, determining the direction of the field is important when conducting a
magnetic particle inspection because the defect must produce a significant disturbance in the
magnetic field to produce an indication. It is difficult to detect discontinuities that intersect the
magnetic field at an angle less than 45o. When the orientation of a defect is not well established,
components should be magnetized in a minimum of two directions at approximately right angles
to each other. Depending on the geometry of the component, this may require longitudinal
magnetization in two or more directions, multiple longitudinal and circular magnetization or
circular magnetization in multiple directions. Determining strength and direction of the fields is
especially critical when inspecting with a multidirectional machine. If the fields are not balanced,
a vector field will be produced that may not detect some defects.

Depending on the application, pie gages, QQI's, or a gauss meter can be used to check the field
direction. The pie gage is generally only used with dry powder inspections. QQI shims can be
used in a variety of applications but are the only method recommended for use in establishing
balanced fields when using multidirectional equipment.

Field Strength
The applied magnetic field must have sufficient strength to produce a satisfactory indication, but
not so strong that it produces nonrelevant indications or limits particle mobility. If the
magnetizing current is excessively high when performing a wet fluorescent particle inspection,
particles can be attracted to the surface of the part and not be allowed to migrate to the flux
leakage fields of defects. When performing a dry particle inspection, an excessive longitudinal
magnetic field will cause furring. Furring is when magnetic particles build up at the magnetic
poles of a part. When the field strength is excessive, the magnetic field is forced out of the part
before reaching the end of the component and the poles along its length attract particles and
cause high background levels. Adequate field strength may be determined by:

 performing an inspection on a standard specimen that is similar to the test component and
has known or artificial defects of the same type, size, and location as those expected in
the test component. QQI shims can sometimes be used as the artificial defects.
 using a gauss meter with a Hall effect probe to measure the peak values of the tangent
field at the surface of the part in the region of interest. Most specifications call for a field
strength of 30 to 60 gauss at the surface when the magnetizing force is applied.
 looking for light furring at the ends of pipes or bars when performing dry particle
inspections on these and other uncomplicated shapes.

Formulas for calculating current levels should only be used to estimate current requirements. The
magnetic field strength resulting from calculations should be assessed for adequacy using one of
the two method discussed above. Likewise, published current level information should also be
used only as a guide unless the values have been established for the specific component and
target defects of the inspection at hand.

Using a Pie Gage

A pie gage is placed copper side up and held in contact
with the component as the magnetic field and particles are
applied. Indications of the leakage fields provide a visual
representation of defect direction within the component.
Pie gages work well on flat surfaces, but if the surface is
concave or convex, inaccurate readings may occur. The
pie gage is a flux sharing device and requires good
contact to provide accurate readings.

Using Quantitative Quality Indicator (QQI) Shims

Quantitative Quality Indicator (QQI) flaw shims are used to establish proper field direction and
to ensure adequate field strength during technique development. The QQI flaw shim is the most
efficient means of determining balance and effectiveness of fields. The QQI's are also flux
sharing devices and must be properly attach so as not to allow particles to become trapped under
the artificial flaw. Application using Super glue is the preferred way of attaching the artificial
flaw, but does not allow for reuse of the shims. Shims can also be attached with tape applied to
just the edge of the shim. It is recommended that the tape be impervious to oil, not be
fluorescent, and be 1/4 to 1/2 inch in width.

The QQI must be applied to locations on the component where the flux density may vary. One
example would be the center area of a yoke or Y shaped component. Oftentimes, the flux density
will be near zero in this area. If two legs of a Y are in contact with the pad in circular
magnetization, it must be determined if current is flowing evenly through each leg. A QQI on
each leg would be appropriate under such conditions.

QQI's can be used to establish system threshold values for a defect of a given size. By attaching a
QQI shim with three circles (40%, 30% and 20% of shim thickness) to the component, threshold
values for a specific area of the component, can be established. Begin by applying current at a
low amperage and slowly increasing it until the largest flaw is obtained. The flux density should
be verified and recorded using a Hall effects probe. The current is then increased until the second
circle is identified and the flux density is again recorded. As the current is further increased, the
third ring is identified and the current values are recorded.

Hall Effects Gauss Meter

There are several types of Hall effects probes that can be

used to measure the magnetic field strength. Transverse
probes are the type most commonly used to evaluate the
field strength in magnetic particle testing. Transverse
probes have the Hall effect element mounted in a thin, flat
stem and they are used to make measurements between
two magnetic poles. Axial probes have the sensing
element mounted such that the magnetic flux in the
direction of the long axis of the probe is measured.
To make a measurement with a transverse probe, the probe is positioned such that the flat surface
of the Hall effect element is transverse to the magnetic lines of flux. The Hall effect voltage is a
function of the angle at which the magnetic lines of flux pass through the sensing element. The
greatest Hall effect voltage occurs when the lines of flux pass perpendicularly through the
sensing element. If not perpendicular, the output voltage is related to the cosine of the difference
between 90 degrees and the actual angle. The peak field strength should be measured when the
magnetizing force is applied. The field strength should be measured in all areas of the component
to be inspected.

Length to Diameter Ratio

When establishing a longitudinal magnetic field in component using a coil or cable wrap, the
ratio of its length (in the direction of the desired field) to its diameter or thickness must be taken
into consideration. If the length dimension is not significantly larger than the diameter or
thickness dimension, it is virtually impossible to establish a field strength strong enough to
produce an indication. An L/D ratio of at least two is usually required.

The formula for determining the necessary current levels presented in the appendix of ASTM
1444 are only useful if the L/D ratio is greater than two and less than 15. Don't forget that the
formula only provide an estimate of the necessary current strength and this strength must be
confirmed in other ways. The preferred method is to examine parts having known or artificial
discontinuities of similar type and size, and in the location of the targeted flaws; or by using
quantitative quality indicator (notched) shims. A second method is to use gaussmetter with a
tangential field Hall effect probe to measure the field strength, which must be in the range of 30
to 60 G.

Use of End Pieces

If the component does not meet the minimum L/D
ratio requirement, end pieces may be used to
essentially lengthen the component. The end pieces
must be the same diameter or thickness of the the
component under test and must made of ferromagnetic
material. Sometime it is possible to stack multiple
parts end to end to increase the L/D ratio. The parts
must butt fairly tightly together as shown in the
image.

The urge to inspect the entire length of butted parts at

one time must be resisted. This is urge is especially
strong when using a central conductor with wet-
horizontal equipment to inspect components such as nuts. To increase the efficiency of the
inspection, a number of nuts are often placed on a central conductor and a circular magnetic field
is established in the parts all at once. This is perfectly acceptable when inspecting the
components with a circular magnetic field. . However, when switching to a longitudinal field, it
is very tempting to simply slide the coil out so that it is centered on the stack of nuts, which are
left in place on the central conductor. This is unacceptable technique for a couple of reasons.
First, remember that the effective field extends a distance on either side of the coil center
approximately equal to the radius of the coil. Parts outside of the effective distance will not
receive adequate magnetization. The parts will need to be repositioned in the coil in order to
examine the entire length of the stack. An overlap area of about ten percent of the effective
magnetic field is required by most specifications. Additionally, if the central conductor is left
clamped in the stocks, the parts will be at the center of the coil where the field strength is the
weakest. The parts should be placed at the inside edge of the coil for best results.

Particle Concentration and Condition

Particle Concentration
The concentration of particles in the suspension is a very important
parameter in the inspection process and must be closely controlled. The
particle concentration is checked after the suspension is prepared and
regularly monitored as part of the quality system checks. ASTM E-1444-
01 requires concentration checks to be performed every eight hours or at
ever shift change.

The standard process used to perform the check requires agitating the
carrier for a minimum of thirty minutes to ensure even particle
distribution. A sample is then taken in a pear-shaped 100 ml centrifuge
tube having a stem graduated to 1.0 ml in 0.05 ml increments for
fluorescent particles, and graduated to 1.5 ml. in 0.1 ml increments for
visible particles. The sample is then demagnetized so that the particles do
not clump together while settling. The sample must then remain
undisturbed for a minimum of 60 minutes for a petroleum-based carrier
or 30 minutes for a water-based carrier, unless shorter times have been
documented to produce results similar to the longer settling times. The volume of settled
particles is then read. Acceptable ranges are 0.1 to 0.4 ml for fluorescent particles and 1.2 to 2.4
ml for visible particles. If the particle concentration is out of the acceptable range, particles or the
carrier must be added to bring the solution back in compliance with the requirement.

Particle loss is often attributed to "dragout." Dragout occurs because the

solvent easily runs off components and is recaptured in the holding tank.
Particles, on the other hand, tend to adhere to components, or be trapped in
geometric features of the component. These particles will be "drug out" or
lost to the system and will eventually need to be replaced.

Particle Condition
After the particles have settled, they should be examined for brightness and
agglomeration. Fluorescent particles should be evaluated under ultraviolet
light and visible particles under white light. The brightness of the particles
should be evaluated weekly by comparing the particles in the test solution
to those in an unused reference solution that was saved when the solution
was first prepared. The brightness of the two solutions should be relatively the same.
Additionally, the particles should appear loose and not lumped together. If the brightness or the
agglomeration of the particles is noticeably different from the reference solution, the bath should
be replaced.

Suspension Contamination

The suspension solution should also be examined for evidence of

contamination. Contamination primarily comes from inspected components.
Oils, greases, sand, and dirt will be introduced to the system through
components. If the area is unusually dusty, the system will pickup dust or
other contaminates from the environment.

This examination is performed on the carrier and particles collected for

concentration testing. The graduated portion of the tube is viewed under
ultraviolet and white light when fluorescent particles are being used, and
under white light when visible particles are being used. The magnetic
particles should be examined for foreign particles, such as dirt, paint chips
and other solids. Differences in color, layering or banding within the settled
particles would indicate contamination. Some contamination is to be expected but if the foreign
matter exceeds 30 percent of the settled solids, the solution should be replaced.

The liquid carrier portion of the solution should also be inspected for contamination. Oil in a
water bath and water in a solvent bath are the primary concerns. If the solution fluoresces
brightly when fluorescent particles are being used, this can be an indication that dye is being
dislodged from the particles by the mixing pump. While not technically contamination, this
condition should be further evaluated by allowing the collected sample bath to set for 10 to 12
hours and viewed under ultraviolet light. If a band that fluoresces brighter than the bulk of
particles is evident on top of the settled solids, the bath contains excessive unattached fluorescent
pigments and should be discarded.

Water Break Test

A daily water break check is required to evaluate the surface wetting performance of water-based
carriers. The water break check simply involves flooding a clean surface similar to those being
inspected and observing the surface film. If a continuous film forms over the entire surface,
sufficient wetting agent is present. If the film of suspension breaks (water break) exposing the
surface of the component, insufficient wetting agent is present and the solution should be
adjusted or replaced.

Electrical System Checks

Changes in the performance of the electrical system of a magnetic particle inspection unit can
obviously have an effect on the sensitivity of an inspection. Therefore, the electrical system must
be checked when the equipment is new, when a malfunction is suspected, or every six months.
Listed below are the verification tests required by ASTM E-1444-01.

Maximum Unit Output

A magnetic particle unit should be checked regularly (daily) to verify that the maximum current
output of its electrical system has not changed over time. This check is performed by placing a
large diameter (typically 1 inch or more) copper or aluminum bar between the contacts and
energizing the circuit with the current control set to the maximum value. The maximum
amperage as recorded by the system's ammeter should be noted and compared to the value
obtained when the unit was last certified or calibrated. A significant drop or gradual decay
indicates a problem with the unit that should be corrected.

Internal Short Test

The internal short circuit testing is required to determine the if current is "leaking past" the test
article. Internal electrical leakage will cause the test equipment to indicate current is flowing
through the component when it is actually bypassing the component. The process for checking
equipment for this condition is to energize the system with nothing between the contact heads
and the amperage set to the highest output. If the ammeter shows any current flow, internal
shorting should be suspected.

Ammeter Check
It is important that the ammeter provide consistent and correct readings. If the meter is reading
low, over magnetization will occur and possibly result in excessive background fluorescence. If
ammeter readings are high, flux density could be too low to produce detectable indications. To
verify ammeter accuracy, a calibrated ammeter is connected in series with the output circuit and
values are compared to the equipment's ammeter values. Readings are taken at three output
levels in the working range. The equipment meter is not to deviate from the calibrated ammeter
more than +/- 10 percent or 50 amperes, whichever is greater. If the meter is found to be outside
this range, the condition must be corrected. It should be noted that when measuring half-wave
rectified current, the readings should be doubled.

Quick Break Test

A quick break circuit is primarily used in three-phase, full-wave rectified systems to ensure
longitudinal magnetic fields maintain their strength to the end of a component. Quick break
circuits cause the current to abruptly collapse or drop to zero at the end of the activation cycle.
By doing this, low frequency eddy currents are produced close to the surface of a component.
These eddy currents help extend the useable longitudinal field to the ends of the component. To
determine if a quick break system is functioning properly, an oscilloscope is often used. By
observing the sine wave of the current, it can be determined if current drops abruptly when the
circuit is interrupted.

Shot Timer Check

When a timer is used to control the shot duration, the timer must be calibrated. ASTM E-1444
-01 requires the timer be calibrated to within +/- 0.1 second. A certified timer should be used to
verify the equipment timer is within the required tolerances.

Lighting

Magnetic particle inspection predominately relies on visual inspection to detect any indications
that form. Therefore, lighting is a very important element of the inspection process. Obviously,
the lighting requirements are different for an inspection conducted using visible particles than
they are for an inspection conducted using fluorescent particles. The lighting requirements for
each of these techniques, as well as how light measurements are made, is discussed below.

Light Requirements When Using Visible Particles

Magnetic particle inspections that use visible particles can be conducted using natural or
artificial lighting. When using natural lighting, it is important to keep in mind that daylight varies
from hour to hour. Inspector must constantly stay aware of the lighting conditions and make
adjustments when needed. To improve the uniformity of lighting from one inspection to the next,
the use of artificial lighting is recommended. Artificial lighting should be white whenever
possible and white flood or halogen lamps are most commonly used. The light intensity is
required to be 100 foot-candles at the surface being inspected. It is advisable to choose a white
light wattage that will provide sufficient light, but avoid excessive reflected light that could
distract from the inspection.

Light Requirements When Using Fluorescent Particles

Ultraviolet Lighting
When performing a magnetic particle inspection using
fluorescent particles, the condition of the ultraviolet light
and the ambient white light must be monitored. Standards
and procedures require verification of lens condition and
light intensity. Black lights should never be used with a
cracked filter as the output of white light and harmful
black light will be increased. The cleanliness of the filter
should also be checked regularly since a coating of
solvent carrier, oil, or other foreign material can reduce
the intensity or light by as much as 50%. The filter should
be checked visually and cleaned as necessary before
warming-up the light.

For UV lights used in component evaluations, the normally accepted intensity is

1000mwatts/cm2 when measured at 15 inches from the filter face (requirements can vary from
800 to 1200mwatts/cm2). The required check should be performed when a new bulb is installed,
at startup of the inspection cycle, if a change in intensity is noticed, or every eight hours if in
continuous use. Regularly checking the intensity of UV lights is very important because bulbs
lose intensity over time. In fact, a bulb that is near the end of its operating life will often have an
intensity of only 25% of its original output. Black light intensity will also be affected by voltage
variations, so it is important to provide constant voltage to the light. A bulb that produces
acceptable intensity at 120 volts will produce significantly less at 110 volts.

Ambient White Lighting

When performing a fluorescent magnetic particle inspection, it is important to keep white light to
a minimum as it will significantly reduce the inspectors ability to detect fluorescent indications.
Light levels of less than 2fc are required by most procedures and some procedures require it to
be less than 0.5fc at the inspection surface. Some specifications require that a white light
intensity measurement be made at 15 inches from a UV light source to verify that the white light
is being removed by the filter.

White Light for Indication Confirmation

While white light is held to a minimum in fluorescent inspections, procedures may require that
indications be evaluated under white light. The white light requirements for this evaluation are
the same as when performing an inspection with visible particles. The minimum light intensity at
the surface being inspected must be 100fc.

Light Measurement

Light intensity measurements are made using a radiometer. A radiometer is an instrument that
translates light energy into an electrical current. Light striking a silicon photodiode detector
causes a charge to build up between internal layers. When an external circuit is
connected to the cell, an electrical current is produced. This current is linear with respect to
incident light. Some radiometers have the ability to measure both white and UV light, while
others require a separate sensor for each measurement. The sensing area should always be kept
clean and free of materials that could reduce or obstruct light reaching the sensor.

Radiometers are relatively unstable instruments and readings often change considerably over
time. Therefore, they must be calibrated regularly. They should be calibrated at least every six
months. A unit should be checked to make sure its calibration is current before taking any light
readings.

Ultraviolet light measurements should be taken using a fixture to maintain a minimum distance
of 15 inches from the filter face to the sensor. The sensor should be centered in the light field to
obtain the peak reading. UV spot lights are often focused which causes intensity readings to vary
considerable over a small area. White lights are seldom focused and, depending on the wattage,
will often produce in excess of the 100fc at 15 inches.

Eye Consideration

Eye Adaptation

Just as lighting is an important consideration in the

inspection process, so is the eye's response to light.
Scientists have recently discovered that a special, tiny
group of cells at the back of the eye help tell the brain
how much light there is, causing the pupil to get bigger or
smaller. The change in pupil diameter is not
instantaneous, therefore, eyes must be given time to adapt
to changing lighting conditions. When performing a
fluorescent magnetic particle inspection, the eye must be
given time to adapt to the darkness of the inspection
booth before beginning to look for indications. Dark adaptation time of at least one minute is
required by most procedures. Some studies recommend adaptation time of five minutes if
entering an inspection area from direct sunlight. Inspectors should carefully adhere to the
required adaptation time as it is quite easy to overlook an indication when an inspection is started
before the eyes have adjusted to the darkened conditions.

Ocular Fluorescence

When ultraviolet light enters the human eye, the fluid that fills the eye fluoresces. This condition
is called ocular fluorescence, and while it is considered harmless, it is annoying and interferes
with vision while it exists. When working around ultraviolet lights, one should be careful not to
look directly into lights and to hold spot lights to avoid reflection. UV light will be reflected
from surfaces just as white light will, so it is advisable to consider placement of lights to avoid
this condition. Special filtered glasses may be worn by the inspector to remove all UV light from
reaching the eyes but allowing yellow-green light from fluorescent indications to pass.
Technicians should never wear darkened or photochromatic glasses as these glasses also filter or
block light from fluorescent indications.

Examples of Visible Dry

Magnetic Particle Indications

Eddy Current:
A current induced in a conductor situated in a changing magnetic field or moving in a fixed
one.

Ultrasonic:
The study and use of pressure waves that have a frequency in excess of 20,000 Hz and
therefore inaudible to the human ear.

One of the advantages that a magnetic particle inspection has over some of the other
nondestructive evaluation methods is that flaw indications generally resemble the actual flaw.
This is not the case with NDT methods such as ultrasonic and eddy current inspection, where an
electronic signal must be interpreted. When magnetic particle inspection is used, cracks on the
surface of the part appear as sharp lines that follow the path of the crack. Flaws that exist below
the surface of the part are less defined and more difficult to detect. Below are some examples of
magnetic particle indications produced using dry particles.
Indication of a crack in a saw blade

Indication of cracks in a weldment

 Indication of cracks originating at a fastener hole

 
Before and after inspection pictures of cracks emanating from a hole
 Indication of cracks running between attachment holes in a hinge

Examples of Fluorescent Wet

Magnetic Particle Indications

The indications produced using the wet magnetic particles are more sharp than dry particle
indications formed on similar defects. When fluorescent particles are used, the visibility of the
indications is greatly improved because the eye is drawn to the "glowing" regions in the dark
setting. Below are a few examples of fluorescent wet magnetic particle indications.

Magnetic particle wet fluorescent indication of cracks in a drive shaft.

 Magnetic particle wet fluorescent indication of a crack in a bearing.

Magnetic particle wet fluorescent indication of a crack in a crane hook.

Magnetic particle wet fluorescent indication of a crack at a sharp radius.

Magnetic particle wet fluorescent indication of a crack in a casting.

Magnetic particle wet fluorescent indication of cracks at a fastener hole.