Maths Ext Year Eleven

Topic 1: Methods in Algebra

Index Laws Quadratic Equations
- a m × a n = a (m+n) • After factorising, if a b = 0 then a = 0 or b = 0
- a m ÷ a n = a (m−n) x 2 + 9x + 18 = 0
- (a m ) n = a mn (x + 6)(x + 3) = 0
−1 1 ∴ x = − 6, − 3
- a =a
- a0 = 1 −b ± b 2 − 4a c
a ax • Use quadratic formula: x = 2a
x
- ( b ) = bx 2 x 2 + 5x − 4 = 0
a
−1 b −5 ± 25 + 32
- (b) = a x =
a 4
- x b = b x a OR ( b x )a −5 ± 57
x =
4
Binomial Products To derive the quadratic formula: a x 2 + b x + c = 0,
b c
In general, x2 + x + =0
a a
(a + b + c + . . . ) 2 = (a 2 + b 2 + c 2 + . . . + 2a b + 2a c + 2b c + . . . ) b b 2 b 2 c
x2 + x + ( ) −( ) + =0
Thus a 2a 2a a
b 2 b 2 c
- (a + b)2 = a 2 + 2a b + b 2 (x + ) − + =0
2a 4a 2 a
- (a − b)2 = a 2 − 2a b + b 2 2
b 2 b − 4a c
Difference of Two Squares: (x + ) =
2a 4a 2
- (a + b)(a − b) = a 2 − b 2 b 2
b − 4a c
x + =±
2a 4a 2
Algebraic Fractions
−b ± b 2 − 4a c
• Always factorise first. x =
2a
• When adding/subtracting fractions, equate the denominator. b2
a b − 2b 2 a 2 − 4a b + 4b 2 • Complete the square: add ( 2 ) to both sides of equation.
e.g. ÷
6a 2 b 3a Eg. x 2 + 6x − 7 = 0
b (a − 2b) 3a x 2 + 6x + 9 − 7 = 9
= ×
6a 2 b (a − 2b) 2 (x + 3) 2 = 16
1 x +3= ±4
=
2a (a − 2b) x = 1, − 7

Cubics Simultaneous Equations

In general, (a + b + c + d . . . )3 = • Amount of equations required = number of pronumerals.
a 3 + b 3 + c 3 + . . . + 3a 2 b + 3a 2 c + 3a 2 d + 3b 2 a + . . . + 6a b c + 6a b d + . . . • Eliminate a variable:
Thus • 2 x + 3y = 21 → (1)
- (a + b)3 = a 3 + 3a 2 b + 3a b 2 + b 3 5x + 2y = 3 → (2)
- (a − b)3 = a 3 − 3a 2 b + 3a b 2 − b 3 (1) × 2 and (2) × 3
In general, 4x + 6y = 42 → (3)
a n − b n = (a − b)(a n−1 + a n−2 b + . . . + a b n−2 + b n−1) 15x + 6y = 9 → (4)
And when n is odd,
(4) − (3)
a n + b n = (a + b)(a n−1 − a n−2 b + . . . − a b n−2 + b n−1)
11x = − 33
Thus
x =−3
- a 3 − b 3 = (a − b)(a 2 + a b + b 2 )
Substitute x = − 3 into (2)
- a 3 + b 3 = (a + b)(a 2 − a b + b 2 )
3y = 27
Linear Equations ∴ x = − 3, y = 9
• Solving by substitution:
Make pronumeral the subject of formula: 1
3z + 2 = z − 9 x = 7 → (1), y + = 9 → (2)
x
11 1 62
z =− y = 9− =
2 7 7
1
Topic 2: Numbers and Surds Recurring Decimals into Fractions
For 0.327 = 0.3272727..., let x = 0.327.
Real Numbers x = 0.3272727...
- All real numbers can be placed on the number line. Then multiply x by 10 a, where a is amount of repeating digits, two in
- Subsets notated as ℝ, ℚ, ℤ, 𝕎 and ℕ. this case.
a 100x = 32.727272...
- All rational numbers expressed as b , where a , b ∈ ℤ .
99x = 32.4
324 18
x = =
990 55
18
∴ 0.327 =
55
Representing Real Numbers
All real numbers can be described:
- Geometrically:
- Algebraically: x ≤ 2
- Interval Notation: (−∞, 2 ]
- Set Notation: {x = x ≤ 2}
Types of Intervals:
• Bounded - two endpoints (e.g. 4 < x < 6 or − 2 ≤ x ≤ 4)
- Proof that 2 is irrational by contradiction:
a • Unbounded - one endpoint (e.g. x ≥ 2 or x < 3)
Assume 2 is rational, thus 2 = where a and b are coprime.
b • Closed - all endpoints included (e.g. x ≥ 2 or 4 ≥ x ≥ − 2)
a2 • Open - all endpoints not included (e.g. 4 < x < 6 or x < 3)
2= → 2b 2 = a 2 → a 2 is even. ∴ a is even, a = 2k.
b2 • Degenerate - a single point (e.g. x = 3)
2b 2 = (2k ) 2 → b 2 = 2k 2 → b 2 is even. ∴ b is even. Significant Figures
If both a , b are even this means they both have 2 as a factor, which
1. Starting from left, first non-zero digit is first sig fig.
contradicts the assumption at the beginning that they are coprime. 2. All non-zero digits are significant
Therefore, 2 is not rational. 3. Zeroes at the end of whole number may or may not be
significant, depending on rounding.
HCF and LCM e.g. 8200 has 2 significant figures if rounded to nearest 100, 3 if
- For HCF, write both numbers in terms of prime factors, and then rounded to nearest 10, and 4 if rounded to nearest unit. If
multiply the common factors. ambiguous, always say the largest amount (in this case 4)
1176 : (3 × 23 × 72 ) and 1260 : (22 × 32 × 5 × 7) 4. Zeroes at the end of number are significant if behind a decimal
HCF = 22 × 3 × 7 = 84
point.
- For LCM, write both numbers in terms of prime factors, and then 5. Zeroes between any non-zero digit are significant.
e.g. 0.06700802 has 7 significant figures, 08200.02300 has 9 significant
multiply the highest factors.
figures.
1176 : (3 × 23 × 72 ) and 1260 : (22 × 32 × 5 × 7)
HCF = 23 × 32 × 5 × 72 = 17640 Surd Operations
- a× b = ab
Divisibility Tests
a a
1. All natural numbers. - =
b b
2. Even number.
3. Digits sum to multiple of 3. - ( a)2 = a BUT a2 = | a |
4. Last two digits divisible by 4.
• Like surds can be added or subtracted.
5. Ends in 5 or 0.
6. Divisible by 2 and 3. Rationalising the Denominator
7. Double the last digit and subtract from the other digits, final surd
digit is divisible by 7. • If denominator is pure surd, multiply fraction by surd :
Testing 2751: 1 × 2 = 2 → 275 − 2 = 273 3 3 5
= ×
3 × 2 = 6 → 27 − 6 = 21 2 5 2 5 5
1×2 = 2→2−2 = 0
3 5
∴ 2751 is divisible by 7 =
10
8. Last three digits are divisible by 8. conjugate
9. Sum of digits is multiple of 9. • If denominator is surd binomial, multiply fraction by conjugate
10. Ends in a 0. where for the binomial a + b x the conjugate is a − b x.
11. Sum of even positioned digits = sum of odd positioned digits, or
2+ 3 2+ 3 2+ 3
differ by a multiple of 11. = ×
2− 3 2− 3 2+ 3
Testing 4323: 3 + 3 = 4 + 2
∴ 4323 is a multiple of 11. 4+4 3+3
=
4−3
=7+4 3
2
 - If discriminant is not perfect square, roots are irrational.
Topic 3: Function and Graphs - For f (x ) = a x 2 + b x + c, functions of a > 0 and a < 0 are
positive and negative functions, respectively.
Functions - For f (x ) = a x 2 + b x + c, functions of △ < 0 and △ > 0 are
Relation - a rule that maps between two sets of values (x 2 + y 2 = 5) indefinite and definite functions, respectively.
Function - relation, uniquely maps from a set to another. (x 2 = y)
Independent Variable - the “input” of the function.
Cubic Function
Dependent Variable - the “output” of the function. The classic shape has a horizontal point of inflection and can be
Natural Domain: all possible values of x that can be substituted. factorised into perfect cube y = k (x − a)3.
Restricted Domain: domains restricted when some values redundant,
e.g. t ≥ 0 as independent variable for negative time is not needed. Otherwise it is a continuous curve
1 with two turning points.
- Fractions influence the domain e.g. in y = x , x ≠ 0 as undefined. y = a x3 + b x2 + c x + d
- No negative roots, e.g. in y = x + 3 − 5 − x → x + 3 ≥ 0,
5 − x ≥ 0 → ∴ − 3 ≤ x ≤ 5 since roots cannot be negative.
Range - all possible values of dependent variable, obtained by Polynomials
substituting every value in domain. Polynomials that can be
- Even powers and absolute values are always ≥ 0. y = x 2 thus represented as y = k (x − a) n will
has a range of y ≥ 0 as x 2 cannot be negative. take on the common basic shape.
- When domain is restricted, sub in endpoints and centre of domain - As power gets bigger, curve is
to gauge range. flatter at base and steeper at
- If you have constant in fraction numerator, fraction ≠ 0. sides.
• Functions usually notated as y = f (x ) where x is independent, y is • A polynomial is an expression of
dependent. the form a n x n + a n−1 x n−1 + a n−1 x n−2 + . . . + a 0 x 0 where
• If a straight line is drawn parallel to y axis, it will only cross - n is a positive whole number (including 0)
function at most once. - a n , a n−1, . . . , ao are coefficients
- a 0 x 0 = a 0 is the constant term
Linear Functions - a n x n is the leading term
Data demonstrating direct variation will lie on straight line. - Highest power is the degree of the polynomial.
Its function is known as the linear function, which is expressed as • When drawing y = P (x )
y = m x + b where m is slope and b is the y intercept. - y intercept is the constant
- Lines parallel to x axis ( y = c). - x intercepts are the roots, found using P (x ) = 0
- Lines parallel to y axis (x = k ). - As x → ± ∞, P (x ) acts like function of leading term alone.
- Even powered roots are in shape of a parabola.
The Quadratic Polynomial and Parabola - Odd powered roots are in shape of a cubic.
- Quadratic polynomial: a x 2 + b x + c
- Quadratic function: y = a x 2 + b x + c Circles
- Quadratic equation: a x 2 + b x + c = 0 - Equation is (x − h)2 + ( y − k )2 = r 2 where (h , k ) is centre.
- Indeterminate (independent variable): x - Values for x , y restricted so that:
- Roots: solutions to the quadratic equation
• h −r ≤ x ≤ h +r
- Zeroes: x intercepts of quadratic function
• k −r ≤ y ≤ k +r
• Graph of quadratic function y = a x 2 + b x + c is a parabola. - (x − h)2 + ( y − k )2 = r 2 made of two pairs of functions:
- If a > 0, concave up. If a < 0, concave down.
- c = y intercept. • y =k ± r 2 − (x − h) 2 for top and bottom of semicircle.
−b
- Axis of symmetry: x = 2a • x =h± r 2 − ( y − k ) 2 for left and right of semicircle.

• AOS also average of the zeroes.

- Vertex (the maximum or minimum): x value as AOS, and y
Half Parabolae
• + means top/right half.
value by substituting AOS into the function.
−
• For monic quadratics: (x + a)(x + b) = x 2 + (a + b)x + a b • means bottom/left half.
• y is subject, symmetry parallel to x-axis
The Quadratic Function • x is subject, symmetry parallel y-axis.
- Vertex form: y = a (x − h)2 + k, where a measures concavity and
vertex is at (h , k ).
Functions with
- Discriminant: △ = b 2 − 4a c. If △ < 0, no x intercepts. If Asymptotes
△ = 0, one x intercept. If △ > 0, two x intercepts.
−b − △
- Vertical asymptotes occur if lim f (x ) = ± ∞
x→a
- Vertex = ( , )
2a 4a • Functions never touch/cut vertical asymptotes.
−b ± △ - Horizontal asymptotes occur if lim f (x ) = b
- Zeroes = x→±∞
2a
- - Oblique asymptotes occur if lim f (x ) = ± ∞
If discriminant is perfect square, then roots are rational. x→±∞
3
Rectangular Hyperbola and Exponential Multi-Events / Multiplication Principle
- If there are n1 outcomes for independent experiment E1, n 2
Data that with inverse variation lies on rectangular hyperbola.
- Rectangular hyperbolas have two perpendicular asymptotes. outcomes for experiment E 2, … , n m outcomes for experiment
1 Em, then there are n1 × n 2 × . . . × n m outcomes for composite
• Represented as y = x or x y = 1.
experiment E1 × E 2 × . . . × Em. Applicable also to probability.
The orientation of basic exponentials (y = a x where a ≠ 1) is - If the composite experiments of a larger experiment are done
determined by the base a. without replacement, then all is the same, except with each
- For a > 1, starts shallow and increases rapidly as x → ∞
successive action, one choice is removed from sample space.
- For 0 < a < 1, starts steep and decreases less rapidly as x → ∞
Conditional Probability
Direct and Inverse Variation |A ∩ B|
A variable y varies directly with a variable x if • P (A | B ) = |B |
OR

- y = k x, for some non-zero constant k of proportionality. |A ∩ B| |B |

= ÷
• The graph of y as a function of x is thus a line through the origin. |B | |S |
P (A ∩ B )
A variable y varies inversely with a variable x if =
k P (B )
- y = x , for some non-zero constant k of proportionality.
• The graphs of y as a function of x is a rectangular hyperbola with Independent Events
asymptotes as the x-axis and y-axis. A and B are independent if P (A | B ) = P (A ).
This also means P (B | A ) = P (B ).
Types of Relationships • Proving B independent to A when A is known independent to B:
Functions: P (B ∩ A )
P (B | A ) =
• One-to-one (e.g. y = 2 x), passes vertical & horizontal line tests. P (A )
P (A ∩ B ) P (B ) P (A ∩ B ) P (B ) P (B )
• Many-to-one (e.g. y = x 2), passes vertical line test only. = × = × = P (A | B ) ×
P (A ) P (B ) P (B ) P (A ) P (A )
Relations:
P (B )
• One-to-many (e.g. | y | = x), passes horizontal line test only. And since P (A | B ) = P (A ), = P (A ) ×
P (A )
• Many-to-many (e.g. x 2 + y 2 = 5), fails both tests.
∴ = P (B ).
P (A ∩ B )
• P (A | B ) = can be rearranged as
Topic 4: Probability P (B )
P (A ∩ B ) = P (A | B ) × P (B ) and
P (A ∩ B ) = P (A ) × P (B ) for independent events.
Basics
Conversely, if P (A ∩ B ) = P (A ) × P (B ) then independent.
- | H | means amount of members of H.
- E is event space (favourable), a subset of S, a finite sample space.
|E |
- P (E ) = | S | if sample space is uniform. Topic 5: Combinatorics
- For numerical 2-steps, create 2-way array, with 1st step on x-axis. Factorial Notation
- For other multistage experiments, use tree diagram.
{ x (x − 1)! for x ≥ 1
0! = 1,
Factorial definition: x ! =
Complementary Events
- Complement of an event E is defined as | E | = | S | − | E | This definitions can be used to create common denominators:
1 1
|E | |S | − |E | |S | |E |
Thus, P (E ) = = = − = 1 − P (E ) • (n − 1)! + (n + 1)!
|S | |S | |S | |S |
1 1 (n + 1)n + 1
• Common notations include E, E ′, E c =
(n − 1)!
+
(n + 1)n (n − 1)!
=
(n + 1)n (n − 1)!
n2 + n + 1
Sets ∴=
(n + 1)!
- Empty set has no members, denoted as ∅
-
-
Two sets are equal if they have exactly the same members.
Permutations - nPn
A and B = A ∩ B = Intersection
- A or B = A ∪ B = Union - A permutation of n objects is an ordered arrangement of the n
• A ∩ B means in only A. objects. Therefore, A B A ≠ A A B
- A ⊂ B means every member of A is in B (A is subset of B). - When there are n positions to be filled with n objects:
Counting Rule: | A ∪ B | = | A | + | B | − | A ∩ B | n choices for 1st position
• When | A ∩ B | = 0 (disjoint sets), | A ∪ B | = | A | + | B | n − 1 choices for 2nd position…
- Three-way counting rule: n − (n − 1) = 1 choice for nth position
n (A ∪ B ∪ C ) = n (A ) + n (B ) + n (C ) − n (A ∩ B ) • This can be represented by the notation nPn = n !
−n (B ∩ C ) − n (A ∩ C ) + n (A ∩ B ∩ C ) - Means “from n arrange n”
• The counting rule becomes the addition rule when talking about - Restrictions: Line 5 cats and 5 dogs up so that they alternate?
probability: P (A ∪ B ) = P (A ) + P (B ) − P (A ∩ B ) = 2either cat or dog in 1st × 5!dog per mutations × 5!cat per mutations
- When A , B are mutually exclusive, P (A ∪ B ) = P (A ) + P (B ) = 28800 arrangements.
4
• When lining up n objects, if there are r1 of alike objects, r 2 of Using Separators
another type of alike object, and r k of a final type of alike object:
n! - Useful when dividing larger groups into smaller groups.
Number of Permutations =
r1 !r 2 ! . . . r k ! • In how many ways can 10 identical coins be allocated to 4
different boxes?
Permutations - nPr Assign coins letter C, and create 3 separators S that act as
13!
- When arranging r objects where r < n, from n possible objects: separators between 4 boxes. Thus: = 286
3!10!
n choices for 1st position
n − 1 choices for 2nd position… Circle Arrangement
n − r + 1 choices for rth position
• The number of ways to arrange n objects along a fixed circle is
- Thus nPr = n (n − 1)(n − 2) . . . (n − r + 1) n!
(n − r )(n − r − 1) . . . (2)(1) = (n − 1)!
= n (n − 1)(n − 2) . . . (n − r + 1) × n
(n − r )(n − r − 1) . . . (2)(1) - This is since we create a fixed point as there is no front and back.
n!
=
(n − r )! Pigeonhole Principle (ew)
- Restrictions: 6 people in boat with 8 seats, 4 on each side. What is
- If n pigeons are placed into k pigeonholes, then there must be at
the probability Bill and Ted are on left side, and Greg is on right? n
least one pigeonhole with at least pigeons in it.
Sample space = 8 P6 = 20160 k
Ways = 4 P2 (B and T on lef t) × 4 P1 (G on right) × 5P3 (remaining three) • In general, if k n + 1 or more objects are placed into n holes, then
= 2880 at least one of the holes must contain over k objects.
2880 1 - Example 1: 16 positive integers are written down. At least how
Probability = =
20160 7 many numbers will leave same remainder when divided by 5?
There are five possible remainders: 0,1,2,3,4.
Combinations Thus there are five holes, i.e. n = 5
We know k n + 1 = 16
- Total number of subsets of S, a finite set with n elements = 2n.
∴ 5k + 1 = 16
- A combination of n objects is an unordered arrangement of the n
k =3
objects. Therefore, A B A = A A B
Therefore according to general rule, at least k + 1 numbers will
• The number of combinations of n objects for r positions is: leave same remainder, i.e. 3 + 1 = 4
n
r !(n − r )! ( r )
nC = Pr = n!
=
n
- Example 2: A computer generates random 3-letter words. How
r
r!
many words need to be generated to ensure 8 of same word?
- Restrictions: How many possible “three of a kind” hands can you
There are 263 possible words, i.e. n = 263 = 17576
be dealt with 5 cards from a standard 52 card deck? And we know we need 8 repetitions, therefore k + 1 = 8
Hands = 13C1 (3 of kind ) × 4 C3 (3 of 4 suits) × 12C2 (remaining 2) × 4 × 4
k =7
= 54912 hands. Total objects needed = k n + 1 = 123032 + 1
n n!
= 123033
• Cn−r = (n − r )!(n − (n − r ))!
n!
= = nCr
(n − r )!r !
Topic 6: Transformations and Symmetry
Division in Groups Translating Curves
• Case 1: Dividing (m + n) objects into group with m, group with n: - For horizontal shift, replace x with x − h, which moves f (x )
m+n (m + n)! h units to the right.
Number of selections = Cm =
m !n !
• y = f (x − h)
- This is the same even for three groups:
- For vertical shift, replace y with y − k, which moves f (x )
m+n+pC × n+pC = (m + n + p)! × (n + p)! = (m + n + p)!
m n k units up.
m !(n + p)! n !p ! m !n !p !
• Case 2: Dividing (2m) objects into two groups each with m objects • y − k = f (x ) OR y = f (x ) + k
2mC
Number of selections =
m
=
(2m)!
as we can sort the two Reflecting Curves
2! m !m !2!
- Vertical reflection: For reflection across y-axis, replace x with −x.
equal groups 2! times.
- Similarly for dividing (2m + n) into groups of m, m and n. • y = f (−x )
- To reflect in the line x = a, replace x with 2a − x
2m+nC ×2m C = (2m + n)! × (2m)! = (2m + n)!
n m • y = f (2a − x )
n !(2m)! m !m !2! m !m !n !2!
• Note that if groups are going to be arranged afterwards, there is - Horizontal reflection: Reflection across x-axis, replace y with −y.
no need to divide by arrangements! • −y = f (x ) OR y = − f (x )
- To reflect in the line y = a, replace y with 2a − y
Insertion Method • 2a − y = f (x ) → y = 2a − f (x )
• Used for separation questions. Letters of BETWEEN are - Reflection about Origin: y = − f (−x )
arranged in line. How many arrangements if all E’s are separated? - Same as a rotation of 180 o
- Display as _B_T_W_N_: there are 4!cons × 5C3 E possibilities. • Caused by a reflection across x-axis and across y-axis.
5
 - Absolute Value Inequations METHOD ONE:
Symmetry
| 3x + 2 | ≤ 3
- Odd function: True for (prove using):
3x + 2 ≤ 3 O R − (3x + 2) ≤ 3
• f (−x ) = − f (x ) 1 5
- Odd functions have point symmetry about the origin. x ≤ OR x ≥ −
3 3
- All polynomials with only odd powers are Odd Functions. 5 1
∴− ≤ x ≤
- Even function: True for (prove using): 3 3
• f (−x ) = f (x ) - Absolute Value Inequations METHOD TWO:
- Even functions have line symmetry about the y-axis | x + 5 | < 2 (only works when both sides definitely positive)
- All polynomials with only even powers are Even Functions. (x + 5) 2 < 4 square both sides, solve as quadratic.
- Most functions are neither even nor odd. x 2 + 10x + 25 < 4 → (x + 7)(x + 3) < 0 then solve graphically.
∴−7< x <−3
Absolute Value - Inequations with Pronumerals in the Denominator

- | a | = { − a for a < 0
a, for a ≥ 0 2
< 5 we know straight away that x ≠ − 3
x +3
Multiply by denominator squared: 2(x + 3) < 5(x + 3) 2
• Absolute value is magnitude from 0 only, not direction.
1. | − x | = |x | 5(x + 3) 2 − 2(x + 3) > 0 → (x + 3)(5x + 13) > 0
13
2. |x − y | = |y − x | Graphically solve, ∴ x < − 3 O R x > − ,x ≠−3
5
3. |x y | = |x ||y | - Finding Changes of Signs through Critical Points
x |x |
4. | |= • Functions only change signs at x-intercepts or discontinuities.
y |y |
- Critical points of an inequation found by moving all terms to
5. | x |2 = x 2
one side and finding when the function created changes sign.
6. x2 = | x | For
2
< 5, create one algebraic fraction:
−13 − 5x
<0
x +3 x +3
• For absolute value graphs, e.g. y = | m x + b | , the part of
Since this fraction is negative, either top or bottom is negative.
y = m x + b below the x-axis is reflected above the x-axis.
- NOTE: the equation | x | = something with pronumerals may • Find critical point of numerator by −13 − 5x = 0
13
produce an answer that is not a solution, which must be verified.
→x =− which is when the function is zero.
5
E.g. | 2 x + 6 | = 3x − 1 • Find critical point of denominator by x + 3 = 0 → x ≠ − 3
2 x + 6 = 3x − 1 OR −2 x − 6 = 3x − 1 which is the discontinuity of the function, as it is undefined.
x = 7 OR x = − 1 - Then test the three regions created:
But, subbing x = − 1 into original equation, | 4 | = − 4 which is 13 13
x < − 3, − 3 < x < − , x >−
obviously false, so only x = 7 is valid solution. 5 5
13
We find x < − 3 O R x > −
Composite Functions 5
- Composite functions are when two or more functions combine to Graphs with Three Kinds of Asymptotes
create a new function. - Curves always bend towards asymptotes.
• g ( f (x )) means the value of f (x ) is substituted as x into g (x ). • Never cross vertical asymptotes.
- Usually f (g (x )) and g ( f (x )) are different functions.
• Approach horizontal and oblique asymptotes as x → ± ∞
- Represented as ( f ∘ g)(x ) and (g ∘ f )(x ) respectively. P (x ) R (x )
- For a value of x to be in the domain of f (g (x )), • y = A (x ) = Q (x ) + A (x )
• x must be in domain of g (x ), g (x ) must be in domain of f (x ). - Where Q (x ) is horizontal/oblique asymptote.
• Value of f (g (x )) is in range of composite function only if x in - Solve A (x ) = 0 to find vertical asymptotes.
domain of f (g (x )). - If R (x ) = 0 has solution, function cuts horizontal/oblique.
- If domain of f (g (x )) = ∅, range is also ∅ and is empty function. (x − 2)(x − 1)(x + 1)
Example: Graph y =
(x + 2)(x − 3)
- x intercepts at :
Topic 7: Further Graphs 0=
(x − 2)(x − 1)(x + 1)
(x + 2)(x − 3)
→ (x − 2)(x − 1)(x + 1) = 0

Inequations ∴ (−1,0), (1,0), (2,0)

−2 × −1 × 1 1 1
- The inequality sign only changes when you: - y intercept at y = 2 × −3
=−
3
→ (0, − )
3
1. Multiply or divide by a negative number. (x − 2)(x − 1)(x + 1) x3 − 2x2 − x + 2
y = =
2. Take the reciprocal of both (x + 2)(x − 3) x2 − x − 6
sides. 3 2 2
→ x − 2 x − x + 2 = (x − x − 6)(x − 1) + 4x − 4
- Quadratic Inequation: 4x − 4
∴ y = x −1+
x 2 − 3x + 2 ≥ 0: (x + 2)(x − 3)
(x − 2)(x − 1) ≥ 0 - Vertical asymptotes at (x + 2)(x − 3) = 0 → x = − 2,3
With this we can graph y = (x − 2)(x − 1) - Oblique asymptote at y = x − 1
Then we can check when y ≥ 0 - Cuts oblique asymptote at 4x − 4 = 0 → x = 1
∴ x ≤ 1, x ≥ 2 Graph is found on the next page:

6
 x ≤ − 3; y = − (x + 3) + (1 − x ) = − 2 x − 2
• 1 − x = 0, therefore critical point at x = 1. Testing regions:
−3 < x < 1; y = (x + 3) + (1 − x ) = 4
x ≥ 1; y = (x + 3) − (1 − x ) = 2 x + 2

Reciprocal Functions
1
- The graph of y = f (x ) can be sketched by first drawing y = f (x )
1
Adding Ordinates of Bounded Functions
When f (x ) = 0, then is undefined (ie. vertical asymptote)
• f (x ) - For example y = x − sin x, formed from y = x and y = − sin x
1 • Draw points at sin graph turning points and all x intercepts.
±
• When f (x ) → ∞, then f (x ) → 0 (asymptotes become point • You end up with sin-like curve tilted anticlockwise 45 degrees.
discontinuity)
• Identify where f (x ) = 1, − 1 as their reciprocals are identical.
• Where f (x ) increases, the reciprocal decreases, vice versa.
1
• Where f (x ) is positive, f (x ) is also positive, vice versa.
• If a point in f (x ) is < | 1 | , in reciprocal it will be > | 1 | .
- Horizontal asymptotes in f (x ) of y < | 1 | will shift to
1
y > | 1 | in
f (x )

Graphing Addition of Ordinates

- The y-coordinate of a point is called the ordinate.
• The x-coordinate of a point is called the abscissa.
- If s (x ) = f (x ) + g (x ), each y-value of both functions are added Multiplication of Graphs
for each corresponding x-value. - s (x ) = f (x )g (x ) can be graphed by first y = f (x ), y = g (x )
- Where f (x ) = − g (x ), then y = 0, thus a x-intercept. • Where there are x intercepts, the function will change sign.
- If g (x ) has 0 at x = a, then s (a) = 0 + f (a) = f (a). • Multiply signs of functions to determine new functions’ sign.
- If two curves meet at x = a so that their ordinates are equal, • Where f (x ) o r g (x ) = 1, s (x ) must equal (or in case of
then s (a) = 2 f (a) O R 2g (a) y = − 1 reflect/equal) the other curve.
- To sketch from two functions, simply rule many vertical lines • If f (x ) o r g (x ) → 0 o r ± ∞, then so will the new function.
across the function and add for each line, connecting dots. • However, in the case of x → − ∞ when finding s (x ) = x e x,
- For graphs with asymptotes e.g s (x ) = f (x ) + g (x ) where y = x →−∞ while y = e x → 0, thus we reach a dilemma.
1 1 - Dominance: the graph that gets steeper or shallower the
f (x ) = x and g (x ) = , therefore s (x ) = 1 +
x x
quickest prevails, and we graph the s (x ) accordingly.
• Since y is undefined at x = 0, it is still undefined in s (x ). Therefore, in this case, s (x ) → 0 for x → − ∞.
• Again, draw vertical lines and add normally. - Any exclusions in domain of original functions remain in new one.
• Exclusions in domain of original functions remains in s (x ) - Even function × even function = Even. Odd function × odd
1 1
- E.g. if f (x ) = x + x , g (x ) = 1 − x , then function = Even. Odd function × even function = Odd.
y = f (x ) + g (x ) retains the vertical asymptote x = 0.
- Like functions retain symmetry when added, ie. Odd function +
Odd function = Odd function and vice versa.
- y = f (x ) − g (x ) can be graphed by first graphing y = f (x ) and
y = − g (x ) and then adding ordinates together. y = x ex

Addition of Absolute Value Functions

- For example: f (x ) = | x + 3 | + | 1 − x | , each absolute value = 0
will be a critical point, which creates three regions.
• x + 3 = 0, therefore critical point at x = − 3. Testing regions:

7
Graphs of Squared Functions Square Root Graphs
- y = [ f (x )]2 can be graphed by first graphing y = f (x ).
- y= f (x ) can be sketched by first drawing and seeing:
• All roots will become double roots.
• f (x ) is only defined if f (x ) ≥ 0
• All stationary (turning)
points will remain stationary • f (x ) ≥ 0 for all x in the domain.
• All discontinuities remain. • Stationary points must still be stationary points
• Values of horizontal and • All discontinuities will remain.
oblique asymptotes squared. • Horizontal/oblique asymptotes may change (value rooted)
• If | f (x ) | > 1 then • f (x ) < f (x ) if f (x ) > 1 i.e. new curve below old curve.
[ f (x )]2 > f (x ), i.e. above • f (x ) > f (x ) if f (x ) < 1 i.e. new curve above old curve.
original. • All f (x ) = 1 remain at 1.
• If | f (x ) | < 1 then a
• x intercepts require close inspection: for y = x b ,
[ f (x )]2 < f (x ), i.e. below a
original.
- if b < 1, curve is concave down in 1st quadrant,
• Whenever f (x ) = | 1 | , with a vertical tangent at the x intercept.
a
new curve also = 1 y = [ f (x )]2 (blue) where - If b > 1, curve is concave up in 1st quadrant, with
3
f (x ) = 2 + (black)
Division of Graphs (x + 2)(x − 1) a horizontal tangent at x intercept.
- y 2 = f (x ) is simply a reflection of y = f (x ) over the x-axis.
f (x )
- y = g (x ) can be thought of as
1
Inverse Relations
f (x ) × and same procedures as multiplication can be
g (x ) - The inverse relation returns a number to where it came from.
followed except; • Found by swapping variables, therefore:
• x intercepts of g (x ) become vertical asymptotes or point - Domain of relation is range of inverse relation
discontinuities. - Range of relation is domain of inverse relation.
• Find horizontal/oblique asymptotes, look at dominance, • A relation and its inverse reflect each other in y = x
and check if curve cuts the asymptote.
• Curve sticks to asymptotes except for when it cuts Inverse Functions
horizontal/oblique asymptotes. - If there exists a one-to-one relationship between the two sets, then
sin x
Below, y = graphed against y = sin x and y = x both the relation and the inverse relation are functions.
x
• Inverse relation here is called inverse function.
- Notated as f −1(x )
- To test if a relation has an inverse function:
• Passes both vertical and horizontal line test OR
• When x = f ( y) rewritten as y = f (x ), y = f (x ) only has one
value (unique).
- Each composite of a function and its inverse sends every number
Graph should have point discontinuity at x = 0
for which it is defined back to itself:
• f −1( f (x )) = x for all x in domain of f (x )
• f ( f −1(x )) = x for all x in domain of f −1(x )
Absolute Value Graphs - An identity function is a function whose output is the same as
input: I (x ) = x for all x in its domain.
• y = | f (x ) | , reflect f (x ) < 0 in the x-axis. - When a function is many-to-one, you can restrict the domain of
• y = f ( | x | ), symmetry in y-axis, 1st quadrant reflected in 2nd. the function so that it is able to have an inverse function.
• | y | = f (x ), symmetry in x-axis, reflect f (x ) > 0 in x-axis. • E.g., if we restrict domain of f (x ) = x 2 to x ≥ 0 i.e.
• | y | = f ( | x | ), symmetry in both x and y axes, 1st quad into all 4 g (x ) = x 2 where ≥ 0, then g (x ) has in inverse function.
• y = | f ( | x | ) | , symmetry in y axis then reflection in x axis. - g −1(x ) = x
• | y | = | f (x ) | , symmetry in x axis then reflection in x axis.
• | y | = | f ( | x | ) | , symmetry in y axis then reflection in x axis, then
symmetry in x-axis, as shown below.

8
Parametric Equations • For angles in the 4th quadrant:
- cos(360 o − θ ) = cos θ
- Parametric coordinates are alternative way of describing graphs. - sin(360 o − θ ) = − sin θ
• Cartesian Form: Curve described by one equation, points - tan(360 o − θ ) = − tan θ
described by two numbers. • Table of trigonometric values at boundary points:
• Parametric Form: Curve described by two equations, points
described by one number (parameter)
- To change from parametric to Cartesian equations, eliminate the
parameter (t ) from two parametric equations x = f (t ), y = g (t ).
• For example, x = 2 + cos θ and y = 1 + sin θ where θ is
parameter (when parameter is angle, known as polar coords):
cos θ = x − 2, sin θ = y − 1 → (x − 2) 2 + ( y − 1) 2 = 1
Thus we deduce the that curve is circle with radius 1 and centre (2,1)
- The parametrisation of a circle x 2 + y 2 = r 2 is
x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ
1
Trigonometric Graphs
- The parametrisation of hyperbola x y = 1 is x = t , y = t - y = sin x and y = cos x defined for all real x.
- The parametrisation of parabola x 2 = 4y is x = 2t , y = t 2 • Has range of −1 ≤ y ≤ 1 (amplitude is 1) and period of 360 o
• Caution: The domain and range of the cartesian equation is • y = sin x is odd function, i.e. sin(−x ) = − sin x.
restricted by any restrictions in the respective parametric • y = cos x is even function, i.e. cos(−x ) = cos x.
equations.

Topic 8: Trigonometry I
Trigonometric Ratios
- Reciprocal ratios used to avoid confusion - For y = tan x, x ∈ ℝ\(90 + 180k), when k ∈ ℤ
between sin−1 and sin2, for example.
- For y = cot x , x ∈ ℝ\180k , when k ∈ ℤ
sin θ =
O
/ csc θ =
H • Range is all real y, period is 180 o
H O • Both odd functions, i.e. tan(−x ) = − tan x etc.
A H
cos θ = / sec θ =
H A
O A
tan θ = / cot θ =
A O
- “Co” in name of means it is complementary to the other function,
i.e. cot θ + tan θ = 90 o, sec θ + csc θ = 90 o etc.
- Exact value special triangles and table:

- For y = csc x, x ∈ ℝ\180k , when k ∈ ℤ

- For y = sec x , x ∈ ℝ\(90 + 180k ), when k ∈ ℤ
Angles of Any Magnitude • Range is y ≥ 1, y ≤ − 1, period is 180 o
• For a point P(x , y) on unit circle, can be defined as (cos θ, sin θ ) • y = csc x is odd function, while y = sec x is even function.
• For supplementary angles θ and 180 o − θ (2nd quadrant):
- cos(180 o − θ ) = − cos θ
- sin(180 o − θ ) = sin θ
- tan(180 o − θ ) = − tan θ
• For angles in the 3rd quadrant:
- cos(180 o + θ ) = − cos θ
- sin(180 o + θ ) = − sin θ
- tan(180 o + θ ) = tan θ
9
Trigonometric Identities Topic 9: Coordinate Geometry
• For any angle θ, the ratio identities:
sin θ
- cos θ = tan θ (provided that cos θ ≠ 0) Basic Formulae
cos θ - General form: a x + b y + c = 0 where a , b , c are constants.
- sin θ = cot θ (provided that sin θ ≠ 0) 2y −y
1
- To find gradient: m = x − x
• For any angle θ, the pythagorean identities: 2 1
- sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1 - Gradient-intercept form: y = m x + b
- tan2 θ + 1 = sec 2 θ (provided that cos θ ≠ 0) - Point-slope form: y − y1 = m (x − x1)
y2 − y1
- cot 2 θ + 1 = csc 2 θ (provided that sin θ ≠ 0) Eq. through (x1, y1), (x 2 , y2 ) is y − y1 = (x − x1)
• x 2 − x1
• For any angle θ, the complementary angle identities:
- cos(90 o − θ ) = sin θ - Length of a segment: d = (x 2 − x1) 2 + ( y2 − y1) 2
- cot(90 o − θ ) = tan θ (provided that tan θ is defined) x1 + x 2 y1 + y2
- csc(90 o − θ ) = sec θ (provided that sec θ is defined) - Midpoint of a segment: M = ( 2 , 2 )
- For two parallel lines, m1 = m 2
Sine Rule and Area Formula 1
h - To prove perpendicularity, m1 × m 2 = − 1 → m1 = − m
2
- In △ C B M, a = sin B
- To prove collinear points a , b , c: mab = mbc
→ h = a sin B
h
- Perpendicular distance between a point (x1, y2 ) and line
- In △ C A M, b = sin A | a x1 + b y1 + c |
a x + b y + c = 0: d =
→ h = b sin A a2 + b 2
a b
∴ =
sin A sin B
a b c
Sufficiency Conditions for Shapes
• More generally, in any △ A B C: sin A = sin B = sin C - Kite
- Used to find side when two angles + one side are known, or to • Two pairs of adjacent sides are equal.
find angle when two sides + one angle are known. • One diagonal bisects the other diagonal at right angles.
- Trapezium
• Ambiguous case may arise when two sides + non-included angle:
- Since the supplement of sin θ, sin(180 − θ ) is also positive, it • One pair of sides are parallel.
- Parallelogram
may be a plausible answer in some cases.
- To check if supplement is valid, add to the given angle, and if • Both pairs of opposite sides are equal
the result is < 180 o, then the supplement is also valid. • Both pairs of opposite sides are parallel
1 • Diagonals bisect each other.
• From triangle above, area = 2 c h, and we know h = b sin A. • One pair of opposite sides equal and parallel.
1 • Both pairs of opposite angles are equal.
- ∴ Area = 2 b c sin A
- Rhombus

Cosine Rule • Diagonals bisect at 90 degrees.

• All sides equal.
- In △ B P C,
• Any condition for parallelogram + one pair of adjacent sides
a 2 = (b − x ) 2 + h 2 are equal.
a = b2 − 2 x b + x 2 + h2
2
- Rectangle
- In △ B PA ,
• Any condition for parallelogram + one angle is 90 degrees.
x 2 = c 2 − h2
x • Angles at vertices are 90 degrees.
cos A = → x = c cos A
c • Any condition for parallelogram + diagonals are equal.
a 2 = b 2 − 2b c cos A + c 2 − h 2 + h 2
- Square
∴ a 2 = b 2 + c 2 − 2b c cos A • 4 equal sides and one angle is 90 degrees.
• Diagonals equal and bisect at 90 degrees.
• To find third side given two sides and included angle:
a 2 = b 2 + c 2 − 2b c cos A Equation of Line Through Point and
b2 + c 2 − a2
• To find angle given three sides: cos A =
2b c Intersection of Another Two Lines
• a1 x + b1 y + c1 + k (a 2 x + b 2 y + c2 ) = 0
- For example, 2 x + y + 1 = 0, 3x + 5y − 9 = 0, (1,2):

Term One 2 x + y + 1 + k (3x + 5y − 9) = 0, then subs. (1,2)

2 + 2 + 1 + k (3 + 10 − 9) = 0 → 4k = − 5 → k = −
- Substituting back into equation,
5
4

Finished! 2x + y + 1 −
4
(3x + 5y − 9) = 0

7x + 21y − 49 = 0 → x + 3y − 7 = 0

10
Division of Line Segment in a Ratio
- A B is divided m : n as shown. To find P,
We know that the red and green triangles are similar, as they have
two corresponding angles equal, and therefore their corresponding
sides are proportional.
P can be defined as
m
× A B away from A.
m +n
Thus,
Variance
m - Variance (Var(X )) is a measure of spread about the mean.
x = x1 + (x − x1)
m +n 2 • Take deviation (x − μ) of each value and square: (x − μ)2
x1(m + n) + m x 2 − m x1
= - Squaring makes the deviation a positive number or zero.
m +n - The square gets larger very quickly as deviation increases.
m x 2 + n x1
= • Then take the weighted mean of the squared deviations for
m +n
(x − μ) 2 p (x )
∑
Similarly, solving for y gives each value: Va r (X ) =
m y2 + n y1 - Thus, also expected value: Va r (X ) = E ((X − μ)2 )
y =
m +n - The units of variance are square of whatever units values have.
x 2 m + x1n y2 m + y1n
Therefore, P = ( , )
m +n m +n Variance - Alternative Formula
Topic 10: Discrete Probability Distributions
- To conjure up an alternative formula for easier calculations:
(x − μ) 2 p (x )
∑
Va r (X ) =

Probability Distributions (x − 2μ x + μ 2 )p (x )
2
∑
=
x 2 p (x ) − μ 2 p (x )
∑ ∑ ∑
- A probability distribution is a set of all possible outcomes, = 2μ x p (x ) +
x 2 p (x ) − 2μ x p (x ) + μ 2
∑ ∑ ∑
together with their corresponding probabilities. = p (x )
• Outcomes in probability distributions known as values.
∑ ∑
Since p (x ) = 1 and x p (x ) = μ,
- Probability distributions whose values are all counting numbers
x 2 p (x ) − 2μ 2 + μ 2 = x 2 p (x ) − μ 2
∑ ∑
Va r (X ) =
and can be listed are known as discrete probability distribution.
• Even though whole numbers and integers are technically And therefore Va r (X ) also equals E (X ) − μ 2.
2

countably infinite, they can still be “listed”.

- Continuous probability distributions include all real numbers as Uniform Distribution
values, and therefore have an infinite number of possible values. - For a uniform distribution X = 1,2,3,...,n, where all values have
1
• Thus, the probability of a particular value occurring is zero. equal probability of P (x ) = :
n
• Therefore, probability is recorded by measuring the n +1
probability that the random variable lies within an interval, • E (X ) = 2
e.g. P (55 ≤ X ≤ 60), but this requires integration. n2 − 1
• Va r (X ) =
12
Random Experiments & Random Variables
- If experiment has more than one outcome - random experiment Standard Deviation
• X is the random variable, the result of a random experiment. - Square root of the variance: σ = Va r (X ) or σ 2 = Va r (X ).
• P (X = x ) OR P (x ) denotes when X results in a value of x. - Spreading out all values by factor of k, results in k × σ.
• In discrete probability distributions, ∑ P (X = x ) = 1 - Adding constant amount to each data value doesn’t affect spread.
X
- If experiment only has one outcome - deterministic experiment. - However, if each value of X is divided by k in Z, i.e Z = k ,
• Thus, one certain outcome (e.g. 4) only. P (X = 4) = 1 X X μ
Va r (Z ) = Va r () = E [( ) 2 ] − ( ) 2
k k k
Expected Value E (X 2 ) μ 2 E (X 2 ) − μ 2
- Expected value calculated by weighting each value by their = − =
k2 k2 k2
probability. Va r (X ) σ 2 σ
= = = ( ) 2 : spread is narrower by k factor.
• Thus it is calculated as E (X ) = ∑ x p (x ) k2 k2 k
• It is also alternatively notated as μ, meaning “mean”. • If we have σ (a X + b), +b does not affect the spread, and the
spread must be positive, therefore σ (a X + b) = | a | σ (X )
Laws of Expectation
Sample Distribution
1. If a and b are constants, E (a X + b) = a E (X ) + b
- A census performs an experiment on everything, while survey
∑
Proof: E (a X + b) = (a x + b)p (x )
sample only some of the population.
∑ ∑
= a x p (x ) + b p (x ) - In simulations/trials, p (x ) is replaced by fr (relative frequency).
∑ ∑
=a x p (x ) + b p (x ) - The mean is denoted by x, and corresponds to expected value:
Since
∑
x p (x ) = E (X ) and
∑
p (x ) = 1 • x = ∑ x fr
= a E (X ) + b - Sample variance is s 2 and sample standard deviation is s.
2 2 2 2
2. E (X + Y ) = E (X ) + E (Y ) • s = ∑ (x − x ) fr = ∑ x fr − x

11
Z-scores Slope of Tangent to a Curve
- Z-scores are a common standardisation of data, which represent • To find the tangent on point P (x , f (x )) on y = f (x ), we can find
the amount of standard deviations above or below mean. the slope of the secant connecting P and Q (x + h , f (x + h))
x −μ
• z = σ , which is good because: elsewhere on the slope.
X−μ E (X − μ) μ −μ - The closer Q is to P, the more accurate the gradient will be.
E (Z ) = E ( )= = =0 f (x + h) − f (x ) f (x + h) − f (x )
σ σ σ mPQ = , and thus we want lim ,
X−μ Va r (X − μ) σ2 x +h −x h→0 h
Va r (Z ) = Va r ( )= = =1 which is the slope of the tangent, known as the derivative of y with
σ σ 2 σ2
dy d
∴ μz = 0 and σz = 1, mean is 0 and standard deviation is 1. respect to x, symbolised as or y′ or f ′(x ) or f (x ).
dx dx
dy yδ
lim
• d x represents xδ→0 , where δ is an infinitesimal change.
xδ
Topic 11: Differentiation - This process is called "differentiating from first principles"
- The derivative is a measure of the rate of change.
Gradient Function f (x + h) − f (x )
- The gradient function (derivative) y = f ′(x ) measures how steep • f ′(x ) = h→0
lim
h
the graph at the point (i.e. gradient). E.g. Find the equation of the tangent to y = x 2 − 5x + 2 at (1, − 2)
• For a horizontal line f (x ) = c, f ′(x ) = 0. First find derivative: f (x ) = x 2 − 5x + 2,
• For an oblique line f (x ) = m x + b, f ′(x ) = m. f (x + h) = x 2 + 2 x h + h 2 − 5x − 5h + 2
dy f (x + h) − f (x ) 2 x h + h 2 − 5h
= lim = lim = 2x − 5
Derivative of a Semicircle d x h→0 h h→0 h
- Slope of a curve is defined as slope of tangent to curve at any 2 x − 5 is the gradient function, into which we sub (1, − 2) for m.
dy
particular point. When x = 1, = 2(1) − 5 = − 3
dx
• For a semicircle f (x ) = r 2 − x 2 , the tangent on point A Thus, y + 2 = − 3(x − 1) → y = − 3x + 1
f (x )
(x , f (x )) is perpendicular to the radius OA: mOA =
−x
x Rules for Differentiation
m m =
• Power Rule: Where f (x ) = x n, f ′(x ) = n x n−1
- Thus, OA ’s negative reciprocal is tangent
f (x )
−x Proof: We know a 2 − b 2 = (a − b)(a + b) and
2 2
∴ for a semicircle f (x ) = r − x , f ′(x ) =
• a 3 − b 3 = (a − b)(a 2 + a b + b 2 ) and thus we can see the pattern:
r 2 − x2
a n − b n = (a − b)(a n−1 + a n−2 b + a n−3 b + . . . + a b n−2 + b n−1)
Quadratic Derivative with Secants We have f (x ) = x n, thus f (x + h) = (x + h) n
1. Choose two points symmetrically on either side of point (x , x 2 ) (x + h) n − x n
f ′(x ) = lim
2. Calculate the slope of secant joining the two points. h→0 h
(x + h − x )[(x + h) n−1 + (x + h) n−2 x . . . + (x + h)x n−2 + x n−1]
3. Let the two points be A (x − h , (x − h) 2 ), B (x + h , (x + h) 2 ). = lim
h→0 h
(x + h) 2 − (x − h) 2 4x h
4. Thus, mAB = = = 2x = lim (x + h) n−1 + (x + h) n−2 x . . . + (x + h)x n−2 + x n−1
x + h − (x − h) 2h h→0
5. Therefore for f (x ) = x 2 , f ′(x ) = 2 x is correct. = lim x n−1 + x n−1 . . . . + x n−1 = n x n−1
h→0
Finding Limits - The normal at P is the line perpendicular to tangent at P.
1. Direct Substitution
• Sum rule: If f (x ) = u (x ) + v (x ), then f ′(x ) = u′(x ) + v′(x )
Proof :
e.g. lim x + 7 = 5 + 7 = 12 f (x + h) − f (x ) u (x + h) + v (x + h) − u (x ) − v (x )
x→5 f ′(x ) = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
2. Factorise and Cancel
u (x + h) − u (x ) v (x + h) − v (x )
x2 − 9 = lim + lim = u′(x ) + v′(x )
e.g. lim = lim x + 3 = 6 h→0 h h→0 h
x→3 x − 3 x→3
1 • Coefficient rule: If f (x ) = a u (x ), then f ′(x ) = a u′(x )
3. Special Limit - lim =0 Proof:
x→∞ x
a u (x + h) − a u (x ) u (x + h) − u (x )
x 3 + 3x 2 + 2 x − 1 f ′(x ) = lim = a lim
e.g1. lim , divide everything by highest power. h→0 h h→0 h
x→∞ 4x 3 − 1
= a u′(x )
x3 3x 2 2x 1 3 2 1 dy dy du d
+ + − 1+ x + − n n−1 × u′,
= lim x 3 x3 x3 x3
= lim x2 x3
=
1 • Chain rule: d x = d u × d x OR d x (u ) = n u
x→∞ 4x 3 x→∞ 1 4
− 1 4− if y is a function of u where u is a function of x.
x3 x3 x3
- For example, in y = (4x 3 + 3)6, y = u 6, u = 4x 3 + 3
Look for coefficients of the biggest power, as they must cancel out. dy
∴ = 6(4x 3 + 3)5(12 x 2 ) = 72 x 2 (4x 3 + 3)5
4x − x 2 0 x3 + 2 1 dx
e.g2. lim = =0 e.g2. lim = =∞
x→∞ x 3 + 1 1 x→∞ x 2 − 1 0 • Chain rule also used for parametric equation, e.g. x = t 2 , y = 2t.
(x + 3)(x − 2) dy dy dt 1 1
Also used to find horizontal asymptotes: y = = × =2× = .
(x − 1)(x + 1) dx dt dx 2t t
2 1 x
x +x −6 1 2
∴ eq. of tang. at T (t ,2t ) is y − 2t = (x − t 2 ) →y = + t
Horizontal asymptote at lim = = ∴ at y = 1. t t
x→∞ x2 − 1 1

12
Differentiating Inverse Functions Quotient Rule
dy dx u
• For inverse functions f (x ) = y and f ( y) = x, d x × d y = 1. • For a function y = v where u , v are both functions of x,
3 du dv
E.g. differentiate y = x by differentiating inverse function: dy v −u v u′ − u v′
dx dx
= or more concisely, y′ =
dx dx v 2 v2
Solving for x, x = y 3. ∴ = 3y 2
dy Proof using product rule: let y = u v , let U = u , V = v −1
−1
dy 1 dy dU dV du dv
We want to find derivative of y with respect to x, so = =V +U = v −1 − u v −2
dx 3y 2 dx dx dx dx dx
3 3 2 dy 1 Multiplying top and bottom of each expression by v 2:
y = x , and therefore y 2 = x , thus = . du dv
dx 3 2 dy v −u
3 x dx dx
= as required.
dx v2
Differentiating Non-Cardinal Powers
- We can prove the power rule works for a power of n = − 1 by Reciprocal Rule
k d k −k v′
using first-principles differentiation. • For a function f (x ) = v where k is a constant, d x ( v ) = v 2
1 1
f (x ) = and f (x + h) = 6 dy −6(8x ) −48x
x x +h To differentiate y = → = =
1 1 4x 2 + 3 dx (4x 2 + 3) 2 (4x 2 + 3) 2
− x x −x −h −1
x+h
f ′(x ) = lim
h→0 h
= lim
h→0 h x (x + h)
= lim
h→0 x (x + h) Rates of Change
−1 • At three arbitrary points P (x , f (x )) on a function f (x ):
= , which is indeed the same result as when power rule is used.
x2 dy
- If d x > 0, then f (x ) is increasing.
• Power rule also works for fractional indices.
- We can then prove that the power rule works on all negative dy
- If d x = 0, then f (x ) is stationary, i.e. P is a stationary point.
1
integer indices. We have f (x ) = , where m ≥ 2 is an integer. dy
xm - If d x < 0, then f (x ) is decreasing.
1
Using the chain rule, where y = , u = x m,
u • The average rate of change between two points P (t1, Q1) and
dy dy du 1 Q − Q1
= × =− × m x m−1 = − m x −m−1 as required. Q (t 2 , Q2 ) is the slope of the secant P Q: = mPQ = 2
dx du d x x 2m t 2 − t1

Dividing Through by Denominator Displacement, Velocity and Acceleration

- If the denominator of a function is a single term, first divide - Displacement (x ): Distance from a point, with direction.
dx
- Velocity (v, x· , d t ): The rate of change of displacement with
through by it, then differentiate.
5x 3 + 2 x 2 + 4 5 2 4
f (x ) = = x + + x −2
3x 2 3 3 3 respect to time, i.e. speed with direction.
2
dy 5 4 −3 5 8 5x 3 − 8 · ·· d v d x
∴ = − 2( )x = − = - Acceleration (a , v, x , d t , 2 ): The rate of change of velocity
dx 3 3 3 3x 3 3x 3 dt
However, it is just as practical to use to quotient rule, seen later. with respect to time, i.e. second derivative of f (x ).

Domain of x n Differentiability
• When n is negative, x cannot equal zero. - A graph with no vertical asymptotes, point discontinuities, or any
m other gaps in the domain/range are said to be continuous.
• When n is a fraction k , where k is an even number, x cannot be - To be smooth continuous, function cannot have cusps or corners.
negative. - A function is differentiable at a point if the curve is smooth
• When n is irrational, x cannot be negative. continuous and the tangent is not vertical at the point.
• For example, y = | x − 1 | is not differentiable at x = 1 as it is
Product Rule impossible to draw a tangent.
d dv du
• Product Rule: d x (u v) = u d x + v d x or y′ = u v′ + v u′ • Similarly x = y 2 is not differentiable at
Proof: We have y = u v. If x → x + x δ, then y → y + y δ, x = 0 as the tangent is vertical.
2
u → u + u δ, v → v + v δ, i.e. ∴ y + y δ = (u + u δ )(v + v δ ) • y = (x − 2) 3 also not differentiable at
y + yδ = uv + uvδ + uvδ + uδvδ → yδ = uvδ + vuδ + uδvδ x = 2 as there is a cusp.
yδ vδ uδ uδ vδ
=u +v + × × x δ so as x δ → 0,
xδ xδ xδ xδ xδ Implicit Differentiation
dy dv du df df dy
=u +v + 0 as required. 2
dx dx dx • If you don't have a function, e.g. x = y , use d x = d y × d x .
Can also use when u , v is square root, e.g. y = 2 x 2 x − 1 d d
1 (x ) = ( y 2 ), but y 2 cannot be differentiated in respect to x
dy 1 −1 1
dx dx
= 2 x (2 x − 1) 2 → = (2 x )[ (2 x − 1) 2 (2)] + (2 x − 1) 2 (2)
dx 2 d d dy
But implicit differentiation gives ( y2) = ( y2) ×
−1 1 −1 dx dy dx
= 2 x (2 x − 1) 2 + 2(2 x − 1) = 2(2 x − 1) 2 [x + (2 x − 1)]
2
dy dy 1
−1 dy 2(3x − 1) ∴ 1 = 2y → = . The derivative is in terms of y as two
= 2(2 x − 1) 2 (3x − 1) → ∴ = dx dx 2y
dx 2x − 1
points would result if it was in terms of x.

13
- Find equation of tangent to x 2 + y 2 = 9 at the point (1,2 2)
dy dy
Remainder Theorem
Differentiate equation → 2 x + 2y = 0 → 2y = − 2x
dx dx • If a polynomial P (x ) is divided by (x − a), R (x ) = P (a)
dy x
∴ = − . Both x and y are in the derivative as you need both Proof: P (x ) = A (x )Q (x ) + R (x ). Let A (x ) = (x − a),
dx y
P (x ) = (x − a)Q (x ) + R (x ) → P (a) = (a − a)Q (a) + R (a)
dy 1
values to find a single point. Subbing point (1,2 2), =− = R (a).
dx 2 2
However, since A (x ) is a divisor of degree 1, R (x ) must be degree 0
1
Therefore y − 2 2 = − (x − 1) → 2 2y − 8 = − x + 1 or simply zero, so we can rewrite it as r. ∴ r = P (a)
2 2
Thus, the equation of the tangent is x + 2 2y = 9 = 0 Factor Theorem
• If (x − a) is a factor of P (x ), then P (a) = 0. Converse also true.
Topic 12: Polynomials To factorise P (x ) = 4x 3 − 16x 2 − 9x + 36, the constant factors
must be a factor of the constant (i.e. 36). These are thus

Polynomial Basics 1,2,3,4,6,9,12,18,36, which can also be negative. Also possible to be

factors of constant
fractional factors of the form .
• A real polynomial P (x ) of degree n is expressed as factors of leading coefficient
P (x ) = p 0 + p1 x + p 2 x 2 + . . . + pn−1 x n−1 + pn x n where We test these, and we find P (4) = 0, and thus (x − 4) is factor.
pn ≠ 0 and n ≥ 0 and is an integer. P (x ) = (x − 4)(4x 2 − 9) = (x − 4)(2 x + 3)(2 x − 3)
-
-
Degree (order): the highest index of the polynomial.
Leading term: pn x n and leading coefficient: pn
Polynomial Rules
- Monic polynomial: leading coefficient is equal to one. 1. If P (x ) has k distinct real zeros, a1, a 2 , a3, . . . , ak,
- P (x ) = 0 is polynomial equation. (x − a1)(x − a 2 )(x − a3) . . . (x − ak ) is a factor of P (x )
- y = P (x ) is polynomial function. i.e. if 1 and −2 are zeros of P (x ) then (x − 1)(x + 2) is factor.
- Roots: solutions to P (x ) = 0 2. If P (x ) has degree n and has n distinct real zeros
- Zeroes: x intercepts of y = P (x ) a1, a 2 , a3 . . . , a n then P (x ) = (x − a1)(x − a 2 ) . . . (x − a n )

Graphing Polynomials i.e. cannot have more linear factors than the degree of polynomial
3. If P (x ) has degree n and has more than n real zeros, then P (x )
• When drawing y = P (x ) is the zero polynomial, i.e. P (x ) = 0 for all x
- y intercept is the constant 4. If P (x ) ≡ Q (x ) (identically equal), then the coefficients of each
- x intercepts are the roots, found using P (x ) = 0 corresponding term must be equal.
• As x → ± ∞, P (x ) acts like function of leading term alone. - If n degree polynomials P (x ) = Q (x ) for n + 1 values of x,
Proof: Let P (x ) = a n x n + a n−1 x n−1 + . . . + a1 x + a 0 then they are identically equal.
P (x ) a a a0
= a n + n−1 + . . . +
Then
xn x x n−1
+
xn Sum and Product of Roots
P (x )
Therefore, lim = a n, showing that for large values of x,. - If α and β are the roots of a x 2 + b x + c = 0, then:
x→±∞ x n
a x 2 + b x + c = a (x − α )(x − β )
P (x ) is the same sign as a n
= a (x 2 − α x − β x + α β )
- Even powered roots are in shape of a parabola. b c
- Odd powered roots are in shape of a cubic. x 2 + x + = x 2 − (α + β )x + α β and therefore:
a a
b c
• α + β = − a and α β = a
y = (x − 1)4 (x + 1) 3(x + 2) 2 - For a cubic a x 3 + b x 2 + c x + d = 0:
b c d
• α + β + γ = − a and α β + α γ + β γ = a and α β γ = − a
- For a quartic a x 4 + b x 3 + c x 2 + d x + e = 0:
b
• α + β + γ + δ = − a and
c
α β + α γ + α δ + β γ + β δ + γ δ = and
In this graph, x = 1 is a root of multiplicity 4, x = − 1 is root of a
d e
multiplicity 3, and x = − 2 is root of multiplicity 2. α β γ + α β δ + α γ δ + β γ δ = − and α β γ δ =
a a
- Therefore, in general, for a x n + b x n−1 + c x n−2 . . . = 0
Polynomial Division b
• ∑ a = − a (sum of roots, one at a time)
• P (x ) = A (x )Q (x ) + R (x ) where A (x ) is divisor, Q (x ) is quotient c
• d e g (R (x )) < d e g (A (x )) • ∑ α β = a (sum of roots, two at a time)
E.g. x 3 + 2 x 2 − 4 divided by x − 3 d
First take the x from x − 3 and divide into the • ∑ α β γ = − a (sum of roots, three at a time)
e
leading term x 3, creating x 2 at the top.
• ∑ α β γ δ = a (sum of roots, four at a time)
Now times x − 3 by x 2 giving x 3 − 3x 2, and then
• Furthermore, due to the expansion of a perfect square,
subtract. Repeat until you cannot divide into the
α2 = ( α )2 − 2
∑ ∑ ∑
αβ
next term. Q (x ) = x 2 + x + 3, R (x ) = 5.

14
Multiple Roots Topic 14: Extending Calculus
- A value x = a is a zero of multiplicity m of the polynomial P (x )
if P (x ) = (x − a) m Q (x ), where Q (a) ≠ 0. Differentiating Exponentials
- If x = a is a zero of multiplicity m ≥ 1 of P (x ), then x = a is a - Let f (x ) = a x. Differentiating using first principles:
zero of multiplicity m − 1 of the derivative P′(x ) a x+h − a x a x (a h − 1) ah − 1
Proof: since P (x ) = (x − a) m Q (x ) where Q (a) ≠ 0, f ′(x ) = lim → lim → a x lim
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h
P′(x ) = m (x − a) m−1Q (x ) + (x − a) m Q′(x ) As this is impossible to solve algebraically, we can notice that
= (x − a) m−1(m Q (x ) + (x − a)Q′(x )) ah − 1 a 0+h − a 0 f (0 + h) − f (0)
= (x − a) m−1 R (x ) where R (x ) = m Q (x ) + (x − a)Q′(x ) a x lim = a x lim = a x lim
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h
But we know Q (a) ≠ 0, so substituting x = a into R (x ), The latter part of which is just f ′(0)’s first principles representation.
R (a) = m Q (a) + 0 which ≠ 0 so therefore: Therefore f ′(x ) = a x × f ′(0), f ′(0) is the slope of tangent at x = 0
x = a is a zero of multiplicity m − 1 in P′(x )
• If x = a has even multiplicity, then curve is tangent to x-axis Euler’s Number (e)
at x = a, and does not cross x-axis, i.e. (a ,0) is a turning point 1
• e is an irrational number, defined as e = n→∞lim (1 + ) n ≈ 2.72
• If x = a has odd multiplicity of ≥ 3, then is tangent to x-axis n
at x = a, crossing x-axis, i.e. (a ,0) is a horizontal inflection. - The exponential function f (x ) = e x is defined so that at x = 0 it
- Once a zero of P (x ) is found, it should immediately be checked has a slope of 1, i.e. f ′(0) = 1.
whether it is double zero by subbing into P′(x ) and triple zero by • This means that for f (x ) = e x , f ′(x ) = e x or f ′(x ) = y.
subbing into P′′(x ).
Differentiating Exponential Functions
Topic 13: Exponentials and Logs - If we have y = e f (x), let f (x ) = u so that y = e u, so chain rule:
dy d (e u ) d u dy
= × , which simplifies to = e u × f ′(x ).
Logarithms and Log Laws dx du dx dx
f (x) to find derivative: d y = f ′(x )e f (x)
• Thus, for y = e
• For x = a y, we know y = loga x, where a > 0, a ≠ 1. dx
d a x+b a x+b
- Logs and exponentials are inverse functions. - Essentially, d x e = ae
1. loga a x = x for all real x
- If we wish to differentiate non base-e exponential, e.g. y = a f (x)
2. a loga x = x for all real x > 0 dy f (x)
3. loga 1 = 0 (as a 0 = 1) • d x = f ′(x )(ln a)a , the proof of which is too hard right now.
4. loga a = 1 (as a 1 = a) - E.g. find tangent to y = e 2 x + 1 at point (1,e 2 + 1).
5. loga x + loga y = loga x y (as a x × a y = a x+y) dy dy
= 2e 2 x, when x = 1, = 2e 2. Using point-slope formula:
x dx dx
6. loga x − loga y = loga (as a x ÷ a y = a x−y)
y y − (e 2 + 1) = 2e 2 (x − 1) → y = 2e 2 x − e 2 + 1
7. loga x p = p loga x (as (a x ) p = a px)
logb x Natural Logarithm
8. loga x =
logb a
• loge x usually written as ln x or log x.
Proof: we know y = loga x and x = a y. - Inverse function to y = e x is
Thus, taking logs of base b on both sides: logb x = logb a y y = ln x
logb x - For the graph y = log x,
logb x = y logb a → y = as required.
logb a
• Domain is x > 0, range is all real y.
Expo/Logs Inequations and Graphs • x = 0 is vertical asymptote (since
ln 0 is undefined)
- Since for bases of a > 1, exponential function y = a x and log As x → 0+, y → − ∞.
•
function y = loga x are continually increasing, inequalities are As x → ∞, y → ∞.
•
preserved, i.e. logging both sides doesn’t change sign. • The curve in its basic form is always concave down.
• For example, in the inequation log3 x > 2, we can exponentialise • The curve has gradient 1 at x − intercept (1,0).
both sides according to the base: 3log3 x > 32 → ∴ x > 9 • To undo exponential, natural log both sides, e x = y → x = ln y
- The graphs of y = 2 x and y = log2 x are inverse functions and
are reflected in the line y = x. Rates of Change and Exponentials
- This means that for y = a x and y = loga x, - For growth and decay, we assume that growth and decay is
loga (a x ) = x and a loga x = x dP
proportional to the population: = k P.
dt
• The solution of this differential equation is P = A e kt
- e.g. price $P of an item is inflating according to P = 150e 0.04t,
dP
where t is time in years. Find the rate of inflation.
dt
d P
If P = 150e 0.04t, the derivative would be = (0.04)150e 0.04t
dt
= 6e 0.04t
15
Topic 15: Trigonometry II Manipulating Inverse Trig Graphs
−1 x
- Graph y = 5 sin 3 : Thus we establish
Radian Measure x
• 180 o = π radians, thus • Domain: −1 ≤ 3 ≤ 1 → − 3 ≤ x ≤ 3
o π π y π 5π 5π
- 30 = 6
• Range: − 2 ≤ 5 ≤ 2 → − 2 ≤ y ≤ 2
o π
- 45 = 4 and graph the curve adhering to the new domain/range.
π
o
- Degrees to radians, x × 180 - Graph y = tan−1( 3 − x 2 ): Thus we establish
180 • Domain: 3 − x 2 ≥ 0 → − 3 ≤ x ≤ 3
- Radians to degrees, x π × π
• Range test endpoints: x = 3 → y = tan−1 0 = 0
Arcs and Sectors x =− 3 → y = tan−1 0 = 0. Then test midpoint:
π π
- We know C = 2π r, to find arc l, x = 0 → y = tan−1 3 = . Therefore 0 ≤ y ≤
3 3
θ
Since l = × 2π r where θ in degrees
2π
Thus, l = r θ where θ is in radians.
- Further, A = π r 2, segment O A B:
θ 1
AOAB = × π r 2 = r 2 θ where θ is in radians
2π 2
1 1
To find area of minor segment A B, r 2 θ − r 2 sin θ
• 2 2 - Graph y = sin−1 sin x (as a relation sin y = sin x).
Graphing Trig + Inverse Functions • Domain: −1 ≤ sin x ≤ 1 → all real x
π π
• Refer to Topic 8 (convert to radians) and Topic 7 respectively. • Range: − 2 ≤ y ≤ 2 , therefore graph cannot simply be y = x
π π
Instead, it zigzags between − ≤ y ≤ for all real x.
Inverse Trig Functions 2 2

- For y = sin−1 x,
As y = sin x is not one-to-one, there
is no inverse. But if we restrict
π π
domain − ≤ x ≤ , then we have
2 2
an inverse. Thus y = sin−1 x:
• Domain: −1 ≤ x ≤ 1
π π
• Range: − 2 ≤ y ≤ 2 Range should stop at − π ≤ y ≤
π
- Graph y = sin sin−1 x Graph identical for y = cos cos−1 x
2 2
- For y = cos−1 x, • Domain: −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 (domain of sin−1 x)
As y = cos x is not one-to-one, there • Range (test endpoints):
is no inverse. But if we restrict domain x = 1 → y = sin sin−1 1 = 1
0 ≤ x ≤ π, then we have an inverse. x = − 1 → y = sin sin−1(−1) = − 1, and then
Thus y = cos−1 x: midpoint x = 0 → y = sin sin−1 0 = 0,
• Domain: −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 therefore −1 ≤ y ≤ 1.
• Range: 0 ≤ y ≤ π
- For y = tan−1 x, Range should stop at 0 ≤ y ≤ π Proving Trig Symmetry and Identity
As y = tan x is not one-to-one, there - To prove cos−1(−x ) = π − cos−1 x,
is no inverse. But if we restrict
π π y = cos−1(−x ) → − x = cos y for 0 ≤ y ≤ π
domain − < x < (remember ∴ x = − cos y. We know that cos(π − y) = − cos y
2 2
π Therefore cos(π − y) = x → π − y = cos−1 x since 0 ≤ π − y ≤ π.
x ≠ + π k , k ∈ ℤ),
2 ∴ y = π − cos−1 x, as required.
then we have an inverse. Thus −1 −1 π
y = tan−1 x:
- To prove sin x + cos x = 2 for −1 ≤ x ≤ 1,
• Domain: all real x It is evident that y = cos−1 x and y = sin−1 x are
π π π
reflections of each other in the line y = , but
• Range: − 2 < y < 2 4
As seen from the graphs: algebraically,
• sin−1(−x ) = − sin−1 x (odd function) Let a = cos−1 x.
−1 −1 π
∴ cos a = x for 0 ≤ a ≤ π.
• cos (−x ) = π − cos x (odd function shifted up 2 ) π π
Since sin( − a) = cos a, sin( − a) = x
• tan−1(−x ) = − tan−1 x (odd function) 2
π
2
π π π
π
−1 −1 ∴ sin−1 x = ( − a), because − ≤ − a ≤
• sin x + cos x = 2 (∠sum △ ) 2 2 2 2
π
- Inverse trig sometimes shown as arcsin x , arccos x , arctan x etc. sin−1 x + a = , and since a = cos−1 x
2
- cos2 x + sin2 x = 1 : homogeneous of degree 2 in sin x and cos x π
sin−1 x + cos−1 x =
2
16
Compound Angle Formulae Products to Sums
- If we wanted to find cos(α − β ), refer to - We know the four compound-angle formulae of sine and cosine:
the unit circle. We know: sin(α + β ) = sin α cos β + cos α sin β
A = (cos a , sin a) and B = (cos β , sin β ) sin(α − β ) = sin α cos β − cos α sin β
Thus, using distance formula, cos(α − β ) = cos α cos β + sin α sin β
A B 2 = (cos α − cos β ) 2 + (sin α − sin β ) 2 cos(α + β ) = cos α cos β − sin α sin β
- Adding and subtracting the first two, and doing the same for the
= cos2 α − 2 cos α cos β − cos2 β + sin2 α − 2 sin α sin β + sin2 β
A B 2 = 2 − 2 cos α cos β − 2 sin α sin β
latter two yields the four product to sum identities:
• 2 sin α cos β = sin(α + β ) + sin(α − β )
And, using the cosine rule: c 2 = a 2 + b 2 − 2a b cos C
A B 2 = 1 + 1 − 2 cos(α − β ) • 2 cos α sin β = sin(α + β ) − sin(α − β )
Thus, equating the two: • 2 cos α cos β = cos(α + β ) + cos(α − β )
2 − 2 cos α cos β − 2 sin α sin β = 2 − 2 cos(α − β ) • −2 sin α sin β = cos(α + β ) − cos(α − β )
• cos(α − β ) = cos α cos β + sin α sin β
- By replacing β with −β, we can find cos(α + β ),
Sums to Products
= cos α cos(−β ) + sin α sin(−β ). Cos is even, and sin is odd, thus - Product to sum formulae, sub in A = α + β and B = α − β.
• cos(α + β ) = cos α cos β − sin α sin β For 2 sin α cos β = sin(α + β ) + sin(α − β ), we get:
π 1 1
- Using the identity sin θ = cos( − θ ), we can find sin(α + β ), 2 sin (A + B )cos (A − B ) = sin A + sin B, rearranged as
2 2 2
π π 1 1
sin(α + β ) = cos( − (α + β )) = cos(( − α ) − β )
2 2 • sin A + sin B = 2 sin 2 (A + B )cos 2 (A − B )
π π
As just proven, we get cos( − α )cos β + sin( − α )sin β This process is repeated for the other three products-to-sums, we get:
2 2
1 1
• sin(α + β ) = sin α cos β + cos α sin β • sin A − sin B = 2 cos 2 (A + B )sin 2 (A − B )
- Replacing β with −β, we get for sin(α − β ): 1 1
• sin(α − β ) = sin α cos β − cos α sin β • cos A + cos B = 2 cos 2 (A + B )cos 2 (A − B )
- To derive tan(α + β ), 1 1
sin(α + β ) sin α cos β + cos α sin β • cos A − cos B = − 2 sin 2 (A + B )sin 2 (A − B )
We know tan(α + β ) = =
cos(α + β ) cos α cos β − sin α sin β
By dividing top and bottom by cos α cos β, we get:
tan α + tan β Topic 16: Binomials and Pascals
• tan(α + β ) = 1 − tan α tan β
- Since we know tan is odd function, replacing β with −β we get: Binomial Expansions
tan α − tan β - A binomial expression is one which
• tan(α − β ) = 1 + tan α tan β contains two terms.
- When the coefficients in the
Double-Angle Formulae expansions of (1 + x ) n are arranged
- By replacing both angles of compound angle formulae with θ, in a table, we get Pascal’s triangle.
sin(θ + θ ) = sin θ cos θ + cos θ sin θ • Each row is symmetric/reversible.
• sin 2θ = 2 sin θ cos θ • Every number (except 1’s) is the
cos(θ + θ ) = cos θ cos θ − sin θ sin θ sum of the two numbers above.
• cos 2θ = cos2 θ − sin2 θ • To expand (1 + x ) n, there will be n + 1 terms starting with 1, and
We can use the identity sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1 to create: gradually working through coefficients of n + 1th row until x n.
• cos 2θ = 2 cos2 θ − 1 as well as, • If x positive, all terms positive. If x negative, terms alternate sign.
• cos 2θ = 1 − 2 sin2 θ
tan(θ + θ ) =
tan θ + tan θ General Binomial Expansions
1 − tan θ tan θ
2 tan θ - (x + y) n can be expanded with x n beginning, ending with y n, with
• tan 2θ = 1 − tan2 θ coefficients of middle terms determined by Pascal’s triangle.
- In each term, the sum of indices of x and y is n.
The t-formulae
• Ck = ( k ) is the coefficient of x in (1 + x )
n n k n
- To represent sin θ, cos θ, tan θ as algebraic functions,

• Thus, (1 + x ) = ( 0 ) + ( 1 )x + ( 2 )x + . . . + ( n )x
1 n n n 2 n n n
Let tan θ = t. Thus using the double angle formula we get,
2
2t
• (a + b) = ( 0 )a + ( 1 )a b + ( 2 )a (n)
n n n n
• tan θ = 1 − t 2 , from which we draw a right angle triangle: n n n−1 n−2 b 2 + . . . + bn
h 2 = 4t 2 + 1 − 2t 2 + t 4 = (t 2 + 1) 2 - From Pascal’s triangle, we also get:
Therefore AC = 1 + t 2. We thus get:
2t • nCk = n−1Ck−1 + n−1Ck where 1 ≤ k ≤ n − 1. Proving,
• sin θ = 1 + t 2 (1 + x ) n = (1 + x )( n−1C0 + n−1 Ck−1 x k−1 + n−1 Ck x k . . .n−1 Cn−1 x n−1)

1 − t2 We see that (1)( n−1Ck x k ) and (x )( n−1Ck−1 x k−1) are the only
• cos θ = 1 + t 2 terms with x k, and thus the coefficient will be n−1Ck + n−1 Ck−1.

17
 ( k ) (n − k)
• nCk = nCn−k where 1 ≤ k ≤ n − 1 (triangle symmetrical) But we know
n
=
n
, thus we can rewrite the coefficient:
• nC0 = nCn = 1 (first/last in every row always 1)
n 2 n 2 n 2 n 2 n n 2
(0) (1) (2) (n) ∑ (k)
= + + + ... + =
Binomial Theorem k=0

• (1 + x ) = ( 0 ) + ( 1 )x + ( 2 )x + . . . + ( n )x
n n n n n 2n
Now looking at coefficient of x in (1 + x ) :
n 2 n

(0) (1) (n) ( 2n )

2n 2n 2n n 2n 2n
(1 + x ) 2n = + x + ... + x + ... + x
n n
∑ (k)
nC x k = n k
∑ k
= x
(n)
2n
k=0 k=0 Thus we see the coefficient of x n = . And therefore we get:

• (a + b) = ( 0 )a + ( 1 )a b + ( 2 )a (n)
n n n n n−1 n n−2 2 n n
b + ... + b n n 2
∑ (k) (n)
2n
= , and writing in factorial notation,
n n
∑ (k)
nC a n−k b k = n n−k k k=0
∑ k
= a b
n n 2 (2n)!
∑ (k)
k=0 k=0 = as required.
3 11
k=0 (n !) 2
- For example, find the 5th term in the expansion of (5a − b ) ,
3
We know Tk+1 = 11Ck (5a)11−k (− ) k. ∴ k = 4

7
T4 = 11C4 (5a) (− )
3 4
b
Topic 17: Rates of Change
b
2088281250a 7 Related Rates
=
b4 - Where more than one rate, we must differentiate using chain rule
Relations between Binomial Coefficients with respect to t, creating a relation between two rates.
dy dy dx
n n
n
k n
n
• i.e. using d t = d x × d t
- Since (1 + x ) = ∑ Ck x , if we wanted to find ∑ Ck, - E.g. an ice cube of side length x = 20 is melting so that its
k=0 k=0
simply make x = 1, and thus we get: dimensions decrease at 1cm/s. What rate is its volume decreasing
n when each edge is 5cm long?
2n = nC (i.e., sum all numbers in row (k − 1), get 2n)
• ∑ k
We are trying to find
dV
. We know that
dx
= − 1, and that
k=0 dt dt
- We have 2n = nC0 + nC1 + nC2 + . . . as proven. Let this be (1) dV
n V = x 3 thus = 3x 2. Through the chain rule, we deduce:
n n k dx
- If we let x = − 1 in, (1 + x ) = ∑ Ck x , however, you will get dV
=
dV dx
× = 3x 2 × −1 = − 3x 2 and subbing x = 5, we get
k=0 dt dx dt
(1 − 1) n = nC0 − nC1 + nC2 − nC3 + . . . = 0, let this be (2). dV
= − 75, thus volume will be decreasing at 75cm3/s.
∴ (1) − (2) : 2n = 2nC1 + 2nC3 + 2nC5 + . . . and thus dt
dy dx dy dz
n−1 = n C + n C + n C + . . . - When there are 3 rates, we can use d t = d t × d z × d x
• 2 1 3 5
- However, (1) + (2) : 2n = 2nC0 + 2nC2 + 2nC4 + . . . yielding, For example, a spherical balloon is expanding so that its volume
n−1 = n C + n C + n C + . . . = n C + n C + n C + . . .
• 2 0 2 4 1 3 5 expands at a constant rate of 70mm3/s. What is the rate of increase
n n
n n n k in surface area when r = 10mm?
- To find ∑ k Ck, we must differentiate (1 + x ) = ∑ Ck x dS dV 4
k=1 k=0 Here we want to find , and we know = 70 and V = π r 3,
n dt dt 3
n−1 n k−1 dV
∑
Diff. both sides, we get n (1 + x ) (1) = k Ck x thus 2
= 4π r . However, it is difficult to link V and S using
k=0 dr
n dS dV dS dr
To get rid of x, let x = 1 : n (2) n−1 = k nCk regular chain rule so we can use = × × .
∑ dt dt dr dV
k=0 dS dr 1
n S = 4π r 2, ∴ = 8π r, and = .
n k nCk = n (2) n−1 dr dV 4π r 2
∑
Since 0 C0 = 0, we can conclude
dS 140 dS
k=1 ∴ = . When r = 10, = 14, i.e. increasing at 14mm2/s.
dt r dt
Comparing Coefficients Growth and Decay
- By equating the coefficients of x n on both sides of the identity
dP
n 2 (2n)!
n
• Growth and decay is proportion to population, i.e. d t = k P
∑ (k)
(1 + x ) n (1 + x ) n ≡ (1 + x ) 2n, show =
k=0 (n !) 2 • Solution is P = A e kt, where

(0) (1) (2) (n)

n n n 2 n n - P = population at time t
We know (1 + x ) n = + x+ x + ... + x thus
- k = growth/decay constant

(0) (1) (2) (n)

n n n 2 n n - A = initial population
(1 + x ) n (1 + x ) n = ( + x+ x + ... + x )×
- t = time

(0) (1) (2) (n)

n n n 2 n n - Proof:
( + x+ x + ... + x )
P = A e kt
dP
Finding coefficient of terms that multiply together to get x n, we get = k A e kt
dt
( 0 )( n ) ( 1 )( n − 1 ) ( 2 )( n − 2 ) ( n − 1 )( 1 ) ( n )( 0 )
n n n n n n n n n n
+ + + ... + + dP
= kP
dt

18
- E.g. On an island, the population in 1960 was 1732 and in 1970 it
was 1260, find annual growth rate of nearest % assuming it is
proportional to population.
dP
= k P and P = A e kt, we know A = 1732 thus P = 1732e kt.
dt
When t = 10, P = 1260, i.e. 1260 = 1732e 10k
1260 1 1260
Thus, 10k = log →k = log = − 0.0318(4d p)
1732 10 1732
∴ growth rate is −3%.
- In how many years will the population be half that in 1960?
1732 1
Let 866 = 1732e kt as = 688, thus e kt = .
2 2
1 1 1 1 1260
k t = log → t = log , and we know k = log
2 k 2 10 1732
1 1
∴t = × log = 21.786.
1 1260 2
log
10 1732
Thus, it takes 22 years to halve the population.

Modified Growth and Decay

- We must change the equation modelling growth and decay in
order to take into conditions such as temperature barriers.
dP
• d t = k (P − N ), where N is a fixed constant barrier.
• The solution is thus P = N + A e kt where
- P = population at time t
- k = growth/decay constant
- N + A = initial population
- t = time
kt dP
- Proof that P = N + A e given d t = k (P − N ):
Let y = P − N be difference between P and N.
dy dP
Thus = − 0 because N is constant.
dt dt
dy
Therefore = k (P − N ) = k y since y = P − N
dt
This is the same as the ordinary exponential model, so we can use
nom nom…
P = A e kt i.e. y = y0 e kt and substitute y = P − N in:
∴ P = N + A e kt as required.
• Newton’s law of cooling states that the rate of change of
temperature is proportional to (T − A ), where T is indoor
temperature and A is constant outdoor temperature, i.e
dT
= k (T − A )
dt
- E.g. the outdoor temperature is 5oC and a heater malfunction has
caused the inside temperature to drop from 20 oC to 17oC in half
an hour. After how many hours is inside temperature 10 oC ?
∴ T = 5 + A e kt but when t = 0, T = 20 and thus A = 15
T = 5 + 15e kt but we are told when t = 0.5, T = 17 i.e.
12
17 = 5 + 15e 0.5k, thus e 0.5k = , and then log both sides:
15
12 12
0.5k = log → k = 2 log
15 15
We want to know what t is when T = 10, thus 10 = 5 + 15e kt.
1 1 12
We get = e kt thus log = k t but we know k = 2 log ,
3 3 15
1
log
3
∴t = = 2.46167…
12
2 log
15
1
Therefore after about 2 hours, the temperature dropped to 10 oC.
2

19