Constructivism as a theory for

teaching and learning

By Saul McLeod, published 2019

What is constructivism?
Constructivism is ‘an approach to learning that holds that people actively construct
or make their own knowledge and that reality is determined by the experiences of
the learner’ (Elliott et al., 2000, p. 256).
In elaborating constructivists’ ideas Arends (1998) states that constructivism believes in
personal construction of meaning by the learner through experience, and that meaning
is influenced by the interaction of prior knowledge and new events.

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Constructivism as a theory for teaching and learning video

What are the principles of constructivism?

Knowledge is constructed, rather than innate, or passively absorbed
Constructivism's central idea is that human learning is constructed, that learners build
new knowledge upon the foundation of previous learning.
This prior knowledge influences what new or modified knowledge an individual will
construct from new learning experiences (Phillips, 1995).

Learning is an active process

The second notion is that learning is an active rather than a passive process.
The passive view of teaching views the learner as ‘an empty vessel’ to be filled with
knowledge, whereas constructivism states that learners construct meaning only through
active engagement with the world (such as experiments or real-world problem solving).
Information may be passively received, but understanding cannot be, for it must come
from making meaningful connections between prior knowledge, new knowledge, and
the processes involved in learning.

All knowledge is socially constructed

Learning is a social activity - it is something we do together, in interaction with each
other, rather than an abstract concept (Dewey, 1938).
For example, Vygotsky (1978), believed that community plays a central role in the
process of "making meaning." For Vygotsky, the environment in which children grow up
will influence how they think and what they think about.
Thus, all teaching and learning is a matter of sharing and negotiating socially
constituted knowledge.
For example, Vygotsky (1978) states cognitive development stems from social
interactions from guided learning within the zone of proximal development as children
and their partner's co-construct knowledge.

All knowledge is personal

Each individual learner has a distinctive point of view, based on existing knowledge and
values.
This means that same lesson, teaching or activity may result in different learning by
each pupil, as their subjective interpretations differ.
This principle appears to contradict the view the knowledge is socially constructed.
Fox (2001, p. 30) argues (a) that although individuals have their own personal
history of learning, nevertheless they can share in common knowledge, and (b) that
although education is a social process, powerfully influenced by cultural factors,
nevertheless cultures are made up of sub- cultures, even to the point of being
composed of sub-cultures of one. Cultures and their knowledge-base are constantly
in a process of change and the knowledge stored by individuals is not a rigid copy of
some socially constructed template. In learning a culture, each child changes that
culture.

Learning exists in the mind

The constructivist theory posits that knowledge can only exist within the human mind,
and that it does not have to match any real world reality (Driscoll, 2000).
Learners will be constantly trying to develop their own individual mental model of the
real world from their perceptions of that world.
As they perceive each new experience, learners will continually update their own mental
models to reflect the new information, and will, therefore, construct their own
interpretation of reality.

What are the three main types of

constructivism?
Typically, this continuum is divided into three broad categories: Cognitive constructivism
based on the work of Jean Piaget, social constructivism based on the work of Lev
Vygotsky, and radical constructivism.
According to the GSI Teaching and Resource Center (2015, p.5):
Cognitive constructivism states knowledge is something that is actively constructed
by learners based on their existing cognitive structures. Therefore, learning is
relative to their stage of cognitive development.
Cognitivist teaching methods aim to assist students in assimilating new information
to existing knowledge, and enabling them to make the appropriate modifications to
their existing intellectual framework to accommodate that information.
According to social constructivism learning is a collaborative process, and knowledge
develops from individuals' interactions with their culture and society. Social
constructivism was developed by Lev Vygotsky (1978, p. 57) who suggested that,
Every function in the child's cultural development appears twice: first, on the social
level and, later on, on the individual level; first, between people (interpsychological)
and then inside the child (intrapsychological).
The notion of radical constructivism was developed by Ernst von Glasersfeld (1974) and
states that all knowledge is constructed rather than perceived through senses.
Learners construct new knowledge on the foundations of their existing knowledge.
However, radical constructivism states that the knowledge individuals create tells us
nothing about reality, and only helps us to function in your environment. Thus,
knowledge is invented not discovered.
The humanly constructed reality is all the time being modified and interacting to fit
ontological reality, although it can never give a ‘true picture’ of it. (Ernest, 1994, p. 8)
Constructivist approaches to teaching
Constructivist learning theory underpins a variety of student-centered teaching
methods and techniques which contrast with traditional education, whereby
knowledge is simply passively transmitted by teachers to students.

What is the role of the teacher in a constructivist classroom?

The primary responsibility of the teacher is to create a collaborative problem-solving
environment where students become active participants in their own learning.
From this perspective, a teacher acts as a facilitator of learning rather than an instructor.
The teacher makes sure he/she understands the students' preexisting conceptions, and
guides the activity to address them and then build on them (Oliver, 2000).

Traditional Classroom Constructivist Classroom

Strict adherence to a fixed curriculum Pursuit of student questions and interests

is highly valued. is valued.

Learning is based on repetition. Learning is interactive, building on what

the student already knows.

Teacher-centered. Student-centered.

Teachers disseminate information to Teachers have a dialogue with students,

students; students are recipients of helping students construct their own
knowledge (passive learning). knowledge (active learning).

Teacher's role is directive, rooted in Teacher's role is interactive, rooted in

authority. negotiation.

Students work primarily alone Students work primarily in groups

(competitive). (cooperative).
Scaffolding is a key feature of effective teaching, where the adult continually adjusts the
level of his or her help in response to the learner's level of performance.
In the classroom, scaffolding can include modeling a skill, providing hints or cues, and
adapting material or activity (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009).

What are the features of a constructivist classroom?

Tam (2000) lists the following four basic characteristics of constructivist learning
environments, which must be considered when implementing constructivist teaching
strategies:
1) Knowledge will be shared between teachers and students.
2) Teachers and students will share authority.
3) The teacher's role is one of a facilitator or guide.
4) Learning groups will consist of small numbers of heterogeneous students.

What are the pedagogical (i.e. teaching) goals of constructivist classrooms?

Honebein (1996) summarizes the seven pedagogical goals of constructivist learning
environments:
1) To provide experience with the knowledge construction process (students
determine how they will learn).
2) To provide experience in and appreciation for multiple perspectives (evaluation of
alternative solutions).
3) To embed learning in realistic contexts (authentic tasks).
4) To encourage ownership and a voice in the learning process (student centered
learning).
5) To embed learning in social experience (collaboration).
6) To encourage the use of multiple modes of representation, (video, audio text,
etc.)
7) To encourage awareness of the knowledge construction process (reflection,
metacognition).

Brooks and Brooks (1993) list twelve descriptors of constructivist teaching

behaviors:

1. Encourage and accept student autonomy and initiative. (p. 103)

 2. Use raw data and primary sources, along with manipulative, interactive, and
physical materials. (p. 104)

3. When framing tasks, use cognitive terminology such as “classify,” analyze,”

“predict,” and “create.” (p. 104)

4. Allow student responses to drive lessons, shift instructional strategies, and alter
content. (p. 105)

5. Inquire about students’ understandings of the concepts before sharing [your] own
understandings of those concepts. (p. 107)

6. Encourage students to engage in dialogue, both with the teacher and with one
another. (p. 108)

7. Encourage student inquiry by asking thoughtful, open-ended questions and

encouraging students to ask questions of each other. (p. 110)

8. Seek elaboration of students’ initial responses. (p. 111)

9. Engage students in experiences that might engender contradictions to their initial

hypotheses and then encourage discussion. (p. 112)

10. Allow wait time after posing questions. (p. 114)

11. Provide time for students to construct relationships and create metaphors. (p. 115)

12. Nurture students’ natural curiosity through frequent use of the learning cycle
model. (p. 116)

Critical evaluation
Strengths
Constructivism promotes a sense of personal agency as students have ownership of
their learning and assessment.

Limitations
The biggest disadvantage is its lack of structure. Some students require highly
structured learning environments to be able to reach their potential.
It also removes grading in the traditional way and instead places more value on
students evaluating their own progress, which may lead to students falling behind, as
without standardized grading teachers may not know which students are struggling.
APA Style References
Arends, R. I. (1998). Resource handbook. Learning to teach (4th ed.). Boston, MA:
McGraw-Hill.
Brooks, J., & Brooks, M. (1993). In search of understanding: the case for constructivist
classrooms, ASCD. NDT Resource Center database.
Copple, C., & Bredekamp, S. (2009). Developmentally appropriate practice in early
childhood programs. Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young
Children.
Dewey, J. (1938) Experience and Education. New York: Collier Books.
Driscoll, M. (2000). Psychology of Learning for Instruction. Boston: Allyn& Bacon
Elliott, S.N., Kratochwill, T.R., Littlefield Cook, J. & Travers, J. (2000). Educational
psychology: Effective teaching, effective learning (3rd ed.). Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill
College.
Ernest, P. (1994). Varieties of constructivism: Their metaphors, epistemologies and
pedagogical implications. Hiroshima Journal of Mathematics Education, 2(1994), 2.
Fox, R. (2001). Constructivism examined. Oxford review of education, 27(1), 23-35.
Honebein, P. C. (1996). Seven goals for the design of constructivist learning
environments. Constructivist learning environments: Case studies in instructional
design, 11-24.
Oliver, K. M. (2000). Methods for developing constructivism learning on the
web. Educational Technology, 40 (6)
Phillips, D. C. (1995). The good, the bad, and the ugly: The many faces of
constructivism. Educational researcher, 24(7), 5-12.
Tam, M. (2000). Constructivism, Instructional Design, and Technology: Implications for
Transforming Distance Learning. Educational Technology and Society, 3 (2).
Teaching Guide for GSIs. Learning: Theory and Research (2016). Retrieved
from http://gsi.berkeley.edu/media/Learning.pdf
von Glasersfeld, E. V. (1974). Piaget and the radical constructivist
epistemology. Epistemology and education, 1-24.
von Glasersfeld, E. (1994). A radical constructivist view of basic mathematical
concepts. Constructing mathematical knowledge: Epistemology and mathematics
education, 5-7.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological
processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Further Information
Jean Piaget Lev VygotksyThe Zone of Proximal DevelopmentJerome

BrunerConstructivist Teaching Methods"Constructivism Learning Theory: A

Paradigm for Teaching and Learning Strategies Which Can be Implemented by

Teachers When Planning Constructivist Opportunities in the Classroom 

How to reference this article:

McLeod, S. A. (2019, July 17). Constructivism as a theory for teaching and learning.
Simply Psychology. https://www.simplypsychology.org/constructivism.html

Comments (5)
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+4

Mike Albritton

This is a fabulous overview. Thank you so much! This will be a key resource in a teacher workshop I am
doing.

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Reply

+4

Sarah

This is the best resource I found on the foundations and complexities of constructivism. Thank you!

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Reply

+2

TIMOTHY

Waooh,it's a nice piece of work which has made my course unit an easy one.
Good work indeed

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 Reply

+2

Davut Habip

Paolo Freire's works would also be good resources

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Reply

+1

Rona

What is the three specific strategies grounded in contructivism

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Reply

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Article Content
Principles of Constructivism Types of ConstructivismConstructivist

TeachingCritical Evaluation

Constructivist Theories
Jean Piaget Lev VygotksyThe Zone of Proximal DevelopmentJerome

BrunerMaria MontessoriJohn Dewey

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 ISD Concept Map

Knowledge is not poured into others...

but rather constructed within them

C o n s t r u c ti v i s m
During the 1930s and 1940s, constructivism was the leading perspective among
public school educators in the United States. In this theory, the emphasis is
placed on the student rather than the teacher. Teachers are seen as facilitators
or coaches who assist students construct their own conceptualizations and
solutions to problems.

The main ideas underpinning constructivism learning theories are not new. They
began with the insights of Socrates who claimed that there are basic conditions
for learning that are in the cognition of the individual (Kanuka & Anderson,
1998). But it was Piaget's theory of intellectual growth that had the primary
influence on the development of current positions. Specifically, Piaget first
emphasized the processes of conceptual change as interactions between
existing cognitive structures and new experience

Within this theory falls two schools of thought, social constructivism and
cognitive constructivism:

1. Lev Vygotsky , a Russian psychologist and philosopher in the 1930's, is most

often associated with the social constructivist theory. He emphasizes the
influences of cultural and social contexts in learning and supports a discovery
model of learning. This type of model places the teacher in an active role while
the students' mental abilities develop naturally through various paths of
discovery.

2. Cognitive constructivism is based on the work of Jean Piaget . His theory has
two major parts: an ages and stages component that predicts what children can
and cannot understand at different ages, and a theory of development that
describes how learners develop cognitive abilities. Piaget's theory of cognitive
development proposes that humans cannot be given information, in which they
immediately understand and use. Instead, learners must construct their own
knowledge. They build their knowledge through experience. Experiences enable
them to create schemas — mental models of the world. These schemas are
changed, enlarged, and made more sophisticated through two complimentary
processes: assimilation and accommodation.

Cognitive constructivism is based on two different senses of construction. First,

on the idea that people learn by actively constructing new knowledge, not by
having information poured into their heads. Moreover, constructivism asserts
that people learn with particular effectiveness when they are engaged in
constructing personally meaningful artifacts (e.g. computer programs,
animations).

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Updated September 26, 2010. Created July 13, 1995.

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