SOLD WASTE MANAGEMNET

Lessons

1 Introduction to Solid Waste Management

2 Generation and characteristics of waste
3 Waste collection, storage, and transport
4 Waste processing techniques
5 Disposal of solid waste
6 Types of Solid Waste
 CH-1 Introduction to Solid Waste Management

Q1. Necessity of Waste management

Solid wastes are being produced since the beginning of civilization. During the early
period, solid wastes were conveniently and unobtrusively disposed of as the density of
population was low with large open land space.
With the advent of industrialization and urbanization, the problems of waste disposal
have increased. High population density, intensive land use for residential, commercial
and industrial activities have led to adverse impact on the environment. Gaseous and
liquid discharges from solid waste impact the environment very badly. Hence solid waste
management is needed.
Measures taken for the management of solid waste

1. Management and up-gradation along with modernization of existing Transfer

Stations and setting up 3 more Transfer Stations
2. Capacity enhancement of the Transfer stations
3. Phasing out of "Bulk Refuse Carriers" with JCBs / Compactors
4. Avoid multiple handling of waste
5. Maintain cleanliness and hygiene
6. Deployment of NGO labours for collection of garbage around collection points.
7. Implementation of Greater Mumbai Cleanliness and Sanitation Bye-laws, 2006
8. Creation of dry waste sorting centers managed by NGOs to accept the recyclable
and E-waste in each ward.
9. Computerization project inclusive of the vehicle tracking system, implementation
of radio frequency identification, tags for real-time tracking of bin servicing.
10. Implementation of construction and demolition waste disposal project as per
Debris Management Policy
11. Peoples participation through advanced locality management for residential
associations.
Q2. Classification of the solid waste generated in society
Because of the heterogeneous nature of solid waste, no single method of classification is
entirely satisfactory. In some cases it is important for the solid waste specialist to know
the source of waste, so that the classification as domestic, institutional, commercial,
street waste, industrial waste, construction and demolition waste etc. is useful.
For other situations, the type of waste- garbage, rubbish, ash, hazardous waste, etc.
which gives a better indication of its physical and chemical characteristics is more useful.
The three types- garbage, rubbish, and ashes, form the bulk of municipal waste and
originate from households, institutions and commercial areas.
The classification of waste is as follows:

1. Domestic/Residential Waste: This category of waste comprises the solid wastes

that originate from households. These wastes are generated as a consequence of
household activities such as cooking, cleaning, repairs, hobbies, and redecoration
and contain empty containers packaging, clothing, book, writing paper, and
furnishings.
2. Commercial waste: Included in this category are solid wastes that originate from
offices, wholesale and retail stores, restaurants, hotels, markets, warehouses, and
other commercial establishments.
3. Institutional waste: Institutional wastes are those arising from institutions such as
schools, universities, hospitals, and research institutes.
4. Municipal waste: Municipal wastes include wastes resulting from municipal
activities and services such as street waste, commercial waste, and market waste.
However, the term is commonly applied in a wider sense to incorporate domestic,
institutional and commercial wastes as well.
5. Street waste: The term applies to the waste that is collected from streets,
walkways, alleys, and vacant areas. Street waste includes paper, cardboard,
plastic, dirt leaves and other vegetable matter discarded by the road users.
6. Industrial waste: Included in this category is the discarded solid material of
manufacturing processes and industrial operations. However, solid wastes from
small industrial units and ash from power plants are frequently disposed of at
municipal landfill sites.
7. Sewage waste: The solid by products of sewage treatment are classified as
sewage waste. They are mostly organic and derive from the treatment of organic
sludge’s from both the raw and treated sewage.
8. Hazardous wastes: Hazardous waste may be defined as a waste of industrial,
institutional or consumer origin which, because of its physical-chemical or
biological characteristics is potentially dangerous to humans and the environment.
Q3. Effect of solid waste on ground water, soil, environment and
water surface.
Following problems are created by Solid waste management:
1. Increased toxic loading on environment; leads to contaminated water/land, affects
animal’s health.
2. Ground-level ozone damages vegetation and ecosystem, affects animal health.
3. Contributes to acid rain; may damage vegetation; causes offensive odors.
4. In addition to its effect in the ozone layer, methane is also a highly combustible
gas that may be responsible for various explosion hazards in and around landfills.
5. If leachate does seep into groundwater, it can be the source of many
contaminants, specifically organic compounds that may decrease the oxidation-
reduction potential and increase the mobility of toxic metals.
6. As land is claimed for landfills, it is no longer hospitable to many plants and
wildlife. Often, this fertility cannot be completely reclaimed, even after the landfill is
capped.

7. When siting a landfill, the following issues must be addressed:

o Airport Safety: landfills attract birds, which can threaten aircraft.

o Floodplains: if a landfill must be sited in a floodplain, extra steps must be
taken to ensure that its contents will not flow from the site during a flood.
o Wetlands: while wetlands should always be avoided when locating
landfills, exceptions may be allowed if there is no alternative site in the
area, and if the environmental impact is proven to be minimal.
o Unstable Areas: landfills should not be sited in areas threatened by
mudslides or other forms of earth movement.

Q4. Health impacts due to solid waste

Due to the absence of standards and norms for handling municipal wastes, municipal
workers suffer occupational health hazards of waste handling.
At the dumpsites in the city of Mumbai, for example, 95 workers were examined and it
was found that about 80% of them had eye problems, 73% respiratory ailments, 51%
gastrointestinal ailments and 27% skin lesions.
Also, municipal workers and rag pickers who operate informally for long hours
rummaging through waste also suffer from similar occupational health diseases ranging
from respiratory illnesses (from ingesting particulates and bio-aerosols), infections (direct
contact with contaminated material), puncture wounds (leading to tetanus, hepatitis and
HIV infection) to headaches and nausea, etc.
Studies among the 180 rag pickers at open dumps of Kolkata city reveal that average
quarterly incidence of diarrhoea was 85%, fever 72% and cough and cold 63%.
Q5. Physical, chemical and biological properties of solid waste.

Physical Characteristics
Moisture content:

 Moisture content is a critical determinant in the economic feasibility of waste treatment by

incineration since energy must be supplied for evaporation of water and in raising the
temperature of the water vapour.
 Moisture content also plays an important role in other processing methods such as
composting and anaerobic digestion.

Particle size:

 The measurement of the size distribution of particles in the waste stream is important
because of its significance in the design of mechanical separators and shredders.
 The results of the analysis are expressed in the manner used for the particle analysis of
soils namely a plot of particles size against % less than a given value.

Density:

 Knowledge of the density of waste i.e. mass per unit volume is essential for the design of
all elements of the solid waste management system.
 For example, in high-income countries, the considerable benefit is derived through the
use of compaction vehicles on collection routes, because the waste is typical of low
density.
 However, in India and other developing countries such as Thailand, Indonesia etc. due to
higher initial density the compaction ratio obtained rarely exceeds 1.5.

Field capacity:

 Field capacity of solid waste is total amount of moisture that can be retained in waste
sample subject to downward pull of gravity.
 Field capacity of critically important in determining the formation of leachate in landfills.
 Water excess of field capacity can be released as leachate and field capacity varies with
degree of applied pressure and state of decomposed moisture of waste.

Permeability:
The Hydraulic conductivity of compacted waste is an important physical property to a
large extent governs movement of liquid and gases in landfill.

Chemical Characteristics
pH:
A 5 gm portion of the powdered sample is mixed with 50 ml of distilled water by stirring
and pH is then measured by a pH meter. The pH of fresh solid waste is normally around
7. During decomposition it tends to become acidic and stabilized solid waste has an
alkaline pH.
Organic content:
A 10 gm portion of the dried ground sample is placed in a silica dish and slowly heated in
an electric furnace to 700 degree Celsius for 30 min. The residue is weighed and the loss
of weight represents the organic content and is expressed as percent by weight. The
knowledge of organic content helps assess the feasibility of biological processing-
composting and anaerobic digestion.
Carbon content:
The carbon is determined by using the New Zealand formula in which the percent
organic matter is divided by 1.724.
Nitrogen content:
Total nitrogen is obtained by Kjeldahl method and the phosphorous and potassium are
estimated by using phosphomolybdic and flame photometric method. Nitrogen,
phosphorous and potash values are important in composting.
Toxicity:
Toxicity characteristics include heavy metals, pesticides, insecticides etc. Heavy metals
are present in municipal solid waste due to the waste from small scale industries. As
some of the heavy metals leach out, testing for heavy metals is often carried out. Toxicity
Characteristics Leaching Procedure (TCLP) test is invariably carried out if the waste is
suspected to be toxic in nature.

 Ultimate analysis
 Proximate analysis

Biological characteristics
 Sold waste does not normally contain human intestinal parasites.
 However, in India it is very commonly stored at collection points, where it is liable to come
in contact with material containing these parasites.
 In cities that do not have a water carriage system night soil is often deposited near sites
where solid waste is also deposited, and since night soil often contains these parasite,
they are easily transferred to solid waste.
 Hence, the presence of human intestinal parasites needs to be examined.
Q6. Functional elements of solid waste management
The functional elements of solid waste management are as follows:
1. Waste generation: Those activities in which materials are identified as no longer
being of value and are either thrown away or gathered for disposal.
2. Storage: Those activities associated with the handling, storage and processing of
solid waste wastes at or near the point of generation.
3. Collection: Those activities associated with the gathering of solid wastes and the
hauling wastes after collection to the location where the collection vehicle is emptied.
4. Transportation: Those activities associated with the transfer of wastes from the
smaller collection vehicle to the larger transport equipment and the subsequent transport
of the wastes, usually over a long distance to the disposal site.
5. Processing and recovery: Those techniques, equipment and facilities used both to
improve the efficiency of the other functional elements and to recover usable materials,
conversion products or energy from solid wastes.
6. Disposal: Those activities associated with ultimate disposal of solid wastes including
those waste collected and transported directly to the landfill site, semisolid waste from
waste water treatment plants, incinerator residue, compost or other substances from
various solid waste processing plants that are of no further use.
Q7. Solid Waste Management in rural sector
The objective of rural solid waste management is to collect waste at the source of
generation, recovery of recyclable materials for recycling, conversion of organic waste to
compost and secured disposal of remaining waste.
Generation of solid waste in rural areas ranges between 50 gm/cap /day and 250 gm /
cap / day as mentioned below:

 Rural (Peri-urban or Urban outgrowth) 150 to 250 gm / cap / day.

 Rural (Remote /Tribal) 50 to 150 gm / cap / day.

The following are the parts of RSWM

 Household segregation (organic and inorganic: Recyclables / Non recyclables.)

 Household Storage (In plastic containers)
 Containerized collection (House to house)
 Transportation (Pedal Tricycle / Handcart / other types)
 Transfer or recyclables / recycling
 Treatment and disposal

The various methods for treatment of solid waste which found an extensive use in the
rural solid waste management are:

1. Household level composting

2. Vermicomposting
3. Secured Landfilling

In order to properly manage solid waste with minimum effort and cost, the focus must be
on management at the household and community level. The following steps may be
followed for introducing community-based rural solid waste management system.

 Step 1: Information collection.

 Step 2: Participatory planning
 Step 3: Preparation of GP/Block level action
 CH-2 Generation and characteristics of waste

Q1. Material flow in technological society

The generation of waste can be reduced as:-

Resource optimization:- Minimizing the amount of waste produced by organizations or
individuals goes hand-in-hand with optimizing their use of raw materials.
Reuse of scrap material:- Scraps can be immediately re-incorporated at the beginning
of the manufacturing line so that they do not become waste products.
Improved quality control and process monitoring:- Steps can be taken to ensure that
the number of reject batches is kept to a minimum. This is achieved by increasing the
frequency of inspection and the number of points of inspection.
Waste exchanges:- This is where the waste product of one process becomes the raw
material for a second process. Waste exchanges represent another way of reducing
waste disposal volumes for waste that cannot be eliminated.
Ship to point of use:- This involves making deliveries of incoming raw materials or
components direct to the point where they are assembled or used in the manufacturing
process to minimize handling and the use of protective wrappings or enclosures.

Flow Chart showing the flow of materials:

Q.2 Explain the sources of wastes.
Sources of solid wastes in a community are, in general, related to land use and zoning. It
can be broadly categorized into following categories:

1. Residential: This refers to wastes from dwellings, apartments, etc., and consists of
leftover food, vegetable peels, plastic, clothes, ashes, etc

2. Commercial: This refers to wastes consisting of leftover food, glasses, metals, ashes,
etc., generated from stores, restaurants, markets, hotels, motels, auto-repair shops,
medical facilities, etc.

3. Institutional: This mainly consists of paper, plastic, glasses, etc., generated from
educational, administrative and public buildings such as schools, colleges, offices,
prisons.

4. Municipal: This includes dust, leafy matter, building debris, treatment plant residual
sludge, etc., generated from various municipal activities like construction and demolition,
street cleaning, landscaping, etc.

5. Industrial: This mainly consists of process wastes, ashes, demolition and construction
wastes, hazardous wastes, etc., due to industrial activities.

6. Agricultural: This mainly consists of spoiled food grains and vegetables, agricultural
remains, litter, etc., generated from fields, orchards, vineyards, farms, etc.

7. Open areas: this includes wastes from areas such as Streets, alleys, parks, vacant
lots, playgrounds, beaches, highways, recreational areas, etc.

Q.3 What do you mean by Garbage,ash,Rubbish,Dust and

Debris?
1. Garbage -This refers to animal and vegetable wastes resulting from the handling,
sale, storage, preparation, cooking and serving of food. Garbage comprising these
wastes contains putrescible (rotting) organic matter, which produces an obnoxious odor
and attracts rats and other vermin. It, therefore, requires special attention in storage,
handling and disposal.
2. Ash -These are substances remaining from the burning of wood, coal, charcoal, coke
and other combustible materials for cooking and heating in houses, institutions and small
industrial establishments.
3. Rubbish - A general term for solid waste. Sometimes used to exclude food wastes
and ashes.
4. Dust and Debris – These are wastes generated as a result of construction,
refurbishment, repair and demolition of houses, commercial buildings and other
structures. They consist mainly of earth, stones, concrete, bricks, lumber, roofing and
plumbing materials, heating systems and electrical wires and parts of the general
municipal waste stream.
Q.4 Estimate the density of solid waste sample with the following
composition?

Component % by mass Typical density,Kg/m3

Food waste 15 290

Paper 45 85

Cardboard 10 50

Plastics 10 65

Garden wastes 10 105

Wood 5 240

Tin cans 5 90

Assume 1000 kg sample of waste

 Component % by mass Mass/1000Kg Typical Total
density,Kg/m3 mass

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (3/4)

Food waste 15 150 290 0.52

Paper 45 450 85 5.29

Cardboard 10 100 50 2

Plastics 10 100 65 1.54

Garden 10 100 105 0.95

wastes

Wood 5 50 240 0.21

Tin cans 5 50 90 0.56

- 100% - - 11.07

Density = 1000/11.07 = 90.33kg/m3

Q5. Introduction to quantity of Solid Waste

The quantity of municipal solid waste generated depends upon a number of factors such as food
habits, the standard of living, degree of commercial and industrial activity.
'Municipal solid waste' includes wastes generated in residential and commercial areas; whereas
wastes from industrial and agricultural operations are separately considered.
Various commercial establishments generate different categories of wastes depending upon the
type of activity. Shops and other establishments generate waste containing a large amount of
paper, straw, cardboard packing cases which are generally non-decomposable. Small commercial
establishments may discharge the waste along with the municipal waste.
1. Street Wastes
In addition to the waste originating from premises, the waste from streets is also included in the
municipal solid wastes. Street wastes fall into three main categories - natural, road traffic and
behavioral.
 i) Natural wastes: These include the dust blown from unused land and roads, dead and
decaying vegetation, seeds originating either from avenue or blown from marginal areas. It
cannot be controlled as it originates from sources other than the streets.
 ii) Road traffic wastes: These originate from wear and tear of the road surface and that from
transport vehicles. The motor vehicles while moving on the road deposit petrol, oil and at
times, spill their contents on roads. In developing countries multiplicity of vehicles are in
use including animal-drawn vehicles which often come from surrounding rural areas. These
vehicles deposit mud, animal excrement, etc. on the road adding to the road traffic wastes.
 iii) Behavioural wastes: These originate from wastes thrown by pedestrians, or by persons
using the streets and from wastes from adjoining houses, shops, and other premises which
spill out due to improper storage. It also includes dried excrement of domestic animals
which poses danger to the sweeping staff when the disease organisms become air-borne.
Much of this waste can be prevented by a sustained health education program backed by
suitable legislation and enforcement.
2. Urban Solid Waste
The quantity of urban solid wastes is known to vary seasonally. During festive occasions, the
amount of refuse shows an increase, e.g., the rubbish generated during Diwali in India is
considerably higher than in other seasons. During monsoon, tree and hedge cuttings have been
recorded to be high. Quantity generated during winter and summer seasons also vary.
In industrialized countries, collection routes are well organized due to which variation in quantities
can be identified. The situation is not so in developing countries, interpretation of the variation in
daily quantities could at best be a guess.
3. Quantity at Disposal Site
The quantity of waste measured at the disposal site should not be relied upon as it would not
represent the generated quantity. Absence of weigh-bridges at disposal sites is a common problem
in developing countries. In such cases, the density of the waste multiplied by the volumetric
capacity of the vehicles provide the weight of the wastes.

 Measurement of density: The refuse is collected in a small box from the refuse mass (from
dustbin or truck or disposal site) weighed by a spring balance and emptied in a box of one
cubic metre capacity.
4. Density of Refuse from different Countries
The density of refuse depends upon constituents such as organic content, inorganic content,
paper, etc. In developing countries, the percentage of inorganics has been observed to be high. It
is partly due to the fact that proper storage bins are not provided and street sweepings and ash
tend to get collected along with the refuse. It is also a common practice to include street sweepings
in the refuse, increasing the density.
Density value in India and other developing countries range
from 300 to 560kg/m3300 to 560kg/m3 (In Table Below) . In singapore, it is as low as
175 kg/kg/ . m3,m3, while in Kathmandu and Dacca 600 kg/m3kg/m3 have been reported. In
general the value is around 400−500kg/m3400−500kg/m3 as measured by cubic metre box.
5. Quantity Forecast

While planning a processing or disposal facility as well as the total solid waste
management system, forecasting the future load becomes necessary. Increased
commercial and industrial activities would result in increased release of wastes and is
known to increase per capita waste generation as well. It is reported that an increase of
1-5% per annum occurs in USA. In the absence of information of the past trend, it is
necessary to rely on recognised trends as observed in existing conditions.

6. Per Capita Refuse from Selected Cities

NEERI observations indicated that the per capita waste reaching disposal site was about
0.5 kg/capita/day in Bombay and Calcutta. In Hyderabad, which is a large city in the
same State, due to its cosmopolitan nature and higher standard of living, the per capita
value was 0.33 kg/capita/day.

The per capita contribution ranged from 0.15 to 0.35 kg/day for the different Indian cities.
Q6. Explain the sampling of solid waste.
Sampling points should be a true representative of the given occupation sub-group. In a
residential area, the sampling point should represent waste coming from at least 100
families.
If an average value of refuse characteristics for the full city is to be given, weightage
factors are calculated. The weightage factor for a specific occupation category will be the
ratio of the weight of refuse produced from that occupation group divided by the total
weight produced from the city. The average values of characteristics from different
occupation sub-groups are then multiplied by the weightage factor to compute the
average value for the city.
1. Sample Size
In studies carried out, it was found that a 100 kg sample gave as much accuracy as a
1000 kg sample. When the collection at a point is small and a 100 kg sample cannot be
obtained, smaller samples could be used for analysis. Repetitive sampling and analysis
would provide a more representative data. At least ten grab samples should be taken
from a number of points in the refuse mass both horizontally as well as vertically and
then mixed to get the composite sample.
2. Number of Samples
Carruth and Klee have given the following method for determining the number of
samples:
n=(Z.Sd)2n=(Z.Sd)2
Where -
n = number of samples required
Z = standard normal deviate for the confidence level desired
S = estimated standard deviation (transformed basis)
d = sensitivity (transformed basis)
At 90% confidence, Z = 1.645, S = 0.1413. The sensitivity transformed basis is
determined as follows: transform x and either x+Δx+Δ or x−Δx−Δ by the arcsin
transformation, where x is the expected percentage of the component in question
and ΔΔ is the desired precision for the percentage to be estimated.
3. Physical Analysis
The sample so collected should be sorted out physically into various ingredients such as
paper, glass, plastics, etc. on a sorting platform. The individual components are
separated, stored in bins and weighed. The weights are then expressed as a percent of
the original sample.
The density of the material is measured. The physical analysis is on a wet weight basis
which helps in choosing the system for collection and processing. A large organic content
indicates the necessity for frequent collection and removal. The larger amount of paper
indicates that waste can be thermally treated. Plastics in high concentration indicate
possible problems in their disposal. A large percentage of ash indicates that putrefaction
will not readily occur and that collection frequency could be less. In such a case, sanitary
landfilling would be a better method.
 Changes in Physical Characteristics of City Refuse in Pune, India

4. Chemical Analysis
From the mass used for physical analysis a 500 gms sample is taken for moisture
determination and heated overnight at 1000C1000C to obtain weight loss. This loss is
expressed as a percentage of total weight. Normally moisture content is determined as
soon as the sample is collected which helps in the choice of processing and disposal
methods.
The total of 100 kg sample used for physical analysis is now reduced to 12.5 kg by using
the method of quartering in which the mass is divided into 4 parts and 2 diagonally
opposite parts are taken and mixed while the other 2 are discarded.
The 12.5 kg sample is then dried, ground in a hammermill or a grinder till it passes
through a sieve having a pore size of 0.45 mm (BSS 36 or ASTM 40).
A 5 gm powdered sample is mixed in 50 ml of distilled water by stirring for pH
measurement by a pH meter. Normal pH of fresh refuse is around 7. On decomposing, it
tends to become acidic and a stabilized refuse has normally alkaline pH.
A 10 gm portion of the dried ground sample is placed in a silica dish and slowly heated in
an electric furnace to 7000C7000C for 30 min. The residue is weighed and the loss of
weight is indicated as organic matter and expressed as percent by weight. The organic
content of refuse indicates the amount of compost that could be produced from it.
The carbon percentage is found out by using New Zealand formula in which the percent
organic matter is divided by 1.724. Total nitrogen is obtained by the Kjeldahl method and
the phosphorous and potassium estimated by using the phosphomolybdic and flame
photometric method. Nitrogen, phosphorous and potash values are important for
composting.
5. Biological Analysis
Refuse as it is produced does not normally contain human intestinal parasites. In India
and other developing countries, it is common to find refuse lying at such points where it is
liable to come in contact with material containing parasites. In cities, which do not have a
sewerage system, night- soil is often deposited along with refuse which transmits
parasites.
The sample collected for biological analysis is immediately transferred to a plastic bag
and sealed. In the laboratory, the material is thoroughly mixed with the moisture of the
bag and a suspension prepared by using the modified formol ether technique. The
suspension is taken in a Sedgewick rafter counting cell and subjected to microscopic
observation for various human intestinal parasites.
The samples collected from 33 Indian cities indicated A. lumbricoides and T. trichiura to
be the dominant parasites.
Q7. Calculate the energy content of solid waste sample for the
composition given below. What is the content on dry basis and
ash free dry basis?

Component % by mass Energy KJ/kg

Paper 40 17770

Cardboard 12 15800

Plastics 12 16400

Good wastes 16 5000

Garden wastes 8 7000

Wood 6 19000

Tin cans 6 600

Assume 100 kg of sample.

 Component % by mass Energy KJ/kg Total Energy (KJ)

(1) (2) (3) (4) (2*3)

Paper 40 17770 710800

Cardboard 12 15800 189600

Plastics 12 16400 196800

Good wastes 16 5000 80000

Garden wastes 8 7000 56000

Wood 6 19000 114000

Tin cans 6 600 3600

- 100% - 1350800 KJ

1) Unit Energy Content=1350800/100=13508KJ/kg

2) Energy content on dry basis:

Component % by mass Moisture content Dry content,(100-m)% Total mass

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (4*2)

 Component % by mass Moisture content Dry content,(100-m)% Total mass

Paper 40 6 94 37.6

Cardboard 12 5 95 11.4

Plastics 12 2 98 11.76

Good wastes 16 20 80 12.8

Garden wastes 8 60 40 3.2

Wood 6 20 80 4.8

Tin cans 6 3 97 5.82

- 100% - - 87.38

Moisture content=(100−87.38/100)∗100=12.62

Energy on dry basis=(100∗13508/100−12.62)=15458.91KJ/kg

3) Energy on ash free dry basis:

Assume ash content =5%

Energy content=(100∗13508/100−5−12.62)=16397.18KJ/kg.
Q8. Calculate the energy content of solid waste having following
composition using modified Dulong Equation.

Component % by mass

Carbon 35

Hydrogen 10

Oxygen 40

Nitrogen 8

Sulphur 3

Ash 4

Component % by mass

Carbon 35

Hydrogen 10
 Oxygen 40

Nitrogen 8

Sulphur 3

Ash 4

- 100%

Modified Dulongs formula for energy content is as follows:

Energy
content (Btu/lb)=145C+610∗(H−O/2)+40S+10N(Btu/lb)=145C+610∗(H−O/2)+40S+10
N
Since Ash is a left out matter in the process so that content of ash will not be included in
the energy content calculations.

Energy content

= 145∗35+610∗(10−40/8)+40∗3+10∗8145∗35+610∗(10−40/8)+40∗3+10∗8
= 8325 Btu/lb

Q9. Explain factors affecting the generation rate of solid waste.

Population growth, rural and urban development, lifestyle changes and the consequent
change in household consumption patterns have created problems in modern societies.
The change of household consumption pattern has changed the waste volume and the
waste characteristics or composition.

Factors that influence the quantity of municipal wastes generated include:

1. Geographic location
2. Season of the year
3. Collection frequency
4. Use of kitchen waste grinders
5. Characteristics of populace
 6. Extent of salvaging and recycling
7. Public attitudes
8. Legislation

Typical commercial and industrial unit waste generation rates are:

Particulars Quantity

Office buildings 0.5-1.1 kg/ employee *day

Restaurants 0.2-0.8 kg/customer*day

Canned and frozen foods 0.04-0.06 tonnes/ tonne of raw product

Printing and publishing 0.08-0.10 tonnes/ tonne of raw paper

Automotive 0.06-0.8 tonnes/ vehicle produced

Petroleum refining 0.1-0.2 Tonnes/ employee*day

Rubber 0.01-0.3 tonnes/ tonne of raw rubber

1. Following factors affect Municipal Solid Waste Generation Rates

Source reduction:

The waste reduction may occur through the design, manufacture, and packaging of
products with minimum toxic content, the minimum volume of material, and longer useful
life. Example: Improve product design to use less materials. Source reduction is the
preferred approach.

Reuse:
Reusing product over and over again reduces the waste generation. Example: Using
rechargeable batteries, reusable food containers, reusable glass instead of throwaway
water bottles, etc.

Recycling:

Recycling is collecting materials that can be broken down and reprocessed to

manufacture new items. Example: Household recycling products are - Paper products,
Glass, Aluminium, Steel and Some plastics.

2. Effect of public attitudes and legislation on waste generation

Public Attitudes - Significant reduction in the quantities of solid wastes generated occur
when and if people are willing to change of their own volition- their habits and lifestyles to
conserve natural resources and to reduce the economic burdens associated with the
management of solid wastes.

A program of continuing education is essential in bringing about a change in public

attitudes.

Legislation Perhaps the most important factor affecting the generation of a certain type of
wastes is the existence of local, state, and federal regulations concerning the use of
specific materials.

3. Effect of Geographic and physical factors on waste generation

Geographic and physical factors that affect the quantities of waste generated and
collected include:

 geographical location: related primarily to the different climate that can influence
both the amount generated and collection operation
 season of the year
 frequency of collection
 characteristics of population
 extent of salvage and recyling
 legislation
 public attitude
 CH-3 Waste collection, storage, and transport

Q1. Write a note on material recovery facility.

Material recovery facility

A material recovery facility is also known as materials reclamation facility, materials
recycling facility or Multi re-use facility is a specialized plant that receives, separates and
prepares recyclable materials for marketing to end-user manufacturers.
Generally, there are two different types: clean and dirty MRFs.
1. Clean MRFs

 A clean MRF accepts recyclable materials that have already been separated at
the source from municipal solid waste generated by either residential or
commercial sources.
 The most common ones are a single stream where all recyclable material is mixed
or dual-stream MRFs, where source-separated recyclables are delivered in a
mixed container stream and a mixed paper stream (including OCC, ONP, OMG,
Office packs, junk mail, etc.).
 Material is sorted to specifications, then baled, shredded, crushed, compacted, or
otherwise prepared for shipment to market.

2. Dirty MRFs

 A dirty MRF accepts a mixed solid waste stream and then proceeds to separate
out designated recyclable materials through a combination of manual and
mechanical sorting.
 The sorted recyclable materials may undergo further processing required to meet
technical specifications established by end-markets while the balance of the mixed
waste stream is sent to a disposal facility such as a landfill.
 A dirty MRF recovers between 5% and 45% of the incoming material as
recyclables, and then the remainder is land filled or otherwise disposed.
 A dirty MRF can be capable of higher recovery rates than a clean MRF, since it
ensures that 100% of the waste stream is subjected to the sorting process, and
can target a greater number of materials for recovery than can usually be
accommodated by sorting at the source.

How a Materials Recovery Facility Works

MRFs can vary in some respects in terms of the technology employed, however, a typical
process would include something such as the process described below.
MRFs have customer vehicle scales and a yard that can accommodate a queue of
trucks. Incoming haulers arrive at the MRF and dump the material onto the tipping floor.
A front end loader or other bulk material handling equipment then drops into a large steel
bin at the start of the processing line. This bin is known as the drum feeder. Inside of the
drum feeder, a fast-moving drum meters out the material onto the conveyor at a steady
rate, while also regulating the density of the material on the conveyor so that it is not
packed too tightly together.
From there, the material goes to a pre-sort station, where workers standing along with
the conveyor spot and remove any trash, plastic bags or other mistakenly placed material
and separate them for appropriate disposition. Large pieces of plastic or steel, including
pipes and other large items, can damage the system or expose workers to the risk of
injury.
Larger pieces of cardboard are then removed from the mixed material stream, pushed to
the top by large sorting disks turning on axles, while heavier material stays beneath.
Smaller sets of the disk may then remove smaller pieces of paper. As materials are
separated, they are diverted to separate conveyors for accumulation and baling.
Powerful magnets separate steel and tin containers, while an eddy current separator is
used to draw aluminum cans and other non-ferrous metals from the remaining co-
mingled material. Glass containers can be separated from plastic containers by a density
blower, then hammered into the crushed glass, known as cullet.
Remaining plastic containers may be sorted manually by workers on the conveyor line, or
increasingly, optical sorters are used to identify different materials and colors. Air
classification may be used to separate key plastics such as HDPE and PET.
Separated materials, other than glass cullet, are typically baled, with finished bales
weighing in the range of 1000 to 1500 pounds.

Q.2 Compare Hauled Container System and Stationary

Container System.

Hauled Container System:

1. Collection systems in which the containers used for the storage of wastes are
hauled to the processing, transfer or disposal site, emptied and returned to either
their original location or some other location are defined as hauled container
systems.
2. There are two main types of hauled container systems:
1) tilt frame container,
2) trash-trailer.

3. The collector is responsible for driving the vehicle, loading full containers and unloading
empty containers and emptying the contents of the container at the disposal site. In some
cases, for safety reasons, both a driver and helper are used.
4. Systems that use tilt frame loaded vehicles and large containers, often called drop boxes
are ideally suited for the collection of all types of solid waste and rubbish from locations
where the generation rate warrants the use of large containers.
5. The application of trash-trailers is similar to that of frame container systems. Trash trailers
are better for the collection of especially heavy rubbish and often are used for the
collection of demolition wastes at construction sites.
Stationary Container System:
1. Container systems in which the containers used for the storage of wastes remain at the
point of waste generation, except when moved for collection are defined as stationary
container system
2. Labour requirements for mechanically loaded stationary container systems are essentially
the same as for hauled container system.
3. There are two main types of stationary container systems:
i) those in which self loading compactors are used.
ii) those in which manually loaded vehicles are used.

4. Container size and utilization are not as critical in stationary container systems using self
loading collection vehicles equipped with a compaction mechanism as they are in hauled
container system.
5. Trips to the disposal site, transfer station or processing station are made after the
contents of number of containers have been collected and compacted and the collection
vehicle is full. This system is used for the collection of all types of wastes.
Q3.Why optimization of collection route is necessary? Explain
how Heuristic guide lines of collections of solid waste routes.

Optimization of Vehicle Routes:

1. The vehicles move along various streets and collect the solid waste from several
collection points and when full, proceed to the transfer station/processing/disposal site.
2. Presently, the routes of movement of these vehicles are arbitrarily fixed, usually by the
supervisor on the basis of his experience and convenience.
3. These routes are not necessarily the best routes and certainly not optimum and result in
underutilization of the vehicles and increased cost of transportation.
4. In this way, for proper utilization of the materials, optimization of collection routes is
necessary.

Heuristic Guide lines:

1. The old system of assigning routes based on experience and intuition is systematized by
formulation of some simple rules.
2. However, its effectiveness depends upon the experience of the user. The macro routing is
to be done first, followed by route balancing and micro routing.
3. In the macro routing, collection areas are assigned to disposal facilities. A fair days work
is determined in terms of kms to be travelled, trip made and tonnage to be hauled per
day.
4. This helps in identifying blocks or areas that can be served by a vehicle and its crew
every day.
5. Micro routing is than carried out by using heuristics when the originally identified blocks or
areas and their configuration may get changed.
Q4. Explain with neat sketches House to House collection system.

House to House Collection System

In the house to house collection, refuse generated and stored in individual premises is
collected by several methods such as:

1. Curb service: The house owner is responsible for placing the refuse containers at the
curb on the scheduled day when the workmen from solid waste collection vehicles collect
and empty the containers in the collection vehicle and place them back at the curb. The
house owner is required to take back the empty containers to their house.

Figure: Curb Service

2. Alley service: The containers are placed at the alley line from where they are picked
up by workmen from solid waste collection vehicles who deposit back the empty
containers.

Figure: Alley Service

3. Set-out, Set-back service: Set-out men go to individual houses, collect the containers
and empty them in the solid waste collection vehicle. Another group of persons return
them to house owner’s yard.

Figure: Set-out Set-back

4. Set-out service: The workers of solid waste collection vehicles collect the containers
from individual houses and empty them in the collection vehicles. The house owner is
required to take back the empty containers.

5. Backyard service: Solid waste workers carry a bin, handcart or sack or cloth to the
yard and empty the solid waste container in 9t. The handcart or bin is subsequently taken
to solid waste collection vehicles where it is emptied.

Figure: Backyard service

 Table: Comparison of various Methods of House-to-House Collection

Q5.Flow diagram for material recovery facilities for processing

yard and other green waste.

A materials recovery facility (MRF) accepts materials, whether source separated or

mixed, and separates processes and stores them for later use as raw materials for
remanufacturing and reprocessing. The main function of the MRF is to maximize the
quantity of recyclables processed while producing materials that will generate the highest
possible revenues in the market.
MRFs can also function to process wastes into a feedstock for biological conversion or
into a fuel source for the production of energy. Although these waste management
options of chemical transformation of wastes through combustion in conjunction with
energy recovery and biological transformation in the form of aerobic and anaerobic
composting are viable and proven technologies, they are not considered in this study.
The stages involved in designing an MRF system to process commingled recyclables
include:
 i. Conceptual design
 ii. Evaluation of the markets and economics of operation
  iii. Development and gathering of data necessary for the design
 iv. Detailed engineering design of system
 v. Sitting design
 vi. Procurement of equipment
 vii. Construction
 viii. Processing of materials
 ix. Marketing

Flow chart:
Q6. Container Carrier System
In the container system, special types of containers are placed at collection points.
When full, the containers are removed by a tractor prime mover to which a hydraulically
powered frame chassis (carrier) is hitched. The tractor along with carrier comes to a
specific site and the carrier hydraulically lifts the container and grips it firmly and for safe
transportation (figure below).
At the processing/disposal site, the container is hydraulically tipped to discharge its load.
This system suffers from some disadvantages such as the low speed of the tractor and
low ground clearance of the container which causes problems in the case of uneven road
surfaces.

Figure: Haul Container System (HCS) Figure: Stationary Container System

(SCS)

Hauled Container System

1. Collection systems in which the containers used for the storage of wastes are
hauled to the processing, transfer or disposal site, emptied and returned to either
their original location or some other location are defined as hauled container
systems.
2. There are two main types of hauled container systems:
1) tilt frame container
2) trash-trailer
3. The collector is responsible for driving the vehicle, loading full containers and
unloading empty containers and emptying the contents of the container at the
disposal site. In some cases, for safety reasons, both a driver and helper are
used.
4. Systems that use tilt frame loaded vehicles and large containers, often called drop
boxes are ideally suited for the collection of all types of solid waste and rubbish
from locations where the generation rate warrants the use of large containers.
5. The application of trash-trailers is similar to that of frame container systems. Trash
trailers are better for the collection of especially heavy rubbish and often are used
for the collection of demolition wastes at construction sites.
Stationary Container System
1. Container systems in which the containers used for the storage of wastes remain
at the point of waste generation, except when moved for collection are defined as
stationary container system.
2. Labour requirements for mechanically loaded stationary container systems are
essentially the same as for hauled container system.
3. There are two main types of stationary container systems:
i) those in which self loading compactors are used.
ii) those in which manually loaded vehicles are used.
4. Container size and utilization are not as critical in stationary container systems
using self-loading collection vehicles equipped with a compaction mechanism as
they are in hauled container system.
5. Trips to the disposal site, transfer station or processing station are made after the
contents of number of containers have been collected and compacted and the
collection vehicle is full. This system is used for the collection of all types of
wastes.
Q7.Comparison of the House to House systems

House to House Collection System

In the house to house collection, refuse generated and stored in individual premises is
collected by several methods such as:
1. Curb service: The house owner is responsible for placing the refuse containers at the
curb on the scheduled day when the workmen from solid waste collection vehicles collect
and empty the containers in the collection vehicle and place them back at the curb. The
house owner is required to take back the empty containers to their house.
2. Alley service: The containers are placed at the alley line from where they are picked
up by workmen from solid waste collection vehicles who deposit back the empty
containers.
3. Set-out, Set-back service: Set-out men go to individual houses, collect the containers
and empty them in the solid waste collection vehicle. Another group of persons return
them to house owner’s yard.
4. Set-out service: The workers of solid waste collection vehicles collect the containers
from individual houses and empty them in the collection vehicles. The house owner is
required to take back the empty containers.
5. Backyard service: Solid waste workers carry a bin, handcart or sack or cloth to the
yard and empty the solid waste container in 9t. The handcart or bin is subsequently taken
to solid waste collection vehicles where it is emptied.

Comparison:
Q8. Various techniques used in separation of solid waste.
The most effective way of separation is manual sorting in households prior to collection.
The municipality generally provides separate, easily identifiable containers into which the
householder deposits segregated recyclable materials such as paper, glass, metals, etc.
Usually, separate collections are carried out for the recyclable material. At curbside,
separate areas are set aside for each of the recyclable materials for householders to
deliver material – when there is no municipal collection system.
In case the separation is not done prior to collection, it could be sorted out through
mechanical techniques such as Mechanical component separation, magnetic separation,
etc., to recover the wastes
1. Mechanical component separation
Component separation is a necessary operation in the recovery of resources from solid
wastes and where energy and conversion products are to be recovered from processed
wastes. For example, trammels are now used routinely for the separation of unprocessed
waste. Along with trammels, shredders are also used for the separation.

2. Magnetic separation
The most common method of recovering ferrous scrap from shredded solid wastes
involves the use of magnetic recovery systems. Ferrous materials are usually recovered
either after shredding or before air classification.
When wastes are mass-fired in incinerators, the magnetic separator is used to remove
the ferrous material from the incinerator residue. Magnetic recovery systems have also
been used at landfill disposal sites.
The specific locations, where ferrous materials are recovered will depend on the
objectives to be achieved, such as reduction of wear and tear on processing and
separation equipment, degree of product purity achieved and the required recovery
efficiency.
Equipment used for magnetic separation Various types of equipment are in use for the
magnetic separation of ferrous materials.
The most common types are the following:
2.1. Suspended magnet:
In this type of separator, a permanent magnet is used to attract the ferrous metal from
the waste stream.
When the attracted metal reaches the area, where there is no magnetism, it falls away
freely.
This ferrous metal is then collected in a container. This type of separation device is
suitable for processing raw refuse, where separators can remove large pieces of ferrous
metal easily from the waste stream.

2.2. Magnetic pulley:

This consists of a drum-type device containing permanent magnets or electromagnets
over which a conveyor or a similar transfer mechanism carries the waste stream.
The conveyor belt conforms to the rounded shape of the magnetic drum and the
magnetic force pulls the ferrous material away from the falling stream of solid waste.

3. Screening
Screening is the most common form of separating solid wastes, depending on their size
by the use of one or more screening surfaces.
Screening has a number of applications in solid waste resource and energy recovery
systems. Screens can be used before or after shredding and after air separation of
wastes in various applications dealing with both light and heavy fraction materials.
The most commonly used screens are rotary drum screens and various forms of
vibrating screens. Note that rotating wire screens with relatively large openings are used
for separation of cardboard and paper products while vibrating screens and rotating drum
screens are typically used for the removal of glass and related materials from the
shredded solid wastes.
4. Drying and Dewatering
In many solid waste energy recovery and incineration systems the shredded light fraction
is pre-dried to decrease weight.
Although the energy requirements for drying wastes vary with local conditions, the
required energy inputs can be estimated by using a value of about 4300kJ/kg of water
evaporated.
Q9. Heuristic guide lines for laying the collection routes.

Heuristic Guidelines
1. The old system of assigning routes based on experience and intuition is
systematized by the formulation of some simple rules.
2. However, its effectiveness depends upon the experience of the user. The macro
routing is to be done first, followed by route balancing and micro routing.
3. In the macro routing, collection areas are assigned to disposal facilities. A fair
days work is determined in terms of km to be traveled, the trip made and tonnage
to be hauled per day.
4. This helps in identifying blocks or areas that can be served by a vehicle and its
crew every day.
5. Micro routing is then carried out by using heuristics when the originally identified
blocks or areas and their configuration may get changed.
6. The factors to be considered in micro-routing are:
Existing policies regarding the collection and its frequency should be identified.
Routes should not be fragmented or overlapped.
Collection and transport time should be reasonably constant for each route so as
to equalize the workload.
Routes having heavy traffic should be served before or after rush hours only.

Optimization of Vehicle Routes

1. The vehicles move along various streets and collect the solid waste from several
collection points and when full, proceed to the transfer station/processing/disposal
site.
2. Presently, the routes of movement of these vehicles are arbitrarily fixed, usually by
the supervisor on the basis of his experience and convenience.
3. These routes are not necessarily the best routes and certainly not optimum and
result in underutilization of the vehicles and increased cost of transportation.
4. In this way, for proper utilization of the materials, optimization of collection routes
is necessary.
10. Short Note on: Electronic Waste
Electronic waste or e-waste describes discarded electrical or electronic devices. Used
electronics which are destined for reuse, resale, salvage, recycling or disposal are also
considered e-waste.
Some of the common E-wastes include: home appliances such as televisions, air
conditioners, electric cookers and heaters, air condoners, fans, DVDs, Radios and
microwaves among others; information technology equipments such as computers,
mobile phones, laptops, batteries, circuit boards, hard disks, and monitors among others;
and other electronic utilities such as leisure, lighting, and sporting equipments.
The electronics recycling process
Electronics recycling can be challenging because discarded electronics devices are
sophisticated devices manufactured from varying proportions of glass, metals, and
plastics. The process of recycling can vary, depending upon materials being recycled
and the technologies employed, but here is a general overview.
Collection and Transportation: Collection and transportation are two of the initial
stages of the recycling process, including for e-waste. Recyclers place collection bins or
electronics take-back booths in specific locations and transport the collected e-waste
from these sites to recycling plants and facilities.
Shredding, Sorting, and Separation: After collection and transportation to recycling
facilities, materials in the e-waste stream must be processed and separated into clean
commodities that can be used to make new products. Efficient separation of materials is
the foundation of electronics recycling. Initial shredding of e-waste stream facilitates
sorting and separation of plastics from metals and internal circuitry. So, e-waste items
are shredded into pieces as small as 100mm to prepare for further sorting.
A powerful overhead magnet separates iron and steel from the waste stream on the
conveyor. The separated steel materials are then prepared for sale as recycled steel.
Further mechanical processing separates aluminum, copper and circuit boards from the
material stream which now is mostly plastic. Then, water separation technology is used
to separate glass from plastics. Visual inspection and hand sorting improve the quality of
the extracted materials. The separated streams of aluminum, copper and circuit boards
are collected and prepared for sale as recycled commodity materials.
Advanced separation technologies are used in the process. The final step in the
separation process locates and extracts any remaining metal remnants from the plastics
to further purify the stream.
Preparation For Sale as Recycled Materials: After the shredding, sorting and
separation stages have been executed, the separated materials are prepared for sale as
usable raw materials for the production of new electronics or other products.
 CH-4 Waste processing techniques

Q1. Volume Reduction of solid waste.

Volume and size reduction is an important factor in the development and operation of
any SWM system. The main purpose is to reduce the volume (amount) and size of
waste, as compared to its original form, and produce waste of uniform size.
Some of the benefits of compaction include:

 reduction in the quantity of materials to be handled at the disposal site

 improved efficiency of collection and disposal of wastes;
 increased life of landfills
 economically viable waste management system

Volume reduction of solid waste mainly occurs in the following three ways:
1. Mechanical Volume Reduction
Mechanical volume reduction is perhaps the most important factor in the development
and operation of solid waste management systems. Vehicles equipped with compaction
mechanisms are used for the collection of most municipal solid wastes.
To increase the useful life of landfills, wastes are compacted. When compacting a broad
range of municipal solid wastes, it has been found that the final density is essentially the
same regardless of the starting density and applied pressure.
This fact is important in evaluating the claims made by manufacturers of compacting
equipment.

1.1. Stationary equipment:

Equipment in which wastes are brought to and loaded into either manually or
mechanically.
According to their application, stationary compactors can be described as light duty,
commercial or light industrial, heavy industrial, and transfer station compactors.
Large stationary compactors are necessary when wastes are to be compressed into steel
containers, or transport vehicles directly.
1.2. Movable equipment:
This represents the wheeled and tracked equipment used to place and compact solid
wastes as in a sanitary landfill.
2. Shredding
This is required to convert large-sized wastes (as they are collected) into smaller pieces.
Size reduction helps in obtaining the final product in a reasonably uniform and
considerably reduced size in comparison to the original form.
It is noted that Size reduction does not necessarily imply volume reduction and this must
be factored into the design and operation of SWM systems as well as in the recovery of
materials for reuse and conversion to energy.
In the overall process of waste treatment and disposal, size reduction is implemented
ahead of:

 land filling to provide a more homogeneous product. This may require less cover
material and less frequent covering than that without shredding. This can be of
economic importance, where cover material is scarce or needs to be brought to
the landfill site from some distance.
 recovering materials from the waste stream for recycling.
 baling the wastes: a process sometimes used ahead of long distance transport of
solid wastes – to achieve a greater density.
 making the waste a better fuel for incineration waste energy recovery facilities.
(The size reduction techniques, coupled with separation techniques such as
screening, result in a more homogeneous mixture of relatively uniform size,
moisture content and heating value and thereby improving the steps of
incineration and energy recovery)
 reducing moisture, i.e., drying and dewatering of wastes

Type Mode of Action Application

Small Grinding, Organic residential solid wastes

grinders Mashing

Chippers Cutting, Slicing Paper, cardboard, tree trimmings, yard waste,

wood, plastics

Large Grinding, Brittle and friable materials, used mostly in

grinders mashing industrial operation

Jaw crushers Crushing, Large Solids

breaking

Rasp Mills Shrdding, tearing Moistened Solid Wastes

 Type Mode of Action Application

Shredders Shearing, tearing All types of Municipal wastes

Cutters, Shearing, tearing All types of Municipal wastes

Clippers

Hammer Breaking, All types of Municipal waste, most commonly

mills tearing, cutting, used equipment for reducing size and
crushing homogenizing composition of wastes

Hydropulper Shearing, tearing Ideally suited for use with pulpable wastes,
including paper, wood chips. Used primarily in
the papermaking industry.

3. Chemical volume reduction

Chemical volume reduction is a method, wherein volume reduction occurs through
chemical changes brought within the waste either through addition of chemicals or
changes in temperature.
Incineration is the most common method used to reduce the volume of waste chemically
and is used both for volume reduction and power production. These other chemical
methods used to reduce volume of waste chemically include pyrolysis, hydrolysis, and
chemical conversions.
4. Thermal Volume Reduction:
The volume of municipal wastes can be reduced by more than 90% by incineration. In
the past, incineration was quite common.
However with more restrictive air pollution control requirements necessitating the use of
expensive cleanup equipment only a limited number of municipal incinerators are
currently in operation.
More recently, increased haul distances to available landfill sites and increased fuel cost
has brought about a renewed interest in incineration and a number of new incinerator
projects are now on the drawing boards.
Q2. Explain the chemical transformation of solid waste.

Chemical transformations of solid waste typically involve a change of phase. To reduce

the volume and to recover conversion products, the principal chemical processes used to
transform municipal solid waste include:
1) Combustion
2) Pyrolysis
3) Gasification
All three of these processes are often classified as thermal processes.
1. Combustion
Combustion is defined as the chemical reaction of oxygen with organic materials, to
produce oxidized compounds accompanied by the emission of light and rapid generation
of heat. In the presence of excess air and under ideal conditions, the combustion of the
organic fraction of municipal solid waste can be represented by the following equation:
Organic matter + excess air → N2 + CO2 + H2O + O2 + ash + heat
Excess air is used to ensure complete combustion.
2. Pyrolysis
Pyrolysis is the term used to describe the process. In contrast with the combustion
process, which is highly exothermic, the pyrolytic process is highly endothermic. For this
reason, destructive distillation is often used as an alternative term for pyrolysis.
The characteristics of the three major component fractions resulting from the pyrolysis of
the organic portion of municipal solid waste are:
 A gas stream containing primarily hydrogen, methane, carbon monoxide, carbon
dioxide and various other gases, depending on the organic characteristics of the
waste material being pyrolyzed.
 A tar and oil stream that is liquid at room temperature and contains chemicals
such as acetic acid, acetone and methanol
 A char consisting of almost pure carbon plus any inert material that may have
entered the process.
The reaction is as follows:
3(C6H10O5) → 8H2O + C6H8O + 2CO + 2CO2 + CH4 + H2 + 7C

3. Gasification
The gasification process involves partial combustion of a carbonaceous fuel so as to
generate a combustible fuel gas rich in carbon monoxide, hydrogen and some saturated
hydrocarbons’, principally methane. The combustible fuel gas can then be combusted in
an internal combustion engine or boiler.
Q3. Physical, Chemical, and Biological transformation of solid
waste.
Transformation means a process of reduction of waste by volume and weight and
recovering the energy from them.
Typically waste transformations are used to improve the efficiency of solid waste and
management systems, to recover reusable and recyclable materials, and to recover
conversion products and energy which include the following method they are -

 1) Physical transformation
 2) Chemical transformation
 3) Biological transformation

1. Physical transformation
Physical transformations of solid waste typically involve a change of phase. To reduce
the volume and to recover conversion products, the principal physical processes used to
transform municipal solid waste include:

 a) component separation
 b) Mechanical volume reduction
 c) Mechanical size-reduction

All three of these processes are often classified as volume reduction processes
2. Chemical transformations
Chemical transformations of solid waste typically involve a change of phase. To reduce
the volume and to recover conversion products, the principal chemical processes used to
transform municipal solid waste include:

 a) Combustion
 b) Pyrolysis
 c) Gasification

All three of these processes are often classified as thermal processes

3. Biological transformation
The biological transformations of the organic fraction of Solid Waste may be used:

 a) to reduce the volume and weight of the material

 b) to produce compost
 c) to produce methane and include: aerobic composting, low-solids anaerobic
digestion, high-solids anaerobic digestion
Q4. Explain the chemical transformation of solid waste.
Chemical transformations of solid waste typically involve a change of phase. To reduce
the volume and to recover conversion products, the principal chemical processes used to
transform municipal solid waste include:
1) Combustion
2) Pyrolysis
3) Gasification
All three of these processes are often classified as thermal processes.
1. Combustion
Combustion is defined as the chemical reaction of oxygen with organic materials, to
produce oxidized compounds accompanied by the emission of light and rapid generation
of heat. In the presence of excess air and under ideal conditions, the combustion of the
organic fraction of municipal solid waste can be represented by the following equation:
Organic matter+excess air→N2+CO2+H2O+O2+ash+heatOrganic matter+excess
air→N2+CO2+H2O+O2+ash+heat
Excess air is used to ensure complete combustion.
2. Pyrolysis
Pyrolysis is the term used to describe the process. In contrast with the combustion
process, which is highly exothermic, the pyrolytic process is highly endothermic. For this
reason, destructive distillation is often used as an alternative term for pyrolysis.
The characteristics of the three major component fractions resulting from the pyrolysis of
the organic portion of municipal solid waste are:
 A gas stream containing primarily hydrogen, methane, carbon monoxide, carbon
dioxide and various other gases, depending on the organic characteristics of the
waste material being pyrolyzed.
 A tar and oil stream that is liquid at room temperature and contains chemicals
such as acetic acid, acetone and methanol
 A char consisting of almost pure carbon plus any inert material that may have
entered the process.
The reaction is as follows:
3(C6H10O5)→8H2O+C6H8O+2CO+2CO2+CH4+H2+7C3(C6H10O5)→8H2O+C6H8O+2
CO+2CO2+CH4+H2+7C
3. Gasification
The gasification process involves partial combustion of a carbonaceous fuel so as to
generate a combustible fuel gas rich in carbon monoxide, hydrogen and some saturated
hydrocarbons’, principally methane. The combustible fuel gas can then be combusted in
an internal combustion engine or boiler.
Q5. Composting and factors affecting it.

Composting
Composting is the controlled decay of organic matter in a warm, moist environment by
the action of bacteria, fungi, and other organisms.
The organic matter may be in municipal solid waste, sewage sludge, septage,
agricultural waste, manure, leaves and other yard waste, or combinations of these
materials and other organic wastes.
Compost is particularly useful as organic manure which contains plant nutrients as well
as micronutrients which can be utilized for the growth of plants. For obtaining optimum
results it should be used in conjunction with chemical fertilizers.
Principles of the Composting Process
The organic material present in the municipal wastes can be converted to a stable form
either aerobically or anaerobically. During aerobic decomposition, aerobic
microorganisms oxidise organic compounds to CO2CO2, NO2NO2, and NO3NO3.
Carbon from organic compounds is used as a source of energy while nitrogen is
recycled. Due to the exothermic reaction, the temperature of the mass rises. Anaerobic
microorganisms while metabolising nutrients, breakdown the organic compounds by a
process of reduction. A very small amount of energy is released during the process and
temperature of the composting mass does not rise much. The gases evolved are
mainly CH4CH4 and CO2CO2.
As anaerobic decomposition of organic matter is a reduction process, the final product is
subject to some minor oxidation when applied to land.
The factors affecting the composting process are as follows:

 Organisms:

1. Aerobic composting is a dynamic system where in bacteria actinomycetes, fungi

and other biological forms are actively involved.
2. Facultative and obligate forms of bacteria, actinomycetes and fungi are most
active in this process. In the initial stages mesiphilic forms predominate and
thermophilic bacteria and fungi soon take over except in the final stage of
composting
3. Thermophilic bacteria are mainly responsible for the breakdown of proteins and
other readily biodegradable organic matter.

 Use of cultures:

1. Under proper environmental conditions the indigenous bacteria adapted to

municipal solid waste rapidly multiply, as compared to the added cultures which
are more attuned to controlled laboratory conditions and carry out decomposition.
2. Hence addition of similar and extraneous organisms in the form of inoculums is
unnecessary. However, such inoculums will be required during composting of
industrial and agricultural solid waste which do not have the large mix of
indigenous bacterial population.
  Moisture:

1. The moisture tends to occupy the free air space between the particles. Hence,
when the moisture content is very high anaerobic conditions set in.
2. However, the composting mass should have certain minimum moisture content in
it for the organisms to survive.
3. The optimum moisture content is known to be between 50 to 60%. Higher
moisture content may be required while composting straw and fibrous material
which soften the fiber and fills the large pore spaces.

 Temperature:

1. Municipal solid waste is known to have good insulation properties and hence the
released heat leads to increase in temperature of the decomposing mass.
2. As some of the heat loss occurs from the exposed surface, the actual rise in
temperature will be slightly less. When the decomposing mass is disturbed, as
during turning of windows, the resultant heat loss results in drop in temperature.
3. The increased temperature results in increased rate of biological activity and
hence results in faster stabilization of the material.

Figure: Changes in temperature in a mass of aerobically composting mixed municipal

refuse

 C/N ratio:

1. The organisms involved in stabilization of organic matter utilize about 30 parts of

carbon for each part of nitrogen and hence an initial C/N ratio of 30 is most
favorable for composting.
2. Whenever the C/N ratio of the waste is less than the optimum carbon source such
as straw, sawdust, paper are added while if the ratio is too high, the sewage
sludge, slaughter house waste, blood etc. are added as a source of nitrogen to the
waste during its composting.

Table: Nitrogen Conservation in relation to C/N

 Aeration:

1. It is necessary to ensure that oxygen is supplied throughout the mass and aerobic
activity is maintained. During the decomposition, the oxygen gets depleted and
has to be continuously replenished.
2. This can be achieved either by turning of windows or by supplying compressed
air.
3. During turning it is necessary to bring inner mass to the outer surface and to
transfer the outer waste to the inner portion. In the case of artificial air supply the
quantity of air supply is normally maintained at 1-2 cu.m/day/kg of volatile solids.

Figure: Arrangement of material during turning of windrows

Q6. Explain the Vermicomposting.

Vermicomposting
Vermicomposting is the process by which worms are used to convert organic materials
(usually wastes) into a humus-like material known as vermin-compost. The goal is to
process the material as quickly and efficiently as possible.
Vermicompost appears to be generally superior to conventionally produced compost in a
number of important ways:

 Vermicompost is superior to most composts as an inoculant in the production of compost.

 Worms have a number of other possible uses on farms, including value as a high-quality
animal feed.
 Vermicomposting and vermiculture offer the potential to organic farmers as sources of
supplemental income.

Vermicompost has the following advantages over chemical fertilizers:

 It restores the microbial population, which includes nitrogen fixers, phosphate solubilizers,
etc.,
 Provides major and micro-nutrients to the plants,
 Improves soil texture and water holding capacity of the soil,
 Provides good aeration to the soil, thereby improving root growth and proliferation of
beneficial soil microorganisms,
 Decreases the use of pesticides for controlling plant pathogens,
 Improves the structural stability of the soil, thereby preventing soil erosion,
 Enhances the quality of grains/fruits due to increased sugar content.

At the same time, the beginning of the vermicomposting process is a more complicated
process than traditional composting:

 It can be quicker, but to make it so generally requires more labour.

 It requires more space because worms are surface feeders and will not operate in
material more than a meter in depth.
 It is more vulnerable to environmental pressures, such as temperature, freezing
conditions, and drought.
 Perhaps most importantly, it requires more start-up resources, either in cash (to buy the
worms) or in time and labour (to grow them).

Process of Vermicompost
In this process, the organic solid waste is converted through earthworm consumption into
worm castings. Decomposition of organic matter in the earthworm occurs in the
alimentary tract by micro-organisms inhabiting the gut.
Microbes such as fungi, actinomycetes, protozoa etc are known to inhibit the gut of
earthworms. The ingested organic waste is first subjected to size reduction in the anterior
part of the worms gut followed by its decomposition.
The worms species that are commonly active in this process are Pheretima sp. , Eisenia
sp. And Perionyx sp.
These species survive in the temperature range of 20-40 degree Celsius and moisture
range of 20-80%. They do not survive in pure organic substrate containing more than
40% fermentable organic substance
Hence fresh water is commonly mixed with partially or fully stabilized waste before it can
be vermicomposted. The worms are known to be adversely affected by high
concentration of heavy metals such as Cd, Cr, Pb & Zn.
Vermicomposting of wastes in field pits

 It is preferable to go for optimum-sized ground pits of 20 ft length, 3 ft width, and 2 ft deep

for effective vermin-composting beds.
 A series of such beds is to be prepared at one place.

Vermicomposting of wastes on ground heaps

 Instead of open pits, vermicomposting can be taken up in ground heaps.

 Dome-shaped beds (with organic wastes) are prepared, and vermicomposting is taken
up.
 The optimum size of ground heaps maybe 10 ft length × 3 ft width × 2 ft high.

Materials required for vermicomposting

 farm wastes (straw from wheat, soybean, chickpea, mustard, etc.) were used for
vermicomposting
 fresh dung
 wastes: dung ratio (1:1 on a dry weight basis)
 earthworm: 1000–1200 adult worms (about 1 kg per quintal of waste material)
 water: 3–5 L in every week per heap or pit

Q7. Explain Mechanical Composting

A mechanical composting plant is a combination of various units which perform specific
functions. The function below gives a general flowchart of a mechanical compost plant.

Figure: Mechanical Composting Process

Solid waste collected from various areas reaches the plant site at a variable rate
depending upon the distance of collection point. As the compost plant operates at a
constant rate, balancing storage has to be provided to absorb the fluctuations in the
waste input to the plant. This is provided in a storage hopper of 8 to 24 hours storage
capacity, the exact value depending upon the schedule of incoming trucks, the number of
shifts and the number of days the plant and solid waste collection system works.
The waste is then fed to a slowly moving conveyor belt and the non-decomposable
material such as plastics, glass, metals are manually removed by labourers standing on
either side of the conveyor belt. The labourers are provided with hand gloves and
manually remove the material from the moving belt and the removed material is stored
separately.
The metals are then removed from the waste by either a suspended magnet system or
a magnetic pulley system. Majority of the metals are recycled at the source itself and
hence are not contained in the waste. Magnetic removal of metals hence is not very
efficient and therefore not used in India.
In developed countries, glass and metals are present in larger concentration and are
removed by using ballistic separators. In these units, the waste is thrown with a large
force when different constituents take different trajectories and get separated. This unit is
energy-intensive and due to smaller content of glass and metals in Indian municipal solid
waste, it is not used in India.
The waste is thus subjected to size reduction when the surface area per unit weight is
increased for faster biological decomposition. Size reduction also helps in reducing fly
breeding in the decomposing mass. This is commonly carried out either in Hammermills
or Rasp mills.
Hammermills are high speed (600-1200 revolutions per minute) compact machines but
consume large energy. Rasp mills are slow-moving large units that require lesser energy.
The capital cost of a hammer mill is less but its operating cost is more than that of a rasp
mill mainly due to the larger energy requirement as well as more frequent replacement /
re-tipping of hammers.
The stabilisation is carried out in open windrows provided over flagstone paved or
cement concrete paved ground. These windrows are turned every 5 days to
ensure aerobic decomposition. Various types of equipment such as front end
loaders/windrows re-shifters are used for turning of windrows.
At the end of the 3 to 4 weeks period, the material is known as green or fresh compost
wherein the cellulose has not been fully stabilized. It is hence stored in large-sized
windrows for 1-2 months either at the plant or the farms. At the end of the storage period,
it is known as ripe compost.
It may be sometimes subjected to size reduction to suit kitchen garden and horticulture
requirements.
Q8. Invessel Composting Process
This is the novel technology which is gaining the interest of many researchers and
composters. Unlike other methods of composting it is very advanced.
The whole system is closed inside a container or a tank. There is an outlet exhaust for
emission of harmful gases and odor which get filtered through biofilters fitted at the exhaust
unit. The aeration is provided either by rotation of the container or through aeration pumps,
to maintain a steady airflow rate.
Since the whole system is enclosed, moisture is conserved within itself thus reducing the
dependency on water. The ideal moisture content of 40-60%, can be maintained easily.
A thermophilic condition which is favorable for aerobic thermophilic bacteria can be
achieved due to the prevention of heat loss. Since the inside environment is not affected
by the exterior conditions in-vessel composting can be taken up in any part of the world,
irrespective of the climate of the place. The comparative evaluation of in-vessel
composting system with other systems of composting is shown in Table 2.

Table 2: Comparative Evaluation Of In-Vessel Composting System

Advantages of In-Vessel Composting System over Traditional Methods

 Reduced dependency on malignant chemical fertilizers

 Reclamation of soil health and enhancement of beneficial soil micro and macro-
organisms
 Efficient organic waste management
 Saving the cost of transportation and fertilizer purchase
 Improved environmental protection
 Income generation through selling the outcome
 Enhanced corporate image
 Improved relations with the nearby villagers, other industries and organizations
and market advantages
Q9. Explain with a neat sketch the working of municipal
incinerator.
1. Introduction
Incineration can be defined as a controlled combustion process for burning solid, liquid and
gaseous combustible wastes to gases and residue containing non-combustible material.
During combustion, moisture is vaporized whereas the combustible portion is vaporized and
oxidized. Carbon dioxide, water vapour, ash and non-combustibles are the end-products.
However, radioactive waste, halogenated plastics, large amounts of reactive chemical waste,
mercury, Cd & ampoules of heavy metals should not be incinerated. All such waste having
combustion value above 2000 Kcal/kg can be burnt in single-chamber incinerators while those
having combustion value of above 3500 Kcal/kg should be burnt in pyrolytic double chamber
incinerators.
2. Air for combustion
Air is required in the combustion process, for which it can be supplied beneath the grates
(underfire air) or over the fuel bed (overfire air) to provide turbulance. In order to effect complete
combustion and promote turbulance, at least 50% excess air should be provided in incinerators.
However, too large an excess air would lower furnace temperature. Refractory furnaces require
150 - 200% excess air; whereas water tube wall furnaces require about 50-100% excess air. The
total air required for municipal incinerators is split into overfire (70%) underfire (10%) and
secondary (20%) for good performance.
3. Types of Incinerators
3.1. Multiple Channel Incinerators
Combustion in multiple channel incinerators proceeds in two stages, primary (solid fuel
combustion) in the ignition chamber followed by secondary (gaseous phase combustion) in
secondary combustion chamber.
In the ignition chamber, drying, ignition and combustion of waste occurs. The moisture and
volatile components of the waste are vaporised and partially oxidised while passing from the
ignition chamber through the flame port connecting the ignition chamber with the mixing
chamber. The volatile components of refuse and the products of combustion flow from the flame
port to mixing chamber in which secondary air is introduced.
Secondary combustion achieves combustion of unburnt furnace gases and carbon suspended in
the gases and elimination of odours. The combination of adequate temperature and additional
air, along with secondary burners if necessary, help initiate the secondary combustion process.
Turbulant mixing occurring as a result of restricted flow areas and abrupt changes in flow
directions both in horizontal and vertical plane furthers the gaseous phase reaction. Due to the
abrupt changes in directions and expansions, the particulate matter is removed by wall
impingement and simple settling. The gases finally escape through a stack or a combination of
gas cooler and induced draft system.
Multiple chamber incinerators are of two types: i) Retort, and ii) Inline. Retort type is preferred
when the quantity of waste to be burnt is less than 340 kg/hr (750 Ibs/hr) while Inline type is used
for higher capacities.
 Figure: Sectional view of in-line multi-chamber incinerator
3.2. Municipal Incinerators
Municipal incinerators are constructed and operated for large capacities. In general, such
installations have the following components:
i) Reception and Storage ii) Charging Hopper and Chute iii) Furnace iv) Grates and Stoking
The incinerators require a large amount of water for quenching of the clinker, for the removal of
fly ash in the water scrubbers and in the boilers.The amount of water required varies from 1500
to 9000 litres/tonne (350 to 2000 gallons per tonne) of refuse burnt depending on the design.
Energy consumption by various units in the incinerator varies from 30-50 KWH/tonne of refuse
burnt depending on the type of unit.

Figure: Section through a non-heat utilization type incinerator

4. Auxiliary Fuels
Auxiliary fuels will be required in the following cases:

 i) Furnace starting and warming up.

 ii) Promotion of primary combustion when the solid waste is wet or does not have
adequate calorific values.
 iii) Completion of secondary combustion to ensure odour and smoke control.
 iv) Additional heat is required for heat recovery units. When the refuse has a low calorific
value with lower content,auxiliary fuel will be required.

5. Recovery of Heat
Recovery of heat has been practised extensively in European installations but to a limited extent
in USA. The heat recovered can be used for supplying hot water, generating electricity and to
heat the plant during winter. Heat is recovered by adopting suitable systems such as

 i) waste heat boiler system with tubes located beyond conventionally built combustion
chambers;
 ii) water tube wall combustion chambers;
 iii) combination of the above; and
 iv) integrally constructed boiler and water tube wall combination.

Excess air needed will depend upon the system adopted. Low excess air increases the amount
of heat recovered and reduces the capacity of air pollution equipment. The theoretical efficiency
of the recovery process can be as high as 70% depending on the type of equipment used. The
amount of steam produced varies from 1 to 3.5 kg per kg of solid waste.
6. Products of Incineration

 Siftings
 Residue
 Clinker and Flyash
 Suspended Particulates
 Waste Gas

7. Incineration of Plastics
Plastics found in wastes may be thermoplastics which soften, deform and melt when heated or
thermosettings which are stable. Plastics are based on polymers generally containing C, H & O
which at normal incineration temperature of 600oC600oC and above get converted
to CO2CO2 and H2OH2O.
At temperatures above 600oC600oC, nitrogen oxides may be formed if it contains nitrogen as in
the case of nylon polyurathans, polyamides and nitriles. Fumes of PVC, HC1 and HF may be
released in some wastes. Specially designed incinerators are available for burning waste PVC
and recovery of HCl.
Q10. An incinerator to burn 150 kg/hr of office waste comprising
mostly of paper having a calorjfic value of 4200 Kcal/kg.
Moisture content of the waste is 15%
Q11. Explain the Pyrolysis.

Pyrolysis is an irreversible chemical change brought about by the action of heat in an

atmosphere devoid of oxygen.
Synonymous terms are thermal decomposition, destructive distillation, and carbonization.
In partial combustion, oxygen is present in insufficient quantities to cause complete
combustion (i.e., less than SOR). Normal combustion, as in conventional incineration
requires the presence of sufficient amount of oxygen which will ensure complete
oxidation of organic matter. Using cellulose (C6H10O5)(C6H10O5) to represent organic
matter, the reaction is
(CH4+2O2→6CO2+5H2O+ heat )
(CH4+2O2→CO2+2H2O+ heat )
In order to ensure complete combustion and to remove the heat produced during the
reaction, excess air is supplied which leads to air pollution problems.

In the case of partial combustion, the reaction would be

2CH4+2O2 →2CO+4H2
CO+H2→ HCHO (formaldehyde)
CO +2H2 →CH3O4( methanol)
Thus even the simplest of hydrocarbons will yield a variety of products under conditions
of partial combustion. As the complexity of fuel increase the variety of possible products
also increases. Pyrolysis, unlike incineration is an endothermic reaction and heat must
be applied to the waste to distil off volatile components.

When the waste is predominantly cellulose under slow heating at a moderate

temperature, the destruction of bonds is selective (the weakest breaking first) and the
products are primarily a non-combustible gas and anon-reactive char. On the other hand,
when the waste is rapidly heated to a high temperature, complete destruction of the
molecule is likely to take place. Under intermediate conditions, the system would yield
more liquid of complex chemical composition. Normally these two processes are referred
to as low temperature and high temperature pyrolysis respectively. Pyrolysis is carried
out at temperatures between 500 and 1000oC1000oC to produce three component
streams.
 i) Gas: It is a mixture of combustible gases such as hydrogen, carbon monoxide,
methane, carbon dioxide and some hydrocarbons.

 ii) Liquid: It contains tar, pitch, light oil and low boiling organic chemicals like
acetic acid, acetone, methanol, etc.

 iii) Char: It consists of elemental carbon along with the inert materials in the waste
feed.
The char, liquids, and gas have a large calorific value. This calorific value should be
utilized by combustion. Part of this heat obtained by combustion of either char or gas is
often used as process heat for the endothermic pyrolysis reaction. It has been observed
that even after supplying the heat necessary for pyrolysis, a certain amount of excess
heat still remains which can be commercially exploited. Though a number of
investigations have been made, only a few have led to full-scale plants.
 CH-5 Disposal of solid waste

Factors to be considered while selecting the landfill site.

While selecting a site, a number of points need be considered:

i) Land Requirement: The volume of fill required depends upon density, degree of
compaction, depth of fill and life for which the site is to be used. The volume required will
change in different cases. At a waste generation rate
of 0.33kg/capita/day0.33kg/capita/day and final 'in situ' density of 1000kg/m31000kg/m3,
about 150,000m3150,000m3 will be needed per million population for one year's
operation.
ii) Land Use Restrictions: The town planning authorities should be consulted before
selecting a particular site so that it is compatible with their plans.

iii) Approach: The site should be easily accessible for vehicles throughout the year. It is
desirable that narrow bridges, steep grades and roads that are likely to be submerged
during some periods are avoided. Such sites receive additional loads from other
processing and disposal site (which may not be working) in which case alternate
approach roads will be needed. Such sites should not be too close to residential and
commercial localities.

iv) Haul Distance: Provided all the other conditions are satisfied, the site should be as
near the area to be served as possible. Larger the haul distance to the site, the larger will
be the recurring transportation cost.

v) Cover Material: If the required soil cover is available at the site itself, no additional
expenditure need be incurred on transporting it to the landfill site. A soil analysis along
with the depth to which it is available is also necessary.

vi) Hydro-geological Investigations: The rainwater percolating through the solid waste
tends to carry large amount of pollutants to the groundwater if the underlying strata is
pervious or fissured. NEERI studies have shown that the leachate coming out is highly
polluting (15 to 20 times more concentrated than the domestic waste water).

Table: Pollution of Groundwater in kg/tonne of Refuse

Table above gives pollution load contributed by such leachates. As the pollution
introduced is high, unless proper precautions are taken it is likely to cause problems by
getting drawn up through a dug well or other sources of water (as shown in figure below).
To avoid leachate contamination of groundwater, an impermeable barrier in the form of a
puddled clay blanket should be provided. A thin plastic membrane could be provided and
the leachate collected taken out through specific points, treated and then let out to meet
water pollution control regulations.

Figure: Pollution of ground water by leachate

vii) Surface Water Pollution: Surface water during its flow over the deposited waste
may carry along some pollutants. Water courses flowing across the site should be
diverted, and the surface water due to precipitation prevented from reaching the water
course by an impermeable barrier.
Q2. Explain in brief various equipments used in separation of
solid waste. What is the importance of 3R principal in solid waste
management?

The various equipments used in separation of solid waste are as follows:

1. Mechanical component separator:

 Component separation is a necessary operation in the recovery of resources from solid

wastes and where energy and conversion products are to be recovered from processed
wastes.
 For example, trammels are now used routinely for the separation of unprocessed waste.
 Along with trammels, shredders are also used for the separation.

2. Magnetic and Electromechanical separators:

 Magnetic separation of ferrous materials a well established technique in the metal

industry is a new used commonly for the removal of ferrous metals from solid wastes
 More recently a variety of electromechanical techniques have been developed for the
removal of several non ferrous materials.

3. Drying and Dewatering:

 In many solid waste energy recovery and incineration systems the shredded light fraction
is predried to decrease weight.
 Although the energy requirements for drying wastes vary with local conditions, the
required energy inputs can be estimated by using a value of about 4300kJ/kg of water
evaporated.

The importance of 3R principal in solid waste

management is:
1. The three R's - reduce, reuse and recycle - all help to cut down on the amount of waste
we throw away.
2. They conserve natural resources, landfill space and energy.
3. The three R's save land and money communities must use to dispose of waste in landfills.
4. Siting a new landfill has become difficult and more expensive due to environmental
regulations and public opposition.
5. It makes economic and environmental sense to reuse products. Sometimes it takes
creativity.
6. Recycling is a series of steps that takes a used material and processes, remanufactures,
and sells it as a new product. Begin recycling at home and at work.
Q3. Explain the step wise procedure to obtain methane gas
produced from anaerobic digestion of 1 tonne.

1. Gases found in landfills include air, ammonia, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide,
hydrogen, hydrogen sulphide, methane, nitrogen and oxygen.
2. Carbon dioxide and methane are the principal gases produced from the anaerobic
decomposition of the organic solid waste components.
3. The anaerobic conversion of organic compounds is thought to occur in three
steps: the first involves the enzyme mediated transformation of higher weight
molecular compounds into compounds suitable for use as a source of energy and
cell carbon;

The second is associated with the bacterial conversion of compounds resulting

from the first step into identifiable lower molecular weight intermediate
compounds; And the third step involves the bacterial conversion of intermediate
compounds into simpler end products such as carbon dioxide and methane.

4. The overall anaerobic conversion of organic industrial wastes can be presented

with the following equation:
 CaHbOcNd→nCwHxOyNz+mCH4+sCO2+rH2O+(d−nz)NH3
Where s=a−nw−m
R=c−ny−2x

 The first term in RHS and in LHS are used to represent on a molar basis such that
the composition of the material is present at the start and the end of the process.
 If it is assumed that the organic wastes are stabilized completely, the
corresponding expression is:

CaHbOcNd+(4a−b−2c+3d/4)H2O→(4a+b−2c−3d/8)CH4+(4a−b+2c+3d/8)CO2+d
NH3

The rate of decomposition in unmanaged landfills, as measured by gas

production, reaches a peak within the first 2 years and then slowly tapers off
continuing in many cases, for periods up to 25 years or more.

 The total volume of gases released during anaerobic decomposition can be

estimated in a number of ways.
 If all the organic constituents in the wastes are represented with a generalized
formula of the form CaHbOcNdCa, the total volume of gas can be estimated by
using 2 equations, with the assumption of complete conversion to carbon dioxide
and methane.
Q4. Explain Toxicity testing
Toxicity testing
1. Toxicity characteristics include heavy metals, pesticides, insecticides etc.
2. Heavy metals are present in municipal solid waste due to the waste from small scale
industries.
3. As some of the heavy metals leach out, testing for heavy metals is often carried out.
4. Toxicity Characteristics Leaching Procedure (TCLP) test is invariably carried out if the
waste is suspected to be toxic in nature.
5. The methods of analysis for presence of heavy metals, TCLP and presence of pesticides
are described in Annexure 1 of solid waste management.

Q5. Types of sanitary landfill.

1. Trench Method
This method is best suited for flat land where excavation can be carried out easily and
where the ground water table is sufficiently low.
A trench, 2 m deep and 2 to 5 m wide (i.e., 1 to 2.5 times the width of a tractor which
permits easy movement across the trench) is cut. The length of the trench depends on
site conditions, number of trucks likely to arrive simultaneously and is such that it takes a
day's refuse quantity.
The excavated soil is placed on the sides of the trench and after the refuse has been put
in layers and compacted and the trench filled, is used to give the soil cover.
If trenches can be made deeper, more efficient use is made of the available land area.

Figure: Trench Method Landfill

2. Area Method
This method is best used in areas where natural depressions exist as in quarries, ravines
and valleys. The waste is put in the natural depressions and compacted. A layer of earth
is given on top and compacted. The process is repeated till the depression is filled up.
The earth cover has to be excavated from borrow-pits at the site itself or imported from
elsewhere.

Figure: Area Method Landfill

3. Ramp Method
This is a modified form of area and trench method and used in flat as well as gently
rolling areas.
A ramp about 15 metres wide, 30 m long and of a suitable height is created. By using a
bull-clam or similar equipment, a shallow cut is taken at the foot of the ramp. A valley like
trench is cut so that the tractor can operate transversely across its width for ease in
maneuverability. Trucks come to the top of the ramp and discharge their contents inside
the trench.
Due to the size of the ramp, a number of trucks are able to dump their contents
simultaneously inside the trench. At the end of the operation, the.refuse is compacted by
the tractor which also pushes earth on it and compacts it. Thus it becomes a part of the
ramp on the top of which vehicles can operate on the next day.

Figure: Ramp Method Landfill

Q6. What is engineered landfill? Why it is essential? Explain in
brief different methods of land filling.

The American Society of Civil Engineers defines engineered landfill as-“A method of
disposing of refuse on land without creating nuisance or hazard to public health or safety,
by utilizing the principles of engineering to confine the refuse to the smallest practical
area, to reduce it to the smallest practical volume and to cover it with a layer of earth at
least at the conclusion of each days operation or at such more frequent interval as may
be necessary.”

 If waste cannot be processed for recovery or as a source of energy and cannot be

treated for discharge to the surface water or air, it must be disposed off on land.
The landfill site should be so designed as to reduce environmental and health
risks.
 The different methods of landfilling are as follows:

Trench Method:

1. This method is usually used in the case of flat terrain where the soil can be easily
excavated.
2. A trench of about 2m depth and 5m width is used. The length of the trench
depends upon the site conditions, and the number of trucks likely to arrive
simultaneously at the site.
3. The size of the trench is so fixed that it is adequate to accommodate the quantity
received during a day. The refuse trucks stand at the face of the trench and
deposit their contents directly into it.
4. It is then compacted by appropriate equipment. The top of the trench is covered
by a soil layer which should be at least 15cm thick.
 5. When completed, such a landfill consists of a series of long narrow cells
separated longitudinally by ridges or ribs of undisturbed ground. The top of the
finished fill is raised above the original ground level.

Area Method:

 This method is mostly suited for irregular land where the ramp or trench methods
cannot be conveniently used.
 The waste is deposited in natural depression as occurs in quarries, ravines and
valleys. The waste is put in the natural depression and compacted.
 A 15 cm layer of earth is given on the top and compacted at the end of the day.
The process is repeated till the depression is filled up and then the final soil cover
is given.
 The earth cover has to be excavated from the borrow pits at the site itself or
imported from elsewhere.
Q7. Introduction to Sanitary Landfill.
If waste cannot be processed for recovery or as a source of energy and cannot be
treated for discharge to the surface water or air, it must be disposed off on land, this is
known as sanitary land filling. The landfill site should be so designed as to reduce
environmental and health risks.

Thus the method essentially consists of laying the material systematically followed by its
compaction to smallest practical volume with least exposed area and then covering it
with soil. As it is compacted, further decrease in volume will not be very large. As the
exposed surface area will be the smallest the amount of soil cover needed will be small
which is an important consideration, especially when the soil cover has to be brought
from outside.

Covering of the waste with soil or other inorganic material makes it inaccessible to flies
and rodents and the heat released during decomposition is conserved, increasing the
chances of destruction of fly larva and pathogenic organisms.

The major aspects that must be considered for sanitary landfill are as follows:

1. Type and volume of hazardous and non-hazardous waste to be landfilled

2. Life expectancy of landfill during its active operating period
3. Topography and soil characteristics at the site in its vicinity
4. Climatic conditions throughout the year
5. Surface water and ground water in the vicinity
6. Collection and treatment of surface run off
7. Selection of leachate collection and treatment systems
8. Effect on human health and the environment
9. Selection of venting systems for gaseous products

Types of Sanitary Landfill

Sanitary landfilling can be practised for all types of site conditions. To suit different site
conditions, the basic process is modified in three distinct ways

1. trench method
2. area method
3. ramp method
Q8. Practices adopted for the reuse and recycling of Solid Waste.

1. Reduce
Use Only What You Need

Here are some easy ways to reduce the trash created and save natural resources -

 Use fewer grocery bags: Cloth bags can be carried to the grocery store. Plastic
or paper bags can be brought back to the grocery store.

 Check it out: Look for and buy products that have less packaging. But if
something you really need comes with packaging (like bottles or cardboard
boxes), try to reuse or recycle it.

 Water matters: Make an effort to use less water. Figure out how much water you
usually use to take a shower by trying the Shower Estimation activity. Then come
up with ways to use less water like turning off the shower as you wash your hair.
You could also ask your parents to install low-flow showerheads or turn off the
water while you brush your teeth.

 Turn it off: Use less electricity so there’s less air pollution. Climb the stairs
instead of using the elevator. Turn off the lights, TV, and computer when you’re
not using them.

2. Reuse
Great way to make less waste

Be creative and reuse: Find a second use for trash. Use old newspapers to make
recycled paper. Use this paper to make cards to write let. Make a junk picture frame out
of cardboard, buttons, and other small pieces of trash.

3. Recycle
Whenever possible, give an item a second life

Here are some great ways to recycle:

 Buy recycled products: Ask your family or school to use recycled paper and
other products. When you buy recycled products, the message is clear–you want
to protect the environment.

 Be helpful: Does your town have a recycling centre? If so, encourage your family
and neighbours to recycle. Paper, plastics, aluminium cans, and glass can all be
recycled. If your community or school doesn’t have curbside pick-up or a recycling
program, write to your elected officials about starting one.
Q9. Explain the Land farming.
Land farming is a waste disposal method in which the biological, chemical and physical
processes that occur in the surface of the soil are used to treat biodegradable industrial
wastes.

Wastes to be treated are either applied on top of the land, which has been prepared to
receive the wastes, or injected below the surface of the soil.

When the organic wastes are added to the soil, they are subjected simultaneously to the
following processes:

 Bacterial and chemical decomposition.

 Leaching of water-soluble components in the original wastes and from the
decomposition products.
 Volatilization of selected components in the original wastes and from the products
of decomposition.

Factors that must be considered in evaluating the biodegradability of organic wastes in a

land farming application include:

 Composition of the waste.

 Compatibility of wastes and soil microflora
 Environmental requirements oxygen, temperature, pH and inorganic nutrients
 Moisture content of solid waste mixture

Land farming is suitable for wastes that contain organic constituents that are
biodegradable and are not subject to significant leaching while the bioconversion process
is occurring.
Q10. Short Note on : Open Dumping
Disposal of solid wastes by dumping in low-lying areas has been practised since early
times. Such sites often do not have any proper system of operation and are found to
attract a large number of ragpickers, who during their search for reclaimable materials
spread the waste around spoiling the appearance of the site.

As proper controls are not exercised hot ashes and combustible wastes are often
dumped at such sites causing fire and smoke problems. The decomposable wastes are
exposed leading to rodent and fly nuisance. Paper tends to spread around and litters the
landscape, which becomes aesthetically objectionable and hygienically undesirable.

Further, the decomposition causes a lot of nuisance and the site cannot be put to
suitable use early. Such sites are often located in low-lying areas where they tend to
pollute surface and ground waters.

Hence, such kind of open dumping is prohibited because it poses greater risk to the
environment.

Q11. Segregation of Solid Waste

Segregation of wastes means separating them according to its kind for the purpose of
handling, processing, and disposal in a proper way.
We generate wastes of different kinds - plastics, paper, food wastes, yard wastes,
hazardous electronic and chemical wastes like paints, used batteries, etc. which needs to
be segregated systematically.
Household waste should be separated daily into different bags for the different categories
of waste such as wet and dry waste, which should be disposed of separately. One should
also keep a bin for toxic wastes such as medicines, batteries, dried paint, old bulbs, and
dried shoe polish.
Wet waste, which consists of leftover foodstuff, vegetable peels, etc., should be put in a
compost pit and the compost could be used as manure in the garden. Dry waste
consisting of cans, aluminum foils, plastics, metal, glass, and paper could be recycled.
In general, the waste can be segregated as Biodegradable and Non-biodegradable.
1. Biodegradable waste includes organic waste, e.g. kitchen waste, vegetables, fruits,
flowers, leaves from the garden, and paper.
2. Nonbiodegradable waste can be further segregated into:

 a) Recyclable waste - plastics, paper, glass, metal, etc.

 b) Toxic waste - old medicines, paints, chemicals, bulbs, spray cans, fertilizer and
pesticide containers, batteries, shoe polish.
 c) Soiled - hospital waste such as cloth soiled with blood and other body fluids.
Toxic and soiled waste must be disposed of with the utmost care.
 CH-6 Types of Solid Waste

Q1. Industrial solid waste management.

1. Introduction

Solid wastes generated from industrial sources are heterogeneous ranging from inert
inorganics as in those produced in mining, collieries, to organics from those producing
basic consumer products, and may include even hazardous wastes as in nuclear
industry.

Waste products from industry may get recycled and reused in the same industry or
maybe a source of raw material for another industry. At times, a by-product may not find
a ready market within a short distance. Consumers located farther away may find it
uneconomic due to transport cost and taxes. In such cases, concessions (tax incentive
and benefits, reduction in transport costs) could be granted when the secondary
materials are being reused.

The problem of disposal of solid wastes varies from industry to industry and each case
need be studied separately. The wastes can be grouped as i) biodegradable, ii) non-
biodegradable, and iii) hazardous.

2. Biodegradable Wastes

2.1. Fruit Processing: These industries are seasonal and the wastes produced are
organic in nature. The simplest method of disposal will be to feed it to cattle. It could also
be added to municipal refuse or such other low moisture, biodegradable material for
composting.

2.2. Slaughterhouse Waste: In a slaughterhouse, wastes are produced in every

operation, most of which are reused. A number of useful products such as glue, gelatin,
glycerine, trypsin, etc. are produced which have a ready market.

2.3. Cotton Ginning: In the ginning process the cotton fibre is separated from foreign
matter and seed. Some cotton fibre remains in the waste when the ginned cotton is
further processed through a lint cleaner, some small pieces of cotton occur as waste.
The total waste thus produced varies from 5% in handpicking to 20% in machine
scrapped, of the material processed.

2.4. Textile Mills: Cotton textile mills produce a large amount of cotton dust in
blowrooms to the extent of about 20-50 tonnes/year/25000 spindles. The textile mills in
India produce about 30,000-33,000 tonnes/year of this waste; 20% of which is produced
in Bombay and 15% each in Ahmedabad and Coimbatore. The waste essentially
consists of unrecoverable cotton fibres and broken cotton seed coats. Normally this
waste is disposed of along with other sweepings from mill or used as fuel in boilers or
sometimes a portion is used as a cheap filling in quilt blankets

3. Non-biodegradable Wastes

3.1. Colliery Wastes: Colliery wastes include coal and stone, timber and metal scrap,
rejected brattice and belting, sludges and other miscellaneous wastes. Heaps of these
wastes start burning causing air pollution ( CO,H2S,SO2CO,H2S,SO2) and Ieachates
from them may cause water pollution. The wastes can be disposed of by emplacement
and utilisation. Emplacement involves disposition of material elsewhere away from the
mine. Utilisation involves fluidized combustion process and burning; spoil material can be
used as a road base and embankments.
3.2. Solid Wastes from Refineries: Crude oil contains some basic substance and water
(BS & W) constituting a mixture of water, iron, rust, iron sulphide, clay, etc. produced with
the crude oil or accumulated during transit of crude oil. Wastewater from refineries
contains metal ions such as Fe, Al, Cu and Mg from corrosion of refinery equipment,
chemicals used in treating cooling water, salts in intake water and chemicals used in
processing.

Solid wastes from refineries can be grouped as:

 i) inert dry solids - trash, silt, spent catalysts

 ii) combustible dry solids - trash, waste paper, scrap lumber
 iii) sludge from water softner and sanitary sludge
 iv) sludge containing oil such as spent clays
 v) sludge containing oil, water and solids - from water separator bottoms

Treatment and Disposal:

When the sludges containing solids and water come in contact with oily water, solids get
coated with oil. Hence it is desirable to avoid mixing of the two. The sludge should not be
allowed to flow in oily water drains but dewatered by gravity in sludge thickeners or pond.
The sludge may also be reused for neutralizing some wastes or in cement manufacture,
etc.

The first step consists of gravity settling in a continuous operating thickner or in a batch
opt-rated hopper bottom settling tank. In the case of wastes containing solids, oil as well
as water, centrifugation is necessary.

Before the sludge is sent to the centrifuges, it is screened and then subjected-to primary
centrifugation in scroll type centrifuges. After the process, the oil water mixture contains
about 5-10% solids and is subjected to secondary centrifugation. Secondary
centrifugation can be carried out either by using a basket type or a disc type unit. The
basket centrifuge is used in intermittant method while disc type is used for continuous
operation. The solid cake obtained after centrifugation is taken to the landfill site or
incinerated.

In the case of sludges which do not contain oil, filtration is carried out either on sand
beds or in filter press in vacuum filtration. When the sludge contains materials which tend
to clog or blind the filter medium precoat filtration is used. The sludges after filtration can
be incinerated or dumped on landfill sites.

3.3. Steel Plants: Blast furnaces produce hot metal for steel making and pig iron. The
amount of slag produced is about half a tonne per tonne of pig iron produced. A large
amount of dust is also produced from the blast furnace. In the basic oxygen furnace,
approximately 22 kg of dust is produced per tonne of steel. The electric furnace method
of steel making uses recyclable scrap and generates large quantities of dust.

Part of the wastes is recycled and reused in the following ways:

 i) Air cooled slag is produced in pits or when slag is allowed to flow down an
embankment. It can be used as aggregate for portland cement concrete. It can
also be used as aggregate for road construction, rail-road ballast, and roofing
material.
 ii) When the slag is cooled in a controlled quantity of water a porous or light
product is obtained which is crushed, graded and used as lightweight aggregate
for concrete. It can also be used as a good filling material for insulation purposes.
 iii) When chilled in large quantity of water, granulated slag (slag sand) is obtained
which is used for slag cement manufacture and as glass sand for manufacture of
glass.

3.4. Thermal Power Plants: Most of the thermal power plants in India used lump coal in
the boilers and were disposing coal residue as bottom ash commonly referred to as
furnace clinker. Pulverised coal has now replaced lump coal which produces fine residue
known as fly ash.

The fly ash generated from thermal power plants would need about 0.035m30.035m3 of
dumping space per tonne and its transportation to such sites will add to the cost. The first
known attempt at using fly ash was as pozzolona in mass concrete constructions, e.g., in
Rihand dam.
3.5. Lead-Zinc Industry: The solid waste produced from these industries consists of i)
dust from lead blast furnace and ii) slag. Dust has to be collected from hoods placed over
sinter machine furnaces and other equipment. The sludge contains Zn, Pb, Cd, As & CN
and hence care should be taken during its disposal.

Presently most of the slag produced is stored in dumps. These dumps contain valuable
ingredients. In Belgium, slags from lead are reduced to give copper, silver matts, iron
slags and zinc and lead oxide which is used for byproduct recovery such as germinium in
the semiconductor industry.

3.6. Paper Industry: Solid wastes are produced from the following sources:

 i) Boiler cinder
 ii) Chip screen dust
 iii) lime mud from soda recovery plant
 iv) Sludge from bleach making plant

The boiler cinder is used for landfilling and brick making. The chip screen dust has high
fuel value and hence is used as an auxiliary fuel. The lime mud can be used for the
manufacture of portland cement, provided the caustic alkali is reduced to a minimum by
use of proper washing and dewatering system. The sludge can also be used in certain
ceramic industries.

3.7. Aluminium Industry: Aluminium is produced by Bayers process from bauxite or

from secondary aluminium. Secondary aluminium is produced by remelting scraps and is
mainly used for making alloys for foundry work as well as aluminium ingots.

 i) Red mud: In the Bayers process red mud, the leached residue of bauxite is
produced.
 ii) Waste from secondary aluminium industry: Maximum amount of waste is
produced from the pot roor's where the electrolytic cells are housed and remelt
and cast into ingots.

These wastes are generally recycled. A process has been developed by National
Metallurgical Laboratory, Jamshedpur for recovery of AI2O3AI2O3 from red mud.

Q2. Explain briefly industrial waste water treatment?

Industrial wastewater treatment covers the mechanisms and processes used to treat
wastewater that is produced as a by-product of industrial or commercial activities. After
treatment, the treated industrial wastewater (or effluent) may be reused or released to a
sanitary sewer or to a surface water in the environment. Most industries produce some
wastewater although recent trends in the developed world have been to minimize such
production or recycle such wastewater within the production process. However, many
industries remain dependent on processes that produce wastewaters.
Industrial wastewater contains a diversity of impurities and therefore for this reason
alone, its treatment constitutes a special task. So it is done in following ways-
1) Brine treatment Brine treatment involves removing dissolved salt ions from the waste
stream. Although similarities to seawater or brackish water desalination exist, industrial
brine treatment may contain unique combinations of dissolved ions, such as hardness
ions or other metals, necessitating specific processes and equipment.
2) Brine management
Brine management examines the broader context of brine treatment and may include
consideration of government policy and regulations, corporate sustainability,
environmental impact, recycling, handling and transport, containment, centralized
compared to on-site treatment, avoidance and reduction, technologies, and economics.
Brine management shares some issues with leachate management and more general
waste management.
3) Solids removal Most solids can be removed using simple sedimentation techniques
with the solids recovered as slurry or sludge. Very fine solids and solids with densities
close to the density of water pose special problems. In such case filtration or ultrafiltration
may be required. Although, flocculation may be used, using alum salts or the addition of
polyelectrolytes.
4) Oils and grease removal A typical API oil-water separator used in many industries
Many oils can be recovered from open water surfaces by skimming devices. Considered
a dependable and cheap way to remove oil, grease and other hydrocarbons from water,
oil skimmers can sometimes achieve the desired level of water purity. At other times,
skimming is also a cost-efficient method to remove most of the oil before using
membrane filters and chemical processes. Skimmers will prevent filters from blinding
prematurely and keep chemical costs down because there is less oil to process.
5) Hydrocyclone Oil Separators – Hydrocyclone oil separators operate on the process
where wastewater enters the cyclone chamber and is spun under extreme centrifugal
forces up to 1000 times the force of gravity. This force causes the water and oil droplets
to separate. The separated oil is discharged from one end of the cyclone where treated
water is discharged through the opposite end for further treatment, filtration or discharge.
6) Removal of biodegradable organics- Biodegradable organic material of plant or
animal origin is usually possible to treat using extended conventional sewage treatment
processes such as activated sludge or trickling filter.
7) Activated slugde process- Activated sludge is a biochemical process for treating
sewage and industrial wastewater that uses air (or oxygen) and microorganisms to
biologically oxidize organic pollutants, producing a waste sludge (or flock) containing the
oxidized material. In general, an activated sludge process includes.
8) Trickling filter process.
9) Treatment of other organics.
10) Treatment of acids and alkalis-Acids and alkalis can usually be neutralized
under controlled conditions.
11) Treatment of toxic materials.
Q3. EPA-identification of toxic and hazardous waste.
Solid wastes generated from urban and industrial sources contain a large number of
ingredients, some of which are toxic. The substances are considered toxic when the
concentration exceeds a particular value below which it may not endanger public health.
Various tests and criteria have been devised by different agencies to determine as to
whether a given substance is toxic or hazardous. It is necessary to assess the intrinsic
properties of the waste to judge whether its uncontrolled release in the environment
would lead to toxic effects on human or other living organisms. The possible toxic effect
also depends upon the quantity of the waste.
A preliminary decision model for screening and selecting hazardous compounds and
ranking of hazardous wastes has been developed by EPA. The criteria used in the
screening model relate to only the intrinsic hazard of the wastes on uncontrolled release
to the environment in respect of its quantity or the pathway to humans or other critical
organisms.
The criteria such as toxicity, phytotoxicity, genetic activity and bioconcentration are used
for this purpose. Substances or materials can be classified as hazardous or otherwise
depending on the dose administration, exposure mode and time of exposure.
On this basis, EPA has given the following scale of activity:

LD50LD50 Value Scale of Toxicity

\lt\lt 1 mg/kg Poisons

1 to 50 mg/kg Highly toxic

50 to 100 mg/kg Very toxic

100 to 500 mg/kg Moderately toxic

0.5 to 5 gm/kg Slightly toxic

\gt\gt 5 gm/kg Essentially non-toxic

LD50LD50 = Lethal Dose to kill 50% population
Q4Classification and sources of Hazardous waste.
1. Classification of Hazardous Waste

As there are a number of compounds, products and product combinations, which can be
termed as toxic. They can be grouped majorly into five categories, viz. i) chemicals, ii)
biological wastes, iii) flammable wastes, iv) explosives and v) radioactive wastes.

The table below gives some common examples of these different categories.

Table: Sources and some Examples of Toxic and Hazardous Wastes

Sources Examples

Chemical Synthetic organics

Inorganic metals, salts, acids and alkalies
Inflammables
Explosives

Biological Hospitals - malignant tissues, contaminated material like hypodermic

needles, bandages, etc.
Wastes from biological research facilities.

Flammable Mostly in liquid form, but may exist along with solid chemicals, e.g.
organic solvents, oils, plasticisers and organic sludges.

Explosive Wastes from ordnance factories, etc.

Radioactive Regulated by Atomic Energy Commission and separately disposed of

2. Sources of Hazardous Waste

Toxic pollution occurs as a result of a variety of human activities. Some of them are listed
below.

Industries and sewage treatment plants discharge wastes which contain toxic
substances directly into waterways; these direct pipeline discharges are called point
sources.
Air emissions from manufacturing; from fuel combustion in cars and other motors,
homes and buildings; and from power plants contain numerous chemicals that drift in the
atmosphere and rain down upon or absorb into the surface of the ocean and other bodies
of water.

Plutonium processing plants, nuclear power plants, nuclear submarines and nuclear
waste dumps are the sources of radioactive contamination. Incinerated, spilt and
discharged wastes can also cause marine pollution.

Toxic pesticides are dispersed through the environment by rain running off chemical-
treated land and flowing into lakes, rivers, estuaries and coastal waters.

Other sources of pollutants in rainwater run-off include material from numerous man-
made surfaces - roads and parking lots, city streets and buildings, cars and houses.
These sources of run-off pollution are called non-point sources.

Household cleaning and disinfecting products are flushed into sewage systems and
out through treatment plant discharge, or are washed from property and septic tanks into
groundwater and streams.

Oil drilling and transport, mining and maritime operations all result in the accidental
introduction of significant amounts of toxic materials into the marine environment, as
does leakage from storage tanks and pipelines, and seepage from waste dumps.

Q5. Disposal of Toxic Wastes.

1. Pre-treatment
Proper control and regulation of disposal of toxic solid wastes would encourage the
industry to become aware of the expenditure involved and methods would become more
effective. Three types of processes can be used to render a hazardous waste less
hazardous or non-hazardous:

 i) Physical: such as carbon adsorption, distillation, ultrafiltration, etc.

 ii) Chemical: such as neutralisation, fixation into solids that can be easily disposed
of, etc.
 iii) Biological: such as activated sludge process, trickling filters, land farming, etc.

The segregation will enable adoption of suitable methods for different types of wastes.
For example, waste oils are not reclaimed due to the high cost of collection and
treatment and the relatively low cost of fuel oil. But if such waste oils can be used in
boilers, besides reducing some cost of boiler operation, oil could be saved along with
avoidance of nuisance on landfill sites.
2. Detoxification
Toxic substances are seldom chemically inert and hence can be converted to a non-toxic
or less toxic compound by chemical treatment. However, solids have often to be brought
into solution before subjecting it to chemical treatment followed by effective sludge
disposal. Some of the toxic metals have a resale value, and hence effort should be made
to recover and reuse them.
3. Prevention of Water Pollution from Landfills Receiving Toxic Waste
As wastes are commonly disposed on land, it should be ensured that water pollution
(surface water by runoff & groundwater by leachates) does not occur from such sites. It
could be ensured by:

 i) proper consolidation of the waste to reduce spaces and permeability

 ii) disposing the waste at a sufficient depth to prevent water pollution
 iii) depositing waste in the impervious zone at a certain depth so that leachate will
not gain access to aquifer; geologic investigations would be useful in such cases
 iv) providing a layer of impervious soil on top and sides to prevent percolation of
water
 v) mixing with municipal solid waste for composting if the waste is amenable for
biological decomposition

4. Oil and Tarry Wastes

They are highly viscous making it difficult to permeate through the pore space in the soil.
Less viscous oils may travel fast posing pollution problems. In the case of viscous
wastes, it is noticed that they turn into an emulsion (if filled with water) or foam (if filled
with air). In either case, viscosity would further be increased and the rate of percolation
decreased, thereby reducing leaching effect.
5. Incineration
It is an effective way of disposal of combustible organic and chemical wastes. The
residue left is quite small which can be disposed of. Incineration has the advantage that
when the toxic constituents are burnt or otherwise decomposed they cease to be toxic.
During incineration, the organic chemicals are converted to gas, moisture and simple
compounds of N2N2, S, P, CI2CI2. At the incineration temperature, toxic materials may
alter physically so that the toxic constituents are not so readily available, e.g., a powder
converted to slag, when the toxic constituents would not be easily soluble in water.
Though incineration is likely to cause air pollution, technology is available to keep it
below permissible limits.
6. Disposal in Sea
This method may not always be possible and at times, ocean currents may wash it back
to the shore. Sea provides a large dilution and if disposal is carried out in deep regions
the waste would not easily reach the surface layers. Every care should be taken to
ensure that the disposal is done by taking all the necessary precautions. Disposal by
incineration at sea on specially designed ships could be carried out in special cases such
as polychlorinated byphenyls.
7. Authorisation for Disposal
In most of the developing countries, legislation to control and regulate the disposal of
solid toxic wastes does not exist. The solid toxic waste, when converted to liquid (i.e.
dissolved in water), can partly be regulated by the use of the Water Pollution Control Act.
Independent authorities with sufficient regulatory powers and infrastructure would be
needed to ensure safe disposal of toxic solid wastes. Before any toxic solid waste is
disposed of, approval for the method and sites proposed to be used must be taken from
a regulatory agency which can have a list of common types of wastes for landfilling or
incineration. Complete information about the sources of the waste should be provided.
The disposal facility may be provided by the concerned industry or it may be provided by
the authority or it can be privately operated which can levy fees for disposal. Even if the
site is owned by the industry, approval for its location and use will be essential. If the site
is operated by the authority or private party, unauthorised disposal of other toxic wastes
may take place. In such cases, the carriers of waste should be licensed by the authority.
A standing committee of advisers will be useful in dealing with unusual wastes, especially
if they are in need of immediate disposal.

Q6. Short Note on: Electronic Waste

Electronic waste or e-waste describes discarded electrical or electronic devices. Used
electronics which are destined for reuse, resale, salvage, recycling or disposal are also
considered e-waste.
Some of the common E-wastes include: home appliances such as televisions, air
conditioners, electric cookers and heaters, air condoners, fans, DVDs, Radios and
microwaves among others; information technology equipments such as computers,
mobile phones, laptops, batteries, circuit boards, hard disks, and monitors among others;
and other electronic utilities such as leisure, lighting, and sporting equipments.
The electronics recycling process
Electronics recycling can be challenging because discarded electronics devices are
sophisticated devices manufactured from varying proportions of glass, metals, and
plastics. The process of recycling can vary, depending upon materials being recycled
and the technologies employed, but here is a general overview.
Collection and Transportation: Collection and transportation are two of the initial
stages of the recycling process, including for e-waste. Recyclers place collection bins or
electronics take-back booths in specific locations and transport the collected e-waste
from these sites to recycling plants and facilities.
Shredding, Sorting, and Separation: After collection and transportation to recycling
facilities, materials in the e-waste stream must be processed and separated into clean
commodities that can be used to make new products. Efficient separation of materials is
the foundation of electronics recycling. Initial shredding of e-waste stream facilitates
sorting and separation of plastics from metals and internal circuitry. So, e-waste items
are shredded into pieces as small as 100mm to prepare for further sorting.
A powerful overhead magnet separates iron and steel from the waste stream on the
conveyor. The separated steel materials are then prepared for sale as recycled steel.
Further mechanical processing separates aluminum, copper and circuit boards from the
material stream which now is mostly plastic. Then, water separation technology is used
to separate glass from plastics. Visual inspection and hand sorting improve the quality of
the extracted materials. The separated streams of aluminum, copper and circuit boards
are collected and prepared for sale as recycled commodity materials.
Advanced separation technologies are used in the process. The final step in the
separation process locates and extracts any remaining metal remnants from the plastics
to further purify the stream.
Preparation For Sale as Recycled Materials: After the shredding, sorting and
separation stages have been executed, the separated materials are prepared for sale as
usable raw materials for the production of new electronics or other products.

Q7. Biomedical waste: Categories of wastes, Quantities and

composition, Storage, Treatment and disposal.

Hospital Solid Wastes

Potentially infectious wastes are generated during various activities in hospitals as well
as in clinics and other health care establishments. Presently much of the waste from
such facilities except large scale hospitals find its way into the municipal waste stream.
As the workers handling these wastes are often illiterate, they do not understand the
written instructions and often do not take the required precautions.
Categories of wastes
The waste, in general, can be grouped into:

1. Infectious other than sharps from operation the artre, pathology laboratories etc.
2. Sharps and needles, scalpels etc.
3. Chemical and Pharmaceutical wastes.
4. Non-hazardous general waste from kitchens etc.
5. Pressurized cylinders and radioactive sources etc.

Quantities and composition:

1. The data on quantities in Indian health care establishments is rather meagre and
indicates the quantities to range from 0.5-2 kg/bed/day.
2. The quantities are dependent upon the extent of use of recyclable and non-
recyclable materials,
3. The average physical constituents of hospital waste are as follows:

Items Paper Rags Plastics Metals Glass Infectious General

waste waste

% by 15 15 10 1 4 5 50
weight
Storage

1. It is desirable that the waste is subjected to careful sorting, handling and storage
in appropriate containers and equipment in the hospitals.
2. The storage should be in corrosion proof containers with double lining. The
Biomedical waste rules also specify color coding for the bags and containers.
3. It is also desirable that all infectious waste including sharps are disinfected at the
first opportunity.
4. The minimum precaution of storing in hypochlorite solution should be taken.
5. The container should have a foot operated cover and should not be filled to more
than 75% of its capacity.

Treatment and disposal

The health care waste has to be treated for its conversion to non-hazardous residue, to
contain waste, to avoid human exposure and to contain the residue to avoid its
dispersion into the environment
The Biomedical waste rules clearly lay down the treatment & disposal options for
different types of waste and it can be seen that at any hospital a combination of methods
will have to be used.
The selection of treatment method depends upon the prevailing regulations, the
quantities to be disposed of, availability of qualified personnel & technologies and the
space available.
The treatment options are:

1. Incineration
2. Chemical disinfection
3. Autoclaving
4. Hydroclaving
5. Encapsulation
6. Microwave treatment.

Such waste which cannot be treated by any of the above methods is normally disposed
of in secured land filling by following the standard procedures.
Radioactive waste should be sent back to the Atomic Energy Authority.
Pressurized containers should be sent back to the supplier or to approved recycling
centers and should never be burnt.
The cost of waste disposal is not large and even in the developed counties, it represents
only 0.25% of the total hospital cost.
Except in large hospitals, the infectious waste is disposed off with general waste
The biomedical waste rules make it mandatory for the hospital administration to follow
the rules and ensure that the treatment provided satisfies.
Standards have been laid down regarding incineration, microwave treatment, for deep
burial as well as for the liquid waste.