Algebra

Algebra (from Arabic: ‫ اﻟﺠﺒﺮ‬al-jabr, meaning "reunion of broken

parts"[1] and "bonesetting"[2]) is one of the broad parts of
mathematics, together with number theory, geometry and analysis.
In its most general form, algebra is the study of mathematical
symbols and the rules for manipulating these symbols;[3] it is a The quadratic formula expresses
unifying thread of almost all of mathematics.[4] It includes the solution of the equation
everything from elementary equation solving to the study of ax2 + bx + c = 0, where a is not
abstractions such as groups, rings, and fields. The more basic parts of zero, in terms of its coefficients a, b
algebra are called elementary algebra; the more abstract parts are and c.
called abstract algebra or modern algebra. Elementary algebra is
generally considered to be essential for any study of mathematics,
science, or engineering, as well as such applications as medicine and economics. Abstract algebra is a
major area in advanced mathematics, studied primarily by professional mathematicians.

Elementary algebra differs from arithmetic in the use of abstractions, such as using letters to stand for
numbers that are either unknown or allowed to take on many values.[5] For example, in the
2
letter is an unknown, but applying additive inverses can reveal its value: . In E = mc , the letters
and are variables, and the letter is a constant, the speed of light in a vacuum. Algebra gives
methods for writing formulas and solving equations that are much clearer and easier than the older
method of writing everything out in words.

The word algebra is also used in certain specialized ways. A special kind of mathematical object in
abstract algebra is called an "algebra", and the word is used, for example, in the phrases linear algebra
and algebraic topology.

A mathematician who does research in algebra is called an algebraist.

Contents
Etymology
Different meanings of "algebra"
Algebra as a branch of mathematics
History
Early history of algebra
Modern history of algebra
Areas of mathematics with the word algebra in their name
Elementary algebra
Polynomials
Education
Abstract algebra
Groups
 Rings and fields
See also
References
Citations
Works cited
Further reading
External links

Etymology
The word algebra comes from the Arabic ‫( اﻟﺠﺒﺮ‬al-jabr lit. "the restoring of
broken parts") from the title of the early 9th century book cIlm al-jabr wa
l-muqābala "The Science of Restoring and Balancing" by the Persian
mathematician and astronomer al-Khwarizmi. In his work, the term al-
jabr referred to the operation of moving a term from one side of an
equation to the other, ‫ اﻟﻤﻘﺎﺑﻠﺔ‬al-muqābala "balancing" referred to adding
equal terms to both sides. Shortened to just algeber or algebra in Latin,
the word eventually entered the English language during the fifteenth
century, from either Spanish, Italian, or Medieval Latin. It originally
referred to the surgical procedure of setting broken or dislocated bones.
The mathematical meaning was first recorded (in English) in the sixteenth
century.[7]

The word algebra comes

Different meanings of "algebra" from the title of a book by
Muhammad ibn Musa al-
The word "algebra" has several related meanings in mathematics, as a Khwarizmi.[6]
single word or with qualifiers.

As a single word without an article, "algebra" names a broad part of mathematics.

As a single word with an article or in the plural, "an algebra" or "algebras" denotes a specific
mathematical structure, whose precise definition depends on the context. Usually, the structure has
an addition, multiplication, and scalar multiplication (see Algebra over a field). When some authors
use the term "algebra", they make a subset of the following additional assumptions: associative,
commutative, unital, and/or finite-dimensional. In universal algebra, the word "algebra" refers to a
generalization of the above concept, which allows for n-ary operations.
With a qualifier, there is the same distinction:
Without an article, it means a part of algebra, such as linear algebra, elementary algebra (the
symbol-manipulation rules taught in elementary courses of mathematics as part of primary and
secondary education), or abstract algebra (the study of the algebraic structures for themselves).
With an article, it means an instance of some abstract structure, like a Lie algebra, an associative
algebra, or a vertex operator algebra.
Sometimes both meanings exist for the same qualifier, as in the sentence: Commutative algebra
is the study of commutative rings, which are commutative algebras over the integers.

Algebra as a branch of mathematics

Algebra began with computations similar to those of arithmetic, with letters standing for numbers.[5]
This allowed proofs of properties that are true no matter which numbers are involved. For example, in
the quadratic equation

can be any numbers whatsoever (except that cannot be ), and the quadratic formula can be used
to quickly and easily find the values of the unknown quantity which satisfy the equation. That is to say,
to find all the solutions of the equation.

Historically, and in current teaching, the study of algebra starts with the solving of equations such as the
quadratic equation above. Then more general questions, such as "does an equation have a solution?",
"how many solutions does an equation have?", "what can be said about the nature of the solutions?" are
considered. These questions led extending algebra to non-numerical objects, such as permutations,
vectors, matrices, and polynomials. The structural properties of these non-numerical objects were then
abstracted into algebraic structures such as groups, rings, and fields.

Before the 16th century, mathematics was divided into only two subfields, arithmetic and geometry. Even
though some methods, which had been developed much earlier, may be considered nowadays as algebra,
the emergence of algebra and, soon thereafter, of infinitesimal calculus as subfields of mathematics only
dates from the 16th or 17th century. From the second half of the 19th century on, many new fields of
mathematics appeared, most of which made use of both arithmetic and geometry, and almost all of which
used algebra.

Today, algebra has grown until it includes many branches of mathematics, as can be seen in the
Mathematics Subject Classification[8] where none of the first level areas (two digit entries) is called
algebra. Today algebra includes section 08-General algebraic systems, 12-Field theory and polynomials,
13-Commutative algebra, 15-Linear and multilinear algebra; matrix theory, 16-Associative rings and
algebras, 17-Nonassociative rings and algebras, 18-Category theory; homological algebra, 19-K-theory
and 20-Group theory. Algebra is also used extensively in 11-Number theory and 14-Algebraic geometry.

History

Early history of algebra

The roots of algebra can be traced to the ancient Babylonians,[9] who developed an advanced arithmetical
system with which they were able to do calculations in an algorithmic fashion. The Babylonians
developed formulas to calculate solutions for problems typically solved today by using linear equations,
quadratic equations, and indeterminate linear equations. By contrast, most Egyptians of this era, as well
as Greek and Chinese mathematics in the 1st millennium BC, usually solved such equations by geometric
methods, such as those described in the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus, Euclid's Elements, and The Nine
Chapters on the Mathematical Art. The geometric work of the Greeks, typified in the Elements, provided
the framework for generalizing formulae beyond the solution of particular problems into more general
systems of stating and solving equations, although this would not be realized until mathematics
developed in medieval Islam.[10]

By the time of Plato, Greek mathematics had undergone a drastic change. The Greeks created a geometric
algebra where terms were represented by sides of geometric objects, usually lines, that had letters
associated with them.[5] Diophantus (3rd century AD) was an Alexandrian Greek mathematician and the
author of a series of books called Arithmetica. These texts deal with
solving algebraic equations,[11] and have led, in number theory to the
modern notion of Diophantine equation.

Earlier traditions discussed above had a direct influence on the Persian

mathematician Muh ̣ammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī (c. 780–850). He later
wrote The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and
Balancing, which established algebra as a mathematical discipline that is
independent of geometry and arithmetic.[12]

The Hellenistic mathematicians Hero of Alexandria and Diophantus[13] as

well as Indian mathematicians such as Brahmagupta continued the
traditions of Egypt and Babylon, though Diophantus' Arithmetica and
Brahmagupta's Brāhmasphutasiddhānta
̣ are on a higher level.[14] For
example, the first complete arithmetic solution written in words instead of
symbols,[15] including zero and negative solutions, to quadratic equations
was described by Brahmagupta in his book Brahmasphutasiddhanta, A page from Al-Khwārizmī's
published in 628 AD.[16] Later, Persian and Arabic mathematicians al-Kitāb al-muḫtas ̣ar fī h ̣isāb
al-ğabr wa-l-muqābala
developed algebraic methods to a much higher degree of sophistication.
Although Diophantus and the Babylonians used mostly special ad hoc
methods to solve equations, Al-Khwarizmi's contribution was
fundamental. He solved linear and quadratic equations without algebraic symbolism, negative numbers
or zero, thus he had to distinguish several types of equations.[17]

In the context where algebra is identified with the theory of equations, the Greek mathematician
Diophantus has traditionally been known as the "father of algebra" and in the context where it is
identified with rules for manipulating and solving equations, Persian mathematician al-Khwarizmi is
regarded as "the father of algebra".[18][19][20][21][22][23][24] A debate now exists whether who (in the
general sense) is more entitled to be known as "the father of algebra". Those who support Diophantus
point to the fact that the algebra found in Al-Jabr is slightly more elementary than the algebra found in
Arithmetica and that Arithmetica is syncopated while Al-Jabr is fully rhetorical.[25] Those who support
Al-Khwarizmi point to the fact that he introduced the methods of "reduction" and "balancing" (the
transposition of subtracted terms to the other side of an equation, that is, the cancellation of like terms
on opposite sides of the equation) which the term al-jabr originally referred to,[26] and that he gave an
exhaustive explanation of solving quadratic equations,[27] supported by geometric proofs while treating
algebra as an independent discipline in its own right.[22] His algebra was also no longer concerned "with
a series of problems to be resolved, but an exposition which starts with primitive terms in which the
combinations must give all possible prototypes for equations, which henceforward explicitly constitute
the true object of study". He also studied an equation for its own sake and "in a generic manner, insofar
as it does not simply emerge in the course of solving a problem, but is specifically called on to define an
infinite class of problems".[28]

Another Persian mathematician Omar Khayyam is credited with identifying the foundations of algebraic
geometry and found the general geometric solution of the cubic equation. His book Treatise on
Demonstrations of Problems of Algebra (1070), which laid down the principles of algebra, is part of the
body of Persian mathematics that was eventually transmitted to Europe.[29] Yet another Persian
mathematician, Sharaf al-Dīn al-Tūsī, found algebraic and numerical solutions to various cases of cubic
equations.[30] He also developed the concept of a function.[31] The Indian mathematicians Mahavira and
Bhaskara II, the Persian mathematician Al-Karaji,[32] and the Chinese mathematician Zhu Shijie, solved
various cases of cubic, quartic, quintic and higher-order polynomial equations using numerical methods.
In the 13th century, the solution of a cubic equation by Fibonacci is representative of the beginning of a
revival in European algebra. Abū al-Ḥasan ibn ʿAlī al-Qalasādī
̣ (1412–1486) took "the first steps toward
the introduction of algebraic symbolism". He also computed ∑n2, ∑n3 and used the method of successive
approximation to determine square roots.[33]

Modern history of algebra

François Viète's work on new algebra at the close of the 16th century was
an important step towards modern algebra. In 1637, René Descartes
published La Géométrie, inventing analytic geometry and introducing
modern algebraic notation. Another key event in the further development
of algebra was the general algebraic solution of the cubic and quartic
equations, developed in the mid-16th century. The idea of a determinant
was developed by Japanese mathematician Seki Kōwa in the 17th century,
followed independently by Gottfried Leibniz ten years later, for the
purpose of solving systems of simultaneous linear equations using
matrices. Gabriel Cramer also did some work on matrices and
determinants in the 18th century. Permutations were studied by Joseph-
Louis Lagrange in his 1770 paper "Réflexions sur la résolution algébrique
des équations " devoted to solutions of algebraic equations, in which he Italian mathematician
introduced Lagrange resolvents. Paolo Ruffini was the first person to Girolamo Cardano published
develop the theory of permutation groups, and like his predecessors, also the solutions to the cubic and
in the context of solving algebraic equations. quartic equations in his 1545
book Ars magna.
Abstract algebra was developed in the 19th century, deriving from the
interest in solving equations, initially focusing on what is now called Galois
theory, and on constructibility issues.[34] George Peacock was the founder of axiomatic thinking in
arithmetic and algebra. Augustus De Morgan discovered relation algebra in his Syllabus of a Proposed
System of Logic. Josiah Willard Gibbs developed an algebra of vectors in three-dimensional space, and
Arthur Cayley developed an algebra of matrices (this is a noncommutative algebra).[35]

Areas of mathematics with the word algebra in their name

Some areas of mathematics that fall under the classification abstract algebra have the word algebra in
their name; linear algebra is one example. Others do not: group theory, ring theory, and field theory are
examples. In this section, we list some areas of mathematics with the word "algebra" in the name.

Elementary algebra, the part of algebra that is usually taught in elementary courses of mathematics.
Abstract algebra, in which algebraic structures such as groups, rings and fields are axiomatically
defined and investigated.
Linear algebra, in which the specific properties of linear equations, vector spaces and matrices are
studied.
Boolean algebra, a branch of algebra abstracting the computation with the truth values false and true.
Commutative algebra, the study of commutative rings.
Computer algebra, the implementation of algebraic methods as algorithms and computer programs.
Homological algebra, the study of algebraic structures that are fundamental to study topological
spaces.
Universal algebra, in which properties common to all algebraic structures are studied.
Algebraic number theory, in which the properties of numbers are studied from an algebraic point of
view.
 Algebraic geometry, a branch of geometry, in its primitive form specifying curves and surfaces as
solutions of polynomial equations.
Algebraic combinatorics, in which algebraic methods are used to study combinatorial questions.
Relational algebra: a set of finitary relations that is closed under certain operators.

Many mathematical structures are called algebras:

Algebra over a field or more generally algebra over a ring.

Many classes of algebras over a field or over a ring have a specific name:
Associative algebra
Non-associative algebra
Lie algebra
Hopf algebra
C*-algebra
Symmetric algebra
Exterior algebra
Tensor algebra
In measure theory,
Sigma-algebra
Algebra over a set
In category theory
F-algebra and F-coalgebra
T-algebra
In logic,
Relation algebra, a residuated Boolean algebra expanded with an involution called converse.
Boolean algebra, a complemented distributive lattice.
Heyting algebra

Elementary algebra
Elementary algebra is the most basic form of algebra. It is taught
to students who are presumed to have no knowledge of mathematics
beyond the basic principles of arithmetic. In arithmetic, only
numbers and their arithmetical operations (such as +, −, ×, ÷) occur.
In algebra, numbers are often represented by symbols called
variables (such as a, n, x, y or z). This is useful because:

It allows the general formulation of arithmetical laws (such as a + Algebraic expression notation:
b = b + a for all a and b), and thus is the first step to a systematic 1 – power (exponent)
exploration of the properties of the real number system. 2 – coefficient
It allows the reference to "unknown" numbers, the formulation of 3 – term
equations and the study of how to solve these. (For instance, 4 – operator
"Find a number x such that 3x + 1 = 10" or going a bit further 5 – constant term
"Find a number x such that ax + b = c". This step leads to the x y c – variables/constants
conclusion that it is not the nature of the specific numbers that
allow us to solve it, but that of the operations involved.)
 It allows the formulation of functional relationships. (For instance, "If you sell x tickets, then your profit
will be 3x − 10 dollars, or f(x) = 3x − 10, where f is the function, and x is the number to which the
function is applied".)

Polynomials

A polynomial is an expression that is the sum of a finite number of non-

zero terms, each term consisting of the product of a constant and a finite
number of variables raised to whole number powers. For example, x2 + 2x
− 3 is a polynomial in the single variable x. A polynomial expression is
an expression that may be rewritten as a polynomial, by using
commutativity, associativity and distributivity of addition and
multiplication. For example, (x − 1)(x + 3) is a polynomial expression, that,
properly speaking, is not a polynomial. A polynomial function is a
function that is defined by a polynomial, or, equivalently, by a polynomial
expression. The two preceding examples define the same polynomial The graph of a polynomial
function. function of degree 3

Two important and related problems in algebra are the factorization of

polynomials, that is, expressing a given polynomial as a product of other polynomials that can not be
factored any further, and the computation of polynomial greatest common divisors. The example
polynomial above can be factored as (x − 1)(x + 3). A related class of problems is finding algebraic
expressions for the roots of a polynomial in a single variable.

Education

It has been suggested that elementary algebra should be taught to students as young as eleven years
old,[36] though in recent years it is more common for public lessons to begin at the eighth grade level
(≈ 13 y.o. ±) in the United States.[37] However, in some US schools, algebra is started in ninth grade.

Abstract algebra
Abstract algebra extends the familiar concepts found in elementary algebra and arithmetic of numbers
to more general concepts. Here are the listed fundamental concepts in abstract algebra.

Sets: Rather than just considering the different types of numbers, abstract algebra deals with the more
general concept of sets: a collection of all objects (called elements) selected by property specific for the
set. All collections of the familiar types of numbers are sets. Other examples of sets include the set of all
two-by-two matrices, the set of all second-degree polynomials (ax2 + bx + c), the set of all two
dimensional vectors in the plane, and the various finite groups such as the cyclic groups, which are the
groups of integers modulo n. Set theory is a branch of logic and not technically a branch of algebra.

Binary operations: The notion of addition (+) is abstracted to give a binary operation, ∗ say. The
notion of binary operation is meaningless without the set on which the operation is defined. For two
elements a and b in a set S, a ∗ b is another element in the set; this condition is called closure. Addition
(+), subtraction (−), multiplication (×), and division (÷) can be binary operations when defined on
different sets, as are addition and multiplication of matrices, vectors, and polynomials.
Identity elements: The numbers zero and one are abstracted to give the notion of an identity element
for an operation. Zero is the identity element for addition and one is the identity element for
multiplication. For a general binary operator ∗ the identity element e must satisfy a ∗ e = a and e ∗ a = a,
and is necessarily unique, if it exists. This holds for addition as a + 0 = a and 0 + a = a and multiplication
a × 1 = a and 1 × a = a. Not all sets and operator combinations have an identity element; for example, the
set of positive natural numbers (1, 2, 3, ...) has no identity element for addition.

Inverse elements: The negative numbers give rise to the concept of inverse elements. For addition, the
inverse of a is written −a, and for multiplication the inverse is written a−1. A general two-sided inverse
element a−1 satisfies the property that a ∗ a−1 = e and a−1 ∗ a = e, where e is the identity element.

Associativity: Addition of integers has a property called associativity. That is, the grouping of the
numbers to be added does not affect the sum. For example: (2 + 3) + 4 = 2 + (3 + 4). In general, this
becomes (a ∗ b) ∗ c = a ∗ (b ∗ c). This property is shared by most binary operations, but not subtraction or
division or octonion multiplication.

Commutativity: Addition and multiplication of real numbers are both commutative. That is, the order
of the numbers does not affect the result. For example: 2 + 3 = 3 + 2. In general, this becomes a ∗ b = b ∗
a. This property does not hold for all binary operations. For example, matrix multiplication and
quaternion multiplication are both non-commutative.

Groups

Combining the above concepts gives one of the most important structures in mathematics: a group. A
group is a combination of a set S and a single binary operation ∗, defined in any way you choose, but with
the following properties:

An identity element e exists, such that for every member a of S, e ∗ a and a ∗ e are both identical to
a.
Every element has an inverse: for every member a of S, there exists a member a−1 such that a ∗ a−1
and a−1 ∗ a are both identical to the identity element.
The operation is associative: if a, b and c are members of S, then (a ∗ b) ∗ c is identical to a ∗ (b ∗ c).

If a group is also commutative – that is, for any two members a and b of S, a ∗ b is identical to b ∗ a –
then the group is said to be abelian.

For example, the set of integers under the operation of addition is a group. In this group, the identity
element is 0 and the inverse of any element a is its negation, −a. The associativity requirement is met,
because for any integers a, b and c, (a + b) + c = a + (b + c)

The non-zero rational numbers form a group under multiplication. Here, the identity element is 1, since 1
× a = a × 1 = a for any rational number a. The inverse of a is 1/a, since a × 1/a = 1.

The integers under the multiplication operation, however, do not form a group. This is because, in
general, the multiplicative inverse of an integer is not an integer. For example, 4 is an integer, but its
multiplicative inverse is ¼, which is not an integer.

The theory of groups is studied in group theory. A major result in this theory is the classification of finite
simple groups, mostly published between about 1955 and 1983, which separates the finite simple groups
into roughly 30 basic types.
Semi-groups, quasi-groups, and monoids structure similar to groups, but more general. They comprise a
set and a closed binary operation but do not necessarily satisfy the other conditions. A semi-group has an
associative binary operation but might not have an identity element. A monoid is a semi-group which
does have an identity but might not have an inverse for every element. A quasi-group satisfies a
requirement that any element can be turned into any other by either a unique left-multiplication or right-
multiplication; however, the binary operation might not be associative.

All groups are monoids, and all monoids are semi-groups.

Examples
Natural numbers Rational numbers Q (also real R Integers modulo 3: Z3 = {0,
Set Integers Z
N and complex C numbers) 1, 2}
× (w/o × (w/o × (w/o ÷ (w/o
Operation + + + − + × (w/o zero)
zero) zero) zero) zero)
Closed Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Identity 0 1 0 1 0 N/A 1 N/A 0 1
0, 2, 1, N/A, 1, 2,
Inverse N/A N/A −a N/A −a N/A 1/a N/A
respectively respectively
Associative Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes No Yes Yes
Commutative Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes No Yes Yes
abelian abelian quasi- abelian quasi- abelian abelian
Structure monoid monoid monoid
group group group group group group group (Z2)

Rings and fields

Groups just have one binary operation. To fully explain the behaviour of the different types of numbers,
structures with two operators need to be studied. The most important of these are rings and fields.

A ring has two binary operations (+) and (×), with × distributive over +. Under the first operator (+) it
forms an abelian group. Under the second operator (×) it is associative, but it does not need to have an
identity, or inverse, so division is not required. The additive (+) identity element is written as 0 and the
additive inverse of a is written as −a.

Distributivity generalises the distributive law for numbers. For the integers (a + b) × c = a × c + b × c
and c × (a + b) = c × a + c × b, and × is said to be distributive over +.

The integers are an example of a ring. The integers have additional properties which make it an integral
domain.

A field is a ring with the additional property that all the elements excluding 0 form an abelian group
under ×. The multiplicative (×) identity is written as 1 and the multiplicative inverse of a is written as a−1.

The rational numbers, the real numbers and the complex numbers are all examples of fields.

See also
Outline of algebra
Outline of linear algebra
 Algebra tile

References

Citations
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3. See Herstein 1964, page 1: "An algebraic system can be described as a set of objects together with
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4. See Herstein 1964, page 1: "...it also serves as the unifying thread which interlaces almost all of
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16. Bradley, Michael. The Birth of Mathematics: Ancient Times to 1300, p. 86 (Infobase Publishing 2006).
17. Meri, Josef W. (2004). Medieval Islamic Civilization (https://books.google.com/books?id=H-k9oc9xsu
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19. See Boyer 1991, page 181: "If we think primarily of the matter of notations, Diophantus has good
claim to be known as the 'father of algebra', but in terms of motivation and concept, the claim is less
appropriate. The Arithmetica is not a systematic exposition of the algebraic operations, or of algebraic
functions or of the solution of algebraic equations".
20. See Boyer 1991, page 230: "The six cases of equations given above exhaust all possibilities for
linear and quadratic equations...In this sense, then, al-Khwarizmi is entitled to be known as 'the father
of algebra'".
21. See Boyer 1991, page 228: "Diophantus sometimes is called the father of algebra, but this title more
appropriately belongs to al-Khowarizmi".
22. See Gandz 1936, page 263–277: "In a sense, al-Khwarizmi is more entitled to be called "the father of
algebra" than Diophantus because al-Khwarizmi is the first to teach algebra in an elementary form
and for its own sake, Diophantus is primarily concerned with the theory of numbers".
23. Christianidis, Jean (August 2007). "The way of Diophantus: Some clarifications on Diophantus'
method of solution". Historia Mathematica. 34 (3): 289–305. doi:10.1016/j.hm.2006.10.003 (https://do
i.org/10.1016%2Fj.hm.2006.10.003). "It is true that if one starts from a conception of algebra that
emphasizes the solution of equations, as was generally the case with the Arab mathematicians from
al-Khwārizmī onward as well as with the Italian algebraists of the Renaissance, then the work of
Diophantus appears indeed very different from the works of those algebraists"
24. Cifoletti, G. C. (1995). "La question de l'algèbre: Mathématiques et rhétorique des homes de droit
dans la France du 16e siècle". Annales de l'École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales, 50 (6):
1385–1416. "Le travail des Arabes et de leurs successeurs a privilégié la solution des
problèmes.Arithmetica de Diophantine ont privilégié la théorie des equations"
25. See Boyer 1991, page 228.
26. See Boyer 1991, The Arabic Hegemony, p. 229: "It is not certain just what the terms al-jabr and
muqabalah mean, but the usual interpretation is similar to that implied in the translation above. The
word al-jabr presumably meant something like "restoration" or "completion" and seems to refer to the
transposition of subtracted terms to the other side of an equation; the word muqabalah is said to refer
to "reduction" or "balancing" – that is, the cancellation of like terms on opposite sides of the
equation".
27. See Boyer 1991, The Arabic Hegemony, p. 230: "The six cases of equations given above exhaust all
possibilities for linear and quadratic equations having positive root. So systematic and exhaustive
was al-Khwarizmi's exposition that his readers must have had little difficulty in mastering the
solutions".
28. Rashed, R.; Armstrong, Angela (1994). The Development of Arabic Mathematics. Springer. pp. 11–
12. ISBN 978-0-7923-2565-9. OCLC 29181926 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/29181926).
29. Mathematical Masterpieces: Further Chronicles by the Explorers. p. 92.
30. O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Sharaf al-Din al-Muzaffar al-Tusi" (http://www-history.mc
s.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Al-Tusi_Sharaf.html), MacTutor History of Mathematics archive,
University of St Andrews.
31. Victor J. Katz, Bill Barton; Barton, Bill (October 2007). "Stages in the History of Algebra with
Implications for Teaching". Educational Studies in Mathematics. 66 (2): 185–201 [192].
doi:10.1007/s10649-006-9023-7 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10649-006-9023-7). S2CID 120363574
(https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:120363574).
32. See Boyer 1991, The Arabic Hegemony, p. 239: "Abu'l Wefa was a capable algebraist as well as a
trigonometer. ... His successor al-Karkhi evidently used this translation to become an Arabic disciple
of Diophantus – but without Diophantine analysis! ... In particular, to al-Karkhi is attributed the first
numerical solution of equations of the form ax2n + bxn = c (only equations with positive roots were
considered),"
33. "Al-Qalasadi biography" (http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Al-Qalasadi.html).
www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk. Retrieved 2017-10-17.
34. "The Origins of Abstract Algebra (http://www.math.hawaii.edu/~lee/algebra/history.html)". University
of Hawaii Mathematics Department.
35. "The Collected Mathematical Papers (http://www.cambridge.org/catalogue/catalogue.asp?ISBN=978-
1108005043)". Cambridge University Press.
36. "Hull's Algebra" (https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1904/07/16/101345282.pdf) (PDF).
New York Times. July 16, 1904. Retrieved 2012-09-21.
37. Quaid, Libby (2008-09-22). "Kids misplaced in algebra" (https://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2008
-09-22-357650952_x.htm) (Report). Associated Press. Retrieved 2012-09-23.

Works cited
Boyer, Carl B. (1991). A History of Mathematics (https://archive.org/details/historyofmathema00boye)
(2nd ed.). John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-54397-8.
Gandz, S. (January 1936). "The Sources of Al-Khowārizmī's Algebra". Osiris. 1: 263–277.
doi:10.1086/368426 (https://doi.org/10.1086%2F368426). JSTOR 301610 (https://www.jstor.org/stabl
e/301610).
Herstein, I. N. (1964). Topics in Algebra. Ginn and Company. ISBN 0-471-02371-X.

Further reading
Allenby, R. B. J. T. (1991). Rings, Fields and Groups. ISBN 0-340-54440-6.
Asimov, Isaac (1961). Realm of Algebra. Houghton Mifflin.
Euler, Leonhard (November 2005). Elements of Algebra (https://web.archive.org/web/2011041323435
2/http://web.mat.bham.ac.uk/C.J.Sangwin/euler/). ISBN 978-1-899618-73-6. Archived from the
original (http://web.mat.bham.ac.uk/C.J.Sangwin/euler/) on 2011-04-13.
Herstein, I. N. (1975). Topics in Algebra (https://archive.org/details/topicsinalgebra00hers). ISBN 0-
471-02371-X.
Hill, Donald R. (1994). Islamic Science and Engineering. Edinburgh University Press.
Joseph, George Gheverghese (2000). The Crest of the Peacock: Non-European Roots of
Mathematics. Penguin Books.
O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F. (2005). "History Topics: Algebra Index" (https://web.archiv
e.org/web/20160303180029/http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Indexes/Algebra.html).
MacTutor History of Mathematics archive. University of St Andrews. Archived from the original (http://
www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Indexes/Algebra.html) on 2016-03-03. Retrieved 2011-12-10.
Sardar, Ziauddin; Ravetz, Jerry; Loon, Borin Van (1999). Introducing Mathematics. Totem Books.

External links
Khan Academy: Conceptual videos and worked examples (http://www.khanacademy.org/math/algebr
a)
Khan Academy: Origins of Algebra, free online micro lectures (https://www.khanacademy.org/math/al
gebra/introduction-to-algebra/overview_hist_alg/v/origins-of-algebra)
Algebrarules.com: An open source resource for learning the fundamentals of Algebra (http://algebrar
ules.com)
4000 Years of Algebra (https://web.archive.org/web/20071004172100/http://www.gresham.ac.uk/even
t.asp?PageId=45&EventId=620), lecture by Robin Wilson, at Gresham College, October 17, 2007
(available for MP3 and MP4 download, as well as a text file).
 Pratt, Vaughan. "Algebra" (https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/algebra/). In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.).
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

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