Engineering Geology 80 (2005) 260 – 270

www.elsevier.com/locate/enggeo

Geologic and geotechnical effects of an impact caused

by an airplane crash
Hasan Cetin*
Department of Geology, Çukurova University, Adana, 01330 Turkey
Received 18 October 2004; received in revised form 23 May 2005; accepted 3 June 2005
Available online 25 July 2005

Abstract

A Turkish Airlines (THY) Boeing 737-400 plane crashed into alluvial soils creating an approximately 13 m deep and 30 m
wide crater near the village of Adatepe, Ceyhan in southern Turkey. Effects of the impact on the soils in and around the crater
were investigated from both the geological and soil mechanics point of view.
The results show that the impact caused severe deformations in the soils in and around the crater. The soils deformed similar
to metamorphic rocks seen at many terrestrial hypervelocity impact craters around the world and became overconsolidated up to
a distance of about 10 m from the crater wall as a result of the impact.
Also, the crash was recorded as a 2.7 magnitude earthquake by a nearby microtremor seismograph which provided both the
location (epicenter) and time of the crash which was not known immediately after the crash.
D 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Airplane crash; Impact; Earthquake; Overconsolidation; Preconsolidation pressure; Overconsolidation ratio

1. Introduction bring back Turkish pilgrims performing their hadj

(visiting Mecca during Ramadan).
A Turkish Airlines (THY) Boeing 737-400 plane The plane crashed into a field about 500 m north-
crashed a short while after it took off from the east of the village of Adatepe 5 km east of the town
southern city of Adana, Turkey, early morning on of Ceyhan, creating an approximately 13 m deep and
April 7, 1999, resulting in the deaths of all six of 30 m wide crater in the soils of the alluvial planes of
its crew members. No passengers were aboard. The the Ceyhan river nearby (Figs. 1 and 2). Pieces of its
plane departed for Jeddah, Saudi Arabia at 00:36 h to tail (horizontal and vertical stabilizers) were found
next to the railroad about 2 km west of the crash
site.
* Tel.: +90 322 3386084/2079; fax: +90 322 3386126. After inspecting the Flight Data Recorder (FDR)
E-mail address: cetinh@mail.cu.edu.tr. and Cockpit Voice Recorder (CVR), the officials
0013-7952/$ - see front matter D 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.enggeo.2005.06.003
 H. Cetin / Engineering Geology 80 (2005) 260–270 261

Fig. 1. Location (a) and geologic map (b) of the study area. Geology is adopted from Kozlu (1997).
262 H. Cetin / Engineering Geology 80 (2005) 260–270

Table 1
Some parameters of soils
Properties Soil
A Bk C Mixture
(ABkC)
Natural water 23–28 23–24 26–30 22–30
content (%)
Natural unit 1.74 1.87 1.90 1.86
weight (g/cm3)
Sampling depth (m) 0.4 5.0 8.5 0.4, 5, 8.5
Overburden pressure 0.07 0.93 1.59 0.07, 0.93,
(kg/cm2) 1.59
Liquid limit (%) 48.2 32.1 47.9 43.6
Plastic limit (%) 24.8 18.6 26.1 22.8
Plasticity index (%) 23.4 13.5 21.8 20.8
Specific gravity 2.75 2.70 2.76 2.73
Grain sizes (%)
Gravel 1.5 5.0 0.0 0.0
Sand 14.0 30.5 2.0 16.0
Silt 34.0 25.5 37.0 27.5
Clay 50.5 39.5 61.0 56.5
Soil type (USCS) CL CL CL CL
Description Medium Low Medium Medium
plasticity plasticity plasticity plasticity
clay clay clay clay

to an altitude of about 20,000 ft from where it plunged

into the ground at a high angle with an estimated
Fig. 2. Photos of the crash site and the vicinity; (a) immediately after speed of more than 1500 km/h.
crash, (b) after excavation from the top of the Adatepe hill. The
Excavation to the depth of about 13 m in the
town of Ceyhan is seen in the distance. The building on the left side
is a farm house in the northern outskirts of Adatepe village. crater revealed that the plane had become like a
big metal ball after the impact which caused se-
reported that after losing the stabilizers at the sche- vere deformations in three different soils, namely
duled flight height of about 10,000 ft, the plane A, Bk and C, in and around the crater (Figs. 2
weighing about 68 tons lost its control and climbed and 3).

Fig. 3. Sketch of the crater wall and vicinity.

 H. Cetin / Engineering Geology 80 (2005) 260–270 263

Fig. 4. The particle size distribution curves for the three soils and the mixture soil at the crater wall.

The aim of this study was to investigate geologic wide crater. Excavation in the crater revealed that
and geotechnical effects of this plane crash on these there are three different soil units, namely A, Bk and
soils exposed in and around the crash site. C, at the crash site and the impact caused severe
deformations in these three soils in and around the
crater (Figs. 2 and 3). The soils were welded or
2. Methodology mixed together in different amounts within the 1–2
m thick zone of the crater wall. A 20 m long, 8.5 m
When the airplane impacted into the ground it deep trench starting from the edge of the crater was
created an approximately 13 m deep and 30 m excavated in order to study the extent of the defor-

Fig. 5. Acceleration time–history of the impact records recovered from the Kurtkulagi (Ceyhan) station of TUBITAK-MAM (written
communication, TUBITAK-MAM, 1999).
264 H. Cetin / Engineering Geology 80 (2005) 260–270

mation in the soils. Undisturbed block samples were 3.2. Geological effects
taken from the mixed zone (namely ABkC) at the
crater wall (0 m distance) and soils A, Bk and C, at 3.2.1. Seismic
5, 10 and 20 m distances from the crater wall and The plane left Adana at 00:36 h local time and
depths of 0.4, 5 and 8.5 m, respectively, for conso- crashed shortly after take off. Officials both from the
lidation testing. The samples were wrapped with Boeing Company and the Transportation Ministry of
aluminium foil, coated with wax, wrapped in cheese Turkey did not know the exact time of the crash. I
cloth and coated again with wax. They were then indicated to them that I could give the coordinates of
immediately put in coolers, promptly transferred to the crash site to the Marmara Research Center of
the lab, and stored in a controlled humidity room. Scientific and Technical Research Council of Turkey
Some disturbed samples were taken for index prop- (TUBITAK-MAM) and ask if the crash was recorded
erty analyses (grain size and Atterberg limits) needed by their seismograph network of 17 instruments estab-
to classify the soils. lished in 1991, in order to study microearthquake
Consolidation (oedometer) tests were performed activity in the region. By means of this network, the
on the block samples in order to determine their TUBITAK-MAM had provided the most accurate
preconsolidation pressures. The tests were per- epicenter location of the Ms 6.3 Adana (Turkey)
formed following the American Society of Testing
Materials (ASTM) D 2435-90 (1993). Casagrande’s
(1936) method was used to determine the precon-
solidation pressure (maximum effective stress expe-
rienced in the past). The ASTM standard suggests a
loading schedule, which is obtained by doubling the
pressure on the soil to obtain values of approxi-
mately 250, 500, 1000, 2000, 4000, etc., f lb/ft2
(0.12, 0.24, 0.49, 0.98, 1.95, etc., kg/cm2). A
slower loading schedule of between 0.10 and 26
kg/cm2 was followed, to obtain a more precise void
ratio versus log of effective pressure curve, with a
distinct break, which is needed for more accurate
estimation of the preconsolidation stress values. The
consolidation apparatus consisted of a fixed-ring-
doubly-drained oedometer (ELE C-328) with a
ring of 50 mm in diameter and 20 mm in height,
a loading frame (ELE C-320A) and a data acquisi-
tion system.

3. Results and discussions

3.1. Soil classification

The soil indices and grain size curves of the

three soils and their mixture caused by the impact
are given in Table 1 and Fig. 4. According to the
Unified Soil Classification System (USCS), all the
Fig. 6. Photos of deformed zone in the crater wall: (a) soils C, Bk
soils classify as CL type soils. A, C and the mixture and A are intruded into soil A; (b) all three soils are forced to weld
ABkC are medium plasticity clays and Bk is a low together forming a texture similar to the schistosic texture in meta-
plasticity clay. morphic rocks.
 H. Cetin / Engineering Geology 80 (2005) 260–270 265

earthquake in 1998 (Cetin et al., 1999). Interestingly, impact travelled the 12 km distance in about 3 s
the crash was recorded as a 2.7 magnitude earthquake indicating that the airplane had crashed at about
by one of their seismographs located at the village of 00:47:05 h local time. This indicates that missing
Kurtkulagi about 12 km south of the crash site at crashed airplanes lacking signal devices may be lo-
00:47:08 h local time, the epicenter being the crash cated if there are microtremor seismographs located in
site (Figs. 1 and 5). Seismic waves created by the the nearby region.

Fig. 7. The presumed sequence of events in the formation of the crater at the impact site [modified from Shoemaker, 1960].
 266
H. Cetin / Engineering Geology 80 (2005) 260–270
Fig. 8. The void ratio versus log effective stress curves for the samples taken from the mixture soil ABkC at depths of 0.4, 5 and 8.5 m and soils A, Bk and C at depths of 0.4, 5 and
8.5 m, respectively, at various distances (a) 10 and 20 m, (b) 5 m and (c and d) 0 m from the crater wall. Unloading portions were not plotted for clarity.
 H. Cetin / Engineering Geology 80 (2005) 260–270 267

3.2.2. Structural terrestrial hypervelocity impact craters around the

The impact of the airplane into the ground created world (Milton, 1968; Kieffer, 1971; Stöffler et al.,
an approximately 13 m deep and 30 m wide crater in 1988; Grieve and Pesonen, 1992).
the alluvial soils forming the alluvial plains of the The mechanism seems to be similar to that of a
Ceyhan river near the 292 m high Adatepe hill con- meteor crater explained by Shoemaker (1960). The
sisting of the Paleocene–Upper Eocene age volcano presumed sequence of events in the formation of the
clastics, Mesozoic limestones and Paleozoic–Mesozo- crater at the impact site is shown in Fig. 7. According
ic age metamorphic blocks (Fig. 1). Excavation in the to the officials, the airplane weighed about 68 tons
crater revealed that there are three different soils (A, and plunged into the ground at a high angle with an
Bk and C) at the crash site and the impact had caused estimated velocity of more than 1500 km/h.
severe deformations in these originally horizontal soil
layers (Figs. 2, 3 and 6). 3.3. Geotechnical effects
At the very bottom lies a pinkish white (5YR 8/2)
color silty clay soil C which is overlain by a 4.5 m According to Casagrande (1932), soils have a
thick, white (10YR 8/1) color silty clay soil Bk, bmemoryQ of the applied effective stress and other
representing Stages I–II of the K-horizon formation changes occurring during their history, and these
of Gile et al. (1966). A 0.5 m thick, very dark gray changes are preserved or recorded in the soil structure.
(10YR 3/1) color organic soil A (soil A-horizon) When the soil in the field is loaded to a stress level
overlying the soil Bk forms the ground surface. (preconsolidation stress) greater than it experienced in
The light-colored soils C and Bk were splashed on the past, the soil structure is no longer able to sustain
to the dark-colored organic soil A, forming the ground the increased new load, and the grains, pores and other
surface (Fig. 2). At the crater wall, all the three soils constituents are rearranged or reoriented into a new
were forced to weld together in various thicknesses of more stable and stronger structure (Holtz and Kovacs,
layers forming a texture similar to the schistosic tex- 1981). This process is called boverconsolidationQ in
ture in metamorphic rocks. Also, sometimes, soils C, soil mechanics and bcompactionQ in geology. The
Bk and A appear as intrusions into soil A (Fig. 6). loading can be in any direction and caused by any
Similar deformations have been reported at many type of activity, such as active folding, faulting, and

Fig. 9. Average preconsolidation stresses in the mixture soil ABkC and soils A, Bk and C at various depths and distances from the crater wall.
Zero distance values were obtained on samples taken from the mixture soil ABkC at the same depths on the crater wall. There was no pure A,
Bk and C soils left at the sampling depths of 0.4, 5 and 8.5 m at the crater wall (zero distance) due to heavy deformation.
268 H. Cetin / Engineering Geology 80 (2005) 260–270

creeping that tends to deform the soil deposit (Voight, weight of deposits that were later eroded, the weight of
1966; Feda, 1978; Cetin, 1997). ice that later melted, or desiccation because of moisture
Depending on the Over Consolidation Ratio content changes. A change in the total stress or pore
(OCR), which is the ratio of the preconsolidation water pressure may also cause overconsolidation, both
stress to the existing vertical effective stress, soils changes altering the effective stress. Sometimes, over-
can be normally consolidated (OCR = 1), overconsoli- consolidation occurs because of alterations of the
dated (OCR N 1) or underconsolidated (OCR b 1) chemical and thermal environments of the soil (Holtz
(Holtz and Kovacs, 1981). and Kovacs, 1981). Shearing or faulting is another
Overconsolidation may be caused by different rea- reason why a soil might become overconsolidated
sons. Most overconsolidated soils were formed by the (Cetin, 1997).The preconsolidation stress can be deter-

Fig. 10. Overconsolidation Ratio (OCR) values in the mixture soil ABkC and soils Bk and C (a) and A (b) at various depths and distances from
the crater wall. Zero distance values were obtained on samples taken from the mixture soil ABkC at the same depths on the crater wall. There
was no pure A, Bk and C soils left at the sampling depths of 0.4, 5 and 8.5 m at the crater wall (zero distance) due to heavy deformation.
 H. Cetin / Engineering Geology 80 (2005) 260–270 269

mined using the Casagrande (1936) (most popular) signal devices may be located if there are microtremor
method for curve construction. seismographs located in the nearby region.
The impact caused severe deformations in the soils
A, Bk and C in and around the crater. A 20 m long, Acknowledgements
8.5 m deep trench starting from the crater wall was
excavated in order to study the extent of the deforma- Some of the soil mechanics tests were done in the
tion in the soils. Undisturbed block samples were Soil Mechanics Laboratory of the Civil Engineering
taken from the mixed zone (namely ABkC) at the Department at Cukurova University. The author
crater wall (0 m distance) and soils A, Bk and C, at thanks Mustafa Laman for providing unlimited access
5, 10 and 20 m distances from the crater wall and to the laboratory. I would also like to thank Dr. Lund
depths of 0.4, 5 and 8.5 m, respectively, for consoli- R. Pusch and Terry R. West for their critical review of
dation tests. Void ratio versus log effective stress the manuscript.
curves for the consolidation tests are shown in Fig. 8.
Fig. 9 illustrates the average effective stresses (pre-
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