Third Edition

CHAPTER MECHANICS OF

4 MATERIALS
Ferdinand P. Beer
E. Russell Johnston, Jr.
John T. DeWolf

Lecture Notes:
Pure Bending

J. Walt Oler
Texas Tech University

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Pure Bending
Pure Bending Example 4.03
Other Loading Types Reinforced Concrete Beams
Symmetric Member in Pure Bending Sample Problem 4.4
Bending Deformations Stress Concentrations
Strain Due to Bending Plastic Deformations
Beam Section Properties Members Made of an Elastoplastic Material
Properties of American Standard Shapes Plastic Deformations of Members With a Single
Deformations in a Transverse Cross Section Plane of S...
Sample Problem 4.2 Residual Stresses
Bending of Members Made of Several Example 4.05, 4.06
Materials Eccentric Axial Loading in a Plane of Symmetry
Example 4.03 Example 4.07
Reinforced Concrete Beams Sample Problem 4.8
Sample Problem 4.4 Unsymmetric Bending
Stress Concentrations Example 4.08
Plastic Deformations General Case of Eccentric Axial Loading
Members Made of an Elastoplastic Material

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Pure Bending

Pure Bending: Prismatic members

subjected to equal and opposite couples
acting in the same longitudinal plane

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Other Loading Types

• Eccentric Loading: Axial loading which

does not pass through section centroid
produces internal forces equivalent to an
axial force and a couple

• Transverse Loading: Concentrated or

distributed transverse load produces
internal forces equivalent to a shear
force and a couple

• Principle of Superposition: The normal

stress due to pure bending may be
combined with the normal stress due to
axial loading and shear stress due to
shear loading to find the complete state
of stress.
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Symmetric Member in Pure Bending

• Internal forces in any cross section are equivalent
to a couple. The moment of the couple is the
section bending moment.
• From statics, a couple M consists of two equal
and opposite forces.
• The sum of the components of the forces in any
direction is zero.
• The moment is the same about any axis
perpendicular to the plane of the couple and
zero about any axis contained in the plane.
• These requirements may be applied to the sums
of the components and moments of the statically
indeterminate elementary internal forces.
Fx    x dA  0
M y   z x dA  0
M z    y x dA  M

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Bending Deformations
Beam with a plane of symmetry in pure
bending:
• member remains symmetric
• bends uniformly to form a circular arc
• cross-sectional plane passes through arc center
and remains planar
• length of top decreases and length of bottom
increases
• a neutral surface must exist that is parallel to the
upper and lower surfaces and for which the length
does not change
• stresses and strains are negative (compressive)
above the neutral plane and positive (tension)
below it
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Strain Due to Bending

Consider a beam segment of length L.
After deformation, the length of the neutral
surface remains L. At other sections,
L     y 
  L  L     y      y
 y y
x    (strain va ries linearly)
L  
c c
m  or ρ
 m
y
 x   m
c

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Stress Due to Bending

• For a linearly elastic material,
y
 x  E x   E m
c
y
   m (stress varies linearly)
c

• For static equilibrium,

• For static equilibrium,
y
Fx  0    x dA     m dA  y 
c M    y x dA    y   m  dA
 c 

0   m  y dA   I
c M  m  y 2 dA  m
c c
First moment with respect to neutral Mc M
plane is zero. Therefore, the neutral m  
I S
surface must pass through the
y
section centroid. Substituti ng  x    m
c
My
x  
I
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Beam Section Properties

• The maximum normal stress due to bending,
Mc M
m  
I S
I  section moment of inertia
I
S  section modulus
c
A beam section with a larger section modulus
will have a lower maximum stress
• Consider a rectangular beam cross section,
1 3
I 12 bh
S   16 bh3  16 Ah
c h2

Between two beams with the same cross

sectional area, the beam with the greater depth
will be more effective in resisting bending.
• Structural steel beams are designed to have a
large section modulus.
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Properties of American Standard Shapes

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Deformations in a Transverse Cross Section

• Deformation due to bending moment M is
quantified by the curvature of the neutral surface
1   1 Mc
 m  m 
 c Ec Ec I
M

EI

• Although cross sectional planes remain planar

when subjected to bending moments, in-plane
deformations are nonzero,
y y
 y   x   z   x 
 

• Expansion above the neutral surface and

contraction below it cause an in-plane curvature,
1 
  anticlastic curvature
 

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Sample Problem 4.2

SOLUTION:
• Based on the cross section geometry,
calculate the location of the section
centroid and moment of inertia.
Y 
 yA
A

I x   I  A d 2 
• Apply the elastic flexural formula to
find the maximum tensile and
compressive stresses.
Mc
m 
I
A cast-iron machine part is acted upon
by a 3 kN-m couple. Knowing E = 165 • Calculate the curvature
GPa and neglecting the effects of 1 M

fillets, determine (a) the maximum  EI
tensile and compressive stresses, (b)
the radius of curvature.
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Sample Problem 4.2

SOLUTION:
Based on the cross section geometry, calculate
the location of the section centroid and
moment of inertia.
Area, mm 2 y , mm yA, mm3
1 20  90  1800 50 90 103
2 40  30  1200 20 24 103
3
 A  3000  yA  114 10

3
 yA 114 10
Y    38 mm
A 3000

  
I x   I  A d 2   12
1 bh3  A d 2 
 
1 90  203  1800 122  1 30  403  1200182
 12 12

I  868103 mm  86810-9 m 4

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Sample Problem 4.2

• Apply the elastic flexural formula to find the
maximum tensile and compressive stresses.
Mc
m 
I
M c A 3 kN  m  0.022 m  A  76.0 MPa
A  
I 868109 mm 4
M cB 3 kN  m  0.038 m
B     B  131.3 MPa
I 868109 mm 4

• Calculate the curvature

1 M

 EI
3 kN  m 1
 20.95 103 m-1
165 GPa 86810-9 m 4 


  47.7 m

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Bending of Members Made of Several Materials

• Consider a composite beam formed from
two materials with E1 and E2.
• Normal strain varies linearly.
y
x  

• Piecewise linear normal stress variation.
E1 y E2 y
1  E1 x    2  E2 x  
 
Neutral axis does not pass through
section centroid of composite section.
• Elemental forces on the section are
Ey E y
dF1  1dA   1 dA dF2   2dA   2 dA
 
My
x   • Define a transformed section such that
I
1   x  2  n x dF2  
nE1  y dA   E1 y n dA E
n 2
  E1

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Example 4.03
SOLUTION:
• Transform the bar to an equivalent cross
section made entirely of brass

• Evaluate the cross sectional properties of

the transformed section

• Calculate the maximum stress in the

transformed section. This is the correct
maximum stress for the brass pieces of
the bar.
Bar is made from bonded pieces of
steel (Es = 29x106 psi) and brass • Determine the maximum stress in the
(Eb = 15x106 psi). Determine the steel portion of the bar by multiplying
maximum stress in the steel and the maximum stress for the transformed
brass when a moment of 40 kip*in section by the ratio of the moduli of
is applied. elasticity.
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Example 4.03
SOLUTION:
• Transform the bar to an equivalent cross section
made entirely of brass.
Es 29 106 psi
n   1.933
Eb 15 106 psi
bT  0.4 in  1.933 0.75 in  0.4 in  2.25 in

• Evaluate the transformed cross sectional properties

1 b h3  1 2.25 in.3 in 3
I  12 T 12
 5.063 in 4

• Calculate the maximum stresses

Mc 40 kip  in 1.5 in 
m   4
 11.85 ksi
I 5.063 in

 b max   m  b max  11.85 ksi

 s max  n m  1.93311.85 ksi  s max  22.9 ksi

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Reinforced Concrete Beams

• Concrete beams subjected to bending moments are
reinforced by steel rods.
• The steel rods carry the entire tensile load below
the neutral surface. The upper part of the
concrete beam carries the compressive load.
• In the transformed section, the cross sectional area
of the steel, As, is replaced by the equivalent area
nAs where n = Es/Ec.
• To determine the location of the neutral axis,
bx x  n As d  x   0
2
1 b x2  n As x  n As d  0
2

• The normal stress in the concrete and steel

My
x  
I
c   x  s  n x

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Sample Problem 4.4

SOLUTION:
• Transform to a section made entirely
of concrete.

• Evaluate geometric properties of

transformed section.

• Calculate the maximum stresses

in the concrete and steel.

A concrete floor slab is reinforced with

5/8-in-diameter steel rods. The modulus
of elasticity is 29x106psi for steel and
3.6x106psi for concrete. With an applied
bending moment of 40 kip*in for 1-ft
width of the slab, determine the maximum
stress in the concrete and steel.

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Sample Problem 4.4

SOLUTION:
• Transform to a section made entirely of concrete.
Es 29 106 psi
n   8.06
Ec 3.6 106 psi


 
nAs  8.06  24 85 in   4.95 in 2
2


• Evaluate the geometric properties of the

transformed section.
 x
12x   4.954  x   0 x  1.450in
 2
 
I  13 12 in 1.45 in 3  4.95 in 2 2.55 in 2  44.4 in 4

• Calculate the maximum stresses.

Mc1 40 kip  in 1.45in
c    c  1.306 ksi
I 44.4 in 4
Mc2 40 kip  in  2.55 in  s  18.52 ksi
s  n  8.06
I 44.4 in 4

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Eccentric Axial Loading in a Plane of Symmetry

• Stress due to eccentric loading found by
superposing the uniform stress due to a centric
load and linear stress distribution due a pure
bending moment
 x   x centric   x bending
P My
 
A I
• Eccentric loading
• Validity requires stresses below proportional
FP limit, deformations have negligible effect on
M  Pd geometry, and stresses not evaluated near points
of load application.

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Example 4.07
SOLUTION:
• Find the equivalent centric load and
bending moment

• Superpose the uniform stress due to

the centric load and the linear stress
due to the bending moment.

• Evaluate the maximum tensile and

compressive stresses at the inner
and outer edges, respectively, of the
An open-link chain is obtained by superposed stress distribution.
bending low-carbon steel rods into the
shape shown. For 160 lb load, determine • Find the neutral axis by determining
(a) maximum tensile and compressive the location where the normal stress
stresses, (b) distance between section is zero.
centroid and neutral axis
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Example 4.07
• Normal stress due to a
centric load
A  c 2   0.25 in 2
 0.1963in 2
P 160 lb
0  
A 0.1963in 2
 815 psi

• Equivalent centric load • Normal stress due to

and bending moment bending moment
P  160 lb I  14 c 4  14  0.254
M  Pd  160 lb0.6 in 
 3.068103 in 4
 104 lb  in
Mc 104 lb  in 0.25 in 
m  
I .068103 in 4
 8475psi

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Example 4.07

• Maximum tensile and compressive • Neutral axis location

stresses P My0
t  0 m 0 
A I
 815  8475  t  9260psi
P I 3.068103 in 4
y0   815 psi 
c  0  m AM 105lb  in
 815  8475  c  7660psi
y0  0.0240in

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Sample Problem 4.8

The largest allowable stresses for the cast
iron link are 30 MPa in tension and 120
MPa in compression. Determine the largest
force P which can be applied to the link.

SOLUTION:
• Determine an equivalent centric load and
bending moment.

• Superpose the stress due to a centric

load and the stress due to bending.

• Evaluate the critical loads for the allowable

From Sample Problem 2.4, tensile and compressive stresses.
A  3 103 m 2
• The largest allowable load is the smallest
Y  0.038 m of the two critical loads.
I  868109 m 4

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Sample Problem 4.8

• Determine an equivalent centric and bending loads.
d  0.038  0.010  0.028 m
P  centric load
M  Pd  0.028 P  bending moment

• Superpose stresses due to centric and bending loads

A  
P Mc A
 
P

0.028 P 0.022  377 P
A I 3 103 868109
P Mc
B    A  
P

0.028 P 0.022  1559 P
A I 3 103 868109

• Evaluate critical loads for allowable stresses.

 A  377 P  30 MPa P  79.6 kN
 B  1559 P  120 MPa P  79.6 kN

• The largest allowable load P  77.0 kN

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Unsymmetric Bending
• Analysis of pure bending has been limited
to members subjected to bending couples
acting in a plane of symmetry.

• Members remain symmetric and bend in

the plane of symmetry.

• The neutral axis of the cross section

coincides with the axis of the couple

• Will now consider situations in which the

bending couples do not act in a plane of
symmetry.

• Cannot assume that the member will bend

in the plane of the couples.

• In general, the neutral axis of the section will

not coincide with the axis of the couple.
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Unsymmetric Bending
• 0  Fx    x dA      m dA
y
 c 
or 0   y dA

neutral axis passes through centroid

 y 
Wish to determine the conditions under • M  M z       m dA
y
 c 
which the neutral axis of a cross section σ I
of arbitrary shape coincides with the or M  m I  I z  moment of inertia
c
axis of the couple as shown. defines stress distribution

• The resultant force and moment

• 0  M y   z x dA   z   m dA
from the distribution of y
elementary forces in the section  c 
must satisfy or 0   yz dA  I yz  product of inertia

Fx  0  M y M z  M  applied couple couple vector must be directed along

a principal centroidal axis

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Unsymmetric Bending
Superposition is applied to determine stresses in
the most general case of unsymmetric bending.
• Resolve the couple vector into components along
the principle centroidal axes.
M z  M cos M y  M sin

• Superpose the component stress distributions

Mzy Myy
x   
Iz Iy

• Along the neutral axis,

x  0  
Mzy Myy
 
M cos  y  M sin  y
Iz Iy Iz Iy
y Iz
tan    tan 
z Iy

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Example 4.08
SOLUTION:
• Resolve the couple vector into
components along the principle
centroidal axes and calculate the
corresponding maximum stresses.
M z  M cos M y  M sin

• Combine the stresses from the

component stress distributions.
Mzy Myy
x   
A 1600 lb-in couple is applied to a Iz Iy
rectangular wooden beam in a plane
• Determine the angle of the neutral
forming an angle of 30 deg. with the
axis.
vertical. Determine (a) the maximum y Iz
stress in the beam, (b) the angle that the tan    tan 
z Iy
neutral axis forms with the horizontal
plane.
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MECHANICS OF MATERIALS Beer • Johnston • DeWolf

Example 4.08
• Resolve the couple vector into components and calculate
the corresponding maximum stresses.
M z  1600lb  in  cos 30  1386lb  in
M y  1600lb  in sin 30  800 lb  in
1 1.5 in 3.5 in 3  5.359in 4
I z  12
1 3.5 in 1.5 in 3  0.9844in 4
I y  12
The largest tensile stress due to M z occurs along AB
M z y 1386lb  in 1.75 in 
1   4
 452.6 psi
Iz 5.359in
The largest tensile stress due to M z occurs along AD

2 
M yz

800 lb  in 0.75in   609.5 psi
Iy 0.9844in 4

• The largest tensile stress due to the combined loading

occurs at A.
 max  1   2  452.6  609.5  max  1062psi

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MECHANICS OF MATERIALS Beer • Johnston • DeWolf

Example 4.08

• Determine the angle of the neutral axis.

Iz 5.359in 4
tan   tan   4
tan 30
Iy 0.9844in
 3.143

  72.4o

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General Case of Eccentric Axial Loading

• Consider a straight member subject to equal
and opposite eccentric forces.

• The eccentric force is equivalent to the system

of a centric force and two couples.
P  centric force
M y  Pa M z  Pb

• By the principle of superposition, the

combined stress distribution is
P Mz y M yz
x   
A Iz Iy

• If the neutral axis lies on the section, it may

be found from
Mz My P
y z
Iz Iy A

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