Aircraft Instruments - Introduction

(Level 2)
 Contents
Introduction.......................................................................................2

1. Aircraft Instruments - Introduction (Level 2)....................................3

1.1. Historical Background..........................................................................3

1.2. Instrument Requirements and Standards...............................................5

1.2.1. Location, Visibility and Grouping................................................................5

1.2.2. Instrument Panels Requirement.................................................................6

1.2.3. Classifying Instruments............................................................................6

1.2.4. Instrument Elements................................................................................7

1.2.5. Instrument Mechanisms............................................................................8

1.2.6. Sealing of Instruments............................................................................15

1.3. Instrument Displays, Panels and Layouts.............................................15

1.3.1. Instrument Displays...............................................................................15

1.3.2. Instrument Layout/Grouping...................................................................27

1.3.3. Instrument Panels..................................................................................31

1.4. Synchro Systems..............................................................................35

1.4.1. General Descriptions...............................................................................36

1.4.2. DC Synchro System................................................................................38

1.4.3. AC Synchro Systems..............................................................................41

1.4.4. Maintenance and Troubleshooting............................................................50

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Introduction

This is the first section of the course ET-AV07 entitled Aircraft Instrument Systems. It deals
with introductory points on aircraft instruments. It will show how aircraft instrumentation
progressed from its humble beginnings to today’s state-of-the-art systems and
technologies. The module also discusses about requirements, standards and how basic
instrument mechanisms work. The different types of displays and their layout employed in
aircraft are also presented.

Modern large airplanes have sensors throughout the airplane and sending the sensor data to
cockpit displays requires a remote indication system. Synchro systems, which are discussed
in the last lesson, provide this important capability.

After completing this module, trainees will be able to:

 Identify the different groups of instruments.

 Describe the different instrument elements and mechanisms.
 Describe the different instrument displays, Panels and Layouts.
 Describe the methods of compensating instrument mechanisms for temperature
variations and the reasons for hermetically sealing instruments.
 Identify types and application of synchro system.
 Describe the construction and operation of DC desyn and selsyn systems.
 Describe the construction and operation of AC synchro systems.

 Describe inspection, testing, troubleshooting and removal/installation of synchro

systems components.

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 1. Aircraft Instruments - Introduction (Level 2)

1.1. Historical Background

Since the beginning of manned flight, it has been recognized that supplying the pilot with
information about the aircraft and its operation could be useful and lead to safer flight.

The first successful airplanes flown by the pioneers were “stick and string”, with
temperamental engines. The aeroplane was maneuvered by the pilot (without cockpit) lying,
sitting or crouching in the open. Instruments designed specifically for use in an aeroplane
were non-existent.

The Wright Brothers had very few instruments on their Wright Flyer, but they did have an
engine tachometer, an anemometer (wind meter), and a stop watch. They were obviously
concerned about the aircraft’s engine and the progress of their flight. But through time it
had been found out that pilots lost their sense of equilibrium when external references were
obscured. So, instruments were required and were made to assist in such circumstances
which became known as Blind flying condition. From the simple beginnings, a wide variety
of instruments have been developed to inform flight crews of different parameters.
Instrument systems now exist to provide information on the condition of the aircraft,
engine, components, the aircraft’s attitude in the sky, weather, cabin environment,
navigation, and communication.

(a) (b)

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 (c)

(d)
Figure 1-1. (a) Instruments of the Wright Flyer; (b) World War I era airplane; (c) Boeing
707 flight deck (around 1950s and 60s); (d) Boeing 787 flight deck

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 1.2. Instrument Requirements and Standards

Modern aircraft and equipment, and the environmental conditions under which they operate
require conformity of design, development and subsequent operation with established
requirements and standards. These standards and requirements are called airworthiness
requirements.

The formulation and control of airworthiness requirements and the recommended standards
to which raw materials, instruments and other equipment should be designed and
manufactured, are established in the countries of design origin, manufacture and
registration, by government departments and/or other legally constituted bodies. The
international operation of civil aircraft necessitates international recognition that aircraft do,
in fact, comply with their respective national airworthiness requirements. As a result,
international standards of airworthiness are also laid down by the International Civil Aviation
Organization (ICAO). These standards do not replace national regulations, but serve to
define the complete minimum international basis for the recognition by countries of
airworthiness certification.

Standards

The purpose of specifications or standards is:

 to ensure conformity with the required production processes.
 to set standard for quality of the product
 to ensure reliability when performing the intended function.

With regard to aircraft instruments, the standards provide:

 definitions,
 constructional requirements,
 Dimensions,
 calibration data,
 accuracy required under varying environmental conditions, and
 methods of testing.

Also in connection with instruments and associated electronic equipment, frequent reference
is made to what are termed ARINC specifications. This is an acronym for Aeronautical Radio
Incorporated, an organization in the United States which operates under the aegis of the
airline operators, and in close collaboration with manufacturers. One notable specification of
the many which ARINC formulate is that which sets out a standard set of form factors for
the items colloquially termed 'black boxes'. In the main, these factors cover case
dimensions, mounting racks, location of plugs and sockets, and a system of indexing fouling
pins to ensure that only the correct equipment can be fitted in its appropriate rack position.
Another of ARINC standards deals with how digital systems in an aircraft communicate with
each other. These standards include ARINC 429, ARINC 629 and ARINC 664 protocols.

1.2.1. Location, Visibility and Grouping

• Instruments shall be located to be read easily by the flight crew.
• Illumination of instruments should be sufficient but not glaring into the pilot’s eyes.

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 • Flight, navigation and power-plant instruments shall be plainly visible to the pilot
from his station.
• All flight instruments shall be grouped on the instrument panel symmetrically on the
vertical plane of vision of the pilot.
• All power plant instruments shall be grouped together to be readily seen by the crew
members and in a manner to minimize confusion.

1.2.2. Instrument Panels Requirement

The vibration characteristics of instrument panels shall be such as not to impair seriously
the accuracy of the instruments or to damage them.

1.2.3. Classifying Instruments

a. Flight Instruments
The instruments used in controlling the aircraft’s flight attitude are known as the flight
instruments. There are basic flight instruments, such as the altimeter that displays aircraft

altitude; the airspeed indicator; and the magnetic direction indicator, a form of compass.
Additionally, an artificial horizon, turn coordinator, and vertical speed indicator are flight
instruments present in most aircraft. Much variation exists for these instruments.

b. Navigation Instruments
Navigation instruments are those that contribute information used by the pilot to guide the
aircraft along a definite course. This group includes compasses of various kinds, some of
which incorporate the use of radio signals to define a specific course while flying the aircraft
en route from one airport to another. Other navigational instruments are designed
specifically to direct the pilot’s approach to landing at an airport. Traditional navigation
instruments include a clock and a magnetic compass. Along with the airspeed indicator and
wind information, these can be used to calculate navigational progress. Radios and
instruments sending locating information via radio waves have replaced these manual
efforts in modern aircraft.

c. Power Plant Instruments

Power plant instruments are those designed to measure operating parameters of the
aircraft’s engine(s). These are usually quantity, pressure, and temperature indications. They
also include measuring engine speed(s).

1. Tachometer to measure the rotational speed of a crankshaft or a compressor as

appropriate to the type of power plant.
2. Cylinder-head temperature indicator for an air-cooled engine to indicate the
temperature of the hottest cylinder.
3. Carburetor-intake air temperature indicator.
4. Oil temperature indicator to show the oil inlet and/or outlet temperature.
5. For turbojet and turbopropeller engines a temperature indicator to indicate whether
the turbine or exhaust gas temperature is maintained within its limitations.

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 6. Fuel-pressure indicator to indicate pressure at which fuel is being supplied and a
means for warning of low pressure.
7. Oil-pressure indicator to indicate pressure at which oil is being supplied to a
lubricating system and a means for warning of low pressure.
8. Manifold pressure gauge for a supercharged engine.
9. Fuel-quantity indicator to indicate in gallons or equivalent units the quantity of
usable fuel in each tank during flight. Indicators shall be calibrated to read zero
during cruising level flight, when the quantity of fuel remaining is equal to the
unusable fuel, i.e. the amount of fuel remaining when, under the most adverse
conditions, the first evidence of malfunctioning of an engine occurs.
10. Fuel-flow indicator for turbojet and turbopropeller engines. For piston engines not
equipped with an automatic mixture control a fuel flowmeter or fuel-air ratio
indicator.
11. Thrust indicator for a turbojet engine.
12. Torque indicator for a turbopropeller engine.

1.2.4. Instrument Elements

From the operating point of view, we may regard an instrument as being made up of the
following four principal elements:

a. Detecting Elements
The detecting element detects changes in value of the physical quantity or condition
presented to it.

d. Measuring Elements

The measuring element actually measures the value of the physical quantity or condition in
terms of small translational or angular displacements.

e. Coupling Elements
The coupling element is where displacements are magnified and transmitted.

f. Indicating Elements
The indicating element exhibits the value of the measured quantity transmitted by the
coupling element, by the relative positions of a pointer, or index, and a scale.

The relationship between the four elements is shown in Fig 1.2.

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 Figure 1-2. Elements of an instrument

1.2.5. Instrument Mechanisms

In the strictest sense, the term mechanism refers to all four elements as a composite unit
and contained within the case of an instrument. However, since the manner in which the
functions of the elements are performed and integrated is governed by relevant instrument
operating principles and construction, this applies to only a very few instruments. In the
majority of applications to aircraft, a separation of some of the elements is necessary so
that three, or maybe only two, elements form the mechanism, within the instrument case.
The direct-reading pressure gauge is a good example of a composite unit of mechanical
elements, as shown in Figure 1-4 (a) while an example of separated mechanical elements
as applied to an airspeed indicator is shown at (b). In this example the detecting element is
separated from the three other elements, which thus form the mechanism within the case.

Figure 1-3. Direct-sensing vs. Remote-sensing

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 (a)

(b)
Figure 1-4. Instrument mechanisms: (a) Direct-reading pressure gauge;(b) Airspeed
indicator containing measuring, coupling and indicating elements.

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Let us consider the operation of a class of mechanisms based on the principles of levers and
rods. These are utilized as coupling elements which follow definite laws, and can introduce
any required input/output relationship. In aircraft instrument applications, such lever and
rod mechanisms are confined principally to direct-reading pressure gauges and pitot-static
flight instruments.

a. Lever Mechanisms

Let us consider first of all the simple Bourdon tube pressure gauge shown in Figure 1-5. The
Bourdon tube forms both the detecting and measuring elements, a simple link, lever,
quadrant and pinion forms the coupling element, while the indicating element is made up of
the pointer and scale.

The movement of the indicating element is proportional to the lever length. The effect of
lever angle on the input/output relationship is to change the rate of magnification since the
lever angle itself changes in response to displacement of the measuring element.

Figure 1-5. Simple lever mechanism

g. Rod Mechanisms
Unlike pure lever mechanisms, rod mechanisms dispense with pin or screw-jointed linkages
for the interconnection of component parts, and rely on rods in contact with, and sliding
relative to, each other for the generation of the input/output relationship. Contact between
the rods under all operating conditions is maintained by the use of a hairspring which
tensions the whole mechanism.

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Figure 1-6. Rod mechanisms (a)Sine mechanism; (b)Tangent mechanism;(c)Double tangent

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h. Gears and Hairsprings
The coupling and indicating elements of many aircraft instruments employ gears in one form
or another, for the direct conversion of straight-line or arc-like motion into full rotary
motion, and for increasing or decreasing the motion.

In figure 1-7 the sector gear and its meshing pinion provide for the initial magnification of
the measuring element's displacement. The gear is a small portion of a large geared wheel,
and since it has as many teeth in a few degrees of arc as the pinion has completely around
it, the sector need only turn a few degrees to rotate the pinion through a complete
revolution. The other gears shown in the figure are designed to provide a definite
magnification ratio of movement between their respective pointers and the pointer actuated
by the sector gear and pinion.

Figure 1-7. Gear assembly for a multi-pointer indicating element

In applying gears to instruments and control systems, a problem which has to be faced is
that a gear can always turn a small amount before it will drive the one in mesh with it. This
loss of motion, or backlash as it is termed, is unavoidable since the dimensioning of the
gear teeth must allow for a set amount of 'play' to avoid jamming of the gears.

The method most commonly adopted in geared mechanisms is one involving the use of a
coiled hairspring. The hairspring usually forms part of an indicating element and is
positioned so that one end is attached to the pointer shaft and the other to the mechanism
frame. In operation, the spring due to tensioning always has a tendency to unwind so that
the inherent play between gear teeth is taken up and they are maintained in contact.

Hairsprings are precision-made devices which, in addition to the anti-backlash function

already referred to, also serve as controlling devices against which deflecting forces are
balanced to establish required calibration laws (as in electrical moving-coil instruments) and

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for the restoration of coupling and indicating elements to their original positions as and
when the deflecting forces are removed.

In certain types of electrical measuring instruments, provision must be made for external
adjustment of the pointer to the zero position of the scale. One method commonly adopted
shown in Fig 1-7 (b). The inner end of the spring is secured to the pointer shaft in the
normal way, but the outer end is secured to a circular plate friction-loaded around the front
pivot screw. When the screw is rotated it deflects the plate thus rotating the spring, shaft
and pointer to a new position without altering the torque loading of the spring.

Figure 1-8. Hairsprings. (a) Method of attachment; (b) Method of zero adjustment

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i. Temperature Compensation
In the construction of instrument mechanisms, various metals and alloys are used, and
unavoidably, changes in their physical characteristics can occur with changes in the
temperature of their surroundings. The methods adopted for temperature compensation,
as it is called, are varied depending on the type of instrument to which they are applied.

i. Bimetal Strip Method

A bimetal strip, as the name implies, consists of two metals joined together at their
interface to form a single strip. One of the metals is invar, a form of steel with a 36% nickel
content and a negligible coefficient of linear expansion, while the other metal may be brass
or steel, both of which have high linear expansion coefficients. Thus, when the strip is
subjected to an increase of temperature the brass or steel will expand, and conversely will
contract when the strip is subjected to a decrease of temperature. The invar strip, on the
other hand, on account of it having a negligible expansion coefficient, will always try to
maintain the same length and being firmly joined to the other metal will cause the whole
strip to bend.

An application of the bimetal-strip principle to a typical rod-type mechanism is shown in Fig

1-9 (a). In this case, the vertical ranging bar connected to the rocking shaft is bimetallic
and bears against the arm coupled to the sector gear of the indicating element. The error in
reading due to expansion or contraction of the capsule is counteracted by the sagging of the
bimetal strip.

Figure 1-9. Application of bimetal strip

ii. Thermo-Resistant Method

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For temperature measurements in aircraft, many of the instruments employed are of the
electrical moving-coil type, we may note that, as they depend for their operation on electric
current, which is governed by resistance, the effects of temperature can result in indication
errors which necessitate compensation.

One of the compensation methods adopted utilizes a thermoresistor or thermistor connected

in the indicator circuit.

iii. Thermo Magnetic Shunt Method

Some temperature measuring instruments utilize a device known as a thermo-magnetic
shunt. This is a strip of nickel-iron alloy sensitive to temperature changes, which is clamped
across the poles of the permanent magnet so that it diverts some of the airgap magnetic
flux through itself.

1.2.6. Sealing of Instruments

In pressurized aircraft, the internal atmospheric pressure conditions are increased to a value
greater than that prevailing at the altitude at which the aircraft is flying. Consequently,
instruments using external atmospheric pressure as a datum, for example altimeters,
vertical speed indicators and airspeed indicators, are liable to inaccuracies in their readings
should air at cabin pressure enter their cases. The cases are therefore sealed to withstand
external pressures higher than those normally encountered under pressurized conditions.
The external pressure against which sealing is effective is normally 15 lbf/in 2.

Direct-reading pressure measuring instruments of the Bourdon tube, or capsule type,

connected to a pressure source outside the pressure cabin, are also liable to errors. Such
errors are corrected by using sealed cases and venting them to outside atmospheric
pressure.

Many of the instruments in current use depend for their operation on sensitive electrical
circuits and mechanisms which must be protected against the adverse effects of
atmospheric temperature, pressure and humidity. This protection is afforded by filling the
cases with an inert gas such as nitrogen or helium, and then hermetically sealing the cases.

1.3. Instrument Displays, Panels and Layouts

Instruments play an extremely vital role in the control loop between an airplane and the
operating crew as they are the means of communicating data between systems and
controller. Therefore, in order that a controller may obtain a maximum of control quality,
and also to minimize the mental effort in interpreting data, it is necessary to pay the utmost
regard to the content and form of the data display.

1.3.1. Instrument Displays

The most common forms of data display applied to aircraft instruments are (a) quantitative,
in which the variable quantity being measured is presented in terms of a numerical value
and by the relative position of a pointer or index, and (b) qualitative, in which the
information is presented in symbolic or pictorial form.

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a. Quantitative Displays
i. Circular Scales

Figure 1-10. Circular scale quantitative display

Spacing of the marks is of great importance, but since it is governed by physical laws
related to the quantity to be measured, there cannot be complete uniformity between all
quantitative displays. In general, however, we do find that they fall into two distinct groups,
linear and non-linear; in other words, scales with marks evenly and non-evenly spaced.
Typical examples are illustrated in Fig 1-11, from which it will also be noted that nonlinear
displays may be of the square-law or logarithmic-law type, the physical laws in this instance
being related to airspeed and rate of altitude change respectively.

Figure 1-11. Linear and nonlinear scales. (a) Linear; (b) square-law; (c) logarithmic

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For the measurement of some quantities, for example, turbine engine rev./min., airspeed,
and altitude, high measuring ranges are involved with the result that very long scales are
required. This makes it difficult to display such quantities on single circular scales in
standard-size cases, particularly in connection with the number and spacing of the marks.

Some of the displays developed as practical solutions to the difficulties encountered are
illustrated in Fig 1-12.

Figure 1-12. High-range long-scale displays. (a) Concentric scales; (b) fined and rotating
scales; (c) common scale, triple pointers; (d) split pointer.

When observing an instrument at an angle, errors due to parallax are, of course, possible,
the magnitude of such errors being governed principally by the angle at which the relevant
part of its scale is observed, and also by the clearance distance between the pointer and dial
plate. The 'platform' scale is designed for certain types of circular display instruments to
reduce parallax error.

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 Figure 1-13. Platform scale

ii. Straight Scales

In the field of aircraft instruments there are very few applications of the straight scale and
pointer displays. However, they do possess characteristics which can contribute to the
saving of panel space and improved observational accuracy, particularly where the problems
of grouping and monitoring a large number of engine instruments is concerned.

Figure 1-14. Moving tape displays

iii. Digital/Counter Displays

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A digital or veeder-counter type of display is one in which data are presented in the form of
letters or numbers−alpha-numeric display, as it is technically termed.

Figure 1-15. Application of digital displays

j. Dual Indicator Displays

Dual-indicator displays are designed principally as a means of conserving panel space,

particularly where the measurement of the various quantities related to engines is
concerned.

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 Figure 1-16. Examples of dual-indicator displays

k. Colored Displays
The use of color in displays can add much to their value; not, of course from the artistic
standpoint, but as a means of indicating specific operational ranges of the systems with
which they are associated and to assist in making more rapid assessment of conditions
prevailing when scanning the instruments.

Color may be applied to scales in the form of sectors and arcs which embrace the number of
scale marks appropriate to the required part of the range, and in the form of radial lines
coinciding with appropriate individual scale marks.

Figure 1-17. Use of color in instrument displays

The definitions of these marks are as follows:

RED radial line Maximum and minimum limits

YELLOW arc Take-off and precautionary ranges
GREEN arc Normal operating range
RED arc Range in which operation is prohibited

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Airspeed indicator dials may also have an additional WHITE arc. This serves to indicate the
airspeed range over which the aircraft landing flaps may be extended in the take-off,
approach and landing configurations of the aircraft.

l. Qualitative Displays

These are of a special type in which the information is presented in a symbolic or pictorial
form to show the condition of a system, whether the value of an output is increasing or
decreasing, the movement of a component and so on.

The synchroscope shown below is used in conjunction with a rev./min. indicating system of
an aircraft having a multiple arrangement of propeller-type engines, and its pointers, which
symbolize the propellers, only rotate to show the differences of speed between engines.

Figure 1-18. Engine synchronizing qualitative display

m. Director Displays

Director displays are those which are associated principally with flight attitude and
navigational data, and presenting it in a manner which indicates to a pilot what control
movements he must make either to correct any departure from a desired flight path, or to
cause the aircraft to perform a specific maneuver.

The gyro horizon which has been in use for many years utilizes in basic form a director
display of an aircraft's pitch and bank attitude.

Another example of a director display is that utilized in an indicator used in conjunction with
the Instrument Landing System (ILS); this is a radio navigation system which aids a pilot in
maintaining the correct position of his aircraft during the approach to land on an airport
runway.

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Figure 1-19. Examples of director display. (a) 'Fly down' directive; (b) 'bank right' directive;
(c) 'fly left' and 'fly up' directive; (d) response matches directive.

n. Head-Up Displays
In the critical approach and landing phase, a pilot must transfer his attention more
frequently from the instruments to references outside the aircraft, and back again; a
transition process which is time-consuming and fatiguing as a result of constant re-focusing
of the eyes.

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A method of alleviating these problems has therefore been developed in which vital flight
data are presented at the same level as the pilot's line-of-sight when viewing external
references, i.e. when he is maintaining a 'head-up' position.

Figure 1-20. Head up display of Boeing 787

o. LED and LCD Displays

There are several ways in which numerical data can be displayed by means of light-
emission, but the ones which are of interest in this context are the liquid-crystal display and
the light-emitting diode display.

Liquid-Crystal Display (LCD)

The basic structure of an LCD (see Fig 1-21) consists of two glass plates, coated on their
inner surfaces with a thin transparent conductor such as indium oxide. The conductor on the
front plate is etched into a standard display format of seven bars or segments each segment
forming an electrode. Each bar is electrically separate and is selected by a logic driver circuit
which causes the bars to illuminate in patterns forming the digit to be displayed (diagram
(b)). A mirror image of the digits with its associated electrical contact is also etched into the
oxide layer of the back glass plate, but this is not segmented since it constitutes a common
return for all segments.

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 Figure 1-21. Liquid crystal display (LCD)

The space between the plates is filled with a liquid-crystal material, referred to as a nematic
material (from the Greek word nemator meaning 'thread') by virtue of its thread-like
molecules being oriented with their long axes parallel. The complete assembly thus
constitutes a special form of capacitor. When low-voltage current is applied to the
segments, the molecular order of the liquid-crystal material is disturbed and this changes its
optical appearance from transparent to reflective.

Depending on the application of an LCD, color effects can be achieved by the proper
placement of color films on the front surface of the display, between the back surface and
artificial light source, or by coloring the reflective surfaces.

Light Emitting Diode (LED)

The heart of the display is a slice or chip of gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP) moulded
into a transparent plastic covering which not only serves to protect the chip, but also as a

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diffuser lens. The diode leads are soldered to a printed circuit board to form the numerical
display required, e.g. the digit segment already referred to. When current flows through the
chip it produces light which is directly transmitted in proportion to the current flow. To
provide different colors, the proportion of Gap and GaAs is varied during manufacture of the
chip, and also the technique of 'doping' with other elements e.g. oxygen or nitrogen is
applied.

Figure 1-22. Light emitting diode (LED)

Figure 1-23. Seven segment LED

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In a typical seven-segment display format it is usual to employ one led per segment and
mount it within a reflective cavity with a plastic overlay and a diffuser plate (see Fig 1-23).

LEDs can also be used in a dot-matrix configuration. Each dot making up the decimal
numbers is an individual led and can be arranged either in a 4 x 7 or 5 x 9 configurations.

ANALOGUE
ENGINE
DOT MATRIX SPEED
LED DISPLAY 40 INDICATOR
ENGINE SPEED 20 60
N1
0 % RPM 80

100

Smith's

Figure 1-24. Engine speed indicator with dot matrix LED digital readout

Figure 1-25. B737-400 power plant instrument group with both LED and dot-matrix displays

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1.3.2. Instrument Layout/Grouping
A main instrument panel positioned in front of pilots is a feature common to all types of
aircraft, since it is mandatory for the primary flight instruments to be installed within the
pilots' normal line of vision (see Fig 1-26.) Typical positions of other panels are: overhead,
at the side, and on a control pedestal located centrally between the pilots.

Figure 1-26. Location of instrument panels in a turbojet airliner (B787).

Main instrument panels, which may be of the single-unit type or made up of two or three
sub-panel assemblies, are supported on shockproof mountings since they accommodate the
flight instruments and their sensitive mechanisms.

All panels are normally mounted in the vertical position, although in some current aircraft
types the practice of sloping main instrument panels forward at about 15" from the vertical
is adopted to minimize parallax errors.

a. Flight Instruments Layout/Grouping

Basically there are six flight instruments whose indications are so coordinated as to create a
'picture' of an aircraft's flight condition and required control movements; they are, airspeed
indicator, altimeter, gyro horizon, direction indicator, vertical speed indicator and turn-and-
bank indicator. It is therefore most important for these instruments to be properly grouped
to maintain co-ordination and to assist a pilot to observe them with the minimum of effort.

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The first real attempt at establishing a standard method of grouping was the 'blind flying
panel' or 'basic six' layout shown in Fig 1-27. The gyro horizon occupies the top center
position, and since it provides positive and direct indications of attitude, and attitude
changes in the pitching and rolling planes, it is utilized as the master instrument.

Figure 1-27. ‘Basic six’ flight instrument grouping

With the development and introduction of new types of aircraft, flight instruments and
integrated instrument systems, it became necessary to review the functions of certain
instruments and their relative positions within the group. As a result, a grouping known as
the 'basic T' was introduced (Fig 1-28).

The theory behind this method is that it constitutes a system by which various items of
related flight information can be placed in certain standard locations in all instrument panels
regardless of type or make of instrument used. In this manner, advantage can be taken of
integrated instruments which display more than one item of flight information.

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 Figure 1-28. ‘Basic T’ flight instrument grouping

p. Power-plant Instruments Layout/Grouping

The specific grouping of instruments required for the operation of power plants is governed
primarily by the type of power plant, the size of the aircraft and therefore the space
available.

Engine instrumentation is often displayed in the center of the cockpit where it is easily
visible to the pilot and copilot. The positions of the instruments in the power plant group are
arranged so that those relating to each power plant correspond to the power plant positions
as seen in plan view.

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 Figure 1-29. Power-plant instrument grouping

1.3.3. Instrument Panels

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a. Instrument Mountings
The two methods most commonly used for the panel mounting of instruments are the
flanged case method, and the clamp method.

i. Flange Mounting
In this design, the bezel is flanged in such a manner that the instrument can be flush
mounted in its cutout from the rear of the panel. Integral, self-locking nuts are provided at
the rear faces of the flange corners to receive mounting screws from the front of the panel.
The flanged-type instrument can also be mounted to the front of the panel. In this case,
nut-plates are usually installed in the panel itself. Nonferrous screws are usually used to
mount the instruments.

ii. Clamp Mounting

There are also instrument mounting systems where the instruments are flangeless. A
special clamp, shaped and dimensioned to fit the instrument case, is permanently secured
to the rear face of the panel. The instrument is slid into the panel from the front and into
the clamp. The clamp’s tightening screw is accessible from the front side of the panel.
Regardless of how an instrument is mounted, it should not be touching or be so close as to
touch another instrument during the shock of landing.

Issue No. 0 ET-AV07.1 Page 31 of 53

Figure 1-30. Instrument mounts— flanged (top and middle) and flangeless/clamp (bottom).

q. Magnetic Indicator and Flow Lines

In many types of aircraft numerous valves, actuators and similar and 'Flow Lines' devices
are used in many of their systems to obtain the desired control of system operation; for
example, in a fuel system, actuators position valves which permit the supply of fuel from
the main tanks to the engines and also cross-feed the fuel supply.

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All such devices are, in the majority of cases, electrically operated and controlled by
switches on the appropriate systems panel, and to confirm the completion of movement of
the device an indicating system is necessary.

The indicating system could be in the form of a scale and pointer type of instrument or an
indicator light. The use of an instrument is rather space consuming. Indicator lights are of
course simpler, cheaper and consume less power, but the liability of their filaments to
failure without warning constitutes a hazard.

Therefore, to enhance the reliability of indication, indicators containing small electromagnets

operating a shutter or similar moving element are installed on the systems panels of many
present-day aircraft.

The pictorial representation offered by these indicators is further improved by the painting
of 'flow lines' on the appropriate panels so that they interconnect the indicators with the
system control switches and essential indicating instruments and warning lights.

A typical application of magnetic indicators and flow lines is shown in Fig 1-31.

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 Figure 1-31. Typical application of magnetic indicators and flow lines

r. Illumination of Instruments and Instrument Panels

When flying an aircraft at night, or under adverse conditions of Instruments and visibility, a
pilot is dependent on instruments to a much greater Instrument Panels extent than he is
when flying in daylight under good visibility conditions, and so the ability to observe their
readings accurately assumes greater importance.

i. Pillar & Bridge Lighting

Pillar lighting (Fig 1-32 (a)), so called from the method of construction and attachment of
the lamp, provides illumination for individual instruments and controls on the various
cockpit panels. Light is distributed through a red filter and an aperture in the lamp housing.
In a typical assembly, the shape of the aperture distributes a sector of light which extends
downwards over an arc of approximately 90 o to a depth slightly less than 2 in from the
mounting point.

The bridge type of lighting (Fig 1-32 (b)) is a multi-lamp development of the individual pillar
lamp already described. Two or four lamps are fitted to a bridge structure designed to fit
over a variety of the standardized instrument cases.

Figure 1-32. Pillar light assemblies

iii. Wedge Type Lighting

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This method of instrument lighting derives its name from the shape of the two portions
which together make up the instrument cover glass. It relies for its operation upon the
physical law that the angle at which light leaves a reflecting surface equals the angle at
which it strikes that surface.

The two wedges are mounted opposite to each other and with a narrow air-space separating
them, as shown in Fig 1-33. Light is introduced into wedge A from two 6 V lamps set into
recesses in its wide end. A certain amount of light passes directly through this wedge and
onto the face of the dial while the remainder is reflected back into the wedge by its polished
surfaces.

Figure 1-33. Wedge-type lighting

1.4. Synchro Systems

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It is often impractical or impossible to utilize direct reading gauges for information needed
to be conveyed in the cockpit. Placing sensors at the most suitable location on the airframe
or engine and transmitting the collected data electrically through wires to the displays in the
cockpit is a widely used method of remote-sensing and indicating on aircraft. Many remote
sensing instrument systems consist simply of the sensing and transmitter unit and the
cockpit indicator unit connected to each other by wires.

1.4.1. General Descriptions

a. Basic Principle of Synchro Systems

A synchro system is an electric system used for transmitting information from one point to
another. The word “synchro” is a shortened form of the word “synchronous,” and refers to
any one of a number of similarly operating two-unit electrical systems capable of
measuring, transmitting, and indicating a certain parameter on the aircraft.

These systems are similar in construction, and all operate by exploiting the consistent
relationship between electricity and magnetism. The fact that electricity can be used to
create magnetic fields that have definite direction, and that magnetic fields can interact with
magnets and other electromagnetic fields, is the basis of their operation.

s. Applications of Synchro Systems

Most position-indicating instruments are designed around a synchro system, such as the
flap position indicator. Fluid pressure indicators also commonly use synchro systems.
Synchro systems are used as remote position indicators for landing gear, autopilot systems,
radar, and many other remote-indicating applications.

t. Types of Synchro Systems (DC and AC)

Synchronous systems fall into two classes: direct-current and alternating-current. The DC
synchro system is called the Desynn system with three variations: the basic, micro-desynn,
and slab-desynn.

AC synchro systems are divided into four major functional categories: Torque, control,
differential and resolver synchro.

u. Basic Construction and Operation of Synchro Systems

i. Transmitters and Receivers

All synchro systems have one common feature: they consist of a transmitter located at the
source of measurement and a receiver which is used to position the indicating element.

A synchro transmitter's shaft is rotated by the mechanism that sends information, while the
synchro receiver's shaft rotates a dial, or operates a light mechanical load. Single and three-
phase units are common in use, and will follow the other's rotation when connected
properly. One transmitter can turn several receivers; if torque is a factor, the transmitter
must be physically larger to source the additional current. Single phase units have five
wires: two for an exciter winding (typically line voltage) and three for the output/input.
These three are bussed to the other synchros in the system, and provide the power and

Issue No. 0 ET-AV07.1 Page 36 of 53

information to align the shafts of all the receivers. Synchro transmitters and receivers must
be powered by the same branch circuit.

(a) (b)

Figure 1-34 (a) A simple two-synchro system (b) A transmitter synchro

ii. Stator and Rotor Currents

The primary winding of the transformer, fixed to the rotor, is excited by an alternating
current, which by electromagnetic induction, causes currents to flow in three Y-connected
secondary windings fixed at 120 degrees to each other on the stator. The relative
magnitudes of secondary currents are measured and used to determine the angle of the
rotor relative to the stator, or the currents can be used to directly drive a receiver synchro
that will rotate in unison with the synchro transmitter. In the latter case, the whole device
may be called a selsyn.

In Fig 1-36 the complete circle represents the rotor. The solid bars represent the cores of
the windings next to them. Power to the rotor is connected by slip rings and brushes,
represented by the circles at the ends of the rotor winding. As shown, the rotor induces
equal voltages in the 120° and 240° windings, and no voltage in the 0° winding. [Vex] does
not necessarily need to be connected to the common lead of the stator star windings.

Issue No. 0 ET-AV07.1 Page 37 of 53

 Figure 1-35 Schematic of a synchro transducer

1.4.2. DC Synchro System

a. The Desynn System
This system, one of the earliest to be used in aircraft, may take one of three forms, namely:
rotary motion or toroidal resistance for position and liquid contents indications; linear
motion or micro-Desynn for pressure indication, and slab-Desynn also for pressure
indication.

i. Basic System Operation

The system consists of a transmitter, an indicator, and connecting wires. The transmitter
consists of a circular resistance winding and a rotatable contact arm. The rotatable contact
arm turns on a shaft in the center of the resistance winding. The two ends of the arm are
brushes and always touch the winding on opposite sides (Fig 1-37). On position indicating
systems, the shaft to which the contact arm is fastened protrudes through the end of
transmitter housing and is attached to the unit whose position is to be transmitted (e.g.,
flaps, landing gear). The transmitter is often connected to the moving unit through a
mechanical linkage. As the unit moves, it causes the transmitter shaft to turn. The arm is
turned so that voltage is applied through the brushes to any two points around the
circumference of the resistance winding. The rotor shaft of DC selsyn systems, measuring
other kinds of data, operates the same way, but may not protrude outside of the housing.
The sensing device, which imparts rotary motion to the shaft, could be located inside the
transmitter housing.

Referring to the figure, note that the resistance winding of the transmitter is tapped off in
three fixed places, usually 120° apart. These taps distribute current through the toroidal
windings of the indicator motor. When current flows through these windings, a magnetic
field is created. Like all magnetic fields, a definite north and south direction to the field
exists. As the transmitter rotor shaft is turned, the voltage-supplying contact arm moves.
Because it contacts the transmitter resistance winding in different positions, the resistance
between the supply arm and the various tapoffs changes. This causes the voltage flowing
through the tapoffs to change as the resistance of sections of the winding become longer or
shorter. The result is that varied current is sent via the tapoffs to the three windings in the
indicator motor.

Issue No. 0 ET-AV07.1 Page 38 of 53

The resultant magnetic field created by current flowing through the indicator coils changes
as each receives varied current from the tapoffs. The direction of the magnetic field also
changes. Thus, the direction of the magnetic field across the indicating element corresponds
in position to the moving arm in the transmitter. A permanent magnet is attached to the
centered rotor shaft in the indicator, as is the indicator pointer. The magnet aligns itself with
the direction of the magnetic field and the pointer does as well. Whenever the magnetic
field changes direction, the permanent magnet and pointer realign with the new position of
the field. Thus, the position of the aircraft device is indicated.

Figure 1-36. A schematic of basic DC selsyn synchro system

ii. Micro-Desynn System

In applications where the movement of a prime mover is small and linear, the use of a
basic-system transmitting element is strictly limited. The micro-Desynn transmitter was
therefore developed to permit the magnification of such small movements and to produce,
by linear movement of contacts, the same electrical results as the complete rotation of the
contact arms of the basic transmitter.

If we take two toroidal resistors and join them in parallel then, by cutting them both in two
and laying them out flat, we obtain the circuit arrangement shown in Fig 1-38. By linking
the contact arms together and insulating them from each other, they can now be moved
over the whole length of each resistor to produce voltage and current combinations which
will rotate the receiver through 360 o. Since the contact arms have to traverse a much
shorter path, their angular movement can be kept small (usually 45 o), a feature which helps
to reduce the energy required to operate the transmitter.

Issue No. 0 ET-AV07.1 Page 39 of 53

 Figure 1-37. Circuit diagram of micro-desynn system.

iii. Slab-Desynn System

In addition to the cyclic error present in the basic and micro-type systems, small errors also
arise due to friction set up by the contact arms having to move over a considerable surface
of resistance wire. Although such errors can be reduced by providing a good contact
material and by burnishing the resistance wire surface, the cyclic error is still undesirable in
certain measurements.

A solution to this problem was brought about by modifying the basic system so as to change
its three sawtooth waveforms into sinusoidal waves, the instantaneous sum of which is
always zero.

Issue No. 0 ET-AV07.1 Page 40 of 53

The resistor and contact arms have, as far as electrical connections are concerned, virtually
changed places with each other. The resistor is now wound on a slab former, hence the
term 'slab-Desynn', and is connected to the direct-current supply, while the contact arms
themselves provide the three potential tapping points for the indicator stator (Fig 1-39).

Figure 1-38. Slab-Desynn transmitter

1.4.3. AC Synchro Systems

Aircraft with alternating current (AC) electrical power systems make use of autosyn or
magnasyn synchro remote indicating systems. Both operate in a similar way to the DC
selsyn system, except that AC power is used. Thus, they make use of electric induction,
rather than resistance current flows defined by the rotor brushes. Magnasyn systems use
permanent magnet rotors such as those found in the DC selsyn system. Usually, the
transmitter magnet is larger than the indicator magnet, but the electromagnetic response of
the indicator rotor magnet and pointer remains the same. It aligns with the magnetic field
set up by the coils, adopting the same angle of deflection as the transmitter rotor (Fig 1-
40).

Issue No. 0 ET-AV07.1 Page 41 of 53

 Figure 1-39. A magnasyn synchro

Autosyn systems are further distinguished by the fact that the transmitter and indicator
rotors used are electro-magnets rather than permanent magnets. Nonetheless, like a
permanent magnet, an electro-magnet aligns with the direction of the magnetic field
created by current flowing through the stator coils in the indicator. Thus, the indicator
pointer position mirrors the transmitter rotor position.

All these systems operate on the same principle and are normally divided into four main
groups according to their function; (i) torque synchros, (ii) control synchros, (iii) differential
synchros and (iv) resolver synchros.

a. Torque Synchros

These are the simplest form of synchro and are used for the transmission of angular
position information by means of induced signals, and for the reproduction of this
information by the position of a shaft at an output or receiver element. A typical application
of torque synchros is in flight instrument systems.

A torque synchro system comprises two electrically similar units interconnected as shown in
Fig 1-41, and by convention one is designated the transmitter (TX) and the other the
receiver (TR).

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 Figure 1-40. Torque synchro system.

The principal physical differences between the TX and the TR are that the rotor of the TX is
mechanically coupled to an input shaft, while the TR rotor is free to rotate. The rotor
windings are connected to a source of single-phase a.c. supply, and the corresponding
stator connections are joined together by transmission lines. The similarity between these
connection arrangements and a conventional transformer may also be noted; the rotors
correspond to primary windings and the stators to secondary windings.

With power applied to the rotors, due to transformer action a certain voltage will be induced
in the stator coils the value of which will be governed, as in any transformer, by the ratio of
the number of turns of the rotor (primary) and stator (secondary) coils.

Issue No. 0 ET-AV07.1 Page 43 of 53

When the rotors of TX and TR occupy the same angular positions, and power is applied,
equal and opposite voltages will be produced and hence no current can flow in the stator
coils. The system (and any other type of synchro) is then said to be at 'null'.

When the rotors occupy different angular positions, for example when the TX rotor is at the
30o position and the TR rotor is at electrical zero, an unbalance occurs between stator coil
voltages causing current to flow in the lines and stator coils. The currents are greatest in
the circuits where voltage unbalance is greatest and their effect is to produce magnetic
fields which exert torques to turn the TR rotor to the same position as that of the TX.

As the TR rotor continues to turn, the misalignment, voltage unbalance and currents
decrease until the 30o position is reached and no further torque is exerted on the rotor.

v. Control Synchros
Control synchros differ from torque synchros, in that their function is to produce an error
voltage signal in the receiving element, as opposed to the production of a rotor torque.

The interconnection of the two elements of a control synchro system is shown in Fig 1-42.
By convention, the transmitter is designated as CX, and the receiver designated as a control
transformer (CT). The CX is similar to a torque transmitter, and from the diagram it will be
noted that the a.c. supply is connected to the CX rotor only. The CT rotor is not energized
since it acts merely as an inductive winding for detecting the phase and magnitude of error
signal voltages which are supplied to an amplifier. The amplified signals are then fed to a
two-phase motor which is mechanically coupled to the CT rotor. Another difference to be
noted is that a control synchro system is at electrical zero when the rotor of CT is at 90 o with
respect to the CX rotor.

Issue No. 0 ET-AV07.1 Page 44 of 53

 Figure 1-41. Control synchro system

If the rotor of CX is rotated through a certain angle, the resultant flux in the CT stator will
be displaced from its datum point by the same angle, and relative to the CT rotor position at
that instant. An error voltage is therefore induced in the rotor. The error voltage is then
amplified and fed to the control phase of the motor, the other phase (reference phase)
being continuously supplied with alternating current. Since the control phase voltage of a
two-phase motor can either lead or lag the reference phase voltage, then the phase of the
error voltage will determine the direction in which the motor will rotate, and its magnitude
will determine its speed of rotation. As the motor rotates, it turns the rotor of the CT in the
appropriate direction, thereby reducing its displacement relative to the CX rotor. Rotation

Issue No. 0 ET-AV07.1 Page 45 of 53

continues until both rotors are in alignment (bearing in mind, of course, that the electrical
zero points are at 90" from each other) at which position no further error voltage is induced.

w. Differential Synchros
In some cases, it is necessary to detect and transmit error signals representative of two
angular positions, and in such a manner that the receiver element of a synchro system will
indicate the difference or the sum of the two angles. This is achieved by introducing a third
synchro into either a torque or control system, and using it as a differential transmitter.
Unlike TX or CX synchros, a differential transmitter (designated TDX or CDX) has an
identically wound stator and rotor which in the application to a torque synchro system are
interconnected as shown in Fig 1-43.

In the same way that differential transmitter synchros can be used in torque synchro
systems, so they can be used in systems utilizing control synchros to transmit control signal
information on the sum or difference of two angles. The basic arrangement is shown in Fig
1-44.

Issue No. 0 ET-AV07.1 Page 46 of 53

 Figure 1-42. Differential synchro in a torque synchro system.

Issue No. 0 ET-AV07.1 Page 47 of 53

 Figure 1-43. Differential synchro in a control synchro system

x. Resolver Synchros
The function of resolver synchros (RS) is to convert alternating voltages, which represent
the Cartesian coordinates of a point, into a shaft position and a voltage, which together
represent the polar coordinates of that point. Typical applications of resolver synchros are to
be found in flight director and integrated instrument systems.

In the typical arrangement shown in Fig 1-45, the stator and rotor each have two windings
arranged in phase quadrature, thus providing an eight-terminal synchro. An alternating
voltage is applied to the rotor winding R 1-R2, and the magnitude of this voltage, together
with the angle through which the rotor is turned, represent the polar coordinates. In this
application the second winding is unused, and as is usual in such cases, it is short-circuited
to improve the accuracy of the RS and to limit spurious response.

Issue No. 0 ET-AV07.1 Page 48 of 53

 Figure 1-44. Resolver synchro

In the position shown, the alternating flux produced by the current through rotor winding
R1-R2 links with both stator windings, but since the rotor winding is aligned only with S1-S2
then maximum voltage will be induced in this winding. Winding S3-S4 is in phase
quadrature so no voltage is induced in it. When the rotor is at a constant speed it will induce
voltages in both stator windings, the voltages varying sinusoidally. The voltage across that
stator winding which is aligned with the rotor at electrical zero will be a maximum at that
position and will fall to zero after rotor displacement of 90 o; this voltage is therefore a
measure of the cosine of the displacement. Any angular displacement can therefore be

Issue No. 0 ET-AV07.1 Page 49 of 53

identified by the amplitude and phase of the induced stator voltages. The sum of the
outputs from both stators, i.e. r cos θ plus r sin θ, therefore defines in Cartesian coordinates
the input voltage and rotor rotation.

1.4.4. Maintenance and Troubleshooting

a. Problems Associated with Synchro Systems
Common problems in synchro systems include:
 Shorted/open rotor.
 Shorted/open stator.
 Reversed polarity in stator or rotor terminals.
 Misalignment/disagreement between transmitter and receiver.
 Loose connections

y. Troubleshooting & Defect Rectification

If the problem exists in the transmitter, all receivers will be affected. If the casualty exists
in a receiver, only that receiver will be affected, except in the case of shorted stator leads,
when all synchros will be affected.

Never connect equipment that is not related to the synchro system to the primary excitation
bus. This will cause the system to show all the symptoms of a shorted rotor when the
equipment is turned on; but, the system will check out good when the equipment is off.

Left flap position transmitter disagree problem:

The signal to the FSEU from the left flap position transmitter does not agree with the signals
from the right flap position transmitter and the No. 1 flap skew sensor. Probable causes:

 The transmitter itself

 Flap slat electronics unit (FSEU) problem
 Wiring problem
 Flap position indicator
 Wiring between Flap Position Indicator and FSEU

z. Removal and Installation

Never force a synchro into place, never use pliers on the threaded shaft, and never force a
gear or dial onto the shaft. Make sure that the synchro system is de-energized during
removal and installation.

Steps to remove a flap position transmitter synchro:

 Open the applicable circuit breakers.

 Manually extend the flap until the overtravel stop position.
o If a position transmitter (sensor) is inadvertently removed when the flaps are
in a position other than at the ballscrew down stops, the transmitter (sensor)
will be no longer in the rig position.
 Disconnect the electrical connector.

Issue No. 0 ET-AV07.1 Page 50 of 53

  Remove the flap position transmitter.

Figure 1-45. Flap position transmitter removal

Steps to remove the flap position indicator:

 Open the applicable circuit breakers.

 Remove the flap position indicator from the panel:
o Turn the adjustment screw [4] to loosen the clamp [3].
o Remove the flap position indicator [1] from the panel.
o Disconnect the electrical connector [2] from the flap position indicator [1].

Issue No. 0 ET-AV07.1 Page 51 of 53

 Figure 1-46. Flap position indicator removal

Issue No. 0 ET-AV07.1 Page 52 of 53