>> Our guide to 24-hour race engineering – see p56

January 2021 • Vol 31 No 1 • www.racecar-engineering.com • UK £5.95 • US $14.50

CHAMPIONS!
ce s r the es n c ets of
its AMG F1 W11 title-winning package

NASCAR
How artificial intelligence is
changing the role of crew chief

KTM GT2
Motorcycle maker’s
new customer racer

DALLARA INTERVIEW
At home with the world’s
most prolific racecar constructor

SAFETY FIRST
We visit the world-class crash test
laboratory at Cranfield University
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CONTENTS – JANUARY 2021 – Volume 31 Number 1

COVER STORY FEATURES TECHNICAL

8 Mercedes chassis 24 NASCAR 49 The Consultant
Beneath the skin of the From Vegas it came. Artificial ARBs and Watt linkages
2020 F1 champion intelligence in the pit lane 52 Optimum G
16 Mercedes power unit 32 KTM GT2 The mathematics of damping
How the constructors’ champion A new customer racecar from 56 24-hour race engineering
stays ahead of the pack the Austrian motorcycle maker A feat of endurance
42 Gian Paolo Dallara 64 Crash testing
COLUMNS Racecar interviews the grand Inside Cranfield Impact Centre
master of racecar constructors
5 Lena Gade 70 Danny Nowlan
Triumph in a tight squeeze Tuning the differential
7 Mike Blanchet 79 No change required
The rare will rise again Endless brakes pull off GT first
80 2020 champions
End of season round up
82 Bump stop

The Macau GT Cup didn’t have the international

presence to which it has become accustomed but
instead returned to its traditional roots for 2020

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JANUARY 2021 www.racecar-engineering.com 3

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4 www.racecar-engineering.com JANUARY 2021

THE ASPHALT STORIES – LEENA GADE

Pushing the limits

The 2020 season posed unique challenges for
race teams competing all over the world

T
he trucks are now back at base and the that we learnt from. We would then try to do Accounting for both directions, that’s an
racecars won’t run in anger again in 2020. better for the next event, and something else awful lot of downtime where we are unable
Returning home to England feels great would come up. Dealing with the unforeseen to work on the cars, which is not easy to
after what can only be described as a really odd issues in such a compressed timescale was handle when you’ve got quite an intricate car
season of racing in the US. probably the hardest part of it all. and a race on the far side of North America
When the IMSA season restarted after slotted between two of the series’ blue riband
the spring lockdown, the schedule had to be The cost of racing endurance events.
compressed into a much shorter period. What Logistics play a huge part in racing. A lot of There’s a lot of attention to detail required
this meant for the teams is nobody had a day teams are based in Indianapolis, North Carolina with the DPi cars. They are fundamentally
off for a long time as it was a case of prepare the or dotted around Florida so, when IMSA LMP2 cars with a very sophisticated aero kit
cars, travel, race the cars, travel, repeat. arranged the race at Laguna Seca after Petit so, if you get something wrong, you could be
We returned to competition in July, had all and before the Sebring 12 hours, it made life chasing it for a long time. It could be with you
of August off, and then finished for two events before you find
the season in another two and it’s something as simple as the
a half months, so we had a total floor not quite being in the
of just three and a half months right position, but without the
of racing (the IMSA season right equipment with you at
normally spans 10), and that the track to measure, and with a
has put our team, and I am sure compressed timeframe to turn
others, under intense pressure. the car around, there just isn’t
This has been good in some the time to do everything as
ways and bad in others. you normally would.
What is good about that
is the time schedule is so Winning ways
condensed you are always on Looking back on the season,
the go. There’s never a day you though, it would be easy to
can take off. That’s because even say that it was all a bit of a
though the cars are all built up in nightmare and wasn’t good,
Rick Dole, IMSA

the workshop, we’re still looking but that just wouldn’t be right.
at preparation work, making Despite the extra challenges
sure all the systems are working put upon us, the team won the
and ensuring the organisational The flag has fallen on the 2020 IMSA season with victory for Mazda at Sebring Sebring 12 Hours.
side of everything is done. Racing without the fans for
It has been odd in that respect because a lot harder. I understand why they did it, as much of the season, however, was a loss felt by
we’ve never had that level of pressure to get WeatherTech is a series sponsor and we have all of the teams. The fans add a particular buzz
everything done in such a short period of time. to have a race at their track. As professional to an event and it was hard not having them
race teams, you make it work, there’s no two there, but we worked as normal to prepare
Be prepared ways about it, but it comes at a cost, both in the cars and the racing was good. In terms of
I actually don’t think that was a bad thing, financial and human terms. television viewers and exposure, it was a great
though, because it focussed everybody and Having that race in California, on the west season for the championship as a whole, and I’m
forced them to be in a location to always be coast of the US and just about as far from our sure we’ve picked up new fans along the way.
working on the racecar, whether it was writing base in Mooresville as you could get, puts so Everyone worked hard to overcome the
a run sheet to checking the fitment of parts. much pressure on the team, especially when unique challenges in this crazy year. We got to
Anything that wasn’t prepared and in place, or something goes wrong on a car that you need go racing again, we made it work and it was
organised the way our competitors would have to resolve. An extra day in the workshop would good to be an integral part of that. We got out
done, we found out when we went to the tracks, have been beneficial to do that, but that option there and did the thing we love, and that
so we had to be precise, efficient and thorough. simply wasn’t there. counts for a lot in my book.
If you find anything missing during the race Just moving the cars across America takes a
weekend, it’s too late to do anything about it, minimum of two and a half days, possibly even Leena Gade is the vehicle dynamics centre
as we found out at Petit Le Mans in October. At up to four, depending on the weather as they manager and race engineer at Multimatic
every event, I’d say we had something happen travel through Texas (which delayed our trucks). Engineering, UK

We’ve never had that level of pressure to get everything

done in such a short space of time
JANUARY 2021 www.racecar-engineering.com 5
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SIDETRACK – MIKE BLANCHET

Continuation or abomination?
The case for and against clones of historic racecars

T
he revelation that a limited edition – old beauty, safe in storage for posterity and While sales director at Lola Cars, I was
‘reproduction’ 1958 Vanwall VW5 F1 occasional demonstration only. subjected to dodgy requests (always denied!)
car is being created by Hall & Hall has Important other upsides are that enthusiasts, for chassis plates that had ‘gone missing’. In
been followed by a similar announcement young and old, can continue to enjoy the thrill particular, from owners of T70 Mk3s tarted up
concerning BRM’s fabled 1950’s Type 15. Jaguar of seeing and hearing glorious historic-era cars with the bodywork of the later, considerably
had already pre-empted the dash to cash with live and on track. For example, with just one more valuable Mk3bs, in order to pull the wool
its ‘continuation’ of the Le Mans-winning D-Type actual 1950’s example in existence, and unable over the eyes of unsuspecting buyers.
sports racer, preceded by XKSS and lightweight to be raced, how else will anybody ever Surely, only if there is a proper link to the
E-Type reproductions. There will undoubtedly experience the spine-tingling scream from the original manufacturer (the Owen family in the
be more such examples, as current technology BRM’s blown, 1.5-litre V16 engine? case of the BRM), or to the owner of the naming
means there is virtually no limit now to what The satisfying employment required in rights (Vanwall), can the terms ‘reproduction’ or
can be viably reproduced, given people with making these incredible machines is very ‘continuation’ really be acceptable?
deep enough pockets to buy them, of course. valuable too, especially now, and so is passing on As long as the build accuracy and quality of
Purists have no doubt thrown up their hands traditional skills to trainees, helping ensure such these cars is open to knowledgeable scrutiny and
in horror, especially those fortunate enough to artistry is not lost forever. confirmation, then at least one can be sure of
own the pur sang racers. What effect what they are, free of any uncertainties.
will there be on the stratospheric values Therefore, everything else must be
of their prized investments now that considered a replica.
just rich – rather than super-rich – folk,
whose offshore accounts can stand Race relevance
being dented by a couple of million, can An interesting conundrum strikes me
obtain an ostensibly identical car? regarding these reproductions. At
Providing these high quality which point does the claim ‘identical to
reproductions aren’t churned out by original in every detail’ inevitably have
the dozen (unlikely, although there will to depart? Current mandatory FIA safety
always be the temptation to sell more regulations to fuel and oil systems for
than the initial run), it won’t make a historic cars, amongst other parts, have
jot of difference. Much is made in the to be met if these cars are to race. More
presentation of these new cars of how questionably, and particularly relevant
faithful they are to the team cars of the to the BRM. Who would want to build in
time. But unique patina and history Whether or not you agree with recreations, there are fine engineering the unreliability issues that so dogged
cannot be replicated, in the same way opportunities present in their design, construction and use the cars in their heyday?
that even a brilliantly faked Van Gogh is Modern materials and tools and
never going to raise the same emotions as one of Copies, clones, reproductions, recreations, the use of CAD / CAM may help, but lessons
the Master’s originals. To see and touch the real continuations, call them what you will, it’s learned during the time that the V16 has been
thing is to see and touch history. been happening for donkey’s years. How many run, right up to recent years, must be being
Maserati 250Fs currently racing are original, I incorporated. Nobody is going to stump up two
Exciting times wonder? Attending the annual historic races at million quid for a racecar that rarely makes it
My guess is that, with a little thought, the Angoulême with my brother a while ago, the to the finish line. And it wasn’t just the engine.
benefits of being able to obtain a replica will driver of one of the dozen or so pretty and nicely Stirling Moss once said the car was the worst
outweigh any anxieties, especially in regard to aged Type 35B Bugattis lined up commented that handling device he’d ever driven, with poor
exceptionally rare machines such as the Vanwall only three were in fact genuine! brakes and bad steering. While I imagine some
and the BRM. I find the commitment to tool It’s no secret that Audi commissioned of this was improved during the BRM’s
up for and manufacture the latter’s incredible Crosthwaite & Gardiner to recreate its 1930s Silver competition life, there won’t be drivers of the
engine, plus transmission, very exciting. The Arrows, though not for sale. C & D-Type Jaguars, calibre of Moss driving these difficult beasts.
Vanwall is less complex, but almost comparable. Ford GT40s and Lola T70s are being knocked off Nonetheless, I am looking forward to hearing
After all, if somebody has been able to afford all over the place, some good, many of dubious again the indescribable 12,000rpm shriek of
multi-millions of pounds for a ‘real’ car, it makes quality and faithfulness to the originals. Where that crazy supercharged racing engine in action,
sense to spend another couple of millions on this strays into fraud is when they are passed off and seeing first hand the distinctive, high-tailed
a cloned car to race, without fear of severely as the real thing. There has always been a seamy aerodynamics of the Vanwall. Plus who knows
damaging the priceless – and increasingly frail side to historic car dealing. what else in years to come?

At which point does the claim ‘identical to original

in every detail’ inevitably have to depart?
JANUARY 2021 www.racecar-engineering.com 7
RACECAR FOCUS – MERCEDES AMG F1 W11 EQ PERFORMANCE

2020 saw Mercedes become seven-time constructors’ champion

and Mercedes driver, Lewis Hamilton, claim his seventh world
championship drivers’ title. Hamilton’s record-breaking number of
wins in Formula 1 makes him the most decorated driver of all time

8 www.racecar-engineering.com JANUARY 2021

 Black
Arrows
Racecar investigates how
Mercedes has stayed ahead
of the F1 pack in 2020, and
how it intends to continue
doing so in 2021
By STEWART MITCHELL

JANUARY 2021 www.racecar-engineering.com 9

RACECAR FOCUS – MERCEDES AMG F1 W11 EQ PERFORMANCE

T
he 2020 season has been like
no other, with the impact of
coronavirus shifting the norm in
every aspect of life. However, one
thing feels like déjà vu, and that is Mercedes
AMG Petronas Formula 1 team securing
the Formula 1 constructors’ title, this one
making them seven-time world champions.
That’s every year since the dawn of the
hybrid car regulations in 2014, and the teams’
domination seems not to be yielding any time
soon. Mercedes’ success is not thanks to one
constituent part it has above the rest of the
grid, it’s the combination of all the technology
in the car, the drivers and the team’s
gameplay all working in harmony to create an
ostensibly unstoppable force when it counts.
The 2020 Mercedes Formula 1 racecar,
the W11 EQ Performance (W11 for short),
is built to the 2020 Formula 1 technical
regulation set, which features very few
changes compared to 2019. However, this
didn’t stop Mercedes bringing significant
developments to the W11 that see it adopt
new philosophies in some areas when
compared to its predecessor, the W10.
This philosophy shift, and the technical
solutions that coincide with it, primarily
revolve around central architectural
modifications driven by the aerodynamic
gains they yield. During testing at Barcelona’s
Circuit de Catalunya at the start of the With wheels steered and the direction of the car changing relative
year, Mercedes’ technical director, James to the ground, it’s hard to characterise how the W11 behaves in yaw.
Allison, described the development Mercedes says it aims for overall aerodynamic balance during cornering,
strategy: ‘For us, [W11] was all about rather than developing specific areas of the car for these scenarios
trying to make sure we don’t run out of
development steam on a package that
worked pretty well for us last year.
‘If we had continued merely to
One of the most
add flourishes to the 2019 baseline,
we would have found some gains, but
significant changes
in all likelihood diminishing returns
would be kicking in by now.
Mercedes made for
‘We wanted to change aspects of the
concept of the car – aspects that would be the W11 was a shift
completely impossible to change within a
season – to give us a more fertile platform to the side impact
for the new season [2020]. We tried to
make a few well-chosen architectural structure position
changes to keep the development slope
strong, even though the regulations are
now a little bit longer in the tooth.’ Underneath the Vehicle Performance
Group are several engineering squads
Development teams that focus on specific areas, and then
Mercedes’ engineering team structure break down into subgroups within.
allows it to evaluate development in parallel Mercedes has a specific structure in
and series. At the top level, development place to characterise and tackle each
calls happen in what Mercedes call The type of development operation. If it is a
Vehicle Performance Group, which has geometry argument, that conversation
the most senior engineers in it. They will would be between the Vehicle Dynamics
discuss what is happening race to race, Group and the Mechanical Group, working
what the team are learning from the car out what the trades would look like for
and what they should look at to improve any development ideas in these areas.
performance. That will set the broad When it comes to a more aerodynamic
direction of where development goes. component, like a sidepod for example, the

10 www.racecar-engineering.com JANUARY 2021

 For us, [W11] was
aerodynamicists will identify an opportunity
and then discuss that with the Vehicle

all about trying

Design Group and examine the implications
of the proposed changes – particularly
whether it would pass the various tests
and any additional weight implication. to make sure we
That discussion would give Aerodynamics
a rough number in terms of the performance
they need to find for that change to break
don’t run out of
even in overall lap time. They then take the
design ideas, create them, take them to the
development steam
wind tunnel for testing and, depending on
what comes out of that, will then decide
on a package that
whether that particular development has legs
or not. If it does, the development continues.
worked pretty well
John Owen is chief designer on the
Mercedes-AMG Petronas F1 team. He is
for us last year
the architect of the car, making sure the James Allison, technical
various teams make the right trade-offs director at Mercedes F1
between different areas of performance,
be it aerodynamics, power unit or vehicle
dynamics. The buck stops with Owen, as it does not generate performance,
and he consults the Vehicle Performance though it frees up other areas so we could
Group to discuss whether specific projects have the opportunity to try something
are worth doing or not. Owen works different. It was a small change in position
alongside Mercedes’ technology director, but a big enabler to other gains.’
Mike Elliott, to bring together design Lowering the SIS raised the sidepod
and technology to formulate the best inlets for the radiators located within them,
on-track weapon the team can design. which in turn raised the c of g, which is
At the end of each season, the working obviously not great for car performance.
groups come together to work out the However, it improved airflow through the
development direction of the car. Mike heat exchangers in the sidepods, which
Elliott explains: ‘We often analyse and meant the team could run smaller radiators.
re-evaluate everything. Ultimately, when In turn, the team adjusted the amount of
you are successful, the most significant air ingested into the roll hoop for cooling to
risk of changing something will be that coincide with changes made to the sidepods.
you might break it. The challenge you are Even this seemingly innocuous change
facing is you don’t have all the answers, was an intricate compromise, as Elliott
and Formula 1 car design is not something explains: ‘The car needs a physical amount
where you can work out all the formulae of cooling, so the question is how do I best
and come up with the magic solution. get that? Am I better off using sidepod
‘These cars are complex, and the reality radiators or better off with a radiator fed off
is you cannot take one bit in isolation the centre line in the roll hoop? The flow
and develop that. You have to have an you get high up entering the roll hoop is
overall philosophy of how you think is very clean, very efficient, but positioning
best to design a car for the application, radiators that high up isn’t ideal for the
and then you try to learn how it works c of g. The ratio of sidepod to roll hoop
and to develop it in a positive direction.’ radiators is a narrow trade to make.
‘Additionally, the radiator layout is
2020 design changes dependent on the route of the fluids
One of the most significant changes that need cooling, and the position of
Mercedes made for the W11 was a shift to the systems that need cooling under the
the side impact structure (SIS) position. bodywork. If the cooling route crosses
The W10 had what is known as a high SIS both the centre and the sidepod then
position. That was redesigned and shifted it is possible to distribute the cooling
to a mid-height position on the W11. The fluid flows across both and therefore
change was motivated by aerodynamic gains make the most efficient layout for each
that, through the analysis of the working cooling circuit. However, sometimes the
groups, Mercedes found outweighed the position of systems forces one solution.
extra weight this structure requires to ‘That solution also depends on the
Positioning the side impact structure in the ‘mid-height’ meet the stiffness needed in that area. chosen heat exchange medium. In
position raised the sidepod inlet. This philosophy makes Elliott explains: ‘This mid-height SIS was aerodynamics, we’ll know what the trade
for a higher c of g for the associated components, but an a theme we saw in the pit lane, something looks like for the porosity of the radiator, the
overall net gain was found in the aerodynamic benefits we didn’t have and wanted to explore. total mass flow through the car, and what
Lowering the SIS yields indirect gains that costs in aerodynamic performance.

JANUARY 2021 www.racecar-engineering.com 11

RACECAR FOCUS – MERCEDES AMG F1 W11 EQ PERFORMANCE

‘We will know what a given type

of radiator, with its fin density and the
material’s thermal coefficient, will deliver
in heat rejection for a given amount of
mass flow, and we know what that would
cost us in weight, size and volume. Then
we have to optimise between those.
‘It sounds like quite a complex problem
with lots of parameters, but actually it’s not
that difficult to solve. When you come up
with a solution, that gets you 90 per cent
of the way there, and then you optimise
your way around that in development.’

Aerodynamic changes
Much of the aerodynamic development
put into any Formula 1 car revolves
around controlling the wake of the front
tyres by using the wing end plate, the
furniture on the top of the front wing
and the brake duct to pitch the wake out
and prevent the car from ingesting it.
The last few seasons have seen a variety
of different approaches across the grid.
The Mercedes front wing philosophy
has seen its wing elements remain at a
relatively consistent height across the
width of the wing. This technique differs
to its rivals, many of whom have focussed
on the inner portion of the wing for
downforce, steeply sweeping the outer parts
downwards, with a focus on wake control.
The W11’s front wing sees the top
element reduce in height slightly towards
the outboard section, which likely works
together with the curved trailing edge
of the end plate to promote outwash.
In an attempt to reduce the likelihood
of tyre damage, the rules around the front
wing end plate saw a minor change for
2020. The leading 50mm must now be
made wholly of carbon fibre, with any metal
fasteners or inserts sited at least 30mm
rearwards from the leading edge. This Mercedes was the first team to adopt the narrow, low-nose design in the field, with several other constructors following suit
rule change yielded very little difference for the 2020 season. Here you can see the ‘skirt’ behind the nose that controls the Y250 vortices
to the front wing end plates of the W11
when compared to the W10, aside from at the complexity of the bargeboard includes how it performs in yaw, roll and
the addition of a small wing profile on structures these cars are carrying, it is pitch because they are all working at the
the centre of the end plate’s outer face. a good indication of the complexity of same time in a corner. Even if you consider
Of greater note is the unique nose design the underlying flow field that is there. the changing of flow direction relative to
of the Mercedes, which has a slotted skirt ‘We manipulate the flow with everything the ground, you are entirely affecting the
that came into play last season and has we are doing on the inboard sections of flow over the rest of the car as you do that.
carried through to the W11. The nose and the wing, but we’re also manipulating it ‘Changes to the flow field will be
the skirt underneath it generate some very with lots of other bits as well. It all comes completely different between conditions.
complex interactions with the air coming off together to give us the solution we want, As such, we don’t look at any one state and
the front wing, as Elliott explains: ‘Our nose rather than one dominant feature.’ investigate what happens at x yaw with x
design tries to manipulate tyre wake and steer and x roll at x ride height to find how
get the Y250 structures to the bargeboard Holistic strategy that affects performance on track. We look at
behind. The equations of fluid motion are When it comes to cornering aerodynamic all the elements together. There is no point
elliptic, which means everything in the flow performance, Elliott describes Mercedes’ developing a car that is quick in turn 10 in
field affects everything else. Therefore, it is development strategy as holistic. Barcelona when it’s rubbish everywhere else.
all interacting, and so there is no concept of ‘We want to know how the balance of ‘Not only do we want the best performing
being able to separate flow features apart. the car is changing throughout the corner, car, we also want to produce one that’s
‘Different teams have different and what upsets the aerodynamics of the balanced and consistent to the driver and
ways of managing that and, if you look car and how stable the flow field is. That works with the mechanical set-up of the car.

12 www.racecar-engineering.com JANUARY 2021

 The wishbones are
about as high and as
flat as possible now,
and this technique
has little to do with
the suspension
Mike Elliott, technology
director at Mercedes F1

rear cake tin furniture, that optimally

balances the flow field. It’s a complex
interaction that manipulates different
flows. That’s all I can say there.’

The front suspension is designed around aerodynamic components on the so-called ‘cake tins’, which influence the flow DAS re-boot
fields. These aerodynamic parts need space to work, and moving the wishbones up and out of the way achieves that The big news from Mercedes at the start
of the season was the Dual-Axis Steering
(DAS) system. It was revealed to rivals on
the second day of pre-season testing in
Barcelona, when onboard footage showed
Lewis Hamilton moving his steering
wheel fore and aft on corner entry and
exit respectively. It was observed that the
steering wheel movement coincided with
a change in toe angle of the front wheels,
with pushing generating a toe out (similar
to the default position for a Formula 1
car) and pulling bringing the wheels
inwards to a more neutral toe position.
At the technical conference in that
afternoon, Mercedes’ technical director,
James Allison, coined the system DAS.
Elliott explained to Racecar that DAS
was a separate project initiated in the
performance areas of the business, and
was a combination of efforts by the Vehicle
The rear suspension is designed to interact with the rear floor and rear tyre squirt. Note the dirt on the bodywork, indicating Dynamics and Vehicle Concept groups.
airflow converging on the rear centreline and exiting through the upper and lower rear suspension wishbones ‘There wasn’t anything in particular in
terms of car behaviour that Mercedes wanted
Car behaviour can be controlled in the set- the Y250 vortices, which shed from the to improve with the introduction of DAS. It
up of the suspension, ride height, how we inboard ends of the front wing elements was implemented as a tuning tool, offering
want to make use of the tyres and so on. at their intersection with the regulation- a dynamic way to improve in all areas, and
‘Driveability, predictability and tuning controlled central portion of the wing. this is a consequence of the fact that we are
scope has seen a huge drive in Mercedes Elliott explains: ‘The wishbones are far down the line on these regulations.’
over the past couple of years to rid us of the about as high and as flat as possible now,
‘diva-like’ characteristics our cars used to have.’ and this technique has little to do with the Seasonal change
suspension, it’s more about the cake tins The 2020 season started late, and that
Suspension aero [carbon covers over the front brake systems influenced not just the tracks Formula 1 went
Much of the front suspension design which support the calipers]. More specifically, to, but also double headers, with almost
Mercedes has on the 2020 car is an evolution it is about how we’re using bits on the all races occurring at different times of the
of that which is now commonplace in the cake tins to influence the flow fields and year than they would normally. Places like
paddock, which sees the front wishbones as giving those bits space to work. Moving the Austria, where the season started in July,
high as teams believe feasible. Positioning wishbones up and out of the way does that.’ and Barcelona in August saw unusually
the wishbones in this configuration The W11’s rear suspension is designed hot conditions, while races in Germany in
provides a significant structural challenge, the way it is because of how it interacts October were significantly colder than any
though a positive aerodynamic trade off. with the rear floor. Again, Elliott clarifies: other race in the current era. Elliott insists
The impetus behind the high wishbone ‘The interaction here is between the tyre development of the car was unaffected by
concept is to provide a cleaner path for seal area, as well as all the bits on the this unexpected change to the calendar.

JANUARY 2021 www.racecar-engineering.com 13

RACECAR FOCUS – MERCEDES AMG F1 W11 EQ PERFORMANCE

We’re not in this to try

‘After Australia was cancelled, the factories ‘Mercedes had not released any updates
closed, and the calendar changed. We didn’t for the W11 for a number of races,’ he stated.

and produce the best

see a huge chance to start afresh, so we ‘This strategy is very thoroughly thought
went with the package we designed for through, because not in every championship
2020 initially. We used driver-in-the-loop can you afford to close the book early.
simulation to optimise what we’ve got for the ‘But the rules changed quite a lot for absolute product, we’re
new circuits and the forecasted conditions. next year and in that respect, like in previous
‘For the significant anomalies, like
Germany in October, many assumed we
years, we decided to switch to next year’s
car midway in 2020. This is why you can
in this to try and produce
made considerable changes to optimise
the operation of the car running in those
see the shifting performance between the
teams. We always have a very strong start
a product that is better
ambient temperatures. We didn’t, we had
that range from the start of the season.
and middle of the season, and then whoever
continues to develop is strong at the end.’
than our opposition’s
Germany was cold, but I think if you look From the technical side, Elliott articulates, Mike Elliott, technology director
at where we are in winter testing, it’s not ‘As you develop a car, the one you’ve at Mercedes F1
hugely different, so we design to able just created is the best car you’ve ever
to run at a range of temperatures. produced, because you’ve got the most ‘In some years, I’ve been involved in car
‘The way you would make use of the knowledge. It is on target for what you want projects where we’ve exceeded those targets
package you’ve got in terms of cooling, and to achieve in terms of the numbers you and not been quick enough. And I’ve been
how you deal with the tyres, changes as a set at the beginning of the development in years where we’ve come under and had
result of the ambient conditions. The circuit period. But yet, you’re picking those a rapid car. So, did we achieve our target?
temperature was an interesting challenge this numbers based on what you think you Well, for me, we achieved our target when
year, but we didn’t change the car, we just need to find, based on what you believe we got to the first few races, and we saw our
changed the set-up to get the best out of it.’ your development slope looks like, and performances was where we wanted it to be.’
where you think everybody else is. As part of a cost-saving measure resulting
Development strategy ‘In some ways, you’re setting a target from the Covid-19 pandemic, teams will only
Traditionally, Mercedes has outperformed based on the knowledge you’ve got of be allowed to develop specific areas of the
the competition by a process of massive where you think you can get. So, when you chassis for 2021 via a token system. Mercedes
development over the winter, producing hit that target, it doesn’t mean anything. deem the regulation changes critical,
a robust car for race one of the incoming The reality is that we’re not in this to try and are front loading the development
season, followed by consistent but less and produce the best absolute product, in the hope of maintaining dominance
potent changes compared to its rivals we’re in this to try and produce a product over the rest of the field at race one.
throughout the season. This development that is better than our opposition’s. ‘There will be quite big aerodynamic
strategy has seen the team start strong, ‘You can’t judge whether you’ve done changes,’ confirms Elliott. ‘These have been
and its competitors only start breathing an excellent job or a lousy job without put in place to try and limit downforce and
down its neck in the mid-season to the seeing what everybody else has done. So, will have big consequences. I think they
closing stages of the championship. what generally happens is we sit down at are big enough in terms of the effect on
At a conference at the Nürburgring the end of the season and ask ourselves lap time that whoever does the best job
in October, Mercedes Formula 1 team where we think we need to be, given the of developing out of those and recovering
principal, Toto Wolff, explained that regulations. And then we look at how we’ve the performance will have the best car.
Mercedes had stopped the development been developing, what sort of slope we think ‘I don’t think we can sit comfortably
of its 2020 Formula 1 car ‘a long the competitors are developing on, what we thinking we’ve been quick this year. We need
time ago’, as questions arose about believe our time gaps are and then kind of to do a good job over the winter, and we
its diminishing advantage over shoot for a point in space, using the timeline need to get as much performance out of
Red Bull at the German circuit. of race one. And that’s where we head. those regulation changes as we can.’

The rake of the 2020 Mercedes AMG F1 W11 EQ Performance, to give the car its full official title, is higher than it was in previous seasons

14 www.racecar-engineering.com JANUARY 2021

PU FOCUS – MERCEDES AMG F1 M11 EQ PERFORMANCE

Power
play
Incremental
development is the
philosophy in F1, and
Mercedes has proved
it’s at the top of the
engine game
By STEWART MITCHELL

M
ercedes’ seemingly
insurmountable power unit
output advantage over the
competition at the beginning
of the current hybrid era has eroded with
each passing year of the current regulations,
and the gap between each power unit has
narrowed. However, Mercedes remains at
the top of the pack in 2020, with only Honda
power in the back of the Red Bull RB16 piloted
by Max Verstappen seeming to disturb the
two black arrows on outright pace on track. engine, turbocharger, MGU-H, fuel or oil, The power unit allowance remains at three
By combining live GPS data with sector and only one change is permitted to any of per driver per season. This is coupled with
time and lap time information with the FOM these parts for the 2021 season. Additionally, higher power demands year-on-year, owing
data streams off each car, teams can work out only one specification change to the MGU-K, to increased downforce on the car. This affects
how much power another car is using in each control electronics package and energy store the power unit, both structurally in terms
sector, and therefore the energy strategy, is allowed between the start of the 2020 of the output requirement and subsequent
and even the efficiency of the competitions’ season and end of the 2021 season. loads on the parts, as well as reliability as the
hybrid systems. Using such analysis, it is engine must sustain this output for longer.
hypothesised there is a 25bhp delta between Dyno testing With Formula 1 being a fuel flow limited
the best of the field and the worst. On top of these development restrictions, formula, set so the fuel mass flow to the
There were no significant changes to the FIA also brought stricter dyno testing engine may not exceed 100kg/h at any
the Formula 1 power unit regulations for limitations into force for 2020. Teams are now point, with a maximum allowable fuel load of
2020. But, in early June 2020, Formula 1 limited to nine full-fired, multi-cylinder engine 106kg to last a race distance, the regulations
management froze development, restricting tests, or a fired engine and transmission force teams to design engines to maximise
the four engine manufacturers to a certain together, including full-car dynos (but combustion efficiency as a function of the
number of specifications of internal excluding single-cylinder engine testing). thermal characteristics in the cylinder.
combustion engine and hybrid elements until the end of the 2025 season.
for the remainder of the current power unit However, Mercedes completed much of its Efficiency gains
period, ending in 2025. development on the 2020 power unit before The largest contributor to the performance
The regulation revisions stated that pre-season testing. During that time, the gains in Mercedes’ power unit comes from
for 2020 no changes are allowed to any upgrades were designed and tested as much combustion development and friction
component within the internal combustion as the old regulations permitted. reduction. Each year, engineers come up with

16 www.racecar-engineering.com JANUARY 2021

 Tight packaging of the power unit for aerodynamic gains has been a significant area of development for the Mercedes
Formula 1 team. The rapidly converging ‘Coke bottle’ shape to the rear half of the car is testament to its efforts here

The largest contributor burnt as rapidly as possible. That’s the theory,

but it is challenging to achieve in practice.
combustion process itself, and then build the
engine that enables that around it. In turn,

to the performance As ever in technological development,

it’s more a case of ‘win-lose’ than outright
the development teams’ efforts aim for the
engine to reject as little heat as possible to

gains in Mercedes’
‘win-win’, so teams must be selective in their reduce the amount the aerodynamicists have
development strategies to ensure the ‘win’ is to channel through the radiators.

power unit comes from

of greater magnitude than the ‘lose’, so the
net result is an overall improvement. Combustion development
Coupled with the fact the single-stage It remains true that, while there are many
combustion development turbocharged, 1600cc, 90-degree V6 engines energy type conversions in the Formula 1
are supported by a hybrid system, strategies power unit (and many transmission loops
and friction reduction include MGU-H and MGU-K development.
There are many ways teams can reach
in the power unit), the most lucrative one is
from fuel to useful work at the crankshaft.
the 1000bhp overall output required to be Consequently, heat (and therefore energy)
a more efficient and reliable running engine, competitive in contemporary Formula 1. release in the combustion process is where
which allows gains to be found in tighter Mercedes’ route to meet the challenge has most of the development resource is spent.
packaging and integration. These, in turn, seen the manufacturer on top since the In the quest to convert all the chemical
mean improvements can be found elsewhere. start of the current engine era, and doing so energy in the fuel into kinetic energy, teams
To this end, the ideal combination from a from its Brixworth, UK site, with the help of are constanly chasing down losses in the
combustion efficiency perspective is a high Daimler’s R&D group in Stuttgart. process, including ideal gas and combustion
compression ratio (Formula 1 permits up to To maximise combustion efficiency, time losses, as well as other waste factors
18:1) with a lean mixture, with that mixture Formula 1 teams typically work on the such as friction and heat. In an ideal world,

JANUARY 2021 www.racecar-engineering.com 17

PU FOCUS – MERCEDES AMG F1 M11 EQ PERFORMANCE

The remarkably tight packaging of the Mercedes power unit (2019 iteration shown here) has been a huge
enabler to its overall performance, predominantly in the freedom it has allowed for the aerodynamicists

Exhaust header development revolves around how the spent gas

energy converges onto the turbine side of the split turbocharger
that runs through the centre of the vee (2019 PU shown here)

they don’t want any of the available energy

doing anything other than pushing the piston
down to drive the crankshaft.
Additionally, any energy not converted to
crankshaft rotation they want going into the
turbocharger, rather than out of the exhaust
system as spent heat energy. A consequence
of those targets is that heat rejection must
be managed very well. A power unit where
heat rejection is going up is one where losses
are going up relative to the fixed amount of
energy coming from fuel flow.
Mercedes’ internal combustion engine
programme has focussed heavily on thermal
efficiency. Despite being long into the current
hybrid regulation set, the manufacturer
has found more ways to tackle gas losses,
improve combustion gas formations and the
ratio of specific heats that define its chemical As much as the internal combustion engine development is critical, so too are the electrified elements of the
to kinetic energy transfer efficiency. powertrain. The MGU-K can be seen underneath the exhaust manifold on the left of this picture of the 2019
‘With energy input limited, the way PU. Mercedes has gone to great lengths to increase the maximum deployment time of its MGU-K
the fuel and air that enters the engine
and combusts needs to be considered
very carefully,’ explains Mercedes-AMG
‘These changes have not yielded a
considerable amount of percentage in terms
Over the whole period
High Performance Powertrains (HPP)
managing director, Hywel Thomas. ‘Over
of the combustion efficiency individually, but
each element is either a direct contributor of this regulation set,
the whole period of this regulation set,
we’ve been striving to understand the
or an enabler elsewhere. At this point in
the development cycle, it’s very much we’ve been striving
combustion process to the best of our
abilities, and develop techniques to be
about putting those details together with
collections of information in other areas to to understand the
combustion process to
able to use what we theorise we gain in creep up the thermal efficiency. It’s the whole
combustion, and then develop the engine package we’re looking to develop and, where

the best of our abilities

in several ways to get the thermal efficiency you can find small gains in lots of places,
to climb slowly. it’s leading to a more considerable overall
‘We’ve made some changes this year increase. It’s this technique at this stage in
Hywel Thomas, managing director at
on the piston rings, and the positioning of the regulations, rather than any significant
the piston rings relative to the crown. Also concept change or revolutions we’re chasing. Mercedes-AMG HPP
changes to the details around the gas slots ‘It is that continual development, and
and drain slots. These changes are to look through learning and pushing just that little
after blow-by and oil consumption. bit further, we’ve made gains in every area.’

18 www.racecar-engineering.com JANUARY 2021

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PU FOCUS – MERCEDES AMG F1 M11 EQ PERFORMANCE

Formula 1 engines require complete

combustion to happen almost Technical Directive 37
instantaneously at TDC, with blow down

W
complete by BDC. The process used to ith the introduction of Technical ‘There are races on some circuits where we
develop that combustion speed revolves Directive 37, multiple engine modes are running almost the same mode as before the
around manipulating geometries and for qualifying and races were banned, Technical Directive came in,’ confirms Thomas. ‘As
parameters in the combustion chamber, and and with it went Mercedes’ Strat 2, or so-called long as you’re doing it every single lap of the race
selecting the fastest combustion process ‘party mode’. As qualifying is for outright and qualifying, you can do it. Our power unit is
highlighted from CAD modelling and then pace over a single lap, considerations for the very robust, but there are still considerations in
CFD simulation of the chamber. That is deployment strategy beyond the start / finish line the damage this causes to the engine, should we
followed by correlation to ensure the output go out of the proverbial window. use a full qualifying mode at every circuit.
on the real engine will match the simulation. In qualifying mode scenarios, teams would ‘That isn’t the case, though, and there are
‘Once we know the digital model of essentially leave the pits with a fully charged other areas where [the mode] is very different
the combustion chamber is translating, we battery and end the from what we were running
can make subtle changes to some of the hot lap with the battery We have not suffered before the Technical
inputs [fuel injection and spark parameters,
for example] and the geometries in the
completely depleted, with
little consideration given
specifically because of Directive came in. I’m not
going to give you a number
combustion chamber,’ continues Thomas. to the laps that follow. Technical Directive 37. It of kilowatts, or a percentage
‘An example of this is on the piston crown
and the valves. Changes made here on the
There is also a damage
function in such a mode that
has just forced us to be difference between where
we were and where we are
digital model were validated using CFD to protects the power unit if more thorough with our now nominally.
understand how that is affecting combustion. exploited for more than a ‘What I will say is
We try different scenarios and form an single lap without time to engineering processes we have not suffered
understanding of the tuning that generates recover energy and cool the – Hywel Thomas specifically because of
the most efficient combustion. Then we verify electrical systems. Technical Directive 37.
the final solution on the real engine.’ Until Technical Directive 37 came into force, It has just forced us to be more thorough with
at Monza Mercedes had scope to accommodate our engineering processes.
Spontaneous combustion a situation where its drivers could run qualifying ‘It is about having more robust simulation,
The chaos inside current Formula 1 engine modes during a race stint as part of its overall more robust engineering, more robust prove
combustion chambers, combined with the strategy. In such cases, as with qualifying, the out and then more robust manufacturing and
extreme pressure and high compression battery would be depleted to its lowest safe state supplier quality as well as assembly process to
ratios, creates an environment that can of charge with the view that the pace would gain make the product more consistent. That has
produce controlled spontaneous combustion. track position value, whether it be leapfrogging in been the real lesson from the Technical Directive
Contained within certain crank angle the pits or clearing traffic on the same lap. from our perspective.’
degrees around TDC, this can provide what is
termed Homogenous Charge Compression

Formula 1 teams also

Ignition (HCCI). In short, this is a form of But if HCCI can accurately be controlled
combustion in which uniformly dispersed here, it would likely be most beneficial during
air / fuel mix is compressed inside a cylinder harvesting conditions (steady rpm with
to the point of instantaneous auto-ignition. variable load) and off-throttle moments. use various cylinder
This phenomenon is a huge enabler in the As to whether Mercedes uses HCCI that is
quest for ultra lean-burn operation and
high thermal efficiency. It is not exclusive
controlled in such a fashion Thomas would
not confirm, only reiterating the Mercedes’ PU
strategies to run engines
to Formula 1, but applies to all systems that
require a highly efficient IC powertrain.
uses spark assistance to start combustion. on any number of
Most HCCI engines currently in operation Cylinder strategies cylinders, from zero to six
use very complicated components, such as To further improve the overall cycle efficiency
cylinder heads with built in pre-combustion of the internal combustion engine, F1 teams
chambers and electronically-actuated also use various strategies to run engines on contributor to the success the team has
control systems that accurately monitor and any number of cylinders, from zero, when acquired in this current hybrid era.
control the temperature of the working fluids the MGU-K is in full recovery and the throttle
throughout the intake and compression cycle. is shut, to six. The job of the engineers is to Friction losses
Currently, there is little in the public understand the attendant dynamics of that Just as important is to extract the maximum
domain about HCCI use in Formula 1, with on the crank train and everything after it, as possible force from the chemical to kinetic
teams only confirming that, in some cases, well as the impact on the intake and exhaust / energy conversion when the fuel and air
the pressure increase that occurs as a turbo loop, and the tuning implications. combust in the chamber, and key to this is
consequence of combustion gas chaos causes There is a journey from the driver being reducing frictional losses. Consequently,
spontaneous combustion, as opposed to on full throttle to coming off it, and then a surface finishes have been a significant area
flame front combustion, and, in some cases, journey back onto the throttle where there is of development for Mercedes, especially since
that is welcome. It’s fair to say that control of the opportunity to go from six fired cylinders the 2018 reduction of engine allocation.
such a complicated condition in any engine, down to zero, or anything in between, and ‘There have been developments in
but particularly a race engine that sees such then the same on the way back up. Exactly coatings in recent years, and coatings have
extreme full-throttle duty cycles as Formula 1 how Mercedes implement this is also a been essential in allowing us to reduce
engines do is an extremely challenging closely guarded secret, but the technology is friction, increase torque and reduce the stress
environment to achieve. known to be used. It is no doubt a significant on rubbing components,’ confirms Thomas.

20 www.racecar-engineering.com JANUARY 2021

FUTURE

Photo: Joel Kernasenko

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PU FOCUS – MERCEDES AMG F1 M11 EQ PERFORMANCE

Because of the sheer

‘As for the oil properties, we work closely combustion engine and the MGU-K and turbo
with Petronas, and have several programmes compound loop / MGU-H electrical machines.

amount of energy and

with them looking at friction and how we can
change the lubrication regimes and match Electrical strategy
the oil to what’s happening in the engine to The route to good lap times is to maximise
reduce that friction. overall efficiency at all times, but in some power flowing through
‘The surface finishes we can now achieve cases it may actually be better for overall lap
on the components that require fluid film
separation have significantly improved, and
time to sacrifice some internal combustion
engine performance to boost the power of
the hybrid systems,
this has allowed us to change the viscosity of
the engine oil to make it more efficient.
the electrical machine in a given track sector.
With this in mind, quick lap times insist
small opportunities to
‘The base viscosity of the oil is something
we bear in mind, and it’s not always the case
on the best possible power at the start of
the straight, having deployment power from
improve efficiency yield
that a lower viscosity oil will make the engine
have less friction. Along with some of the
the MGU-K available whenever the car is not
traction limited, and keeping the electrical
massive rewards
very detailed formulation work we do with deployment for the longest time possible.
Petronas, matching oils to how the engine is However, on many Formula 1 circuits, it is
running has certainly made steps in reducing not necessary to have maximum deployment Mercedes’ mantra for the hybrid system
the overall friction of the engine. for all of the straight as harvesting for peak development is that the target output should
‘Like many things, it’s that continual deployment at the exit of an upcoming be an average of the peak deployment on
development, and learning to understand corner may yield better overall power strategy each circuit on the calendar, with some
the complexities in the relationship between and lap time gains than the car’s Vmax. In headroom for reliability and push-to-pass
components, that creates a gain. Working other words, high average torque counts. potential during on-track battles. The team
with Petronas brings incremental changes As Formula 1 regulations cap the power noted that each year full power MGU-K time
that we understand and can characterise output of the MGU-K, teams aim to ensure went up incrementally, partly as a function of
properly, rather than large steps.’ the turbo compound loop is robust and hybrid system development, but also thanks
While having peak performance output efficient enough so that at all of the race to improved aerodynamics, suspension and
from the internal combustion engine is critical circuits, the MGU-K is on all of the time it understanding of the tyres.
to performance, Formula 1 engines must be can be, with the battery state of charge As to the question of whether teams have
thought of in the context of an integrated not swinging dramatically from lap to lap. now reached a point where MGU-H / MGU-K
powertrain, which combines the internal Improving the efficiency of that loop is key. development is starting to plateau, at least
within the current regulations, Mercedes is
adamant there are still gains to be had. The
consensus is still that small opportunities to
improve efficiency yield massive rewards.
For example, improving the efficiency of the
turbo compound loop increases the amount
of MGU-K on time, which, in turn, means the
system is more resilient to derating in high
output scenarios.
Overall, it seems Mercedes has managed
to maintain its electrical energy advantage
over its opponents in 2020, primarily thanks
to the MGU-K on time potential being longer
Battery technology has seen significant improvements throughout the duration of this regulation set (2018 PU than its competitors. You can see that in the
and battery shown in the forefront here) races by looking at where the other cars
suffer derate, and velocity consequently
drops off when compared to the Mercedes’
seemingly relentless power delivery.
Another area Mercedes identifies as
advantageous to its power unit success
is its integration of the electronics systems.
The team has worked exceptionally hard
to make sure all controls for the power unit
are in one box, and all the systems in one
place, avoiding having to use additional
cables and connectors. This optimisation
lowers weight and volume, reduces
complexity and offers greater reliability.
How Mercedes’ development of the car
and engine will progress in the remaining
The exhaust gas flow indirectly provides high energy years of the current power unit formula
flow to the underside of the rear wing element, which remains to be seen. But, with seven
generates more downforce than would happen passively championships under its belt, it’s clear
Mercedes remains the team to beat.

22 www.racecar-engineering.com JANUARY 2021

NASCAR – AI-ENHANCED STRATEGY

all-seeing
eye

24 www.racecar-engineering.com JANUARY 2021

 The final calls on
strategy still rest
with the crew
chief, but they are
now backed up
with considerable
engineering
resource

The role of the

NASCAR crew chief
is changing, thanks
to the relentless
march of artificial
intelligence
By LAWRENCE BUTCHER

T
he traditional image of a NASCAR
crew chief is an analogue one,
sat atop their pit box in isolation,
reliant on an accumulated
internal databank to make judgement
calls on race strategy. The modern reality,
however, is a far more digital affair.
The big, manufacturer-backed teams
now utilise mission control operations
similar to those pioneered in Formula 1
and, while telemetry data is still far sparser
Data analysis is increasing rapidly in NASCAR’s development in Stock Car than single-seater racing,
processes, from race strategy and studying the competition teams do now have some real-time feeds
to next generation car improvement from their cars. Importantly, they also have
data on what their competition is doing.

JANUARY 2021 www.racecar-engineering.com 25

NASCAR – AI-ENHANCED STRATEGY

A snap shot of the type of data display seen in a modern NASCAR team’s mission control. Combining all this data with intuition and experience makes for a winning combination

The final calls on strategy still rest with the

crew chief, but they are now backed up
with considerable engineering resource,
including machine learning-based artificial
intelligence (AI) strategy systems.
The march of AI is everywhere, its
scope seemingly endless, be it at the
core of autonomous driving technology
or harnessed by companies to figure out
our personal habits. AI, and the machine-
learning algorithms that underpin it, have
revolutionised the way data is processed,
and it is only natural race engineers are
looking to use this to their advantage.
In the case of GM-backed teams
in the Cup series, they are doing so
through an application called Pit Rho,
developed by specialists Rho AI.

Racing roots
According to company founder, Josh Browne,
a former Chrysler engineer and NASCAR Calling a pit stop strategy incorrectly can lose a race for a fast car, but get it right and it can push a slower car up the field
crew chief, ‘The idea was lifted straight from
Formula 1.’ Back when Dodge was still in
the Stock Car game, there was a degree
‘One of the things we saw, which is likely
ancient technology now, was their method
A more competitive field,
of knowledge exchange between racing
programmes that fell under the Daimler
for predicting the outcome of a race.
Starting from the first practice laps, based
longer races, and a lot of
Chrysler umbrella and Dieter Zetsche, then
head of Daimler, had an interest in NASCAR.
purely on lap times and sector times, and
then refining the projections lap by lap.’
full-course cautions…
At the time, Browne was involved with
Evernham Motorsports (running Dodges),
He spent his last two years in NASCAR
as chief engineer with Red Bull, which
add an element of
a very engineering-led team in the 2000s,
and had the opportunity to visit the then
entailed more experience of F1, by
which time, ‘several of the McLaren
statistical chaos to any
McLaren Mercedes team in the UK.
‘Some of us in the Vehicle Dynamics
strategists had migrated to RBF1, and
the concept of predicting outcomes had
modelling work
Group got to go over quite a bit,’ he recalls. evolved. I got to see that evolution.’ Josh Browne, Rho AI founder

26 www.racecar-engineering.com JANUARY 2021

An example data screen showing speed comparisons, suggested strategies and predicted competitor strategy. Having an inkling of what your opponents may be planning is invaluable

Pit Rho display window showing a speed comparison between the field at Texas, the race where the system offered a strategy that led to a surprise win for a slower car

The seed of an idea was sown to apply Nevertheless, he still felt it was driver subsets. For example, Jeff Gordon vs
a similar approach to Stock Cars but, possible to use modelling to call NASCAR Jimmie Johnson at a particular track. The MIT
notes Browne, ‘the NASCAR problem is races, but a lack of willingness to invest guys knew I was generally unaffiliated, with
harder than in F1. Subjectively speaking, meant it remained a pipe dream. a technical and quantitative background,
you have a more competitive field, longer and they wanted to build a machine-
races, and a lot of full-course cautions, An academic interlude learning model to gamble on NASCAR.’
which add an element of statistical Browne left the world of racing and decided This took Browne back to his earlier ideas
chaos to any modelling work you do. to undertake an engineering PhD, during the of an F1-style predictive model and, following
‘You don’t need a PhD to reasonably course of which he met a group of people a call to long-time colleague, Eric Warren
predict the outcome of an F1 race better from MIT who wanted to develop a gambling (now head of GM’s NASCAR activities), to
than 50 per cent, if you just take the model to predict the outcome of NASCAR access current timing data, coupled with his
running order after the first lap. That’s races. ‘There were four or five sports books in own 10-years plus of historical data, the basis
not the case in a Stock Car race.’ Vegas where you could bet head to head on for a machine-learning model was developed.

JANUARY 2021 www.racecar-engineering.com 27

NASCAR – AI-ENHANCED STRATEGY

Though initially basic in terms of data

inputs, the model proved effective, as
Browne explains: ‘If you have the lap times
for enough cars over a long enough period
of time, you can start to extract meaningful,
interesting, sometimes valuable trends. You
can estimate traffic density, as you know
when cars cross the start / finish line and
how far apart they are from each other.
‘From that, you can begin to extract
aerodynamic and traffic density sensitivities,
and from there develop track feature
sensitivities. For example, you know
that aerodynamic sensitivity at Bristol is
going to be different to Indianapolis.
‘Our gambling model very quickly
evolved into a predictive analytics tool. We
were making money with the gambling
project, and it was fun, but it wasn’t as
interesting as building a model we could
actually use in competition. We didn’t
want to do both, because there could be
a perceived conflict of interest there.’ Initially, publicly available information was used to enhance the model with pit stop data. Integrating that broadened its scope
General Motors saw the potential
in the idea for its racing programmes
and funded the initial development
‘From that, you can do a good bit of
derived statistics, up to and including It is the system’s ability
work, and has been a partner of the
resulting company, Rho AI, ever since.
some vehicle dynamics metrics that are
valuable in real time,’ notes Browne. ‘What to learn, on a lap-by-lap
basis, and adjust strategy
So it was that Browne returned to the helps in NASCAR, compared to F1, is that
racing fray, with the company working everyone is on the same tyres. Couple

calls to suit the specifics

initially with Eric Warren, then at Richard that with some reasonable assumptions
Childress Racing, before expanding to around cornering stiffness and other
encompass all GM-backed teams. suspension characteristics and you can
make some deductions around tyre usage of a given track at a
Data integration and lateral force generation at each corner.’
The next stage in the system’s development
was the integration of pit stop data. To
What this means in practice is that
informed estimates can be made of each
particular moment in time,
achieve this, a number of tools were
designed to extract pit stop information
car in the field’s performance every 0.2
seconds. ‘You can then relate that to
that makes it so powerful
from publicly available sources, specifically a your car’s lap time. What are the trends?
number of fan-facing, second-screen apps. Where do they rank in lap times? What is
‘We then knew who pitted when, the slope to any trend? Can the lap times
and what they did. Such as take on tyres be attributed to performance issues? dozen or so features that really matter, and
and fuel, or just fuel, that sort of thing. ‘You can then inform the crew chief and then allow the system to learn those features
We had a small army of data collection race engineers on the pit box that they are as a race evolves,’ concurs Browne. ‘For
people that were really good at that and currently, for example, the 11th quickest example, we might identify that if you restart
we had an active data set built around car on track at that point, and are losing on the front row, in a car that is only 15th on
pit stop information,’ explains Browne. most of their speed on corner entry at both speed, on older tyres, you can still win the
It was at this point, in 2017, that the ends of the racetrack, which may be due to race, because the adjusted speed from first
system had its first high-profile success. ‘We an oversteer-type instability, so that’s what to 15th might only be 0.15 seconds a lap, but
made a call that everyone else thought was they need to work on,’ summarises Browne. it is worth 0.18 seconds a lap to start first.
really risky and stupid, and left Ryan Newman While a team might not necessarily like ‘We actually won with Austin Dillon
out late on old tyres from eighth or ninth being told it only has the 11th fastest car on at Texas this year doing exactly that. It
place. We won the race. After that, people got track, Browne stresses this is important when was because by that point in the race,
a lot more interested in harnessing machine it comes to strategy. ‘We wouldn’t want to we precisely understood the dynamics
learning-based tools to drive strategy.’ recommend an aggressive strategy to a car around lap time degradation, traffic
In the past two years, NASCAR has that is not that fast, which might temporarily density, everything like that.’
opened up the data streams it derives from put it out front, only for it to be back down It is this ability for the system to
the cars’ ECUs and dash-logger displays to the pack in a short time. Or worse, wreck.’ learn, on a lap-by-lap basis, and adjust
teams, providing relatively low-resolution strategy calls to suit the specifics of a
data on throttle position, steering angle, Significant features given track at a particular moment in
brake pressure, longitudinal and lateral Key to making the system work, and drawing time, that makes it so powerful.
acceleration and GPS coordinates. The on what is now 18 years’ worth of data, is The unusual situation around the
important element in this being that all data, identifying which features of the data are 2020 season, where there have been
from all cars, is available to every team. most significant. ‘We have to understand the no practice sessions before races, has

28 www.racecar-engineering.com JANUARY 2021

NASCAR – AI-ENHANCED STRATEGY

As soon as the
placed an even greater onus on Pit
Rho’s algorithms, as Browne notes.

green flag drops,

‘We had to do a lot of aggressive machine
learning at the start of the race to be able to
make strategy calls like the one at Texas.’
There are, of course, a host of other factors we start learning
that can evolve through a race weekend and
season that must be accounted for. Track
surface is just one example. Some tracks are
visited twice in a year and, taking Phoenix as The top drivers tend to be quite adept in
a case in point, the cars first run early in the this area, knowing not to waste time battling
season, and then again later when the track to keep someone behind to the detriment of
has been baked by an Arizona summer. overall race position. However, he notes the
‘We assume the lap times will be different one exception was every driver in the field
from the first to second race at the venue, but used to slow down to pass Danica Patrick,
we have to accurately quantify the difference even those usually unphased by passing.
once we have informed the models with ‘It wasn’t a statement about her
historical data. So, as soon as the green flag being erratic, simply that other drivers
drops, we start learning,’ says Browne. perhaps seemed to subconsciously
This approach also applies to changing not want to risk wrecking one of the
conditions throughout a race. Over hundreds most popular drivers in the series.’
of laps, the position of the sun changes,
altering track temperatures across a lap. More Old school acceptance
so in those races that run from day into night. There is definitely still the outside perception
Even the ability of drivers to pass or that NASCAR crew chiefs are old school in
be passed is considered. ‘We have passing their approach to running cars but, over
dynamics. How well can one driver pass, or the past two decades, Stock Car racing has
how do they react when being passed by become a sport dominated by engineering
others? Which drivers are hard to pass? Can method. Even those that might potentially be
you identify whether a driver has made a pass viewed as set in their ways, borne out of years
just by their lap time?’ observes Browne. of hard-won success, such as Chad Knaus

The next stage in the development process is to take a data science approach to the recommendations the system makes, in order to give hard evidence to back up set-up changes

30 www.racecar-engineering.com JANUARY 2021

 The crew chief’s view

C
liff Daniels was, until recently, crew chief on the no.48 car of Jimmie Johnson
for Hendrick Motorsport and, for 2021, will run Kyle Larson in no.5. He is well
accustomed to working with the Pit Rho system and made the following
observations on how it has changed his role.
‘The cool part is you’re able to take a 10,000ft view and say, ‘Okay, I know x based on
empirical data that I’ve experienced, decisions I’ve made, outcomes I’ve seen based on
a certain race or race strategy. When you then pair that with a machine that is literally
crunching numbers in the moment, to the millisecond, based on all the different
environmental variables and factors – speed, fall off, pace, competitive strategy, predicted
competitor strategy – all these different aspects. It means you’re able to look at both your
own intuition and a tool that can predict an outcome. It really does open up your options.’
He too notes that the importance of such tools
has increased with the arrival of stage racing.
‘As we’ve gotten deeper into strategising
around data points, and the way the stage formats If you don’t have a car
of our races are, there’s just been a much higher capable of winning,
need for another way to look at the race, based on
the outcome you’re after. your outcome needs to
‘For example, if you don’t have a car capable of
winning, your outcome needs to be to maximise
be to maximise points
points. If you know you have a car capable of
winning, you need to call the race to maximise
your potential to have the track position at the end, to take advantage of your fast car. This
means there’s a couple [of] different philosophies and strategies that have come about as
we all try to make the best calls from scenarios created by the stage racing formats.
When every other car in the field piles into pit row under a caution, ‘That’s where this software has really come into play. Not only for us, but throughout
it takes a brave (or well informed) crew chief to keep their car out the whole of the NASCAR garage.’

(now VP of competition at Hendrick On this final point, he admits that in the but, once you have a car that is running
Motorsports), have, says Browne, been early development stages of the Pit Rho 25th at Bristol, which stays out when there
receptive to the power of data-driven model, former Roush crew chief, Jimmy is a caution thrown 10 laps before the stage
strategy. ‘You could probably place Chad Fennig, was used as a yard stick, thanks to caution, wins the stage, then pits, but still
Knaus in that ‘old school’ category, but his seemingly innate ability to successfully comes back out 25th, bagging 10 points in
he was a huge supporter of the system, call race strategies. ‘When we were doing our the process, people start to pay attention.’
because he knew the difficulty in making historical analysis to build the model, he just Though well refined, those responsible
all of these decisions in real time. had an affinity for the strategic side and so for Pit Rho’s development, and the teams
‘Once we explained the why – and we we would use him as our test for some of the that now use it, are constantly pushing to
don’t just give these guys one chart to data sets, asking, did we out run Jimmy?’ further improve its insights. For example,
look at, our interface has about 70 displays Browne wryly points out that it now Browne admits that one area of ongoing
available, which explain the reasoning to only takes a couple of example races – investigation involves bringing elements
support the recommendations being made where a disagreement with the system’s of set-up change into the equation.
– he was fully behind it. Guys like that, and recommendations can be proved to have ‘Right now, we can tell someone where
others like Andy Petree [who crew chiefed been costly – to convince most of its merit. they are slow and why, and give them a
for Dale Earnhardt, amongst others], are strategy recommendation, but we want to
very intelligent experts in their domain Points mean prizes take a data science approach to telling them
and get it at a very deep level because, in The introduction of the stage system to what chassis adjustment(s) they may consider
their heads, they have a lot of data points.’ NASCAR, though it may offend racing purists, to make the car go faster, at the same
was a gift to data scientists, providing at time balancing the benefit of making that
least two solid data points in every race. adjustment against any time losses in the pits,

The introduction of ‘It changed everything for us. But it was

a pretty easy change, because we already
and telling when they should stop to make it.’
It is clear that the harnessing of

the stage system to optimised for total points. If you’re doing

that, and we’re telling you you’re going
technology such as that used by Rho AI
is a game changer in Stock Car racing,

NASCAR… was a gift to to have these known inflection points

throughout the event that are points
giving crew chiefs and race engineers
levels of insight that would evade even

data scientists, providing earning opportunities, you build your

strategy around that,’ explains Browne.
the greatest polymath. However, Browne
is at pains to point out that it is still just

at least two solid data

The points awarded for stage wins a tool, and those that make best use of it
can, and do, have a decisive effect on will be the ones that not only understand

points in every race

championship standings. Browne gives the it, but augment its usefulness with their
following example: ‘It took a little selling hard-won knowledge and instinct.
RACECAR FOCUS – KTM GT2

My gang
The GT2 class is taking off, with
four manufacturers now building
cars and more coming. KTM
launched its offering in October
By ANDREW COTTON

Revised aerodynamics and a new

engine will give the drivers the
straight-line speed they are looking for

32 www.racecar-engineering.com JANUARY 2021

G
erman motorcycle manufacturer many amateur drivers to race competitively.
KTM, which has been producing With more aero dialled onto the cars, the
the X-Bow and derivatives for speed is made up in the corners rather than
the GT4 category since 2008, has the straights, and the amateur drivers have
taken the next step in its racing programme been rapidly disappearing as a result.
and developed a new car for GT2 aimed Stéphane Ratel, promoter of GT racing
squarely at the customer racing driver. in various series around the world, built his
Actually, the company has launched business on these drivers and so has taken
two cars. Alongside the GT2, KTM has also steps to address the issue, launching a series
released the GTX, which is aimed at track for relatively inexpensive cars more suited to
day driving, the Creventic 24-hour race series them, and both manufacturers and tuners
and can also compete in the GT-Open and have responded positively.
the former VLN series, based on the Audi and Porsche were the first to
Nürburgring Nordschleife. The two cars, GT2 produce cars, the former producing the R8
and GTX, are similar enough that one can be LMS GT2, while the latter created a modern
converted into the other using a conversion interpretation of the 935 based on a 911
kit that will shortly become available. GT2 RS road car. This year, Lamborghini has
GT2 was launched in response to the created a GT2 car from its base of the Huracan
increasingly aerodynamically complex GT3 Trofeo, while McLaren’s plans remain unclear,
cars, which have become too challenging for having designed a GT2 car but not yet built it.

JANUARY 2021 www.racecar-engineering.com 33

RACECAR FOCUS – KTM GT2

With four different makes, including KTM,

now confirmed, and with cars already sold,
the series looks as though it could take off
impressively in the next two years.

The need for speed

KTM’s new car features a development of the
lightweight tub from the X-Bow, but the car
features revised aerodynamics and a new
engine that will give the drivers the straight-
line speed they are looking for.
With a price tag of less than €300,000
(approx. $352,000) and with a running cost of
less than €7/km, the car has already proven
a success at the tills. Development company,
Reiter Engineering, sold its allocation for 2020
and is now taking orders for 2021.

Four layers of
carbon fibre…
produce a double-
walled, two-part Built around a carbon composite monocoque, the KTM is capable of more than just GT2 entry, with the Spa 24h on the cards

carbon fibre cell that

weighs around 80kg
Talk of the GT2 class being allowed to
compete against GT3 cars, which was Ratel’s
original plan, has so far not become a reality,
despite the two concepts being able to
produce similar lap times. GT2 drivers are
unwilling to compete against the GT3 cars
that race in the GT World Challenge events, or
national GT series. However, the Frenchman
confirmed at Spa that the GT2 cars, clearly
capable of completing 24-hour races, would
be invited to race in the Spa 24h race in the
event of his GT3 entries dipping below 50.

Skin deep
The chassis for the KTM X-Bow was developed
with Dallara in 2007, using four layers of
carbon fibre bonded using epoxy resin to
produce a double-walled, two-part carbon
fibre cell that weighs around 80kg. For the
GT2 and GTX versions, a development of that
meets all FIA GT safety standards, thanks to
the addition of an integrated steel rollcage.
The KTM cars feature a ‘jetfighter canopy’,
a front-hinged system that allows the
windscreen and roof to lift providing access
to the cockpit. Such a system means the car
does not need the roof hatch that was made
mandatory in GT cars as access to a driver’s
head and neck is possible. Electronic door
handles are backed up with a mechanical
system in case of failure. A side window allows
for escape should the car become inverted. Adding an integrated steel rollcage structure to the X-Bow carbon tub helped bring the GTX / GT2 up to FIA GT specification

34 www.racecar-engineering.com JANUARY 2021

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RACECAR FOCUS – KTM GT2

Much of the
downforce comes
from the sculpted
underfloor, with
close attention
paid to the front
splitter and mid-
section airflow
The top side of the car looks decidedly
clean and there is a reason for that. Much
of the downforce comes from the sculpted
underfloor, with close attention paid to
the front splitter and mid-section airflow.
Naturally, the rear wing takes care of much
of the adjustability of downforce at the rear,
and two splitters are available to change the
balance at the front.
If you want to triple the
Double down downforce, you can
‘If you want rear downforce, you just add
wing angle,’ confirms Reiter Engineering boss, simply open the aero
Hans Reiter, whose company developed the Hans Reiter, Reiter Engineering
GT4 car for KTM and who was instrumental
in the development of the GT2. ‘The front
splitter has a big advantage in that we have
no radiator at the front. You can have another
front splitter with a high ramp [at the rear, just
ahead of the front wheels] and can double
the downforce at the front if you need to.’ Car has a huge aerodynamic window, with the option to double, or triple, available downforce through simple adjustments
Airflow is channelled to either side of
the cockpit and the outlets there have been
closed off in the presentation car, although,
says Reiter, if you want to dramatically
increase the downforce you can open the
sides and channel air out from the front
wheels that way. It is a concept close to LMP1.
From the front, the car closely resembles a
Le Mans Prototype and that, says Reiter, was
deliberate: ‘The air outlet at the bottom of the
doors is closed, but you can open it. It is not
big money to do that. If you want to triple the
downforce, you simply open the aero.’
Much of the development work was done
by Reiter and KTM, but they had help from
Nick Galbraith, director of GT Motorsport,
who worked on the Lamborghini Gallardo
GT3 car. With extensive knowledge of
designing and developing cars from GT3 to
DTM, Super GT and Le Mans Prototypes with
Toyota, he was perfectly qualified to help with
the CFD design work.
That work centred on producing a stable
car at high speed. ‘What we learned from GT4
is, if you don’t have the top speed, [amateurs]
don’t want the car,’ said Reiter at the launch Suspension is independent double wishbone with Sachs coil spring / dampers all round, the rear is twin push rod-actuated

36 www.racecar-engineering.com JANUARY 2021

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RACECAR FOCUS – KTM GT2

of the car in Belgium at the end of October.

‘In Red Bull Ring [during an ADAC race, a car
was raced with development parts from the
new KTM], going up the hill we were doing
257km/h, while the fastest GT3 was doing
242km/h. It is incredibly fast on the straight.’

Bang for buck

The whole car concept is supposed to be
lightweight and simple, with a view to
keeping costs down. Customers will be
offered maximum bang for their buck, and
the tactic seems to have worked. In the same
way as GT3 was launched at the end of 2005,
the non-professional drivers are looking for
performance at reasonable cost.
‘We picked up the ’phone and 20 cars
were sold,’ claims Reiter. ‘GT2 will take off
because we had the same situation in 2006
with GT3. We had rich people and they
couldn’t race anywhere. Now they are all
gone. I don’t see them here anymore. They
haven’t lost interest in racing, but they do not
want to race manufacturers. You have to ban
manufacturers and the silver drivers and have Engine is a five-cylinder, 2.5-litre Audi TFSi unit developed by Lehmann Motorentechnik to produce 591bhp at 7000rpm
affordable cars like this one.
‘Without coronavirus, I would say that GT2
would explode next year. The GT4 market is
quite full, and the GT4 market is a mixture
of junior drivers and [amateurs], and the
[amateurs] will come to GT2 I think.’
A lot of effort has been made to drive
down the base weight of the car to just over
1000kg, although in GT2 trim it will have to
have more than 200kg of ballast added due to
balance of performance.

Performance figures
The car features the Audi 2.5-litre, five-
cylinder TFSI engine taken from the
production range. In GTX trim producing
around 373kW (500bhp), the intercooler is
untouched compared to the production
Audi unit, but the injection valves, wastegate,
intake and exhaust system have all been Should you wish to race carrying two cases of beer… Car features a six-speed sequential gearbox with paddle shift
adapted, as has the software to manage the

A lot of effort has

engine. For the more powerful GT2 version, Murray car that is also light, but it is expensive.
Reiter turned to Lehmann Motorentechnik We had the option to be expensive, but we
for the development and the resultant chose to do it by concept instead. The gearbox
performance figures, pre BoP, are 441kW been made to drive has no crown wheel pinion, because it is built
(591bhp) at 7000rpm and a maximum torque this way. As a result, it is only 52kg, and the
level of 720Nm (531ft.lbs) available between a
very useable 3500 and 5000rpm.
down the base Lamborghini gearbox is 94kg.

The engine bay is unusual in that the

Audi engine does not sit as close to the
weight of the car to Concept light
‘The first thing was to look at making things
centre of the car as possible. Instead, there is
room for two cases of beer behind the driver
just over 1000kg super light, and then at weight distribution.
Because the engine is [rearwards], look how
compartment (the Germans proudly tested short the exhaust is. It is light by concept, and
this before releasing the design) and the weight,’ says Reiter. ‘It has 120-150kg less than then we figured out the weight distribution.’
engine is slung out over the rear wheels. In a Gallardo. Because I have less weight in the The choice of engine was not what Reiter
terms of weight distribution tactics this seems car, if I go to GT2 I can add 200kg to the front originally had in mind when he first looked at
to be a mistake, but Reiter says the balance of and have an even better weight distribution the car. He wanted a V8, but KTM overruled
weight is similar to the Lamborghini Gallardo. than a mid-engine car! him in favour of a production-based Audi unit
‘The wheel loads on the back are less than ‘The first thing was to make it light, not by that would not only produce the power, but
a Gallardo because [the car] is so much less money, but by concept. You have the Gordon would be reliable, even in a racing application.

38 www.racecar-engineering.com JANUARY 2021

Unit C6 Optimus Way, Leicester, LE3 8JR. United Kingdom
00 44 (0)116 232 2335
enquiries@eec-ltd.com
www.eec-ltd.com
RACECAR FOCUS – KTM GT2

If we haven’t made
A replacement engine is not expected to cost
more than €20,000 (approx. $23,450) and TECH SPEC: KTM GT2

a mistake, you don’t

the base engine can be purchased from any
Body style:
production Audi dealership. Mid-engined racecar
It is not the only aspect of the car that
comes from the Audi range. The electronic need to touch it Chassis:
Carbon composite monocoque; transverse engine;
rear-wheel drive; independent suspension
power steering system has also been
developed by the German manufacturer. ‘The
Hans Reiter Motor:
Make Audi 2.5 TFSI
problem with road car systems is that you
Type Turbocharged, five-cylinder petrol with combined intake
struggle [to get] access, but we have all the ‘We would not give customers access to
manifold / direct fuel injection
support from them and it is suddenly cheap,’ [programme] it,’ he says. ‘You have one engine
Capacity 2480cc
admits Reiter. ‘If you don’t have access [to the map. You select what boost pressure you
Max power Approx. 600bhp (441kW) at 7000rpm (using 98RON
production-developed parts direct from the are supposed to run, and we are developing unleaded petrol)
factory] then you are dead.’ something that allows the mapping to Max torque 720Nm from 3500-5000rpm
What is unusual in the car is the electronic self-learn. Same for the shift system. We will Transmission:
gearshift mechanism, about which Reiter is develop it, but the customer will only see if it Sequential six-speed gearbox with paddle shift,
justifiably proud as it has been developed by is okay, not programme it. mechanical locking differential
his company, although he admits there is still ‘For the ABS, you have switches. Do I Suspension:
a lot of work to do yet in order to understand want more, or less? And that’s the same with Front: Independent, double wishbones with twin push rod-
operated Sachs concentric and adjustable coil spring /
its full potential. While other categories such traction control. We will not have too much damper units mounted on top of the monocoque;
as LMP already use such technology, it has variation. For the mechanics, it is not so much. anti-roll bar
been developed with manufacturer money, This is service free. If we haven’t made a Rear: Independent double wishbones with Sachs concentric
which Reiter didn’t have. mistake, you don’t need to touch it.’ and adjustable coil spring / damper units; anti-roll bar
‘The gearshift we developed on our own,’ With all the main parts of the car already Steering:
System Electric PAS
he confirms. ‘I think in five years every GT car developed, it should be reliable from the
will have electric shift. It is so much better, start, and Reiter says the GTX car has already Brakes:
System Hydraulic dual-circuit with adjustable ABS
and it has so many more options for the managed to do the distance of two 24-
Front: AP Racing 378mm ventilated discs; six-piston calipers
future, but at the moment it is so expensive hour races without any mechanical issues. ‘I
Rear: AP Racing 355mm ventilated discs; four-piston calipers
that no one is even considering it. don’t know where the end is, but in 500bhp
Wheels and tyres:
‘There is a lot of investment in its configuration it is really robust. We didn’t find
Front: 18 x 11in magnesium with 30/65-18 Michelin slicks
development. We have been working on it a weakness,’ he says proudly.
Rear: 18 x 12.5in magnesium with 37/71-18 Michelin slicks
for one and a half years already and have only With GT3 entering a new phase in 2022
Dimensions:
scratched the surface of what it can do. In with new manufacturer-led, FIA-owned Length 4626mm Width 2040mm
LMP racing they [are so advanced that they regulations, GT2 is there as an alternative Height 1140mm Wheelbase 2850mm
can] calculate the gaps between gears but for option. Manufacturers have set up customer Track front 1752mm Track rear 1710mm
us, we are just happy that it shifts!’ service departments, and GT2 fits nicely Weights and capacities:
with this as a new revenue stream within Dry weight 1048kg (SRO BoP 1250kg)
Retaining control an existing structure. Although GT3 cars are Front / rear split 42 / 58 per cent (static)
The car is running endurance calipers, discs currently headed more towards manufacturer Fuel tank volume 120l FT3 safety tank
and pads from AP, which will help bring and professional drivers, Reiter still sees a Lateral acceleration:
down the servicing costs, but the ABS system, future for the class alongside his new GT2. Slicks > 2.0g
provided by Continental, is the same as Reiter The only questions now are how many Maximum speed:
uses on the Gallardos. Again, it is able to be manufacturers will jump on the GT2 gravy Vmax: > 300km/h

tuned according to driver ability and weather train, and when will they need to do so?
conditions. While this system is reliable, is
Reiter not opening up too much variance in
the set-up ability of the car that it becomes
too complicated for the average driver?
Both the GTX track day
car (shown) and GT2
use a ‘jetfighter canopy’
for access, with an
opening side window in
case of inversion

40 www.racecar-engineering.com JANUARY 2021

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JANUARY 2021 www.racecar-engineering.com 41

 RACECAR INTERVIEW – GIAN PAOLO DALLARA

Engineering
success

Dallara Automobili is a major player in global motorsport.

© Alessandro Barteletti

Racecar spends an hour discussing the present and

future with the company’s founding father
By DIETER RENCKEN

42 www.racecar-engineering.com JANUARY 2021

T Dallara has capacity
ravel from Milan to Modena, both scoring two podiums – and consultant and
famous for their contributions to supplier of technical services to Honda’s late

to build 200
automotive history, and roughly ’90’s in-house project, which set fearsomely
midway along the two-hour fast lap times before being inexplicably
journey the E45 bypasses Parma. Head due aborted (a common thread in Honda’s F1
west along rural roads for 40 minutes and the history). The constructor also conducted competition cars in
sand-coloured Castello di Varano De’ Melegari subsequent collaborations with Jordan /
signifies your arrival in the small village
(population 2500) of the same name.
Midland and Campos / HRT.
Factor in simulator work, drawing on both
a 12-month period
Renowned for its imposing 10th century NASA and automotive principles, as befits
castle, Varano De’ Melegari is better known an automotive company founded by an The company is still managed today by
in motorsport circles as home to the world’s aeronautics engineer, a standalone IndyCar its founder, working in conjunction with CEO
largest producer of racecars, Dallara, founded factory in Indianapolis, plus numerous wind / shareholder, Andrea Pontremoli, who hails
by the region’s most famous engineer, Gian tunnel contracts and direct access to nearby from the nearby village of Bardi and joined
Paolo Dallara, born locally in 1936. Autodromo Ricardo Paletti, and clearly Dallara the company from a senior executive position
In 1959, Dallara graduated in aeronautical Automobili is a major player in the global with IBM Italia in 2007. ‘My job is to ensure the
engineering at the Milano Politecnico motorsport space. essence of Dallara is enhanced,’ he says.
University, then immediately joined Ferrari Backing that up, every current F1 driver
and worked his way through various technical has won with Dallara during his formative Challenges ahead
departments, before moving to Maserati to years, while Dallara technologies and / or Gian Paolo Dallara and I had met once before,
join its sportscar racing operation full time. products have been at the forefront of all albeit briefly, but on that occasion only had
Next stop was the nascent Lamborghini major racing series in recent years, plus time for cursory questions, so I was delighted
company, where Dallara formed part of the plenty of lesser-known ones as well. Talk when he agreed to set aside time for a full
350 GT design team before formulating the sportscar racing, and Lancia entrusted its interview for Racecar Engineering.
running gear for the groundbreaking, mid- world championship programme to Dallara. After greetings and mutual agreement to
engined Miura, generally accepted as the Mention DTM, and Dallara contributed remove masks but maintain social distancing,
world’s first supercar. Thereafter, he accepted massively to Audi’s effort. Ferrari’s 333 SP I pose the opener: What is the biggest
an appointment at De Tomaso, a brief which IMSA sportscar? Again, Dallara. challenge facing racecar manufacturers?
included designing the company’s Formula 1 Times and technologies have changed ‘I believe that like in Formula 1, they are
car raced by the Frank Williams team. dramatically during this period, with arguably trying to reduce the cost of racing, in every
In 1972, the ambitious engineer returned the biggest single development being an kind of racing,’ he says slowly and deliberately.
to Varano to found Dallara Automobili da almost universal switch from proprietary ‘So we have to try to make the car with
Competizione in a small building beside the chassis to one-make series. It could be argued components that have a longer life. The
family home, where he lives to this day. The that Dallara’s domination of F3 and IndyCar car has to last longer, [but] has to have the
company expanded over the following five meant no other constructor had a look in performance in terms of lap time, but with a
decades into a newer complex situated ‘just anyway, effectively reducing grids to one less expensive solution.
up the road’, but the original facility continues make, but the concept was embraced with a ‘I believe that in the future all the racing
to produce cars of a more practical nature. vengeance by series promoters. world will need to be less expensive.’
The sublime Stradale road-going supercar is At a stroke of a pen, the competition I note that prior to answering, he looks
built almost in Dallara’s back garden. was no longer primarily about performance out of the window at the museum as though
but price and, while the company may well drawing inspiration from the past before
Core markets have floundered at the elimination of its key addressing the present and future.
Excluding Stradale (originally Gian Paolo’s advantage – namely producing the fastest Where does the optimum balance lie
80th birthday present to himself and the cars in its contested categories – Dallara between performance, weight and cost?
company), Dallara has capacity to build instead flourished commercially, as long-term ‘Of course, if you want a car to perform
200 competition cars in a 12-month period, F2, F3 and IndyCar contracts attest. very well, you need a car that’s very light.
although typically produces 70 units per
annum, with the ebb and flow dictated by
regulation changes in core markets, namely
Formula 2 / 3 and, of course, IndyCar, which
exclusively uses Dallara chassis.
Formula E, LMP2 and various national
F3 championships, in which the company
originally made its name, are valuable
contributors, as is the Haas F1 programme,
which Dallara expects will be extended, and
for which the company designs and produces
the bulk of listed parts and those not sourced
from Ferrari. It also fulfils contracts such as
monocoques and other hi-tech components
to the likes of Audi, Bugatti, Ferrari,
Lamborghini and Maserati.
Before the Haas co-operation came to
fruition in 2016, Dallara had provided services
to an array of F1 projects, both as Dallara – A young Dallara (second left), studies a Cooper Maserati 2, along with Bruce McLaren and Roger Penske

JANUARY 2021 www.racecar-engineering.com 43

RACECAR INTERVIEW – GIAN PAOLO DALLARA

But compare the difference between alloy

and steel. Six kilos is maybe something like
€10,000 [approx. $11,900]. So, if you want to
save the last 10kg, it could cost you €20,000
[approx. $23,800], and [you] have to use
different materials and more sophisticated
design to achieve that.’
He then goes back in time, using ground
effects cars with flat floors as an example. The
powers that be decided the cars were too fast,
he says, so mandated flat floors. The net effect
was that engineers clawed back lap time
through increasingly exotic materials and
complex wing designs. The inference is cars
would have been faster and cheaper without
the interference of regulators.
‘It is possible to think how to make a
faster car less expensive…’ dropping his voice

© Alessandro Barteletti
slightly as he continues, ‘[but] we have never
to [sacrifice] in terms of safety.’
In a brief interlude, he makes reference to
the dismal safety standards of 1950’s and ’60’s
cars, and the total absence of circuit safety.
‘Then came [US safety crusader] Ralph With a background in aeronautics, it’s no surprise Dallara places a great deal of emphasis on aerodynamics
Nader, who wrote a book [Unsafe at any
Speed] and we thought why? But now we
know he was right. Now in every technical
committee, the Automobile Club of Italy and
also the single seater group of the [FIA], every
time someone suggests a solution in the
direction of safety, no one is saying no.’
I delicately broach the Piers Courage
accident, in which the Briton perished in
Zandvoort in 1970 after the suspension on
his Williams-run De Tomaso broke, pitching
it into a barrier where it burst into flames, in

© Alessandro Barteletti
turn igniting magnesium chassis members.
Dallara’s eyes cloud over momentarily,
then he repeats the word ‘Yes’ six times before
a quiet ‘It is so. You can spare cost everywhere,
but not ever in safety.’
It is clear that tragedy had a profound The facility also includes dynamic test rigs, all of which will be made available to Academy students
effect on his approach to racecar design,
leading me to a logical follow-up: Should
racecar engineers spend more time, money
provide opportunities that did not previously
exist. Then follows that up with a curved ball: I think these [current]
rules are pushing
and effort on safety than on performance? ‘They say the driver should not be assisted.
The answer is affirmative, but Dallara That there should be no ABS, no traction

engineers to learn how

believes impetus needs to come from control, no servo-assisted steering, no active
authorities to prevent a manufacturer suspension. I believe there should be more
grabbing unfair performance advantages: freedom to ‘think young’. This is something
‘I believe that if you make a car that is a that will change in future.’ to [manage] without real
little safer, but it costs a lot more than your At which point he takes the opportunity
competitors, maybe you will not [sell] it.’
With the move to single-make series, there
to introduce the masters degree course
in automotive engineering offered by the
testing, physically. This
is obviously less scope for racecar engineers
to express their inherent creativity, so does
Motorvehicle University of Emilia Romagna
(see box out on p46). MUNER courses include
is the way [forward]
he think motorsport is in danger of trading advanced automotive electronics, race /
innovation for commercialism? high-performance car design, advanced
powertrain design and more. Details can be wind tunnel tyres, even before computational
Think young found at www.motorvehicleuniversity.com. fluid dynamics entered the equation. ‘It’s a
Dallara first points out that not all series are Dallara then points enthusiastically to the very, very important activity,’ he says.
one make, and lists various manufacturers enormous strides being taken in aerodynamic Add in physical verification via on-car data
across the globe, but concedes individual testing as proof of additional opportunities logging, and it is clear that while the base
opportunities have reduced over time. open to today’s engineers, listing advances may have narrowed, the scope for engineers
However, new fields and technologies such as ‘moving roads’, yaw and pitch and has broadened exponentially.

44 www.racecar-engineering.com JANUARY 2021

 So how, in his opinion, can Formula 1 get
away with little or no testing, and is that going
to be the way forward?
There is a pause, before Dallara references
‘virtual garages’, which collect data every time
a car runs. ‘They are right to reduce costs, of
course, and I think these rules are pushing
engineers to learn how to [manage] without
real testing, physically. This is the way [forward].’
Which neatly introduces the advances
made in data logging into the conversation.

Continuous flow
‘There was the arrival of computing systems,
then came data logging systems, but you had
to [download] when the car stopped. Later,
the point arrived when the [car] was passing,
and then later came 20 channels and a
continuous flow of everything in real time.
‘Now you can transfer an area where
Fabrizio Piscopo

they can simulate and check, and they try to

understand why. You can have one driver at
the wheel, and another trying to make the
We imagine a driving simulator module would be a popular part of the masters degree in automotive engineering same results in some other part of the world.
All in 20 years of evolution.’
Dallara’s unwavering belief that engineers
face more opportunities than ever before is
well made, but with moves afoot to ban virtual
garages on cost grounds, is simulation not
more expensive than testing?
‘No,’ he replies emphatically. ‘Testing is
more expensive because you need more
people, and you need more materials because
components have a life[span].’
The same philosophy applies to a ‘tyre
war’. While Dallara the engineer favours open
competition, Dallara the businessman is more
cautious, saying, ‘that’s another [element] of
competition that increases costs.’
Against these backgrounds, what is his
© Alessandro Barteletti

take on F1’s 2022 ‘new era’ regulations? More

particularly, the imminent imposition of
favour budget caps in what had previously
been an open spend category?
‘I believe they are moving in that direction
Scale models for wind tunnel testing under construction at the Dallara facility to reduce costs in every area, including
aerodynamics and development, and that [F1]
could not afford to continue [as it was].
So, budget caps, does he agree with them?
‘We have to agree,’ he smiles wryly, before
qualifying his philosophy: ‘If they bring closer
competition, [yes]. Normally you have two,
three teams with more money, we need more
races like [the Italian Grand Prix, unexpectedly
won by Pierre Gasly and AlphaTauri].’
Budget caps will probably force Ferrari into
diversification, with IndyCar and the top WEC
/ IMSA category its most likely targets. If so,
would Dallara wish to be actively involved, as
© Alessandro Barteletti

it had been with the glorious 333SP?

‘[The moves] could happen. I read recently
that [Ferrari president] Louis Camilleri said
they are interested. That is a good signal.
There will be tremendous growth, it will be
The Dallara composites department is amongst the most advanced in the world, holding contracts with all major race series important for the series.

JANUARY 2021 www.racecar-engineering.com 45

RACECAR INTERVIEW – GIAN PAOLO DALLARA

‘It would be very interesting for us, but I

think at the moment they are thinking let us Dallara Academy
see what is going on.’
From the mind of Alfonso Femia, the Dallara museum and Academy building is a masterpiece
Future technology of design, much like the racecars it houses and the roadgoing Stradale parked outside
Looking to the future, Dallara provides
carbon fibre / aluminum chassis and survival
cells for Formula E, so what is his take on
electrification for both road and track?
‘It will happen. I’m just not sure how
it will happen,’ comes the reply, adding it
could either be via battery energy storage or
hydrogen fuel cell. Which neatly leads to the
question, can hydrogen be safely stored?
Dallara has no doubts the technologies
exist to safely contain the gas at 300bar, but
believes it will first be used in aircraft, and
then trickle down to automotive, citing recent
studies undertaken by his alma mater.
Equally, he believes autonomous cars

Fabrizio Piscopo
will become a way of life in future, but only
for commuter transport. He thinks cars and
motorcycles as we know them will still be
used for pleasurable pursuits, for when

W
personal mobility and freedom is sought. ithin the boundaries
‘But if I need to take a car for business to of Dallara’s main
Milano, I would not enjoy driving.’ complex, beneath
the museum that contains

Imagine an
the first car to bear the

Alessandro Not
Dallara name up to the latest
Haas F1 racer, is the Dallara
autonomous car Academy, an ‘edutainment’
centre that offers laboratories
racing with a car and simulation tools for young engineers to experiment with the physics of racecar engineering, with
particular reference to the science of aerodynamics.
driven by remote Opened in 2018 by the local mayor and Alex Zanardi, the visually arresting building also houses the
second year MUNER faculty, which offers a masters degree in automotive engineering, in conjunction
and a car driven by with local learning establishments.
Promoted by the region of Emilia Romagna, the universities of Bologna, Parma, Ferrara and Modena

a driver. Who would participate in the course, as do hi-tech and automotive companies in Italy’s Motor Valley, including such
as Ferrari, Maserati, Lamborghini, [AlphaTauri], Ducati, Dallara, Magneti Marelli and Haas. In terms of EU

be the best? grants, MUNER is open to students from across the globe.
‘We want to invest in the growth of knowledge within [Italy’s] Motor Valley,’ said company founder,
Gian Paolo Dallara, during the opening ceremony. ‘Youngsters have all [facilities] available to them:
Then Dallara adds an intriguing twist: ‘It Dallara provides the wind tunnel, the driving simulator, the carbon research centre and the state-of-the-
would be very, very interesting in the future… art facilities that no university could afford to purchase and make available. Also, a part of the teaching
imagine an autonomous car racing with a car will be carried out by our managers.’
driven by remote and a car driven by a driver. The Academy building also houses a conference centre open to companies in the region, whether
Who would be the best?’ automotive-linked or not. The idea is to provide a fusion of technology and commerce – the key elements
Finally, I ask what conflicts exist within that enabled Dallara to survive in the racecar construction business for almost 50 years.
the two Gian Paolo Dallaras, the engineering
purist and the astute businessman who bears The museum exhibits include a breathtaking array of
responsibility for over 600 staff, plus scores of racecars, all either built by or developed by Dallara
contractors and the personnel employed by a
massive supply chain?
‘In my experience, I prefer the freedom [to
engineer], but as a businessman I need to be
in a condition to not lose money. And if I lose
this year, I must ensure I have the chance to
© Michele Dell’Utri Studio

recover next year or I close.’

Dallara’s 50-year record in a highly
competitive business with a survival rate of
less than 10 per cent suggests he and Andrea
Pontremoli have struck the perfect balance
between creativity and profitability.

46 www.racecar-engineering.com JANUARY 2021

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48 www.racecar-engineering.com JANUARY 2021
TECHNOLOGY – THE CONSULTANT

Rate my bar
Stresses and structural efficiency in anti-roll bars

By MARK ORTIZ

We race off-road trucks that

have upwards of 10 inches of
wheel travel. We have trouble
getting adequate rate out of
our anti-roll bars and still having them
last. If we make them thin and soft they’ll
last, but they don’t do much. If we make
them fatter, they get stressed past the
yield point and either break or take a
permanent twist. Is there anything we can
do to improve this situation?
One idea that has been suggested is
to have the drop link act near the middle
of a trailing arm. Would that help?

THE CONSULTANT
There are ways to reduce stress
levels in either an anti-roll bar
or a torsion bar that holds the
vehicle up, but what you can It is relatively easy to tune anti-roll bar or torsion bar rate and stress, the limitation is often one of packaging
actually do on an existing vehicle comes
down to packaging. Assuming you don’t of the diameter and the strength of the bar Again, with SI units the form of the equation
want to give up rate, here are your options: goes up with the cube of the diameter. stays the same, but the coefficient changes. For
1. Make the bar longer and fatter. This is the formula for rate of a torsion bar: a hollow bar, d3 is replaced by (do4 – di4) / do.
2. Make the arm length greater, and make To take an arithmetically simple case, if
the bar fatter. s = (.098 d4 G) / (R2 L) we double the effective arm length, the bar
3. Make the bar act through another arm, where, has to exert four times the torsional force per
or linkage, that reduces the bar-to-wheel s = rate at the arm end, lb/in unit of twist, but only sees half the degrees
motion ratio, and make the bar fatter. d = diameter of the bar, or portion of the unit of twist per inch of wheel movement. The
4. Make the bar solid, not hollow (assuming that twists, inches rate ratio is the square of the motion ratio, as
it isn’t already). G = shear modulus of elasticity, lb/in2 with any spring. This requires the bar to be
5. Use multiple bars, located either in series R = perpendicular length of lever arm, inches fatter by a factor of the square root of two,
or in parallel. L = bar length, inches or just over 40 per cent bigger in diameter.
But torsional stress for a given torque
The second and third of these do basically With SI units, the basic form of the equation varies inversely with the cube of the
the same thing. They reduce the bar-to- is the same. Only the .098 coefficient diameter. That fatter bar can therefore
wheel motion ratio, understood as degrees changes. For a hollow bar, the d4 term is withstand the square root of two cubed, or
of twist per unit of wheel movement. This replaced by (do4 – di4), do and di being 23/2 = 2.83 times the torque without reaching
requires the bar to be fatter, which increases outer and inner diameters respectively. its yield point, and we’re only applying
stress per unit of twist, but we still come This is the formula for simple two times the torque per unit of wheel
out with lower stresses for the same rate. shear stress in a torsion bar: movement. The bar can withstand √2 = 1.41
times the wheel travel without permanently
At arm’s length τ = T / (.196 d3) deforming, and it sees only 1/√2 = .707
This results from the fact that, for the same times the stress per unit of wheel travel.
rate at the wheel, torque on the bar per unit where, So, one way to get a desired rate with
of wheel travel goes up with the square of τ = outer fibre simple shear stress, lb/in2 lower bar stress is to ensure the bar twists
the effective arm length, but the stiffness T = torsional moment, lb/in less per inch of roll or warp displacement,
of the bar goes up with the fourth power d = bar diameter, inches and thicken the bar accordingly.

One way to get a desired rate with lower bar stress is to ensure
the bar twists less per inch of roll or warp displacement
JANUARY 2021 www.racecar-engineering.com 49
 TECHNOLOGY – THE CONSULTANT

Stabilising Jaguar-style IRS with a Watt linkage?

I wonder, if you have a Watt link instead of a four link When used with large tyres and with lots of power going
to handle acceleration forces, do you calculate through it, it tends to deflect, causing compliance steer.
anti-squat in the same manner as with a four link? To try to band-aid this problem, later Jaguar suspensions have
Oh, I forgot one important piece of information. a trailing link on each side. Unfortunately, the motion of this link
The vertical link is not welded to the axle, it is linked at its centre conflicts with the motion of the control arm. The control arm’s
as a normal Watt link for conventional lateral forces. motion is a straight line in side view, while the trailing link swings
Let’s say it is mounted on the rear upright, the differential is in an arc in side view. In front or rear view, the control arm swings
mounted on the car itself, we have live driveshafts with CV joints in an arc and the trailing link has to move laterally at its rear end
and the rotating of the upright is handled by one lower arm, to accommodate that. So in order to allow for this, later Jaguar
which will not twist. suspensions had to have compliant rubber bushings at the ends
of the trailing link, which reduces its effectiveness in stabilising
THE CONSULTANT the system. A Watt linkage would be a better solution, if properly
Is this an independent suspension, then? designed, albeit not quite as simple.
You are considering a lower arm that cannot twist, as in
an E-Type Jaguar, but allows fore and aft movement? I’m Bind rage
having trouble imagining that. I guess something like a However, the Watt linkage would have to provide vertical motion
second driveshaft, connected to the frame rather than the diff’ carrier, in side view in order to not create a bind. That would preclude
would do that, but are you actually thinking of that? having any anti-squat or anti-lift in the system.
And are you considering inboard rear brakes, or outboard? With or without the Watt linkage, the suspension can have some
The Jaguar design requires Cardan-style joints rather than CV anti-squat and anti-lift if the whole geometry is, as it were, tilted
joints, so I’ll assume you meant that. In this case, the driveshafts serve back in side view, so that the lower control arm’s axes of rotation
as upper control arms, so they have to be fixed length. As originally slope up at the front. The Watt linkage would likewise be rotated in
designed, there are no longitudinal members at all and the lower arm side view so that the rocker would be inclined back at the top and
is tasked with reacting large lateral, longitudinal and torsional loads. the links would slope up toward the front at static condition.

With a beam axle, if packaging constraints

limit arm length, one possibility would A hollow bar is efficiency, simplicity, cost, and longevity
all trade off against each other.

inescapably larger
be to have the arms bent inboard so that There is one other way to avoid
the drop links act further in on the axle. excessive stress; just make the bar so

in outside diameter
Another option would be to have the stiff and strong that the vehicle will lift a
bars act through rockers of some sort. wheel before the yield point is reached,
But what happens if we use an extremely even at maximum combined upward and
short bar, acting well inboard on the axle, and therefore has lateral acceleration. But if the idea is to
as used in some drag cars? If we cut the have a very soft, long-travel suspension,
degrees of twist per unit of wheel movement
in half, but also cut the bar length in half,
greater outer fibre we probably don’t want that.
If I were designing an off-road suspension,
the degrees of twist per inch of bar length
remain unchanged, and the bar becomes
shear stress and the rules allowed me a free hand, I would
strongly consider using both diagonal anti-
twice as stiff for the same diameter. But it roll / anti-pitch bars and longitudinal anti-roll
needs to be four times as stiff to give the diameter is doing the lion’s share of the / anti-heave bars, rather than conventional
same rate at the wheel, so it has to be thicker work. Therefore, making a bar hollow is anti-roll bars, which are really anti-roll /
by a factor of the fourth root of two, or attractive, if the stresses don’t get too anti-warp bars. That would allow very long
about 1.19. That means the stress increases. high. However, a hollow bar is inescapably bars and also give a warp-soft suspension,
larger in outside diameter and therefore which is valuable in any vehicle, but
Take the strain has greater outer fibre shear stress at any especially so in an off-road application.
One other way to look at this is to consider given amount of twist per unit of length.
strain: deformation of the material per unit We can have a bar of lighter weight for CONTACT
of size. Stress and strain are always directly the same rate with a hollow bar, but only Mark Ortiz Automotive is a chassis
proportional, for a given material. Strain in by reducing the amount of twist per unit consultancy service primarily serving oval
this case is how much a notional outer fibre of length. That means making the track and road racers. Here Mark answers
of the bar has to deform, per unit of wheel bar longer, or making the effective your chassis set-up and handling queries.
motion. This depends on the degrees of twist lever arm length greater. If you have a question for him, please don’t
per unit of bar length and the diameter of When the stress does not reach the hesitate to get in touch:
the bar. If, for the same rate, the degrees of yield point, but starts getting close to it, E: markortizauto@windstream.net
twist per unit of bar length stay the same we have a bar that will serve for a while T: +1 704-933-8876
but the bar diameter has to increase, we but will have shorter service life. A: Mark Ortiz
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TECHNOLOGY – SLIP ANGLE

Spring brake
Understanding damping ratios and the notion of critical damping

By CLAUDE ROUELLE

Racecar suspension is a complex science, and requires much more than just an understanding of the dampers, but getting to grips with them is a good place to start

‘T
he damper is the brake of the The mass position, as a function spring rate (in N/m), m the mass (in kg),
spring.’ In this article we will of time, can be described by a and C the damping in N/(m/sec).
review that theory, as well as sinusoid called harmonic motion. Be careful with the units here. Many
the pros and cons of some The equations are as follow: make the mistake of forgetting to
oversimplified quarter-car simulation. z=Z_0 e^(-ζω_n t) sin (ω_D t+φ) convert their spring stiffness from lb/
If you would put a mass on a spring With the undamped period being ft into N/mm rather than Newton per
with no damper and push the mass down ω_N=√(K/m) in rad/sec and the undamped metre. Likewise for the damper, that
by 60mm (as seen on the green trace in frequency f =1/2π √(K/m) in Hertz (Hz) is in Newton per metre per second
Figure 1), then release your force, the The critical damping coefficient is
mass will oscillate indefinitely. We should C_crit=2√Km in N/(m/sec) Critical damping
say nearly indefinitely because ultimately The damping ratio is ζ=C/C_crit =C/ That’s it for the mathematical formulae, but
the movement will stop, mainly due to (2√Km), which is dimensionless. what does it mean in practice? Let us start
the spring material internal resistance, but The damped natural period is ω_D=ω_N with the notion of critical damping and
also because of air friction. Note that in √(1-ζ^2 ) in rad/sec, the damped frequency a simple example. You go in your garage
this example you allow the spring to work is f =1/2π √(K/m) √(1-ζ^2 )in Hertz (Hz) and push down hard on your car bonnet /
in tension and move not only down but with Z0 being the initial amplitude hood. The front part of the car’s suspended
also up by 60mm. As we will see later that (in metres), t the time in seconds, φ mass goes down. Let it go, releasing the
is not the case in most car suspension. the phase difference (in radian), K the downward force, and the car will return to

52 www.racecar-engineering.com JANUARY 2021

 The other specific case is the one of a
Figure 1: Amplitude vs time for a simplified one degree of freedom (DOF) mass on a critical damping of 0.7 (as shown by the red
spring with different damping ratios trace in Figure 1). That is the damping that
will bring the mass back to its initial stage as
quickly as possible, albeit with the ‘cost’ of
an overshoot. If response to a steering input,
or returning back as quickly as possible to a
given ride height after a bump is the main
target, usually a damping ratio of 0.7 is ideal.
We will not go into too much
mathematics here, but you will notice
that 0.7 is half of the square root of two.
That is not a coincidence. It is worth
noting that the mass goes back to its
initial state in less than half of the time
it takes with the critical damping.
The black trace in Figure 1 with a
damping ratio of 1.8 shows an over
damped suspension. As we will see
later, over damping does not make
sense in terms of tyre mechanical grip
consistency, but it could make sense in
terms of aerodynamics, especially with cars
requiring a constantly low ride height.
Figure 2: Two degree of freedom quarter-car model with suspended and non-suspended
masses, tyre stiffness and damping, and suspension stiffness and damping Minimum drag
Many years ago, that kind of damping
was used in rear suspension rebound on
Superspeedways in NASCAR. Aeromaps
show that often a relatively high front ride
height and an exceptionally low rear ride
height, (of about 3mm) gives minimum
drag. On tracks like Talladega and Daytona,
minimum drag is a main target, more so
than handling and downforce. However, the
cars had to go through technical inspection
with quite high static ride heights.
The trick was to use soft rear springs
with just enough pre-load to maintain the
rear part of the suspended mass at its legal
static ride height for technical inspection.
The springs used had low bump and
exceptionally high rebound damper settings.
As soon as the car left the pit lane, the
rear ride height went down under the
effect of downforce, banking and every
single little track bump. It went down
its initial position with a certain number of in the first few years of the circuit’s existence, until the rear springs were coil bound,
oscillations of different amplitudes. If the but then with temperature variation and reaching an exceptionally low rear ride
front suspension is critically damped, it will seasonal fluctuations the tarmac moves height. So low in fact, and with such stiff
return to its initial state as quickly as possible and creates the bump. As it is in a straight, suspension, that the suspended mass
without any overshoot. That is what 2√Km approached at relatively constant speed, frequencies were so high they made the
means, and it is represented by the blue neither in a braking or acceleration zone, drivers’ vision blurred. The cars were faster,
trace in Figure 1. The damping ratio is one. it has no influence on car performance but difficult to drive and unsafe. When
If your suspension is less damped, and is just an annoyance for the driver. NASCAR cottoned on to the trick, it imposed
let us say at 10 or 20 per cent of the Have a look at the damper’s specific sealed dampers for these circuits.
critical damping (damping ratio of 0.1 or potentiometer signals: if it takes more As for spring stiffness, the choice of
0.2) such as shown by the orange trace than one, or even worse, more than two damping is both a matter of art and science.
in Figure 1, it will take a while for the oscillations after that unique bump for Usually passenger cars have a damping ratio
suspension to get back to its initial state. the dampers to stabilise, you know your of 0.3 (when ride and comfort are the main
Here’s a simple illustration, and a trick suspension is under damped. You do targets) to 0.5 (when response is the main
for all racecar engineers. There are circuits not know (yet) if the lack of damping target), while racecars are around 0.6-1.0.
where there is an annoying bump in one of is in compression or rebound, low Some high-end road sports cars have
the straights, usually above a tunnel passing or high speed, but at least you know active, controlled damping using signals
under the racetrack. That bump did not exist you have insufficient damping. from sensors such as steering, lateral

JANUARY 2021 www.racecar-engineering.com 53

TECHNOLOGY – SLIP ANGLE

When I am asked what damping ratio to choose, I often suggest trying 0.7
to start. That is because it will give you the quickest ride height recovery
acceleration and yaw rate (gyro) and I was once told by a tyre manufacturer as the one induced by an actuator
a damping ratio in the 0.3 region in a that a race tyre has no damping. Clearly, at the tyre contact patch on a seven-
straight line for comfort, as much as 1.5 everything is relative. It’s true that, post rig will be input options.
for good turn-in response and back to 0.5 compared to a suspension damper, the tyre The following road profile also needs
at the corner apex. Defining such active has little damping, but I know that if I let to be considered: sinusoidal, rectangular
dampers and, even more their controller, a wheel and tyre fall on the ground from and ramp bump and, most importantly,
requires serious R&D competencies, a given height, there will be a logarithmic random, or stochastic bumps.
budget and time. Consequently, they are decrement of the successive amplitudes. Most simplified models do not
outlawed in most racing categories. So, there clearly is some damping in a tyre, consider inputs on the suspended and
When I am asked what damping ratio to but again only specific tests allow us to non-suspended masses such as lateral
choose, I often suggest trying 0.7 to start. acquire such tyre damping characteristics. or longitudinal weight transfer, vertical
That is because it will give you the quickest It is worth noting that on most seven- acceleration from the track banking or
ride height recovery. You will probably post rigs the tyres are not rotating, and slope or aerodynamic downforce.
not beat the lap record the first time you therefore have no speed, no slip angle and
put your new car on the track with that, no slip ratio. As such, the tyre stiffness and Challenges ahead
but you will not be ridiculous. That is the damping are not representative of reality. These considerations show just some of
simplified answer. Oversimplified in fact, Most seven-post rigs are still useful, but we the limitations of most quarter-car
because it does not tell you if you need need to remember that their test results simulations. There are other challenges
the same damping ratio in bump and in have to be analysed in relative comparison. too, such as the choice of numerical
rebound, at low and high speed or even And no more than the tyre does the integrator, especially when we have
how to define low and high damper speed. suspension spring work in extension non-linear and discontinuous inputs.
To obtain a better answer you need a two stiffness. We never have seen a spring Examples of discontinuous inputs are a
degree of freedom simulation, as presented welded to a spring platform, at least not bump rubber suddenly becoming active,
with the quarter-car model in Figure 2. on a racecar! There is one exception to a damper being fully extended, a tyre off
Mu is the non-suspended mass, Ms is the this though: suspensions with torsion the ground or a fully compressed spring.
suspended mass (both in kg). Kt is the tyre bars where the wheel movement can be And all that without considering the
stiffness, Ks the suspension stiffness, both in controlled in both up and down directions. possible input of braking or acceleration
N/m. Ct is tyre damping and Cs suspension A good quarter-car model should (but torque, or slip angle and tyre transient
damping, both in N/(m/sec). most will not) consider that the suspension model with relaxation length.
The road profile, Zt (in metres) is an movement could be limited by the minimum In the next article we will examine the
input, while the vertical moment of the spring length in full compression. challenges and benefits of a good quarter-
non-suspended Zu and the suspended Moreover, these simplified models car model, and answer the main question
mass Zs (also in metres) will be outputs. do not consider several other important that you might use one for: between ride,
Most academic quarter-car models aspects of suspension stiffness: the spring’s aerodynamic downforce consistency, tyre
are presented this way, but they have possible non-linear stiffness (in fact, there mechanical grip and response, what are
their flaws. In my next article I will isn’t any linear spring stiffness); the possible we looking for, and how do we decide
explain what a good quarter-car model assembly of two or more springs of different how best to make compromises?
should be, but for now will just explain stiffnesses; the spring gap (in full drop it is
why such models are unsuited to real possible that the spring is not in contact
suspension design and development. with the spring platform); the spring pre- Slip Angle is a summary of Claude Rouelle’s
The following remarks are numbered load; the use of a bump stop (also called a OptimumG seminars, which are held worldwide
with the same reference on Figure 2. bump rubber) and its gap or pre-load, and throughout the year.
finally possible bump rubber hysteresis (that
Tyre modelling is both stroke and stroke speed sensitive).
Public, onsite, and online OptimumG seminars are held
worldwide throughout the year. The Advanced Vehicle
We all have seen slow motion video of a Most simplified quarter-car models Dynamics and the Data Driven Performance Engineering
race tyre hitting a succession of kerbs. The just use a constant damping, C. The race seminars present several theories and best practices
tyre takes off, lands a few kerbs later and engineer will quickly find that approach that can be used by engineers when making decisions
does not stick with the kerb’s surface. And irrelevant because a graph of damper on how to improve vehicle performance. OptimumG
yet on most academic quarter-car models, dyno test data will show different damping engineers can also be found around the world working
the tyre spring can work in extension! in compression and rebound, as well as as consultants for top level teams.
That’s the first major issue. Secondly, only different damping in low and high-speed
professional team engineers with access to conditions. That is without even considering CONTACT
detailed tyre models, or able to undertake damper force vs speed hysteresis. Claude Rouelle
complex tyre tests (when allowed), will Then there are the basic mechanical Phone: + 1 303 752 1562
have access to such essential information constraints: minimum and maximum eye-to- Enquiries: engineering@optimumg.com
and a good knowledge of a tyre’s vertical eye damper length should be considered. Website: www.optimumg.com
stiffness. It is vertical load, speed, pressure, Road inputs, with or without a
camber, temperature, slip angle, slip ratio rotating wheel (in that case, at a given
and also excitation frequency sensitive. speed), or vertical acceleration vs time

54 www.racecar-engineering.com JANUARY 2021

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JANUARY 2021 www.racecar-engineering.com 55

 TECHNOLOGY – STRATEGY

Time management
The engineering journey of a 24-hour race
By JAHEE CAMPBELL-BRENNAN
Mark Riccioni

Endurance racing over 24 hours is unlike any other form of motorsport. It’s a long distance strategic event, involving car, tyre, fuel and personnel coordination

I
n the middle of the night in the 2000 24 The 24-hour racing arena is much The Rolex 24 at Daytona is a slightly
Hours of Le Mans, the leading no.7 Audi more of a strategic event than traditional different challenge as it hits the peak
R8 suffered a rear left puncture. By the racing. It’s not just about having the first, kicking off IMSA’s season in
time it had reached the pits and been quickest car over a lap, key to success is January. In this case, pre-season testing
inspected, one of the mechanics noticed tyre, fuel and human management. is clearly of utmost importance.
some excessive play in the suspension. So, how exactly do the trackside teams ‘Last year we did two 12-hour test days
What happened in the following six approach car development and set-up to at Daytona before the ‘Roar before the
minutes was like a choreographed display. challenge for a win? How do mechanics 24’ [pre-race testing at Daytona],’ recalls
The team of mechanics removed the prepare for unforeseen repairs due to Todd Malloy, race engineer with BMW
rear bodywork and underfloor diffuser, mechanical failure or crash, and how do Team RLL. ‘The components on the car
disconnected oil, brake and hydraulic fluid the engineers approach the development ran those tests, then they ran all of the
lines, removed the gearbox (complete of the car over the race event? Roar, which is like four days of running.
with rear suspension and brakes), In this article we’ll follow the engineering ‘So you have nearly 48 hours on all
fitted a new gearbox and suspension journey of teams from the first pre-race the components to understand their
assembly, put the rest back together and tests at the beginning of an endurance durability. These components all then get
set the car back down the pit lane. championship through to the final race swapped out for new before the race.
It was very clear to see this was a debrief, exploring exactly how competition ‘It’s important to do this so everyone
repair that had been anticipated in at 24-hour racing is prepared and executed. can be working together as a team
the car’s development, and rehearsed and get some mileage on the cars.’
intensely by the team. It was obviously Lead up On arrival at the race weekend, first order
designed around the fact it is quicker to The preparation for an endurance event such of events are the free practice sessions. These
replace a whole sub-assembly than an as Le Mans starts in the preceding race season are an opportunity to put some miles on the
individual suspension component. of the FIA World Endurance Championship, car, gather data and let drivers familiarise
This is but a quick glimpse into the or European Le Mans Series (ELMS). The themselves with the track. It’s also a chance
preparation and rehearsal that goes into pandemic this year has turned things upside to dial in and work on the suspension
a 24-hour race entry, and highlights the down, but it usually means a team new to and aero set-up for the race ahead.
level of professionalism and desire to win WEC have had a minimum of two to three But for some of the larger teams in
that teams bring to the competition. ‘mini’ endurance races prior to the big event. the top classes, these practice sessions
Endurance racing brings a whole new For other races, such as the ADAC take on a slightly different meaning.
dimension to competition. If you suffer a TOTAL 24-hour race on the Nürburgring ‘Free practice for us is usually a case of
puncture or mechanical failure in sprint Nordschleife, the NLS series (formerly validating simulations to ensure correlation
championships such as DTM or F1, at best you VLN) gives a handful of races at the to our analytical work,’ comments John
lose the race, at worst it’s a retirement. In a same venue before the main event, Steeghs, team manager for Toyota
24-hour race, you might still stand a chance. allowing time to practice. Gazoo Racing LMP1 operations.

56 www.racecar-engineering.com JANUARY 2021

 A unique factor of endurance racing that
sets it apart from sprint racing is the same car
is often shared by drivers with a spectrum of
abilities. The objective is therefore to find a
set-up that is in a certain ‘window’, which all
three drivers of the car feel comfortable with.
With a mix of amateur and professional
drivers at the wheel in privateer racing,
BMW Motorsport

the race set-up is often chosen to ensure

the amateur driver is most comfortable
and can get the most from the car. The
more experienced professional driver
BMW Team RLL has a good understanding of what it takes to win in endurance racing, taking first place at the 2020 Rolex 24 then works around this. It doesn’t help
anybody if you arrive at a race set-up
that makes the pro 0.2s faster round a
lap if it makes the amateur 0.5s slower.
‘You need to find a compromise that
allows them to keep the car close to the
limit,’ adds Gade. ‘You’ll never have a car
that has its best performance throughout
the whole race, so there’s less reliance on
finding that. It’s about making sure your
drivers are comfortable throughout.’

Qualifying
Once practice is out of the way and
Mark Riccioni

a solid race set-up is found, teams’

focus moves to qualifying.
Qualifying and race set-ups have a
Weather can change dramatically over a 24-hour period, and understanding wet set-up changes to driveability is critical quite different set of motivators. The
aim of qualifying is to draw out the most
‘We go through several set-ups to ‘If the driver is reporting a lot of high- performance from the car for a short period
double check if the data is what we speed balance issues then that obviously of time. Qualifying runs are performed
expected to see from our simulations.’ highlights an area we need to work on. In with low fuel loads and brand new tyres,
Using vehicle dynamics simulations this case it could be aero, but also how the great conditions for one or two flying laps,
with mathematical models of a particular car generates its tyre temperature, which is a but not indicative of the whole race.
vehicle at a track like Circuit de la Sarthe mechanical issue that needs to be addressed.’ ‘We generally don’t have much difference
allows hundreds, or even thousands, of As ever in engineering, there are multiple between qualifying and race set-ups but, for
set-up options to be evaluated digitally approaches to the same problem. There is example, on a long run, the balance can start
before ever running the car on a track. one thing that most will agree on though: to lean into oversteer. If we do change the
The objective of practice sessions then ‘The objective at the beginning is just to set-up, it might be to start the run with a little
shifts from running through set-up options maximise track time,’ confirms Steeghs, understeer so, as the tyres degrade, the car
to find the best configuration, to running a ‘as this is more valuable than everything will come into a balance window. Qualifying
select few scenarios to put trust in the models. else. If we miss track time, we are unable will be a more neutral set-up throughout as
‘On the Mazda DPi project for Daytona, we to validate set-ups, systems and tyres on degradation isn’t a problem,’ notes Malloy.
use simulation to find a starting set-up based the car, which will bite us all weekend.’ ‘With a 24-hour race, though, where
on the previous year’s race, or test events at For the less resourced privateer teams, qualifying doesn’t matter so much,
that circuit, and we then look at how to adapt this can be the first occasion the track, we don’t spend a whole lot of time
the set-up based on driver feedback through racecar and drivers all come together. preparing for qualifying, we’d rather
practice,’ says Leena Gade, race engineer and Pre-race practice sessions are therefore spend the time preparing for the race.’
head of vehicle dynamics at Multimatic. vital for tuning the car and for drivers to Chassis balance can be adjusted by
become acquainted with the conditions. manipulating roll stiffness, the distribution
‘We really approach these sessions with of which between each axle influences this

A unique factor of the aim of finding a consistent, comfortable

set-up that performs well in all scenarios.
by changing the relative wheel loads. Most
commonly, adjustments to roll stiffness are

endurance racing that sets Driveability and driver comfort over the race
can become priority, rather than outright
made by adjusting the ARB (anti-roll bar)
leverage and adjusting dampers to modify

it apart from sprint racing pace,’ explains Jamie Gomeche, race engineer
at Phoenix Racing, with experience at Le Mans.
the damper curves. High roll stiffness can
be utilised to increase the rate of energy

is the same car is often ‘A big thing to focus on is ride. We’ll be

looking for things like the car bottoming
input into the tyres, quickly bringing them
up to temperature for qualifying, but on

shared by drivers with a

out at the end of straight sections, or longer runs this can be a disadvantage.
bouncing around too much. The set-up ‘Normally if you’ve got a quick car for a

spectrum of abilities
preferences for the drivers generally race, it will do quite well over the qualifying
converge around these things.’ event, but the inverse isn’t always true.

JANUARY 2021 www.racecar-engineering.com 57

TECHNOLOGY – STRATEGY

‘If you have a quick car for qualifying it can

be quite awful over a race as the suspension
is so aggressive, potentially working the tyres
too hard, or simply being difficult to drive
consistently,’ Gomeche adds. ‘Depending on
the driver, some will want a bit more rotation
at the rear as they perform better with a
slight oversteer balance, while others prefer
the safety of an understeer balance. In the
race, the aim is to have something with more
margin for error, requiring less concentration.’
In an endurance event, it’s all about

Mark Riccioni
managing this tyre energy to ensure they
stay in the right temperature range. Too cold
and the compound isn’t elastic enough,
too hot and you move the tyre into the Wet track surfaces influence chemical adhesion at the contact patch and require a different approach to car set-up
blistering, or graining, danger zone as its
ability to resist shear stresses diminishes.
Naturally, wet racing adds yet another
dimension to set-up considerations.
With a film of water affecting chemical
adhesion between the contact patch
and track, tyres become more sensitive
to load variations. Wet tyres are also of
a softer compound and feature tread
blocks, which contribute to generating
more internal friction and heat. Because of
this, they can be prone to overheating.
‘In the Nürburgring 24 this year [held
in September], it was a wet / damp
qualifying event so we made changes to
reduce the roll stiffness, creating a best

Multimatic
suited set-up for those specific conditions
over one lap,’ Gomeche recalls.
Preparation is key to handling the unexpected, and teams will run through numerous potential scenarios prior to the race
Race preparation
Once qualifying is over, the race
preparation starts and attention shifts
Having procedures and processes in
place removes some of the guesswork In the race, the aim is to
have something with more
towards team management and and potential pressure of being hit with
preparing the car and equipment for unexpected occurrences. Putting together

margin for error, requiring

the rigours of the 24 hours ahead. a reaction plan allows issues to be dealt
Most engineers will tell you that the with in a controlled and considered manner,
largest difference between sprint and removing an element of risk from panic.
endurance racing is that it’s less about In such a long race with so many variables, less concentration
outright performance and more about reducing the potential for mechanical
planning, preparation and execution. failures is good preparation. Hence why it’s Jamie Gomeche, race engineer
‘The biggest thing you need to do in common for teams to strip their cars down at Phoenix Racing
a 24-hour race is minimise mistakes,’ says to the chassis and swap as many high-risk
Chris Mower, team manager at BMW Team parts as a wallet permits before the race. Steeghs confirms: ‘We usually bring
RLL. ‘They do happen, so you just have ‘I once worked with an LMP2 team who around six front ends, six rear ends and six
to make sure you have the procedures in had, in previous years, effectively replaced underfloors to the event to cover failures, all
place to handle them. Then, if you do have the entire car after the last qualifying event at prepared in race set-up before the race. We
any issues, hopefully you’ve preempted Le Mans,’ highlights Gomeche. ‘They stripped shake down all the parts at our Spa test a
them and have procedures for getting the the car down to the tub and rebuilt it with week before the official Le Mans test day to
car back on track as soon as possible.’ new parts. Not because anything was wrong, ensure they are all tested and ready to go. This
It’s a sentiment echoed by Malloy: ‘We it was more of a win-at-all-costs approach so way, everything we use has been set-up on
have a very thorough pre-event strategy they were trying to remove all risk possible.’ the car so we have nothing to worry about.’
meeting, discussing the overall plan and Make no mistake, 24-hour races are
what to do in case of any eventualities. If huge events, with great kudos afforded Team personnel
you go off, the grille gets covered in grass the winners, both in the currency of Managing the team to ensure each role has
and temperature skyrockets, you better respect within the teams and commercial enough support requires a lot of personnel
plan for that. Similarly, with track hazards. opportunities. Losing the race from a in addition to the usual crew complement at
At Daytona, the Bus Stop chicane has some leading position due to mechanical failure IMSA or WEC races. Creating a framework in
savage kerbs so we need drivers to avoid is a difficult thing to accept. So, if you which each individual can complete their role
those or we won’t have a car to finish with.’ can afford to, you plan around that. in the most efficient way is especially diligent.

58 www.racecar-engineering.com JANUARY 2021

 DESIGNING A WINNER?
WE HAVE THE DAMPERS YOU NEED!

CONGRATULATIONS
TO ASTON MARTIN RACING FOR WINNING
THE GTE PRO CLASS AT THE 24H OF LE MANS
2020 AND THE FIA WORLD ENDURANCE
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 TECHNOLOGY – STRATEGY

‘In a 24-hour race such as Le Mans, where ‘Part life for things like brake discs is
each team member has much more of an generally gauged manually through testing,’
impact and role in the overall outcome of the explains Gomeche. ‘After fitting new brakes,
race, it’s important to leave people in their you may perform 150km of testing and then
value and provide the best environment measure everything. With the level of wear
for them to conduct their responsibilities.’ you see, you can then extrapolate a wear
notes Steeghs. ‘We usually take two per km figure and apply that to estimate
additional people for tyre management when you’ll need to do work like that.’

Toyota Gazoo Racing

to help with running them back and forth. Unlike shorter races, race strategy for
We also bring extra personnel to manage 24-hour races is fairly open. There are some
engineering tasks like data analysis a little baselines established, such as driver order,
closer than we might in shorter races.’ which require some consideration. Generally,
Contrary to popular belief, budgets the most experienced drivers take the most Ensuring the whole team is effectively engaged, and all working to
are not infinite, even at the very top of important tasks to start and finish races. their strengths and value is key to managing a 24-hour race
the sport. Teams will also make repairs to ‘You know fuel capacity, useable fuel and
damaged components during the race where
possible, as Steeghs explains: ‘As the main
also fuel consumption, which automatically
dictates how long your stint is going to last. TGR also brings several
team members whose
composites team is usually involved with I typically use this to construct a strategy
pit stops, we take additional tech support for the full race to understand how long I

sole responsibility
to work on things such as repairs out in will spend in the pit lane, including time
the back. We have had a case in the past driving in and out of the pits,’ explains Gade.
where we repaired a nose piece and then Twenty four hour races are broken
put it back on the car later in the race.’ into phases, the endurance part from is rain spotting!
Of course, repairs add weight, so good the beginning, the sprint for the final
judgement is needed to decide whether a stages. The different phases have distinct
part is to be repaired or replaced. Prototypes, requirements from both car and driver.
in particular, are sensitive to balance changes ‘In terms of prepping the car, it’s Once the lights are green and drivers
caused by altering weight distribution. In a important to make sure the car and drivers settle into the race, it’s largely just a
close battle, a bad call here can cost a victory. are strong in the last phases of the race. case of managing pit stops and track
As races can be won or lost based on The racing hots up in the final four to six conditions for the engineering team.
accurate weather prediction, TGR also hours or so, so you plan to have your car
brings several team members whose sole in good condition during these stages, The race
responsibility is rain spotting! Located in key with fresh brakes etc.’ notes Malloy. To do this, engineers use run sheets to keep
spots throughout the race their job is to give This can also play into your driver track of things such as race conditions, pit
first-hand updates on weather conditions. sequence. You’d want your more experienced stops, fuelling and lap times from the pit
As the race settles into a rhythm, the cars drivers in the car to handle the initial rush wall, and these are a crucial tool for the
are mostly maintenance free over the next after the start and also the potential battles race engineer to keep a handle on things.
3000 miles (4800km) or so. Occasionally, a in the final sprint phase of the race. They allow you to plan and control a race.
small amount of oil must be added to top It can also be wise to ensure there ‘Run sheets help you keep an eye on
up the sump as the engine burns oil, and are no driver changes during the what’s happening in the moment, but also
brakes are a common wear part, so discs transitioning hours of dusk and dawn what’s going to be happening in the future.
and pads are also changed at some point. to minimise the risk of mistakes. If you follow the plan, you’ll know in three

Toyota Gazoo Racing

Mark Riccioni

The latter part of a 24-hour race is closer to a sprint than an endurance event, requiring a change in strategy The amount of data transmitted to the engineering station is vast

60 www.racecar-engineering.com JANUARY 2021

 Multimatic
Drivers need briefing on conditions before their stint. Professional drivers will usually start and finish an event
Multimatic

Debris accumulates on the aerodynamic surfaces over the course

of a race and impacts performance. Planning for this is important

stints time whether you’ll still have enough

driving time, or whether at the end of the
race you’re going to have to do a quick
stop or splash of fuel,’ concurs Gomeche.

Mark Riccioni
The race engineer also has responsibility
for engaging the mechanics, which means
communicating when pit stops are coming
up and what needs to be done to the cars. In 2020 at the Nürburgring, rain forced an overnight stop and track conditions were vastly different on restart
‘If we’re doing a 45-minute stint, 15
minutes before the car is coming in we ‘There will always be damage too, whether ‘The car was initially performing pretty
give a heads up that we’re entering a pit it’s running over the kerbs and damaging well, with the factory car in P1 and the sister
window,’ adds Gomeche. ‘The driver can your splitter or damage from contact or car not far behind at the point of the red flag.
come in at any point during that window, so debris. These things can definitely affect aero But then at 8am in the morning when the
it’s a cue to get helmets on and be ready. performance, which may dictate a repair.’ race re-started, the car’s balance was way off.
‘A normal pit stop can consist of new tyres, When we talk of tracks evolving, what is We were running a bit of a wet set-up so we
clean windscreen, refilling the drinks bottle, being referred to is the rubber laid down as had taken out some roll stiffness, nothing
a download of the ECU data and, depending tyres wear. Consequently, grip levels increase big, but the car was behaving like it was on
on the sequence, a change of driver.’ as the surface matures. With a big grid like ice. We changed back to a dry set-up during
Before a driver change, the incoming that of the 2020 Nürburgring 24h where 97 a stop and the car came back to us again.’
driver must be briefed about the conditions cars competed, that’s a lot of rubber, and Sometimes, even with all the data and
around the race track as they need to have eventually a point of equilibrium is reached experience, things still aren’t straightforward.
some situational awareness and get up to where the rubber film becomes so thick it
speed quickly. They can also take information starts marbling as the top layers shear off. Battle of will
about race conditions through observing Rain on a mature surface adds further It’s wise to keep an eye on how your
how the outgoing driver is driving. interest and the difference in grip between competition is executing their race in this
‘Drivers will use the inboard cameras to is exaggerated in latter parts of the race. sense. ‘Most teams run two cars, and what
take visual cues from how the current driver Not only is the transition from slick to they’ll do is split their strategies at certain
is handling the car through a lap, taking intermediate / wet tyre somewhat of a points. They’ll keep one on the standard
cues on braking and corner entry etc. This gamble, but the effect of the rain in ‘washing’ strategy but then deviate from that with the
can help them understand how the line has the track can be especially pronounced, as other car to make sure they have everything
changed from their previous stints,’ explains Gomeche experienced first hand this year. covered with respect to safety car events
Gade, continuing, ‘aero performance across ‘We had a pretty strong stint in the and things like that,’ notes Mower. ‘You
the race also degrades as the cars get covered Audi in at the beginning of the race at need to look at when teams start peeling
in dirt. Unless you spend time during pits to the Nürburgring, but after seven hours off on that alternate strategy, and then
clean the important areas of the car, you can the race was suspended for almost 10 decide whether you have another car that
noticeably lose downforce over the 24 hours. hours overnight due to the heavy rain. follows so you’ve got them covered, too.

JANUARY 2021 www.racecar-engineering.com 61

TECHNOLOGY – STRATEGY

Effective preparation,
It can turn into more of a chess match This is the element of endurance
as far as strategy goes in that respect.’ racing that makes it so special. It’s not just

good team management,

As the race settles into darkness, a challenge of mechanical endurance,
it becomes a battle of will as drivers it’s also a human challenge, and being
work to maintain concentration and open and trusting each other as a team is
stay consistent through their stints. At paramount to success in 24-hour races. a passion to win and the
this point, the engineering team are
in constant communication with the
drivers through the race engineer.
Post-race
If all goes well and a team clinches the
mental resilience to stay
It’s a little more involved than setting
them out down the pit-lane and telling
win, the post-race debrief wraps up the
race and lines up the celebrations.
focussed until the end
them to just do their best. Drivers want to ‘The whole team is exhausted, so we make
know what’s going on around them with it quick, but we take notes on what went huge role in the race. In simple terms, with
their competition, what kind of lap times wrong and immediately take steps to ensure sprint you generally just work towards a
they should be aiming for and additional the mistakes aren’t going to happen again. good set-up, fill the car up and set it off for
information such as any fuel saving they We don’t just focus on the bad, though, we the next 30 minutes or so. The race itself is
should be employing during the stint. also make note of what worked and what largely out of your hands,’ says Gomeche.
Settings on the car such as TC and engine we’ll want to repeat,’ concludes Mower. ‘With 24-hour races, you have such a large
map changes can also be communicated. With so much effort and energy input into the progress of the race. Even
As the race progresses, the race engineer going into winning these races, the way with the mechanics doing a consistent job
sometimes needs to encourage more this part of the process is approached with the stops, the whole thing is a team
‘economical’ driving styles, managing both can have a huge emotional impact on effort and everyone involved plays such a
the drivers’ energy levels and the cars’ drivers, engineers and the wider team. huge role in executing the race. It feels like
enthusiasm. This is where data analysis comes This is something Toyota Gazoo Racing you’re the most connected to the race as
in helpful in relation to specific problems. may know better than others, as Steeghs you can be, which is the appeal for me.’
‘In a race I was recently involved in, we recounts: ‘In 2016, after leading for so Besides, in face of disappointment,
had a problem with the tyres as they were long, we had a mechanical failure with the there’s always a silver lining, as Steeghs
falling off massively,’ recalls Gomeche. ‘We no.5 car on the last lap of the race. The car recalls: ‘Even after our failure in 2016, it will
couldn’t double stint them unless they were crossed the line in second position and did always stay with me how emotional the
treated very carefully in the first stint. the same number of laps as the winner, but other teams, even the ACO, were over the
‘We have various maths channels we not to be classified was really very difficult. event, too. They supported us and that was
can create to process the data to show slip It’s something I still struggle with today.’ one of the most fantastic feelings I’ve ever
levels, as well as over or understeer values.’ Endurance racing is an event people had. It’s such a community event, and that
tend to love or hate. At hour 18, as the sun is certainly unique to endurance racing.’
Data processing begins to rise, the only thing keeping you With the new regulations in 2021
Maths channels are used to algebraically performing is mental resilience. You have to the cars might be changing, but the
manipulate measured signals from the really have that passion for it. As with most formula for success is enduring. Effective
cars’ sensors. They allow engineers to things in life, the reward must outweigh preparation, good team management, a
process data to deduce patterns and view the sacrifice for it to be meaningful. passion to win and the mental resilience
certain performance characteristics that ‘Having worked in both sprint and to stay focussed until the end.
aren’t possible using direct measurement 24-hour races, the main difference as an Endurance racing is clearly considerably
as they aren’t physical parameters. engineer for me is that you have such a more than the sum of its parts.
‘In this case, the data was showing a
particularly high level of slip in the driver’s
previous laps so we told him to go a little
easier. It also showed he was getting a
bit of snap oversteer in turn two so he
needed to take it easy through there.’
Occasionally, the race engineer’s role
transcends data and maths channels and
steps into the realm of emotional support.
A familiar and encouraging voice can
make all the difference as fatigue sets in.

It’s not just a

challenge of
mechanical
Toyota Gazoo Racing

endurance, it’s also

a human challenge During a 24-hour race every aspect of the strategy and car preparation is maximised for performance

62 www.racecar-engineering.com JANUARY 2021

JANUARY 2021 www.racecar-engineering.com 63
TECHNOLOGY – CRASH TESTING

First impressions

Cranfield Impact Centre

plays a crucial role in
ensuring the safety of
racecars. With tougher
regulations coming into
force next year, Racecar
Engineering investigates
By ANDREW COTTON

Racecar and driver safety has come a long way since the 1983 FIA regulations required the introduction of an additional box structure into the nosecones of Formula 1 cars

64 www.racecar-engineering.com JANUARY 2021

FIA-approved crash testing facilities have been created in order to
conduct repeatable, measurable tests

Crash test speed was 10m/s in 1985, but in 2021 will increase again from the current 15m/s to 17m/s. That equates to an almost 50 per cent increase in energy absorption

H
earing the news that a car has and computer design have all helped create racing fans. Their sole goal is to establish if a
passed its crash test is now regulations that have yielded some of the vehicle, or component, is fit for purpose, and
commonplace in racing circles. As safest racecars ever produced. they have been doing that for 40 years.
advances in computer software Yet, in order to approve car design before
through the design phase improves, so does the cars hit the track, a component, or car, Primary function
the ability to predict how one will deform, but needs to be properly evaluated. And for In order to understand the challenge that
it was not always the case. Racecars from all that to happen, FIA-approved crash testing the crash testing process poses, a design
series have often failed their first impact tests facilities have been created in order to team must create a monocoque, or tub, from
before heading to the track, particularly as conduct repeatable, measurable tests. One of which the component parts of the racecar are
rules tightened at key moments and design these is housed on the campus at Cranfield hung. These include the front crash structure,
teams had to react quickly, perhaps with the University in the UK, and it is not unusual to side impact protection as well as functional
risk of losing performance. have Formula 1 and WEC cars pass through items such as the front suspension and side
Long gone are the days when crash the doors to reach certification for racing. radiators. However, the tub’s primary function
testing meant dropping a car, or component, When we visited the facility, essentially a is to be the survival cell for the driver in the
from a crane into the ground to estimate the hangar in which all the test and measuring event of an accident, one in which the body
likelihood of a driver surviving the impact. equipment is housed, there were a range of will be as protected as possible.
Also behind us are the days when racecars vehicles that either have been tested, or are From the roll hoop above the driver’s head
would not even be tested, extra material about to be, including a Dakar tube-frame to the bottom of the tub, normally sculpted
only being added in order to improve chassis and, sitting next to that, a wheelchair. for aerodynamic efficiency, the structures
performance, rather than driver safety. In a box next to the wheelchair are bolts have to withstand enormous pressure in
Today’s crash test criteria are stringent which hold the Halo device in place. a combination of both dynamic and static
and the results are clear to see. Advances in This is not just a racecar test facility, and tests to prove not only strength, but also the
composite materials, accident investigation those running the tests are not necessarily correct deformability for a given part.

JANUARY 2021 www.racecar-engineering.com 65

TECHNOLOGY – CRASH TESTING

Williams’ FW10 was the company’s first carbon tub car but the composites team was unsure whether or not it
would pass the crash testing criteria so came up with a back up plan of a honeycomb structure in the nose

The former essentially establishes

deformity in the event of an accident, the
latter ensures the parts are fitted well enough
that they don’t simply fall off at a measured
minimum impact speed.
The combination has produced cars that
are capable of withstanding impacts that
previously may have led to injury or death
of a driver, but there is more to the tests
than simply crashing a component, car or
wheelchair into a solid wall. In order to prove
the parts are able to withstand impact, each
test must be measurable, repeatable and
accurate. Data gathered must then be shared
with the design team and governing body
to confirm the car is safe before it is put into
production, or allowed to race.
In order to do that, not only must the
equipment be maintained to the highest
level but the latest technologies need to
be incorporated, including high-definition
cameras, accelerometers and computer
software. The results must be fully understood
too, in order to provide meaningful reports
back to the involved parties.

History repeating There is a misconception that static tests are easier to pass than dynamic, but withstanding pressure is a challenge
The history of crash testing at Cranfield
stretches back to the mid-1980s. Prior to
that, teams would generally only strengthen
be faster than their aluminium-bodied
competitors and, as such, had a performance There is more to the
their cars to increase torsional rigidity for the
purpose of improved performance. Lotus
advantage. However, back then there was less
knowledge of how to lay up the carbon fibres tests than simply
crashing a component,
and McLaren brought carbon chassis to for strength and specialists were needed to
Formula 1 in the early 1980s and, although ensure the finished racecar was as strong, or

car or wheelchair into

the structures were stronger, and protected stronger, than an aluminium one.
the driver better, it was not necessarily for Even then, actually testing the car for
that purpose carbon tubs were introduced. strength was not a priority. ‘There was a
Lighter and stiffer, the cars were going to regulation change in 1983 where we had to a solid wall
66 www.racecar-engineering.com JANUARY 2021
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 TECHNOLOGY – CRASH TESTING

The latest high-definition cameras record tests and

results can be sent digitally in real time if required

add a bit of extra box section on the front,

which I remember was a bit optimistic,’ recalls
Brian O’Rourke, former chief composites
engineer at Williams Grand Prix Engineering.
‘Those things were not very substantial.’
The calculation at the time was that
an average human being could survive
an impact of around 20g, or 20 times their
own bodyweight. Due to the fitness levels
of professional racing drivers, the limit was
raised to 25g for the purpose of testing.
‘It was very rudimentary, but they came up
with an energy level that equated to a speed
of 10m/s, and that was intended for the start
of the 1985 season,’ says O’Rourke.

Pendulum swing
At that time, IndyCar had already started Much of the current development work in F1 centres around reducing the likelihood of parts falling off cars in crash scenarios
testing its chassis for high-impact accidents,
particularly against the walls that line an oval

Structures have to
track, and Formula 1, which typically sees this was to put a big honeycomb structure
lower-speed accidents, was right behind. on the inside of a standard nosebox.’ The
The process used in the first crash tests first test was done at half speed and, while it
involved a pendulum rig. A block was stood up to the impact with only 50 per cent withstand enormous
strapped to it and swung into a the test object deformation, at full speed the nose collapsed
at the required speed. Originally, Cranfield’s
rig was designed to test railway carriages so
so fast that the rig broke. ‘I had taken bin
liners to bring the parts back, but there was
pressure in a combination
for the purpose of testing Formula 1 cars it
was well within its tolerances.
nothing left to recover,’ says O’Rourke.
After a long lunch, taken while the rig
of both dynamic and
For O’Rourke, who was preparing the
Williams FW10 for the 1985 season, this was
was repaired, they tried again with the
honeycomb structure and this time it passed.
static tests
just the latest in a series of obstacles that ‘It was a reasonable absorption curve, so that
had to be overcome for the design team. The was the starting point. Actually, I had made With such pressure on teams to produce
FW10 was Williams’ first carbon monocoque it a bit too stiff, so what happened then was cars capable of passing the crash test before
and the opening round was in Brazil early in that it pushed the front of the bulkhead into being certified to race, there is a clear
April. Because of the time it took to ship a car, the monocoque, which wasn’t intended. loophole that, according to folklore, was often
the crash test had to be completed early and ‘We had a bit of a re-think about beefing exploited: building one car specifically to pass
the team was not at all sure it would pass the up the monocoque and went back a week the test, but not the same specification as the
required test. So a back-up plan was devised, later. We managed to pass that one.’ car on track. This was a clear area of danger
a honeycomb structure in the nose that could This may have been the early days of crash that had to be addressed.
be attached to the FW09. testing, but the same issues have arisen ever When Formula 1 went to high noses with
‘I had already done the thumb calculations since. Above the door to the Cranfield test rig the front wing hung from the underside on
on it and said to myself that there was no today is a Formula 3 chassis that had been pylons, these were not necessarily the same
way this was ever going to do the job,’ subjected to the side impact tests mandated as those used in crash testing. ‘There is a
remembers O’Rourke. ‘I don’t think these by the FIA recently. The holes in the side of lovely story about an F1 team who aren’t
guys had any idea of how far adrift the cars the monocoque indicate it suffered the same around any more, but who went to the first
of that time were, so the only way to achieve issue as Williams nearly 40 years earlier. track test in Spain and the first time the

68 www.racecar-engineering.com JANUARY 2021

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TECHNOLOGY – CRASH TESTING

High in fibre

B
comp and YCOM have collaborated to
develop and manufacture the world’s first
natural fibre crash box for motorsport, the
Front Impact Absorbing Structure (FIAS), using
Bcomp’s powerRibs and ampliTex material.
Designed by leading advanced technologies expert,
YCOM, and using higher performance ampliTex flax
fibres, it proves natural fibres can play an important
role in structural and safety-critical parts.
The crash box is designed to optimise the
performance of the ampliTex natural fibre
reinforcements and was tested at the FIA-approved test
house of Politecnico of Milan. The impact test results
achieved were in line with a traditional carbon fibre
structure. The material not only shows the desired
crash behaviour required from a safety perspective,
It is not just racecars tested at Cranfield Impact Centre, all forms of technology come under similar scrutiny it eradicates the danger of sharp splintering.
Furthermore, natural fibre composites waste can be
car left the pits the front wing fell off,’ says The FIA is soon to release a new set of used for thermal energy recovery.
O’Rourke. ‘It was the one intended for the criteria for the test houses to adopt, and For the motorsports industry, this new research
crash test, not for track running.’ Cranfield Impact Centre has been directly proves high performance natural fibres can be used
Martin Donnelly’s accident at Jerez in 1990 involved in its development. for significantly wider applications than previously
led the FIA to change crash testing protocols, ‘This goes further on all technical aspects,’ thought, reducing environmental impact and enabling
too. While the monocoque had passed the confirms James Watson, Cranfield Impact technology transfer to mobility.
test, there was a clear failure in the chassis, Centre manager. ’What specific regulation The natural fibre FIAS prototype designed as
which split in two during impact. crash test is needed? Is the instrumentation a proof of concept is currently around 40 per cent
‘From 1991 onwards, you did all of your fully calibrated? Is it traceable? Can you heavier than its carbon fibre counterpart, but enables
tests on a data chassis, and every other record it repeatedly when you measure the a CO2 reduction of approximately 50 per cent in the
chassis had to go through five squeeze tests acceleration? What range of uncertainty is production process compared to the composite piece.
as today, so you have to show that every your measurement? Pushing the adoption of natural fibres requires
monocoque you build will not deflect more ‘There is a regulated method that the engineers to integrate it from the first day of the
than the original one,’ explains O’Rourke. whole test should be documented and design phase,’ says Mario Saccone, YCOM co-founder.
Another test that was introduced approved. When you take any crash test it is ‘Mastering the full process is the only way to optimise
following the 1991 season was on the roll impossible to perform exactly the same crash performance and increase the competitiveness of
hoop, which required the highest structural test twice. You could say the friction might sustainable composite materials.
part of the racecar to withstand a pressure change, or the humidity or temperature, and ‘We are really happy to collaborate with Bcomp
of seven tonnes. It was one of the biggest controlling those is what makes sure the test in this development. Motorsport is a forge for new
changes in safety regulations and, while is repeatable. That’s what the purpose of the technology development, but this must be done fast
designers focussed on lowering the c of g thorough preparation is.’ and without any risk of error. YCOM has the experience
by using composite materials, when the Under the new regulations, Formula 1 to embark on complex R&D projects, with the flexibility
regulations became even more stringent in crash testing will move to a faster crash test of the motorsport approach to accelerate development.’
2001 they were forced to go back to metallic speed, up from 15m/s to 17m/s, with a slightly
inserts within the composite structure in increased mass. ‘The speed increase doesn’t
order to meet the strength required. sound like very much, but the energy will go
More recently, additive manufacturing has up from 88kJ to 130kJ, because it is 1/2mv2.
allowed for a titanium roll hoop to be fitted Any increase in velocity is a massive increase
and that is what is used in today’s F1 cars. in energy,’ notes Watson. ‘Therefore the
‘Today’s ones look very much like they energy absorbing capabilities of the vehicles
used to in the 1970s,’ says O’Rourke. ‘If you
get down to it, metallic structures are back in,
will be significantly improved.’
Having accurate measurements is one
Under the new
but there has been a lot of heartache and lost
sleep since then over passing these tests.’
thing, but the data analysis afterwards is also
critical. ‘The nose cone, for example, has to
regulations, Formula 1
The big squeeze
pass different criteria to absorb the energy
within the first 60kJ,’ explains Watson. ‘We crash testing will move
From testing the front of the car, the FIA
then moved to testing the monocoque
then perform the analysis demanded by the
FIA, which is unique. For example, you have to a faster crash test
with a combination of squeeze tests and
dynamic tests. Both are still used on racecars
to make sure the nose cone doesn’t come
off after a glancing blow before the car goes speed, up from 15m/s
to 17m/s, with a slightly
today, though now they have to withstand into a solid wall. So they put a large force into
greater levels of pressure and impact than the side, 40kN, and hold that for 30 seconds.

increased mass
ever before, and passing the test is about to That’s a serious test, but it stops the nose
become even more difficult. cones falling off in the initial stages of a crash.’

70 www.racecar-engineering.com JANUARY 2021

 Still only at the development stage, the
ampliTex flax fibre nosecone carries a
significant weight disadvantage over
carbon fibre, but a 50 per cent reduction
in the CO2 used in its production

However, with early crash test results

on a par with those achieved with the
carbon part, it is surely only a matter
of time before that weight penalty is
eliminated by racecar engineers

Another key area of development is the whole new way of testing, but Watson is not the relevant governing body. But with social
seat, as covered in RE V30N2. ‘There used to concerned as he runs a facility that caters for distancing now a requirement, it has become
be two levels of seat – advanced rally seat all walks of engineering, not only racing. a more remote process, with the high-speed
and competition seat,’ says Watson. ‘The rally camera footage, test results and analysis
seat has been in for 10 years now and is up for Safety service all sent back to headquarters digitally. If
renewal. They are doing a static test for that. ‘As long as it is safe, it will absorb the anything, this has improved the process at
The competition seat was a dynamic test but energy,’ he says. ‘That’s the service we are Cranfield, with fewer people on site.
now they are making both static tests. There providing. We are not dictating what the ‘People are able to view the tests much
are going to be more seats being tested. regulations are, or what we test. That comes closer via a tablet or Smartphone, so that has
‘There is a misconception that the from the FIA or relevant governing body. opened up a whole new way of working,’ says
dynamic test is harder to pass but, if you look The engineering side is more interesting to Watson. ‘It has reduced the number of people
at accident data, the forces seen in a crash me, and it really could be anything, from travelling to witness the tests.’
occur over a very short space of time. If that ambulance components to wheelchairs. It’s While the test facility at Cranfield has
same force is applied for 30 seconds, it is the mechanics of it, and making sure we are updated its working practices to cope with
much more significant. ‘ providing a good test service.’ the pandemic, with the ever more stringent
A further big change coming to racing in The ability to deliver the information has tests ahead for the next generation of
the short-to-medium term is alternative fuel changed in 2020, thanks to the coronavirus Formula 1 cars, the Impact Centre has also
technology. In particular, highly-pressurised pandemic. Before, testing would be witnessed upgraded its facilities to meet them. The
hydrogen fuel cells. These will require a by the team, Cranfield staff and officials from drive for safer racecars continues.

JANUARY 2021 www.racecar-engineering.com 71

 TECHNOLOGY – CHASSIS SIMULATION

In a spin
Revisiting the perennially complicated problem of tuning the differential

By DANNY NOWLAN

From a race engineering perspective, tuning the differential is a delicate balance between how much power you can put down and not scaring the one behind the wheel half to death

O
ne of the most important, yet Figure 1: An illustration of the inherent problem posed by the differential
most often forgotten, set-up
items in engineering a racecar
is the differential. The reason
it is so important is it plays a critical role
in both power delivery and car handling.
Ignore both at your peril.
A couple of years ago I addressed this
matter at length, but recently received
a great question on what your ballpark
differential wheel speeds should be. That
offered a perfect opportunity to re-visit this
important chassis engineering topic.
The principal problem we have with the
differential is we have two wheels moving at
different speeds, as illustrated in Figure 1.
The reason tuning the differential is such
a mess is that for a given forward speed,
V, and a given yaw rate, r, because the
wheels are separated by a track, t, we have
the inside wheel velocity at V-t.r/2 and the
outside wheel velocity at V+t.r/2. different types, including locked, open, both the inside and outside of the tyre
Making an already tricky situation Torsen and the many variants of our old have wildly different traction and cornering
worse is the fact the differential was never friend, the limited slip differential. conditions. This is illustrated in Figure 2.
truly engineered. It just sort of happened. Now, what also must be considered is As can be seen from Figure 2, the
As a consequence of this, there are many the mid-corner condition in racing where traction circle radius is much greater on

72 www.racecar-engineering.com JANUARY 2021

Figure 2: Traction circle conditions at the EQUATIONS
mid-corner situation EQUATION 1
Where:
t × ay VDiff = differential speed between the wheels
VDiff = t × r » SRMAX = maximum slip ratio of the inside tyre
V
V = current forward speed of the car (m/s)
V +t ×r /2 r
SRMAX = -1 = current yaw rate (rad/s)
V -t ×r /2 t = relevant track width
ay = lateral acceleration (m/s2)

EQUATION 2

æV + t × r / 2 ö
VIN _ MAX = (V - t × r / 2) × ç - 1÷
è V - t × r / 2 ø

EQUATION 3

t × ay 1.6 * 1.6 * 9.8

V Diff = t × r » = = 0.836m / s
V 30
V +t ×r /2
SRMAX = -1
V -t ×r /2
30 + 0.836 / 2
= -1
Making an already tricky 30 - 0.836 / 2

situation worse is the fact EQUATION 4

Where:

the differential was never Fx _ in = f (SR ) × Fm IN

Fmin = maximum possible tyre force for the inside tyre
Fx_in = Longitudinal force on the inside tyre

truly engineered. It just

f(SR) = Normalised slip ratio function bounded between zero and one

EQUATION 5
sort of happened
Fx _ in = f (SROUT ) × FmOUT
Fx _ in
f (SROUT ) =
Where:
Fmout = maximum possible tyre force for the outside tyre
the outside tyre then it is on the inside FmOUT
tyre. So, if we apply exactly the same slip SRout = slip ratio on the outside tyre
ratio to both the inside and outside tyre,
the differential will turn the car quite
forcefully. A driver of the calibre of the likes and slip angle are directly interchangeable, going to leave that slip ratio as is. Yes, I
of Lewis Hamilton / Ayrton Senna / Michael this means at the mid-corner condition we accept we will be compromising the inside
Schumacher could probably handle this, typically want the tyre slip ratio to be about tyre a bit, but don’t panic, we are not setting
but most racecar drivers won’t. 10 per cent of the maximum slip angle. You it on fire either.
Remembering the original question can get that derivation from Miliken’s tyre
about what level of differential slip we chapter on mixed slip conditions. Outside tyre slip
should be aiming for, and applying a little For what we have just calculated, we The next step in this process is what do
bit of maths to Figure 1, we can deduce are not that far away from the 10 per cent we want the outside tyre slip to be. To find
Equation 1. Working that through, our maximum slip ratio condition, so we are this out, we must first calculate the force
limiting case of the inside tyre will be as being generated longitudinally by the
shown in Equation 2. inside tyre. A rough approximation of this
Table 1: Typical corner parameters
But here is where things start to is given in Equation 4.
Parameter Value
become even more tricky. What will be the The critical question here is what sort of
magnitude of VIN_MAX for a typical corner? Track 1.6m slip ratios do we need on the outside tyre to
Let’s do a quick hand calculation for a Speed 108 km/h/30 m/s match the required force on the inside tyre?
typical racecar with the parameters shown Ay 1.6 This is outlined in Equation 5.
in Table 1. Crunching the numbers, the The balancing act between
Table 2: Maximum tyre force values
results are seen in Equation 3. Equations 3-5 will tell us where to go, not
This is actually very revealing. Mid- Parameter Value only in terms of differential speed front
corner we are pulling maximum, or near Fmin 2000N to rear but how you want to set up the
maximum, slip angle. This is typically six Fmout 5000N differential. Now let’s illustrate this with
degrees, or 0.1047 rad. Given that slip ratio Max slip ratio 0.1047 some numbers, see Table 2.

JANUARY 2021 www.racecar-engineering.com 73

TECHNOLOGY – CHASSIS SIMULATION

EQUATIONS
EQUATION 6 EQUATION 7
Fx _ in = f (SR IN ) × Fm IN ay 1.6 * 9.8
r= = = 0.52rad / s
0.028 V 30
= × 2000 Vout = (V + t × r / 2) × (1 + SROUT )
0.1047
= 540 N = (30 + 1.6 * 0.52 / 2) × (1 + 0.0113)
540 N = 30.76m / s
f (SROUT ) =
5000 N Vdiff = Vout - V IN
= 0.108 = (V + t × r / 2) × (1 + SROUT ) - (V - t × r / 2) × (1 + SRIN )
SRout = 0.108 * 0.1047 = 30.76 - (30 - 1.6 * 0.52 / 2) × (1 + 0.028)
= 0.0113 = 0.35m / s

EQUATION 8 EQUATION 9 Where:

LR = locking ratio
Fx _ out = f (SROUT ) × FmOUT TSLOW - TFAST Tslow = torque on the slower wheel
LR = 100 ×
TTOTAL Tfast = torque on the faster wheel
0.028 Ttotal = total torque
= × 5000
0.1047
= 1337.2 N
EQUATION 10
F - FIN
dF = OUT TSLOW - TFAST
2 LR = 100 ×
TTOTAL
1337.5 - 540
= Fout - FIN
2 = 100 ×
= 398.8 N Fout + FIN
1337.5 - 540
= 100 ×
1337.5 + 540
= 42.5%

To make things simple, I’m going to

assume a linear slope for function, f(SR),
rear wheel to a slip of, say, 0.028? Re-working
Equation 6 gives us Equation 8. At its most fundamental
level, the differential
where zero is the value for no slip ratio and In this case, if we require both tyres to
one is the value for the maximum slip ratio. have the same slip ratio, the diff will have to

transfers forces from the

Before you say it, I realise this is committing produce a differential force of 398.8N.
a litany of tyre modelling sins, but the whole To finish this discussion, figuring out the
point of this is to give you all some very locking ratio of the differential is very easy.
simple examples so you can get a numerical All we need to do is to recall our equation for wheel that is spinning the
handle on what the differential needs. the locking ratio, as shown in Equation 9.
The other thing here is you need a good
understanding of your tyres. Again, this is
Here, torque and forces are
interchangeable. And since we are traction
most to the wheel that is
one of the great things about simulation
since it forces you to understand the racecar
compromised, the input force here will be
the sum of the inside and outside forces
spinning the least
before you question it. Bringing this all we have just calculated. Plugging in the
together and calculating out Equation 5, numbers, we reach Equation 10. forces from the wheel that is spinning the
gives us Equation 6. This means that for As we can see, this is a pretty aggressive most to the wheel that is spinning the least.
equal forces, the wheel speed on the outside differential locking ratio, but we’ll see how to This can be quantified by Figure 3.
is given by Equation 7. deal with this shortly. The two horizontal axes in Figure 3 are
To ensure we have balanced forces, this input force, which is the force coming from
means the outside wheel has to be going Number of the beast the engine and differential wheel speed.
0.35m/s or about 1.1 per cent faster than The reason we have gone to all this trouble The z axis is the differential force that is
the inside wheel. Remember this achieves is so we can now specify numerically what applied to each wheel. In the example here,
parity of forces. But now we must ask what is a differential looks like. Recall at its most for an input force of 10,000N, at a differential
going to happen if we increase the outside fundamental level, the differential transfer wheel speed of 4m/s, the delta is 1000N.

74 www.racecar-engineering.com JANUARY 2021

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TECHNOLOGY – CHASSIS SIMULATION

The force differential is therefore 10,000/2- Figure 3: Differential wheel speed force vs force distribution
1000N for the wheel that is spinning the
most, and 10,000/2+1000N to the wheel
spinning the least.
This can also be illustrated via torque, but
the bottom line is it means the same thing.
What we have just done with this analysis,
albeit highly simplified, is to give you the
numerical tools to populate this graph via
simple hand calculations.
That is powerful in itself, but your ace
in the hole is refining it through simulation
and the logged channels you get back from
ChassisSim. One of the things ChassisSim
logs is longitudinal force on each axle,
which allows you to see what this can do to
driveability. An example of this is presented
below in Figure 4.
If you take a look at the plot in Figure 4,
you’ll see the logged channels, Force x RL
and Force x RR. These are the longitudinal
forces being applied at the contact patch.
How you tune this is that you start with an
open differential assumption and then put
in your differential with the calculated
locking ratio. Then, by looking at the biggest is making a straight, linear function In closing then, while the differential
steering trace comparison between the of the normalised slip angle curve. Where poses challenges, there is a way through
open differential and the locking ratio, you this will make its impact felt is with the the jungle. We saw through the use of first
can adjust the locking ratio depending specific slip ratios. principles and some hand calculations how
on what your driver can put up with. That One thing we haven’t covered is to you can begin to understand what the
is a perfect example of how to use hand assume maximum slip angle for the outside differential needs. But in order to do so, you
calculations and simulation together. and rear tyre. However, if you look at Miliken’s need to have a firm handle on your tyres. This
treatment of mixed slip conditions you’ll find is where vehicle modelling comes in. While
Limitations we are actually on very firm ground. not perfect, it wasn’t totally overbearing.
Our discussion would not be complete, The other thing to bear in mind with this Then, once you have established your
however, if I didn’t mention the limitations calculation, depending on the load transfer base settings, you can use simulation to tie
of what we have done. As I mentioned and yaw rate, is you are playing a delicate everything together. It isn’t a magic wand,
earlier, we have committed a number of tyre balancing act between how much power you but it does hopefully show you need not
modelling sins in order to simplify this. The can get down before freaking the driver out. fear the racing differential.

Figure 4: Plot of longitudinal forces for a limited slip differential

76 www.racecar-engineering.com JANUARY 2021

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JANUARY 2021 www.racecar-engineering.com 77

OUR MANY CONGRATULATIONS TO ASTON MARTIN RACING
FOR YOUR LEGENDARY LE MANS WIN IN 2020
Endless Brake Technology Europe AB, Sweden, On top of it all, they also secured the overall LM GTE
and Endless Advance Co. Ltd., Japan, are proud FIA World Endurance Manufacturers’ Championship
to be brake pad supplier for Aston Martin Racing title during the race.
during the 24 hours of Le Mans, where they claimed Thank you very much for an excellent year and for
both 1st and 3rd place in the LM GTE PRO class. letting us play a part in your success story.

+46 (0) 171 44 34 88

www.endless-brake.info
info@endless-brake.info
TECHNOLOGY – BRAKES

Endless summer
Japanese brake manufacturer sets new milestone in GT racing
By ANDREW COTTON

It was the first time a GT car

had gone through Le Mans
without changing brake pads

A three-day pre-event test at Motorland Aragon paid off when Aston Martin Racing achieved its goal of not having additional time on pit road for brake replacement at Le Mans

A
ston Martin Racing’s victory compounds for our pads. The engineers said of 2019, capable of testing brakes from up to
at Le Mans came down to a that would give them a nightmare, but we 300km/h. This is the third dyno developed
combination of circumstances. explained that it’s performance.’ by Endless and possibly the company’s most
Having sorted out the handling Since then, Endless has gone on to important advance to date.
at the rear to maintain the Michelin tyres supply factory teams in WRC, GT racing and, ‘This is performance, and if you can
through a double stint, and with a Balance of of course, the Mercedes Formula 1 team, gain lap time by braking later then it is an
Performance that seemed on paper at least winning World Championships along with advantage,’ states Nylund. ‘If you can be 1-1.5
to help the Vantage GTE car, it was looking way, but this event was special. It’s the first second faster per lap on the brakes, and
promising for the British team even before time a GT car had gone through Le Mans then apply that to an endurance race, it is
the green flag was flown. without changing brake pads. Not only that, an advantage of minutes. From that, we can
What wasn’t known was that the team the drivers did not even have to change work to tailor make pads for our customers.
was planning to complete the 24-hour race braking habits throughout the race. AMR was a special development pad, and
without changing brake pads, courtesy of an their targets were very clear from the start.’
arduous three-day test at Motorland Aragon Maximum performance The company is now analysing why, at
in the build up to the race. ‘It was fantastic, and a very successful the final round of the WEC in Bahrain in
With Covid restrictions, the team had development,’ confirms Nylund. ‘You can November, the Aston Martins had to change
only that one test to prepare for the race, and go to the maximum performance without brakes during an eight-hour race. The circuit is
brake supplier, Endless, brought no fewer taking extra care of the brakes.’ known to be particularly hard on brakes, and
than 10 different pad combinations to try. The company had completed 24-hour the team and brake supplier didn’t have time
This was typical of the brake manufacturer races without changing brakes before, to test ahead of the final race, but Nylund
that has been supplying its product to British notably at the Nürburgring, but there braking admits ‘it’s a pain. Bahrain you normally have
teams since the heyday of the British Touring requirements are very different to Le Mans, pad problems, and there is a lot of lifting and
Car Championship in the mid-1990s. with only a few big stops required on the coasting there, but it is clear that next year we
‘We supplied the BTCC Volvos, Ford Nordschleife. Le Mans is much harder on will need a Bahrain-specific pad.’
Mondeos and Hondas,’ says Lucas Nylund, brakes, so this was a far bigger challenge. For now, though, having won Le Mans
CEO of Endless Brake Technology Europe. Part of the success came from the without a brake change, completing the race
‘In Japan, development is important, and development facility in Japan, where a new without a pad change is likely to become
we turned up [to the BTCC] with 30 different full-size dyno was introduced at the tail end normal practice in the future.

JANUARY 2021 www.racecar-engineering.com 79

 TECHNOLOGY – CLASS OF 2020

T
he 2020 season has been unusual in

Champio
many ways but, even in the midst of
uncertainty, racing companies have
continued to provide products

ns
that enabled teams to compete on national
and international levels. Racecar Engineering
salutes those who have once again provided
engineering excellence to the world of motor
racing, and we congratulate the following
companies on their achievements this year.

AUSTRALIAN V8 • BTCC • DTM • FORMULA 1 • FORMULA E • GT

Jakob Ebrey

Laser Tools Racing won the British Touring Car Championship with Ash Sutton Team Techeetah won the FIA Formula E title
SRO/Kevin Pecks
XPB

Rene Rast and Audi took another DTM title together Audi Sport Team WRT was champion in the GT World Challenge overall with the Audi R8
Jake Galstad
XPB

Mercedes took its seventh Formula 1 title with Lewis Hamilton Acura again won IMSA’s DPi category with Penske Racing

80 www.racecar-engineering.com JANUARY 2021

 of 2020
WORLD CHALLENGE • IMSA • INDYCAR • NASCAR • WEC • WTCR

Scott Dixon again dominated IndyCar, taking his seventh title for CGR Lynk&Co Cyan Racing’s 03 TCR was the best of the International TCR series
XPB
Getty

XPB
Chase Elliott was a popular NASCAR champion for Hendrick Motorsport AF Corse won the WEC GTE Am class Toyota completed a WEC hat trick
XPB

XPM

Aston Martin Racing took WEC GTE-Pro honours in 2020 United Autosport won Le Mans and the WEC LMP2 title

JANUARY 2021 www.racecar-engineering.com 81

 BUMP STOP

Safe haven
PIT CREW
Editor Reflections on racing’s response to the strangest of years
Andrew Cotton

O
@RacecarEd
Email andrew.cotton@chelseamagazines.com ne bumper weekend in November saw the implemented long quarantine periods, which has made
Deputy editor
Stewart Mitchell conclusion of the fight for Formula 1’s drivers’ the organisation of races rather more challenging.
@RacecarEngineer title, IMSA, the GT World Challenge Europe Even in Europe, regulations are different from
Email stewart.mitchell@chelseamagazines.com
Chief sub editor and the FIA World Endurance Championship. country to country. Germany has provided access to
Mike Pye
It wasn’t that long ago that NASCAR, IndyCar and the testing, and has a relatively free population with low
Art editor
Barbara Stanley Australian V8 series all declared their champions either. infection rate. The UK, by contrast, severely limited
Technical consultant In a truncated season, such as 2020 has been, access to testing throughout the season, implemented
Peter Wright
it was inevitable the series should all come to a a blanket 14-day quarantine period for those travelling
Contributors
Mike Blanchet, Lawrence Butcher, grinding conclusion at a similar time. But what the and still had the highest infection rate in Europe.
Jahee Campbell-Brennan, Leena Gade,
Danny Nowlan, Mark Ortiz, teams, suppliers, manufacturers and organisations
Dieter Rencken, Claude Rouelle
Photography
have achieved to bring the season this far in such Willing sacrifice
James Moy circumstances, not to mention the print, digital and What was clear throughout the year, though, was the
Managing director – sales Steve Ross television media, is little short of extraordinary. sacrifice team members and media were willing to make.
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Advertisement manager Lauren Mills medical challenge and helped to deliver a staggering those who raced in the US, chose to stay there. A shortened
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Circulation manager Daniel Webb designed to help those suffering on teams and reduced time

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Then, when it became of the season, given the number
Publisher Simon Temlett

rose up and
Managing director Paul Dobson
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Others, such as Hong Kong and Macau, have ANDREW COTTON Editor

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