DUNAREA DE JOS UNIVERSITY OF GALAȚI

DepartamentulpentruÎnvațământ la Distanță
și cu Frecvență Redusă

NON-FINITE FORMS
OF THE ENGLISH VERB

COURSE TUTOR:
ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR STELUTA STAN, PHD

Galați
2015
1
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION. FINITE/NON-FINITE …………………………… 3

LEARNING UNIT 1. THE INFINITIVE …………………………………… 4

LEARNING UNIT 2. THE –ING FORM ………………………………….. 18

LEARNING UNIT 3. THE PRESENT/–ING PARTICIPLE………………22

LEARNING UNIT 4. THE PAST/–ED PARTICIPLE…………………… 27

APPLICATIONS …………………………..………………………….. 30

2
 INTRODUCTION. FINITE/ NON-FINITE

The forms of the English verb (the base form, the –s form, the –ing form, the –ed/en form)
and the phrases they are part of are usually classified into two broad types, based on the
kind of contrast in meaning they express.

The notion of finiteness is the traditional way of classifying the differences. This term
suggests that verbs can be ‘limited’ in some way, and this is in fact what happens when
different kinds of endings are attached to them.

The finite forms are those which limit the verb to a particular number, tense, person,
or mood.If there is a series of verbs in the verb phrase, the finite verb is always the first,
as in I was being given.

The non-finite forms (infinitive, gerund, participles) do not limit the verb in this way. For
example, when the –ing form is used, the verb can be referring to any number, tense,
person, or mood, as in Seeing what happened, I/you/he…called for the police.

As the examples show, a nonfinite form stays the same in a clause, regardless of the
grammatical variation taking place around it.

3
 LEARNING UNIT 1. THE INFINITIVE

It expresses an action or a state in its general sense, without any strict

reference to person, number or mood, and is considered the first basic
form of a verb. The infinitive has two main forms:

- the to-/long infinitive, and

- theshort/bare/plain infinitive.

*The Split Infinitive

Grammarians have identified and described a class of auxiliary
adverbs, such as almost, already, always, ever, just, merely, still,
utterly, etc.; they appear in front of the main verb (if there is no
auxiliary), or after the first auxiliary (when there is one or more than
one auxiliaries in the sentence):

He still loves the Chinese civilization. You can always say that.
They have already been working for five hours.

Things are similar in the infinitive clause/phrase. If there is no

auxiliary, the adverb appears in front of TO, or between TO and the
verb. The latter is called the split infinitive (infinitiv cu adverb
intercalat), which, though frowned upon by conservative grammarians,
is gaining ground in contemporary English. The construction is mainly
used when the speaker/ writer wants to stress the action/ state
expressed by the infinitive, or to avoid more ambiguous or obscure
constructions.

I want you to clearly understand that I won’t tolerate such a

behaviour any longer. It is foolish to even think of such a solution.

1.1. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE INFINITIVE

It combines the characteristics of a verb with those of a noun, with the
latter’s typical syntactic functions.

1.1.1. Verb characteristics of the infinitive

a) it has grammatical categories specific to a verb, i.e. voice, tense,
aspect;
b) it can combine with auxiliaries or modals to form different types of
predicates;
c) it may have modifiers as any other predicative mood.

a) Grammatical categories of the infinitive

4
VOICE/ ACTIVE VOICE PASSIVE VOICE
TENSE indef. aspect progr. aspect indef. aspect progr.aspect
present to take to be taking to be taken to be being
taken
perfect to have taken to have been to have been to have been
taking taken/ to have being taken
been called

The forms of the infinitive in the passive voice, progressive aspect, are
hardly ever used.

Generally speaking, depending on the context, the present tense of the

verbals/non-finites indicates time simultaneous or future with reference
to the time expressed by the main verb. This also applies to the infinitive.

I’m trying to understand you. (simultaneous in the present)

He invited me to come in. (simultaneous in the past)
They will ask you to make a contribution to the project. (simultaneous
in the future)

The perfect indefinite infinitive expresses time prior to that of the main
verb, so the relationship between the two is one of anteriority. It indicates
actions completed before a certain moment or action in the past, present
or future.

- anteriority to a present action: I am really glad to have put an end to this

story.
- anteriority to a past action: He proved to have read the whole novel.
- anteriority to a future action: When I wake up I’ll be happy to have forgotten
this nightmare.

Note that when the perfect indefinite infinitive follows:

- a present modal verb, it expresses a past action:
She must have felt really lonely in London if she came back so soon. They
may have told me about it, but I’ve forgotten.
- a past modal verb, it expresses an action that did not take place:
You could have told me about it, (but you didn’t). You should have
accepted the offer; it’s a pity you didn’t.

b) The infinitive as part of different types of predicates

 simple verb predicates (different auxiliaries and an infinitive)

Did you watch the football match yesterday? He will tell you the whole
story.

 modal/aspectual compound verbal predicates

Jane could climb trees when she was a child.

5
 You ought to have helped them.
They continued to talk for two more hours.
Look! It’s just beginning to rain.

Note that aspectual verbs are frequently followed by the gerund in spoken
English, but not when they are in the progressive aspect; in this case, the
infinitive is preferred to avoid the annoying repetition of –ing forms.

As part of a predicate, the infinitive can have different types of objects or

modifiers:
 D(irect) O(bject): I am delighted to see you again.
 I(ndirect) O(bject): I told you to give him the telegramme.
 Adverbial Modifier Of Time: I promised to be back in a few days.
 Adverbial Modifier Of Place: I don’t think they used to live here.
 Adverbial Modifier Of Manner: Sheila asked me to walk faster.

1.1.2. Noun characteristics of the infinitive

The I(nfinitive) P(hrase) is often the subject of a sentence, especially when
the subject complement is also an infinitive:
To know her is to love her.
To know all is to forgive all.
Not to have invited them would have offended them.
To speak English fluently is difficult for undergraduates.
As a subject, the infinitive alternates with the gerund. It is impossible to
formulate hard-and-fast rules of choice between the two forms, but it is
often suggested that the gerund is of a more general, abstract, character
than the infinitive, which refers to something restricted to a particular
moment.
In a sentence, the infinitive can have the syntactic functions of a noun:

1) subject:

To drink a cup of coffee in the morning is very refreshing.

To forget is more than natural.
Note that in current speech, it is more frequent to anticipate the subject
expressed by an infinitive with anticipatory/preparatory/introductory IT, or
replace it by gerunds or verbal nouns:
It is very refreshing to drink a cup of coffee in the morning.
It seems strange to me to take everything for granted.
It takes patience to get used to living with someone.
It doesn’t cost anything to be polite.

Note that if the infinitive has a subject of its own, that one is usually
introduced by for:
It’s difficult for me to find a solution to this problem.

6
 2) attribute, when the infinitive determines a noun or an indefinite
pronoun, following them as a postmodifier:

She is not the woman to forget that.

There is nothing to be done in this matter.
He doubted my ability to do it.

The infinitive may also postmodify nouns denoting time, place and
manner:

I had no time to do it.

It will take some time to complete.
It’s a nice place to live in.
Is this the best way to do it?

The infinitive often retains the preposition used in the construction V+O:
He is not a man to trifle with.
There is nothing to worry about.

3) subject complement, when the infinitive follows a link verb, especially to

be:

To sympathize is to understand.
The most important thing is for us to reach an agreement before the
deadline.

4) prepositional object, when the infinitive construction starts out as a

prepositional object after certain verbs and adjectives:

apply for, bother about, care for, consent to, fail in, hesitate about, insist
on, long for, persist in, plead for, proceed with, etc.; able, afraid, angry,
anxious, careful, certain, concerned, content, eager, fit, glad, pleased,
prepared, proud, ready, sorry, welcome, willing, etc.

Note that the preposition of the verb is omitted if it immediately precedes

the infinitive clause/phrase:

What we decided on was for him to speak on our behalf.

(but: We decided for him to speak on our behalf).
Don’t trouble to look for my glasses.

5) direct object. Infinitives often function as DOs with simple transitive verbs
(arrange, attempt, decline, endeavour, learn, manage, omit, refuse), with
verbs of liking/disliking and intention (desire, dislike, expect, hate, intend,
like, mean, prefer, want, wish), with verbs of mental perception, with verbs
of linguistic communication (ask, claim, conclude, threaten).
Some of the verbs followed by an infinitive as direct object can also be
followed by a THAT clause:

He claimed to be an expert in such matters. He claimed that he was an

expert in such matters.

7
 Note that we distinguish between groups of verbs that can have as
object only an infinitive, only a gerund, both an infinitive and a gerund,
with/without changes in meaning (see the sub-chapter “Gerund/
Infinitive”)

6) adverbial modifier of purpose. The idea of purpose may be emphasized

by in order or so as:

We went to the hospital to make sure she was all right.

He opened the door for her to go out.

1.2. GERUND vs. INFINITIVE

As already mentioned above, some verbs may be used with both the
infinitive and the gerund, sometimes depending on the meaning to be
expressed.

a) after the following verbs, either the infinitive or the gerund may be
used without any difference in meaning:

 begin, start, continue, cease

+ infinitive = involuntary action

+ gerund = deliberate action

He started/began speaking when he saw me.

He started to speak louder without even realizing it.
Due to the thick fog, the planes ceased/stopped taking off.
The British Empire ceased to exist.

Note that verbs of knowing/understanding are followed by an infinitive.

- when BEGIN/START are used in the continuous tenses, the infinitive

is preferred to avoid the repetition of –ing forms;

- SET ABOUT (=begin) + gerund

As soon as the floods went down, we set about repairing the damage.

- START OUT (=take steps as intending) + infinitive

He started out to write another novel.

 attempt, intend, can’t bear + infinitive (more usual)

The prisoners attempted to escape but failed.
What do you intend to do today?

 need, want (=need), require + gerund(much more frequent in

spoken English)/ + to be –en/V3
My shoes need mending/to be mended.

8
  advise, allow, permit, recommend + infinitive (if the person
concerned is mentioned)/ + gerund(if the person concerned is not
mentioned)
Please allow me to introduce myself.
He does not allow smoking/He does not allow you to smoke.

b) after verbs expressing like/ dislike and preference, the gerund is used for
general statements, whereas the infinitive is preferred in statements about
a particular situation.

He likes jogging in the morning.

He doesn’t like to jog today, on such a cold weather.

*like + infinitive (= think wise/right); like + gerund (= enjoy)

I like to go to the dentist twice a year (I think it’s wise); that doesn’t mean I
like doing it (I enjoy it).
**like+ infinitive (=perfective action); like + gerund (=imperfective
action)
He likes to smoke a cigarette and then go for a walk.
He likes smoking a cigarette by the fireplace.
***like+ infinitive(=refers to the subject of the sentence); like + gerund
(= may also refer to some other agent)
I don’t like to trifle with serious matters (myself).
I don’t like trifling with serious matters (either myself or when somebody
else does it)

c) the following verbs have different meanings, according to whether they

take an infinitive or a gerund:

 remember, regret + infinitive – refers to the future;

+ gerund - refers to the past.

I must remember to buy some food.

I remember seeing her when she was a child.
I regret to say that I have no news for you.
I regret not having seen this film.

 forget + infinitive = fail to remember;

+ gerund= lose the memory of.
I forgot to post those letters you gave me.
I forgot posting them. (I did it, but did not remember that I did it.)

 stop + infinitive = halt;

+ gerund = cease.
We stopped to talk since we hadn’t seen each other for a very long time.
We stopped talking because we realized that bothered the others.

 mean + infinitive = intend/have in view;

+ gerund = involve/have as a consequence.
I didn’t mean to offend Jane; that was not my intention.
I won’t give up this idea even it means waiting my whole life.

9
 try +infinitive = make an attempt;
+ gerund= test/make an experiment.
Try to answer/Try and answer all the questions if you want to score
high.
Have you ever tried driving in Bucharest during the rush hours?

 go on + infinitive = do/say next, proceed;

+ gerund = continue.
He went on to talk about the influence of the media in Romania
(the subject was introduced for the first time).
He went on talking about the influence of the media in Romania
(he continued doing the same thing, i.e. talking about the influence…).

1.3. USES OF THE SHORT INFINITIVE

a) in combination with auxiliary verbs to form compound tenses (the
interrogative and negative of the present, past and future tenses, the
indicative, conditional, subjunctive and imperative moods):
Do you understand what I’m saying?
He would leave sooner if he could find tickets.
They will be waiting for you as long as it’s needed.

b) after modal verbs, with the exception of those followed by a to-infinitive

(be to, ought to have to). Note that when DARE and NEED are used
as regular verbs, they will take a to-infinitive.
Under the circumstances, he should do as he is told.
The project could be worked out in a specialized institute.
He wouldn’t dare (to) say so to my face (but He dared me to tell him
the truth).
You need not worry so much, everything will be just fine (but I need to
go now).

c) after the verb to bid (bade-bidden/bid), but only with the simple forms,
not with the compound ones, or with such verbs as forbid, followed by
the long infinitive.
His parents bade him find a job as their financial situation was rather
difficult.
He has not bid us to start work yet.
He says the new law forbids us to smoke in public areas.

d) after the verbs TO LET and TO HELP, the latter one in spoken English
not in Written English.
The children wouldn’t let me go.
Would you help me find a reliable traveling agency?

e) after the verbs to make and to have, when they act as causatives,
and are in the active voice.
The news made her cry for joy.
I promise I’ll have him answer for his carelessness.

f) after verbs expressing physical perception, such as feel, hear, see,

observe, perceive, watch.
10
 I felt him start when his name was uttered.
You heard her speak on the subject.
She saw him come earlier.

Note thatthe passive voice of the verbs in c), d), e), f) is followed by the to-
infinitive.
She was heard to call your name, so she must have needed you badly.
I was never made to do something I didn’t want to.
Note also that this infinitive is part of a complex subject (the infinitival
construction the nominative with the infinitive), having the syntactic
function of subject complement.
g) after such modal expressions as had better/best/rather/sooner, would
rather/sooner, better/rather/sooner/more than, cannot but, do nothing but.
She would rather stay in tonight, cause she doesn’t feel like going out.
I had better go now, it’s getting late and the streets are not secure.
He would sooner speak than do something.
Rather than suffer, I would tell him how I feel.

1.4. USES OF THE LONG INFINITIVE

a) after the modal verbs ought, have, be, and also after such modal
expressions as be (un)able/anxious/bound
The letter ought to reach them within a fortnight. I am really anxious to
learn the truth if you will tell it to me. To my mind she is bound to succeed
in her attempt.

b) after nouns, such as pity, folly, madness, time, mistake

It would be sheer madness to give up everything you have and just leave.
- adjectives, such as (un)usual, difficult, easy, necessary, safe.
You must admit openly that it is not so easy to part from someone you
love.
- certain verbs, as require, take, need (when used as a regular verb)
I think you should all know it will take us a lot of time and energy to set
things right again.

Note that the IP is introduced by preparatory/anticipatory IT, and has the

syntactic function of a subject.
c) after nouns, such as man, person, girl, woman
She just is not the woman to act on the spur of the moment.
- ordinal numbers: first, second, last
Even if you find it hard to believe, I was the first to reach the top of the
mountain.
- adjectives in the superlative
As far as we know, dr. Hill is the first to (have) performed such an
operation.

d) after intransitive verbs, such as care, hesitate, trouble, come, proceed,

bother
I must admit I just hesitated to take a definite decision on the matter at
issue.
Nobody bothered to ask me what I wanted.
- transitive verbs, such as remind/assist/condemn somebody, want,
learn, offer, refuse, decide
11
 We assisted him to get the job done.
They couldn’t refuse to participate in the conference.

e) after some transitive/ intransitive verbs, when the infinitive may also
be introduced by in order, so as
We stopped in order/so as to take a little rest.
f) in correlation with too…, enough…, so…as
She is too angry to admit she was wrong.

To my disappointment, he was not wise enough not to go there

again looking for trouble.
Would you be so kind as to help me with this?

g) in parenthetical/incidental constructions, having no syntactic relation

with the rest of the sentence: so to say/speak, to speak/tell the truth, to be
honest/more precise, to put it bluntly
To put it bluntly, I don’t trust him any more than you do.
It was, to say the least, very careless of him.
h) in special complex constructions, called infinitive/infinitival
constructions, the Nominative with the infinitive, the Accusative with the
infinitive, the infinitive with for-to, all of which are to be dealt with in the
following chapter.

1.5. INFINITIVE/INFINITIVAL CONSTRUCTIONS

These constructions are considered to be of a predicative type and
represent combinations between a nominal element (noun/ pronoun in
the N/Acc) and a verbal element (a verb in the infinitive).
The relationship between the two elements is of a predicative type
because the infinitive functions as the logical predicate of the nominal
element, having a close semantic link with this one.
This predicative character is obvious when these constructions are
turned into full sentences, the subjects of which are the nominal elements.

We consider Alice to be a devoted friend = We consider that Alice is a

devoted friend.

Though the two sentences are taken as equivalent, cognitive linguistics

would distinguish semantic differences in their meanings, saying that the
first one would mean “We know this because there was an instance when
she proved it”, while the latter “Since other people say she is a devoted
friend, we also think she is”.
In other words, the first statement is made from first-hand experience,
being more personal and assuming responsibility for its truth, whereas the
latter has as its source second-hand experience.

12
1.5.1. The Accusative with the Infinitive
As its very name suggests, it is a combination between a noun/ pronoun in
the accusative and a long/ short infinitive, the latter being, as already
mentioned, in a predicative relationship with the former.
The nominal element has a twofold quality: it is the grammatical object of
the finite verb and has the force of a subject for the verbal/the infinitive,
although it cannot formally limit this one.
On a syntactic level, the construction performs the function of an object
complement, according to some grammarians, or complex object,
according to some others, Levitchi included. Note that the choice between
a long and a short infinitive depends on the verb preceding it.

CASES OF USE

The Accusative is used:

A. with the short infinitive:

1. after verbs of physical perception see, hear, feel, notice, observe,
perceive, watch, look at, listen to
Somebody may have noticed him leave the house.
Just watch me do it if you don’t believe me.
I stood still and listened to the rain patter on the leaves.
Note that:
- when the verbs see, hear and feel indicate mental, not physical
perception, they cannot be followed by an accusative with an infinitive;
instead, they take an object/that-clause:
I hear (that) you have given up being so arrogant.
I see (that) you do not understand.
I felt (that) she utterly disliked me.

- In the passive voice, these verbs are followed by the long infinitive:
He was noticed to sneak out of the room.
The verbs mentioned above can also take a present participle to indicate
an action in progress and not (as is the case with the infinitive) an already
completed action:
He was noticed sneaking out of the room.

2. after the causatives let, make, have

Don’t let him start without us.
You shouldn’t let slip/pass/go/fly such an opportunity.
He simply made me do it.
I have to tell you that we have to make do with second-hand information.
Finally, the prosecutor had him confess.
I won’t have you say such things in front of my children.
I had an extraordinary thing happen to me.

3. after the verbs know (in the past and perfect tenses), bid, help (Br.E).
I don’t think I have ever known (seen) him (to) smile.
He bade them leave the room.
I helped them (to) take the necessary steps.

13
B. with the long infinitive:
1. after verbs expressing intention, desire, will: want, wish/desire, hate,
mean (=intend), choose, expect, forbid, demand
I want him never to show his face again.

2. after declarative verbs, such as: declare, admit, report, announce, state,
confess, pronounce, reckon.
The jury pronounced the defendant (to be) not guilty.

3. after verbs expressing emotions and feelings: (dis)like, prefer, can’t

bear.
I strongly dislike him to drive so fast.

4. after verbs expressing a request/demand: ask, demand/request, urge,

invite, beg.
They simply begged him to reconsider his position.
5. after exercitive verbs expressing an obligation, an order or permission:
oblige, order, command, warn, allow/permit.
The police officer ordered the injured people to be taken to hospital
immediately.
6. after causative verbs other than the ones previously mentioned: get,
cause, determine, force, compel, instruct.
I hope someone will force him to take his pills as he needs them
badly. What got you to delay the departure?

7. after verbs expressing mental activities: know, understand,

consider/think, believe, suppose, imagine.
I’ve always believed her to be weird.

Note that in spoken English such verbs are followed by object/that-

clauses:
I’ve always believed that she is weird.

8. after some prepositional verbs: call/count/depend/rely on/upon,

hope/wait for.
Don’t count on me to find a solution to your problems.

1.5.2. The Nominative with the Infinitive

In the sentence His son is said to be a good student, the relationship
between his son and the IP to be a good student, is that between a logical
subject and a logical predicate. As in the case of the ACC. with the INF.,
its elements are in a predicative relation. On a syntactic level, the infinitive
performs the function of subject complement.
As a subject complement, the infinitive alternates with the gerund in
sentences like:
My intention was not to hurt him.
To know the truth is to take action.
On the other hand, it may be the passive counterpart of the active
construction the ACC. with the INF. Consequently, it can follow the
passive form of most of the verbs used in the ACC. with the INF., with the
exception of those expressing intention/desire which cannot be used in
passive constructions (want, wish etc.).

14
 So, the nominative with the infinitive can be used in the passive voice
after:
1. verbs of physical perception (see, hear, listen, observe, notice etc.);
2. causative verbs (cause, have, make, get, compel, drive, encourage,
oblige, prompt, lead etc.);
3. declarative verbs (say, tell, declare etc.). Note that the verbs to say
and to certify can be used only in the nominative with the infinitive);
4. verbs expressing mental activities (fancy, imagine, know, believe,
suppose, think, consider etc.);
5. verbs of order, permission, request (allow, permit, authorize,
command, summon, recommend, request, require etc.) .

Besides these categories of verbs that can also be followed by an acc.

with the inf., the nominative with the infinitive occurs in the active voice
with:
a) some intransitive verbs such as: happen, chance, prove, turn out,
appear, seem:
He happens to come this very afternoon.
She seemed to have understood my position, didn’t she?

Note that in spoken English, a subject-clause usually replaces the

construction: It happens that he comes this …. It seemed that she had
understood …)
b) the link/copula verb to be followed by adjectives like certain, sure,
(un)likely:
He is sure to be late as usual.
Are they likely to be working so late?

1.5.3. The For-To Infinitive

A for-to construction is called for if the subject of the subordinate clause
is distinct from the subject of the main clause. The relationship between
the elements is also of the implicit predicative type.
Unlike the other two infinitival constructions, the for-to infinitive can
perform several syntactic functions that will be further specified. The
construction is used:

a) in impersonal patterns (the so called introductory/anticipatory IT +

be/seem/appear), after such evaluative adjectives like: easy, (im)possible,
good, advisable, (un)necessary, useless/useful, difficult, imperative,
urgent, or evaluative nouns like: a(n) pleasure/great/joy/pity/insult/pain in
the …

It seems/is/appears rather difficult for him to find another job.

It’s a great joy for all of us to get together on such an occasion.
Notes:
 since normative/prescriptive judgment is at stake with such adjectives/
nouns, the for-to construction is roughly equivalent to a subjunctive clause:

It is necessary for prices to go down to prevent the collapse of

economy.
It is necessary that prices (should) go down…

15
 these patterns are intended for a certain thing/ person; nevertheless,
they can have a general/indefinite application when the for+noun/pronoun
are omitted:
It’s impossible to make him see things right.
 other frequent colloquial noun phrases used with this construction are:
any/no/not much/little use, any/no good, the fashion, good/bad taste, high
time.
 the following patterns are also intended to apply to a certain
person/thing: adjectives. (bold, hard, considerate, generous, (un)kind,
decent, (im)polite, rude, silly, wise, wrong, …) + of somebody to do
something or somebody is adjective to do something:

It is wise of him to co-operate with this company.

He is wise to…
 the of constructions can be transformed into an exclamation:

How wise (it is) of him to co-operate …

b) After certain indefinite pronouns:

There is nothing for us to do here. There was nowhere for her to go.

c) After some transitive or prepositional verbs, which accept both the for-
to infinitive and a for-prepositional object or a prepositional object
introduced by a different preposition: wait, long, consent, beg, vote, be
happy, provide:

I would be surprised/happy for him to win the contest.

Syntactic Functions:

 subject anticipated bymeaningless/dummy it, having a subject

complement expressed by an adjective or a noun; the infinitive here is a
noun modifier or modifier of an adjective:

It is easy for you to make such an allegation.

It was the proper time for her to start taking action.

 adverbial modifier of purpose, of manner (where the infinitive

functions as modifier of an adjective), of result:

We stepped back for the chairman to enter the room.

I am anxious for my friend to meet them.
The sentence was too difficult for them to translate.
Are they upon such good terms as for her to disclose the
uncomfortable truth?

 attribute, where the infinitive is a noun modifier:

Here are some clues for you to use in solving the case.
There are some letters for you to sign before you leave.

16
Additional Notes on the Infinitive

1. agreement of the infinitive: the incorrect agreement of the infinitive

with a certain subject is a rather frequent error:

To write well, a thorough knowledge of grammar is necessary.

To be always happy, a sense of humour is essential.

This incorrect construction is known as a dangling infinitive and the

above sentences should be rephrased as:

To write well, one should have a …/ A thorough knowledge of

grammar is necessary if we want to write well.

2. anaphoric TO: verbs, nouns and adjectives that may take an infinitive
with TO, may also be followed by TO without an infinitive, to refer to a
preceding verb/verb group:
Don’t go there alone unless you simply have to.

Sometimes TO may be dropped, but when it appears, it makes reference

to the preceding verb/verb group more explicit. After some verbs it cannot
be omitted without a change in meaning:

Go if you want to!

I don’t care (to).

This is known as the implicit infinitive. If the infinitive is be/have we

usually keep it:

Isn’t he the leader here? No, and he doesn’t want to be!

17
 LEARNING UNIT 2. THE -ING FORM

The –ING form is a very complex matter in the English language.

There are quite many words ending in –ing, but they can be classified
according to the different syntactic functions they perform, or according to
the determiners and modifiers they can dispose of. Consequently, we
distinguish:
a) –ING words with an independent value, words that detached long ago
from a possible verbal origin: everything, sibling, pudding.
b) Words having a verbal origin, which have developed into parts of speech
with an independent status, with no verb functions and which can be:
verbal nouns or verbal adjectives.
VERBAL NOUNS

As verbal nouns, these –ING forms:

a) may have a definite/indefinite/zero article preceding them:

This period might be considered the beginning of a new era.
Crying doesn’t help anyone.

b) may be determined by different types of adjectives (possessive,

demonstrative, qualifying):
Our missing the plane was most embarrassing. This reading is not fit for
your age.
Her unexpected coming was a great surprise for everybody.
c) may take their own object:

The reading of this novel does not mean too much for me.
d) may have plural forms:

His unexpected comings and goings madden me.Her writings are widely
appreciated.
e) may perform the syntactic functions of a noun (subject, subject
complement, attribute, object):
Living and dying are individual experiences. Drinking is a social disease.
Touching is seeing with your fingers. The pleasure of meeting new people
is a hobby I cannot give up so easily. We pray hoping for the backing of
God.
One can achieve almost anything through training and learning.

18
 VERBAL ADJECTIVES
They have a verbal origin and behave as true adjectives, i.e. they express
a quality, are pre-modifiers to a noun and have the syntactic function of an
attribute:

His amazing appearance took us by surprise. Everybody was greatly

surprised by this astonishing news.
AS GERUND

It is translated into Romanian as GERUNDIV, due to its different

characteristics from those of the Romanian GERUNZIU.
From a formal point of view, the gerund and the present participle are
alike, hence their being often mistaken one for the other. The gerund has
both verb and noun characteristics. This can be clearly pointed out by the
determiners and modifiers it can have, as well as the syntactic functions it
can perform in the sentence.
1. Verb characteristics:
- it has different forms for tense and voice:
As a child, I was very fond of mountaineering. They are very proud of
having succeeded in getting working visas. I don’t mind being seen with
her. At that stage of negotiation, their offer was far from having been
rejected.
Mark that the indefinite gerund can express:
- an action (present, past or future) simultaneous with the action of the
predicative verb in the sentence:
We all objected to his leaving a wife and two kids.
- an action previous to the one expressed by such main verbs as THANK,
EXCUSE, FORGIVE, or after such prepositions as WITHOUT, ON, UPON.
Note that these situations may also be rendered by the perfect gerund:
I apologize for being late. To our surprise, he left without saying goodbye.
- an action following the one expressed by verbs like RELY ON, COUNT
ON/UPON, INTEND, INSIST, or after the preposition BEFORE:
I rely on his arriving here pretty soon. She intends going there tomorrow.
Before accepting the new job, I had a two month holiday.
Another important verb characteristic of the gerund is that it can have:
- a (logical) subject: Do you mind her leaving now?
- a direct object (when the verb is transitive): I hate telling the same thing
over and over again.
- an indirect object: After giving/having given me the book, he went
home.
- an adverbial modifier of place, of time, of manner: What about going
there this summer? Do you mind my coming earlier? He seems
incapable of driving carefully when he is tired.

19
 2. Noun characteristics:
- the gerund may be determined by an adjective or a noun in the
possessive case:
She insisted on my telling her everything I knew. He offered him a night’s
lodging.

- it may be preceded by a preposition:

After reaching the office, he realized he had forgotten his keys at home.
I am really tired of listening to nonsense. That goes without saying.
* Note that TO may be followed by a gerund when it is a preposition, not
the infinitive marker:
I’m looking forward to seeing you. She is used to sleeping on the couch.
There is no objection to your working in this department.

The prepositions EXCEPT, BUT, THAN (the last two only when they have
the same meaning as the first one), may also be followed by an infinitive:
She does nothing except/but/than sing(ing) all day.

- it may perform the syntactic function of subject, direct object (after

AVOID, ENJOY, FANCY, FINISH, CONSIDER, TRY,
DELAY/POSTPONE), adverbial modifier of time, cause, purpose, manner,
part of a prepositional object, attribute or part of a prepositional attribute,
functioning as a noun modifier:
Watching T.V. is fun, but also a terrible waste of time. Avoid interfering in
other people’s businesses. His essay is worth reading. On hearing the
news, he left. She apologized for starting the experiment without me. We
started at dawn intending to reach the chalet before dark. I will go on by
pointing out the second aspect of the matter. She aims at getting the gold
medal in the Olympics. It’s a pity to miss the opportunity of hearing this
violinist.

CASES OF USE
The indefinite gerund is used:
 after certain prepositions: after, through, before, by, for, from, on, with,
like, to, in, without.
I raised the necessary amount of money by selling my house in Brasov.

 after nouns followed by a preposition:

He seems to have lost interest in writing poetry. I have no objection to
listening to your story again. They clearly showed their disappointment at
finding out that they had been lied to. He couldn’t give any reason for his
being so rude the other day.
Don’t miss the opportunity of joining our trip.

20
 after adjectives with preposition:
I’m very anxious about inviting him here as soon as possible. When he
was younger he was very good at wrestling. Every time I look for him, he is
busy working in his beloved garden.

 after verbs with preposition or adverbial particle:

Don’t you ever laugh at somebody’s being in a trouble.
Now seems to be a good time to conclude by saying that…

 after verbs expressing mental activities (verbs of mental cognition):

understand, forget, remember, recollect, imagine, fancy, mind.

 after verbs of emotion/feeling: like, love, prefer, regret, hate, etc.

* Note that
- the gerund is used for general statements, the infinitive for statements
about a particular occasion: I like skating, but I don’t like to skate today, on
such a cold weather.
- the infinitive expresses a perfective action, the gerund an imperfective one:
He likes to smoke a cigarette and then go for a walk. He likes smoking a
cigarette by the fireplace.
- the infinitive often refers to the subject of the sentence, the gerund may also
refer to some other agent:

I don’t like to trifle with serious things (myself). I don’t like trifling with
serious things (either myself or someone else).

 after such phrases as it’s no good/use, can’t help/stand/resist/stop, there’s

no:
It’s no use wasting your time here. I couldn’t help asking when he had
become so smart. There’s no accounting for tastes.

 after the adjective worth (while):

If a thing is worth doing, it is worth doing well.

21
 LEARNING UNIT 3.
THE PRESENT/-ING PARTICIPLE

The traditional name present participle is open to the objection that the
verbal form it denotes does not necessarily refer to the present, just as a
past participle need not refer to the past. We also have the alternatives
imperfect and perfect participles, considering that a form like 'going'
usually expresses incomplete action, a form like 'gone' a completed one,
or also -ingparticiple and -edparticiples. None seems to cover all the uses
of these forms. This is the reason why we shall not discard the traditional
terms.
CHARACTERISTICS

The participle has both VERB and ADJECTIVE characteristics.

1. VERB characteristics

The same as the gerund, with which it is often mistaken, the present
participle has distinct forms for voice and aspect:

- taking - indefinite aspect, active voice;

- being taken - indefinite aspect, passive voice;
- having taken - perfect aspect, active voice;
- having been taken - perfect aspect, passive voice.

The indefinite participle expresses an action or a state simultaneous with

that of the predicate of the sentence:
When reading books in English, I come/came/shall come across unknown
words.

The perfect participle expresses an action or a state prior to that of the

predicate of the sentence:
Having driven for two hours, I felt rather tired.

* Note that with verbs of physical perception or of movement (COME,

ARRIVE), anteriority is rendered:
Seeing him in the council chamber, I went to bid him welcome.

From a syntactic point of view, the present participle can take:

- a subject: I heard her humming a famous tune.
- a direct object: Hearing footsteps, I went to see who it was.
- an indirect object: You’ve made him happy by giving him such a good
news.
- different adverbial modifiers: Leaving yesterday, Pete made a big
mistake.
I saw him walking slowly on the snow covered alleys.

2. ADJECTIVEcharacteristics
22
 2.1. The participle as NOUN PREMODIFIER

*Note that the gerund may also be the premodifier of a noun. We can
distinguish between them by asking what the person or thing is doing. For
example, of the phrase wrapping paper we cannot ask what’s the paper
doing, as the answer would be a nonsense. We must ask what is it
for?,thus identifying the gerund. On the other hand, of the phrase sleeping
child we can ask what’s the child doing?, because sleeping makes sense.
This is a participle. Moreover, when a gerund is used as a premodifier,
there is a primary stress on it and a second stress on the noun. We
usually place a primary stress on the noun when it is preceded by a
present participle, which may have a primary or secondary stress.
Compare greying hair, balding man, setting sun, running water, coming
year, falling star with bathing resort, drawing room, fishing rod, swimming
pool. Some present participles have become mere adjectives with the
corresponding characteristics: they can be added the suffix –ly to form
adverbs, have degrees of comparison, can be part of a participial
construction with the syntactic function of an attribute:
blood - freezing scream, heart – breaking story, body – building exercises,
fast – spreading fire, sweet – smelling cream, good – looking girl,
never – ending story.

In the constructions above, the participles take an object or an adverb or

an adjective used as an adverb, thus reaching full adjectival status.

2.2. The participle as NOUN POSTMODIFIER

As a postmodifier, the participial phrase comes after the noun (headword)

and is equivalent of a whole sub-clause (attributive clause):
Who is the man standing in the corner? Whose is the book lying on the
floor? Here is a letter announcing his arrival. My uncle living abroad is
coming home.

It may function as an apposition (appositive clause): His current research,

investigating attitudes to racial stereotypes, takes up most of his time.

Participial phrases as postmodifiers are punctuated in the same way as

attributive clauses, depending on whether the phrase is RESTRICTIVE
(indispensable, defining, no use of commas), or NONRESTRICTIVE
(optional, non-defining, not common in informal conversation, separated
by commas from the rest of the sentence).

CASES OF USE
1. To form the progressive aspect, in the active or passive;
2. in incidental participial phrases (stereotyped phrases), where the participle
does not refer to any particular word in the sentence that could be
considered its subject. This is called UNRELATED/DANGLING
PARTICIPLE: considering the circumstances, strictly/generally/roughly
speaking, seeing that, counting from today, beginning with, judging by
appearances, taking everything into account;
3. the present participle as preposition or conjunction: concerning,
providing, supposing, regarding, barring: Barring accidents he should be

23
 here in two days. We can leave providing/provided (that) he agrees.
Supposing/suppose we lose everything, what then?
4. in special constructions:
the ACCUSATIVE with the - ING PARTICIPLE,
the NOMINATIVE with the -ING PARTICIPLE,
the ABSOLUTE NOMINATIVE with the –ING
PARTICIPLE.

SYNTACTIC FUNCTIONS

The syntactic functions performed by the present participle can be clearly

pointed out by replacing it with the corresponding adverbial clause.
As a matter of fact, in current speech this second option is preferred to the
one using the participle.

ATTRIBUTE (all important details have been given above);

ADVERBIAL MODIFIER or PART of an ADV. MOD. :

- of time: Hearing footsteps, I hurried to open the door. (=whenI heard
…)
- of cause: Being very poor, they couldn’t buy a house. (=As they
were…)
- of condition: Dinning outside upon the terrace, you may catch a cold.
(=If you dine…)
- of comparison: Jim was playing tennis as if being a professional. (=as
if he
were…)
- of attending circumstances: That evening we stayed indoors talking
about the good old days. With the dog bouncing in front of him, he started
on his way.

PART of a COMPLEX DIRECT OBJECT (OBJECT COMPLEMENT)

in the ACC. with the –ING PART., or PART of a COMPLEX SUBJECT
(SUBJECT COMPLEMENT) in the NOM. with the –ING PART..

SPECIAL CONSTRUCTIONS with the PRESENT PARTICIPLE

1. ACCUSATIVE (object) with the PRESENT PARTICIPLE

The present participle may be regarded as a predicative adjunct to the

object of these verbs. The verbs followed by this construction are the
same as those followed by a NOMINATIVE with PRESENT PARTICIPLE,
which is its passive counterpart.
1.1. Verbs commonly called ‘verbs of perception’: see, feel, hear, notice,
observe, perceive, sense, watch:We heard them laughing in the next
room.

*Note that the ACCUSATIVE with the INFINITIVE may also be used here.
The distinction between the two is that the one with the infinitive merely
states the action whereas the one with the participle views the action in
progress (perfective/vs/imperfective). Sometimes the distinction is one
24
 between completion and incompletion:I saw him walking across the road.
(=on the way across…)
I saw him walk … (=from one side to the other)
After these verbs in the passive, we use the infinitive with to or the present
participle:
The woman was seen to check in at this hotel. The woman was seen
checking in at this hotel.

1.2. Other verbs, but without the alternative construction with a bare
infinitive: catch, find, get, imagine, keep, leave, set, start, have, spot,
discover: You won’t catch me doing that again. The news set him
thinking. The search team discovered/spotted/found the man clinging to a
rock. Never keep a lady waiting.
His answer left me wondering what he was getting at. Her few words said
in passing set me thinking.
-SPOT, FIND and DISCOVER can also be followed by an object + past/-
ed participle:
The police found the money hidden in an old garage.
They may also be followed by a ‘that’ clause, or by an object + to be/to
have, in which case the verbs suggest the discovery of a fact rather than
the act, an intellectual awareness rather than a physical perception:
Men of science found that the theory was correct. Men of science found
the theory to be correct.
- LEAVE and KEEP (someone in a certain situation or condition) share
some of the characteristics of FIND and DISCOVER. They can be followed
by an object + a pres./past part.: He left/kept everybody waiting in the
restaurant. He left his car parked nearby.
- GET + -ing part./to-inf.: I found it difficult to get things going. I cannot get him
to apologize.
2. NOMINATIVE with PRESENT PARTICIPLE: the verbs that take an
accusative with present participle may also stand in the passive:
He admitted that he had been discovered stealing.
3. ABSOLUTE NOMINATIVE with PRESENT PARTICIPLE
All types of participles may have a subject of their own expressed by a
noun-personal pronoun.
The absolute phrase may be active or passive:
My car being out of order, I had to walk. Everybody having left, nothing
could be done. The question being settled, we went home. None of the
people present having any further remarks to make, I suppose we can
close our meeting.
The syntactic function is that of an adverbial modifier which can be
developed into a corresponding adverbial clause of time, cause, condition.

25
 PARTICIPLES OR GERUNDS

The distinction between a present participle and a gerund is made on the basis of the
functions they perform, not on their outward form. As stated before, gerunds either function
as nouns standing alone, or operate as verbs in non-finite noun clauses: Thank God the
fighting has stopped! Shutting down the factory means putting so many people out of work.
Participles either function as verbal adjectives, or operate as verbs in non-finite clauses,
most often than not, the equivalent of adjectival or adverbial clauses:
Two children were trapped in the blazing house. Having signed the final agreement, the
two prime–ministers shook hands and were taken photos by the press representatives.
(=When they had signed …)
*Note that the participle is related to a noun (the subject of the main clause), and students
should avoid what is called a misrelated participle:
Standing in the middle of an immensely large and empty room, the feeling of loneliness
and frustration could be deeply felt. (instead of: I couldfeel…)
Being a wet day, we stayed at home. (instead of: The day being wet, we …)

26
 LEARNING UNIT 4.
THE PAST/-ED PARTICIPLE

As the present participle is identical in form with the gerund, so the past
participle of all regular and some irregular verbs is identical with the past
tense, and is to be distinguished from this one by its functions in the
sentence.

SYNTACTIC FUNCTIONS

1. ATTRIBUTE/NOUN MODIFIER

Like certain quasi-participial forms in –ing (amusing, charming,

interesting…),
some past participles may be purely adjectival in meaning: distinguished
(=eminent), fixed/set (=steady), tired (=weary), pleased (=glad). These
words may also occur as real participles:
Compare He had distinguished himself by great bravery with Here are our
distinguished guests.
Some such participial adjectives, unlike the corresponding –ed participles,
have their ending pronounced [id], no matter what the preceding sound:
aged woman, beloved wife, crooked means, learned man, naked body,
cursed nuisance, distinguished scientist.
Some may be preceded by –UN:
unexpected meeting, unarmed troops, unknown hero, unheard-of event,
uncared-for children, undeserved punishment, undreamed-of wealth.

Past participles may combine with adverbs/adjectives used as adverbs:

well-known writer, clean-shaven face, long-forgotten memories, badly-
written letter, hard-earned money.
They may form compounds with other words:
frost-bitten hands, home-made cake.
*Note that adjectives derived from nouns cannot be regarded as
participles:
a three-legged stool, a white-faced girl.
**Note also that some verbs have different participle forms for verbal and adjectival use:
drunk/drunken, molt/molten, shaved/shaven.
27
 The –ed participle can function both as a premodifier of a noun (broken
cup,written promise, spoken language) and a postmodifier of it, in the
latter case being equivalent of a whole sub-clause (attributive), being
punctuated as such, depending on whether the participle phrase is
restrictive (defining) or nonrestrictive (non-defining, optional):
The photos taken in Italy are wonderful. (restrictive attributive cl.)
Their son, spoiled by his parents, never became a responsible adult. (non-
restrictive attributive cl.)
*Note the construction NP + as + -ed:
He is telling the story as seen by himself at the time.
2.SUBJECT COMPLEMENT
In a predicative use, the past participle of a transitive verb may express
the state or condition resulting from the action indicated by the verb. The
verb connecting the participle with the subject is usually BE, but also
APPEAR, FEEL, LIE, LOOK, REMAIN, SEEM:
The village was/appeared/looked/seemed quite deserted. He
felt/was/looked/seemed thoroughly disappointed.
*Note that in the above examples, though implying action, the –ed
participle chiefly denotes resultative CONDITION, some of them being
almost equivalent of predicative adjectives (deserted=empty).
When the idea of ACTION is predominant, the group BE + -ED PART.
forms the category of the passive voice, as in: His letters were written by a
secretary.
3. OBJECT COMPLEMENT

The past participle of transitive verbs may be used as object

complement/predicative adjunct to the objects of verbs like SEE, HEAR,
FEEL, FIND, GET, MAKE, LIKE, WANT, WISH, ORDER. The construction
may be identified as ACCUSATIVE with –ED/PAST PARTICIPLE.
He had seen villages evacuated, bridges blown up and railways
destroyed. He heard his name called. She was greatly surprised to find
herself elected president. We must get the laws obeyed.
Unlike the Acc. with infinitive and the Acc. with present part., this special
construction has no passive counterpart. After LIKE, WANT, WISH,
ORDER, the ACCUSATIVE with PASSIVE INFINITIVE also occurs: I want
it (to be) done by the end of the week.
I don’t like such subjects (to be) discussed.
*Note that in all the above examples, the past participle expresses a
RESULT.
Special attention should be given to the use of the Acc. with the present
participle after causative HAVE. The person performing the action may or
may not be mentioned:
If he won’t behave, I’ll have him locked up by the police.

28
 When HAVE is causative, the finites are never anomalous:
How often do you have your hair cut?

The verb GET is also found in this construction:

Where did you get your linen washed?

The same construction is used after HAVE in the sense of

EXPERIENCE/SUFFER:
He had his licence suspended for reckless driving. He had his leg
amputated.

The construction also occurs with HAVE in the sense of HOLD/POSSESS:

The operation may be expensive, and I have no money saved. The
Romans had the Persians army surrounded.

4. ADVERBIAL MODIFIER OF TIME/CAUSE/MANNER/CONCESSION/COMPARISON

The work finished, we went home. Freightened to death, he couldn’t move.

The two men sat fascinated by their first sight of television. Born in better
times, he would have become a great poet. Without a word spoken, he
went away. Though severely hurt, the driver was able to walk to the
ambulance. He was listening speechless, as if struck by her reproachful
words.
 ABSOLUTE NOMINATIVE with PAST PARTICIPLE

Like the present participle, the past/-ed participle of a transitive verb may
be used in the absolute participial constructions, where it has its own
subject, different from that of the predicate of the sentence:
This done, we packed up everything and went home. All things
considered, it is not such a bargain.

29
 APPLICATIONS

* Keep in mind that the infinitive can have the following syntactic functions:

1. subject: Todrink too much is, at least, unwise. It is necessary to read the whole
article.
2. subject complement: To decide is to act. He is believed to be the best so far.
3. object: Why should you refuse to go with her? I don’t know what to do first.
4. object complement: He asked them to attend to the guests properly. We could but
watch him go. (the acc. with the inf.)
5. adverbial modifier: We remained to finish the work.
6. noun post-modifier: Here is something for you to take care of. She is not the person
to give in so easily.
7. adjective modifier: You’re very kind to help me. I’m sorry for you to leave so soon.

1. Make up sentences of your own according to the patterns below:

 It+V+O+S(=IP): It puzzled me to find him there. It hurt her/Anne/the student to be

called irresponsible.
 It+V+SC+S (=IP): It’s a luxury to go on holiday twice a year.
 It+V+SC+S (=IP): It was necessary for me to see him.
 It+V+SC (AP+of+NP)+S (=IP): It’s nice of you to look after our dog.

2. Find the subject complement in the following sentences and state what it is
expressed by:

She seems to have been crying. He appeared to have been satisfied with the results. They
were requested to be ready by the next day. You prove to be working ceaselessly when
you really want something done. She is supposed to observe the rules if she wants to play
the game.

3. Change the construction of the sentences and use infinitives [anteriority

(perfect infinitive) vs simultaneity/posteriority (present infinitive)]:

He claims that he knows everything. He claimed that he knew everything. He claimed that
he had settled the matter. We didn’t claim that we had been working on the project. We
forgot that we had to do it. I hope I didn’t hurt you; I didn’t mean that.

4. Put the verbs and pronouns in brackets in the correct forms:

The sad news made (she, lie) awake all night and (keep, she) thinking. I didn’t expect (he,
understand) what it all meant to me. The owner wanted (I, do) the job for a place to eat
30
and sleep. I got (they, take) care of food and drinks for the party. The talk with him made
(we, feel) beside ourselves with joy. We believe (she, be) appointed head of the
department.

5. State tense, aspect and voice of the infinitive forms in the following sentences:

I am glad to be flying on such a good plane. We were very honored to be invited to the
party. She seems to have done everything on her own. He is said to have been taught only
by reputed professors. The appointments in the newspaper were to be answered by letter
only. They were supposed to have been working very hard on the project which proved,
indeed to be a success.

6. Identify the form and function of the infinitives:

The station began to transmit signals. He repeated all the words so as to make no
mistakes in spelling. I should take a taxi in order to get my friend to the station. It was too
late to find where they were. We stopped to have a smoke. The machinery to be installed
in the workshop was built by a Dutch machine-building plant. He seems to have been
waiting for a long time. He is said to be living in Nicaragua. The 20th century is known to be
the age of the nuclear power and of the image. This, in my opinion, is a chance not to be
missed. It must be seen to be believed. He was happy to have won the competition and to
have been given the prize money in cash. I am sorry to be giving you so much trouble.
Didn’t it annoy you to be left behind? It seemed useless to go on. It would be foolish of you
not to grasp this attractive opportunity. I can’t afford to pay so much/bear to see her cry.
Be careful not to let slip such an opportunity. To my mind, he was quite right to decline the
invitation.

7.a. Give passive infinitives corresponding to the following active ones:

To borrow, to have built, to bury, to have followed, to forget, to have driven.

7.b. Give perfect infinitives (both passive and active, wherever possible)
corresponding to the following ones:

To give, to answer, to lose, to offer.

8. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate form of the infinitive (with/ without to,
active/ passive, progressive/ non-progressive, perfect/ non-perfect):

The mild climate will surely allow the tender plant (place) in the open air. The woman was
observed (follow) him closely. He hated (have) (treat) her like that the day before. The
patient was known (suffer) from the same disease for years. The house wants (paint). You
needn’t (bother) so much about it. It might (be) pleasant for them (remember) on
Christmas who made lame beggars (walk) and blind man (see). It can’t be true! I just know
he couldn’t (react) so rudely on such an occasion. The best thing (do) is (shelve)
something you can do nothing about. He was pretty sure his wife was not the woman (say)
something like that.

9. Gerund or infinitive? Rephrase the sentences below, choosing between the two
non-finite forms; when both are possible, explain the difference in meaning, if any:

 Make sure you check your spelling before handing in your paper.
Remember to check……………
31
 The accused man said he had never seen the victim.
The accused man denied ….

 I remember that I was first introduced to her when we went on that picnic.
I remember ….

 Forgive me for interrupting you.

I am sorry ………. you.

 It’s a pity I didn’t see their performance last night.

I regret…

 Making speeches in front of a large audience doesn’t disturb him at all.

He is used …….. speeches….

 When I ran into him the other day, we started talking.

When I ran into him the other day, we stopped ………..
 There is no good movie on at the moment.
No movie is…
 He claims that he did the work without any help.
He claims…
 James resolved that nothing should hold him back.
James resolved…
 He said it was true he was driving too fast.
He admitted…
 They ought to have informed the passengers that the train had been withdrawn from
service a week before.
The passengers…
 Pressed by the others, he confessed that it would be likely that the truth would come to
light later on.
Pressed by the others, he confessed it…

* VERBS NORMALLY FOLLOWED BY TO-INFINITIVE (Verbs marked * can also be

followed by a that-clause):
*agree, *appear, *arrange, attempt, ask, choose, dare, *decide, *demand, deserve,
*expect, fail, grow, hasten, *happen, *hope, hurry, *learn, long, manage, neglect, offer,
pay, *plan, *pledge, *pretend, *promise, refuse, *resolve, seek, *seem, struggle, *swear,
*threaten, *vow, want, *wish

* VERBS NORMALLY FOLLOWED BY –ING (Verbs marked * can also be followed by a

that-clause:
*appreciate, avoid, contemplate, delay, *deny, detest, dislike, endure, enjoy, escape,
excuse, face, *fancy, finish, involve, *mention, mind, miss, postpone, practice, *resent,
risk, *suggest, burst out, it’s no good/use, feel like, give up, keep on, leave off, put
off, can’t stand, spend/waste time

10. Translate the following into English USING INFINITIVES:

Am intrat in sala de asteptare, dar nu era nimeni cu care sa pot sta de vorba.

32
Am repetat intrebarea destul de tare ca s-o auda si el, cu toate ca era genul de persoana
care se face ca nu aude ce nu-i convine.
El este cel care trebuie sa hotarasca in aceasta chestiune, asa ca ai face mai bine sa-l lasi
in pace.
A fost, ca sa nu spun mai mult, foarte neintelept din partea ta sa refuzi o asemenea oferta.
Si cand te gandesti ca n-o sa-l mai vedem niciodata; sa-ti spun cinstit, m-am cam atasat
de el.
Ca sa vorbesc pe sleau, sa te certi cu el nu este cel mai bun lucru pe care sa-l faci acum;
mai bine incerci sa fii intru totul de acord cu sugestiile lui.
Nu uita sa-i transmiti mesajul exact asa cum ti l-amscris; nu tu trebuie sa hotarasti daca e
potrivit sau nu; aminteste-ti ca i-ai spus parerea ta si nu a parut interesata.
N-am vrut s-o fac sa planga, dar a trebuit sa-i spun vestea.
Pentru a-i aprecia pe deplin calitatile, ar trebui sa-l cunosti mai bine.
Se spune ca a fost invitat sa participe la conferinta, dar n-ar fi putut s-o faca pentru ca
doctorul l-a obligat sa ramana acasa.

33