RAY OPTICS

Introduction: The light by itself is invisible but the objects become visible because of it.
The small part of the electromagnetic spectrum detected by the human eye is called light
and the wavelength range of this portion of electromagnetic radiation is about 400nm to
750nm.The two things about light from common experience are: light travels with an
enormous speed and it travels along a straight line. Though the speed of light is enormous
but it is finite and measurable. The presently accepted value of speed of light in vacuum is
2.99792458 X 108 m/s. The speed of light in vacuum is the highest speed attainable in
nature. Light exhibits the phenomenon such as reflection, refraction, scattering, dispersion,
interference, diffraction, polarization etc. The branch of physics that deals with the nature,
sources, properties and effects of light is called optics. The optics has been described as
mother of concepts for both experimental and theoretical sciences.

Optics: The branch of physics which deals with the study of properties & nature of light is called optics.
Optics is widely divided into: Geometrical (Ray) optics and Physical optics.

Geometrical optics: The branch of optics which deals with the ray concept of light, image formation and
the study of simple properties of light is called geometrical optics. OR The branch of optics in which the
rectilinear propagation of light is assumed, is called geometrical optics.

Physical optics : The branch of optics which deals with the study of nature of light is called physical
optics. As light behaves like wave as well as particle. Depending upon this dual nature of light, physical
optics is divided into: Wave optics and Quantum optics.

Wave optics :The branch of physical optics which deals with the study of wave nature of light is called
wave optics.

Quantum optics : The branch of physical optics which deals with the study of particle nature of light is
called quantum optics.

Terms connected with optics :

Optical medium :A medium through which light propagates is called an optical medium.

Homogenous medium : An optical medium having the same optical density at all points in the medium
is said to be homogeneous medium.

Heterogeneous medium : An optical medium having different optical densities at different points in the
medium is said to be heterogeneous medium.

Isotropic medium : An optical medium in which light travels with the same speed in all directions is
called isotropic medium.
Examples : Air, glass, water etc.

Anisotropic medium : An optical medium in which light travels with different speeds in different
directions is called anisotropic medium.
Example : Quartz, calcite etc.

Monochromatic light: Light of single colour or wavelength is called monochromatic light.

Polychromatic light: Light of many colours or wavelengths is called polychromatic light.

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Ray of light : A straight line with an arrow mark which represents the direction of propagation of light is
called ray of light.

Beam of light : A collection of rays of light is called beam of light.

Parallel beam Convergent beam Divergent beam

Law of rectilinear propagation of light: It states that in a homogeneous medium light proceeds along
straight lines.

Reflection of light: The bouncing back of light into the same medium on striking a surface is called reflection
of light.
where:
XY = Plane reflecting surface.
O = Point of incidence .
NO = Normal to XY through O.
IO = Incident ray of light.
OR = Reflected ray of light.
i = Angle of incidence.
r = Angle of reflection.
d = Angle of deviation.

Laws of reflection:
I. The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
II. The incident ray of light , the reflected ray of light and the normal drawn to the reflecting surface at the
point of incidence lie in the same plane.

Note:
1.The incident ray of light and the reflected ray of light lie on the opposite sides of the normal.

2.When a ray of light strikes the reflecting surface at normal incidence, then it retraces its original path.

3.Angle of incidence + Angle of reflection + Angle of deviation = 1800

i + r + d =1800

i + i + d =1800 Since i = r

2i + d = 1800

d = 1800 – 2i

Spherical (Curved) mirror: A mirror whose reflecting surface forms a part of the hollow sphere is called
spherical mirror.
OR
A part of the hollow sphere whose one side is reflecting and the other side is silvered (non- reflecting surface)
is called spherical mirror.
Spherical mirrors are of two types: Concave mirror and Convex mirror.

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Concave mirror: A spherical mirror whose reflecting surface is towards the centre of the sphere of which the
mirror forms a part is called concave mirror.

Convex mirror: A spherical mirror whose reflecting surface is away from the centre of the sphere of which
the mirror forms a part is called convex mirror.

Terms connected with spherical mirror:

1.Pole(P): The midpoint of the spherical mirror is called pole.

2.Aperture: A portion of the spherical mirror exposed to the incident light is called aperture. OR A portion of
the spherical mirror from which reflection of light takes place is called aperture.
3.Centre of curvature (C): The centre of the hollow sphere of which the given spherical mirror forms a part is
called centre of curvature.
4. Radius of curvature (R): The radius of the hollow sphere of which the given spherical mirror forms a part
is called radius of curvature.
OR
The distance of centre of curvature of the spherical mirror from its pole is called radius of curvature.
5.Principal axis: A straight line passing through the centre of curvature and the pole of the spherical mirror is
called principal axis.

6.Principal focus: When a narrow parallel beam of light close to the principal axis is incident on a spherical
mirror, it converges to a fixed point (in concave mirror) and appears to diverge from a fixed point (in convex
mirror) on the principal axis after reflection from the mirror. This fixed point F on the principal axis of the
spherical mirror is called its principal focus.

Note :
a. The principal focus of concave mirror is real and that of convex mirror is virtual.
b. A concave mirror is called a converging mirror as it converges the parallel beam of light.
c. A convex mirror is called a diverging mirror as it diverges the parallel beam of light.

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7.Focal plane: A plane passing through principal focus perpendicular to the principal axis of the spherical
mirror which contains a point at which the reflected rays of light converge or from which the reflected rays of
light appear to diverge, when a parallel beam of light making small angle with the principal axis is incident on
the mirror, is called focal plane.

8. Focal length(f): The distance of principal focus of the spherical mirror from its pole is called focal length.

Linear magnification or magnification(m):The ratio of the height of the image (h/) to the height of the
object (h) is called linear magnification.

h
m=
h
Note:
1.If h/>h, then image is magnified(enlarged).
2.If h/<h, then image is diminished.
3.If h/=h, then image is neither magnified nor diminished.
4.A concave mirror produces both diminished and magnified image.
5.A convex mirror always produces diminished image.

Mirror formula ( Mirror equation): A relation between object distance , image distance and focal length of
the spherical mirror is called mirror formula.
Mirror formula is given by:
1 1 1
 
u v f
Where:
u = object distance.
v= image distance.
f= focal length of the mirror.

(For derivation refer class notes).

Some important paths of light:

1.A ray of light passing through principal focus emerges parallel after reflection.

2. A ray of light moving parallel to the principal axis passes through focus after reflection.

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3. A ray of light passing through centre of curvature C retraces its path after reflection.

4. A ray of light striking the pole (P) gets reflected as shown in the diagram.

Image formation by concave mirror:

1.Object at infinity: Image is formed at F. It is real, inverted and highly diminished.

2. Object AB beyond C: Image A/B/ is formed between C & F. It is real , inverted and diminished.

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3. Object AB at C: Image A/B/ is formed at C. It is real , inverted and neither diminished nor magnified.

4. Object AB between C and F: Image A/B/ is formed beyond C. It is real, inverted and magnified.

5.Object AB at F: Rays render parallel after reflection from the mirror.

6. Object AB between F and P: Image A/B/ is formed behind the mirror. It is virtual, erect and highly
magnified.

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Image formation by convex mirror:

1.Object at infinity: Image is formed at F. It is virtual, erect and diminished.

2. Object AB at some finite distance: Image A/B/ is formed between P and F. It is virtual, erect and
diminished.

Note:
1.Convex mirror always produces virtual, erect and diminished image.
2.When the object is moved away from the convex mirror, the image moves towards the principal focus
of the mirror. Hence, the size of the image gets smaller and smaller.

New Cartesian sign conventions for reflection at spherical mirror:

1. All distances are measured from the pole and along the principal axis of the mirror.
2. The distances measured in the same direction of incident light are taken as positive and
that measured in the opposite direction of incident light are taken as negative.
3. The heights measured upwards and perpendicular to the principal axis of the mirror are taken as
positive and the heights measured downwards and perpendicular to the principal axis of the mirror
are taken as negative.

Note: According to new Cartesian sign conventions for reflection at spherical mirror:
a. Real object distance and real image distance are negative.
b. The focal length and radius of curvature of concave mirror are negative.
c. The focal length and radius of curvature of convex mirror are positive.
d. For inverted and real image, magnification is negative.
e. For virtual and erect image, magnification is positive.
f. For concave mirror, magnification may be positive or negative.
g. For convex mirror, magnification is always positive.

Relation between focal length and

radius of curvature: Consider a concave
mirror of small aperture with P as pole, F
as principal focus and C as centre of
curvature. A ray of light AM moving
parallel to the principal axis, passes
through the focus F of the mirror. Let N be
the normal to the reflecting surface
through the point of incidence M which
meets the principal axis at C.

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Let:
θ = angle of incidence = angle of reflection.
PF = f = focal length of the mirror.
PC = R = radius of curvature of the mirror.
As the mirror is of small aperture, MP is nearly equal to the perpendicular MD.
From Δ MCP:

PM
tan   --------------------------------(1)
PC
From Δ MFP:

PM
tan 2  -------------------------------(2)
PF
If θ and 2θ are small, then tan θ = θ & tan 2θ= 2θ. Therefore, equations (1) & (2) become:

PM
 ------------------------------------(3)
PC
PM
2  -----------------------------------(4)
PF
Dividing equation (3) by (4):

1 PF

2 PC

1 f
 Where : PF = f and PC = R.
2 R

R
f  ---------------------------------(5)
2

This is the required relation between focal length & radius of curvature of the mirror.

Magnification in terms of image distance and object distance: Consider a concave mirror of small
aperture with P as pole, F as principal focus and C as centre of curvature. An object AB is placed beyond C.
The mirror forms a real, inverted and diminished image A/B/ between C and F.

Let:
AB = h = size of object.
A/B/= h/= size of image.
PB = u = object distance.
PB/ = v = image distance.

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From similar triangles Δ A/B/P and Δ ABP:

A B  P B 
 ----------------------------(1)
AB PB
According to new Cartesian sign conventions: PB =-u ,PB/ = -v, AB =+h & A/B/=-h/

Inserting these conventions in equation (1),

 h  v

h u

h v
   -----------------------------(2)
h u
But, magnification is the ratio of size of image to size of the object.

h
m --------------------------------(3)
h
From equations (2) and (3):

h v
m   -------------------------(4)
h u

Size of image Image distance

Conclusion: Magnification  
Size of object Object disatnce

Note:
R
Relation between focal length f & radius of curvature R of spherical mirror is: f 
2
Mirror formula leads to the form:

1 1 2
 
u v R

Uses of spherical mirror:

Concave mirrors:
1. For heating purpose and used by doctors to see the images of teeth, nose, throat etc.
2. Reflectors in projectors, headlights, search lamps and torches to obtain parallel beam of light. This is
possible when the source of light is placed at the focus of the mirror.
3. Large concave mirrors are used in reflecting telescopes.
4. As shaving and make up mirrors to see the enlarged erect image of the face. For this to happen, the
face must be placed closer to the mirror.
5. In flood lights: In a floodlight, a bright bulb is positioned between the focus and pole of a concave
mirror to obtain a divergent beam of light.

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Convex mirrors:
1. Used as rear-view mirrors in vehicles. The mirrors are fitted on the sides of the vehicle to enable the driver
to see the traffic behind him to facilitate safe driving. The image formed by a convex mirror is highly
diminished. Due to this, the mirror gives a wider field of view of the traffic behind, as the mirror is curved
outwards. Further, a convex mirror produces an erect image irrespective of the position of traffic behind.
2. Safe view of dangerous corners.
3. Vigilance mirrors in departmental stores as anti-shoplifting devices.
4. Street lighting to diverge light over an extended area.
Refraction of light : When a ray of light travels from one transparent medium into another, it
bends while crossing the surface separating the two media.

“The phenomenon of bending of a ray of light when it passes obliquely from one medium into
another is called refraction of light.”

where:
XY = Plane refracting surface.
O = Point of incidence .
NM = Normal to XY through O.
IO = Incident ray of light.
OR = Refracted ray of light.
n1 = RI of the first medium .
n2 = RI of the second medium .
i = Angle of incidence.
r = Angle of refraction .
d = Angle of deviation.

Laws of refraction :
1.The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal drawn to the refracting surface at the point of
incidence lie in the same plane.

2.The ratio of the sine of angle of incidence (i) to the sine of angle of refraction( r) is constant for a
given pair of media. This constant is called RI of the second medium with respect to the first
medium (1n2=n21).

n2 sin i
n21 1 n2   ……….…(1)
n1 sin r

This law is known as Snell’s law.

Where:
n1 = RI of the first medium. n2 = RI of the second medium .
Note :
General law of refraction: From equation (1):

n1sini = n2sinr

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Cases of refraction :
1.When a ray of light travels from rarer medium to denser medium, it bends towards the normal.

In this case: n1< n2, v1> v2, 1   2 ,i > r and d = i – r

2.When a ray of light travels from denser to rarer medium, it bends away from the normal.

In this case : n1> n2, v1< v2, 1   2 , i < r and d = r – i

Note:
1. Absolute refractive index of a medium is always greater than 1.
2. Absolute refractive indices of water and glass respectively are 4/3 and 3/2.
3. A medium that has higher refractive index is called optically denser medium.
4. A medium that has lower refractive index is called optically rarer medium.

Principle of reversibility of light: It states that the

path of a light is reversible.
Consider a ray of light traveling from the first
medium of RI n1 to the second medium of RI n2 .
RI of second medium wrt first medium is :

sin i
1n2  ………………………......…(1)
sin r

Where:
i = angle of incidence.
r = angle of refraction.

If the refracted ray OR is incident normally on a plane mirror M, it reflects & reverses its path.

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RI of first medium wrt second medium is:

sin r
2 n1  ……………………….…....…(2)
sin i

Multiplying equations (1) and (2):

sin i sin r
1n2 2 n1  
sin r sin i

1n2 2 n1  1

1 1
1 n2   n21  ……………..………….(3)
2 n1 n12

Refractive index of second medium with respect to first medium is equal to reciprocal of the
refractive index of first medium with respect to second medium.

Lateral shift: The perpendicular distance between the emergent ray and the direction of the
incident ray, when a ray of light passes through a parallel sided glass slab is called lateral shift.

Diagram to represent lateral shift of a light ray passing through a parallel sided glass slab:

Expression for lateral shift:

t sin(i  r )
LS 
cos r

Where: Ls=lateral shift, t=thickness of the slab, i=angle of incidence & r=angle of refraction.

Note: Ls = 0(minimum) for i = 0 o (normal incidence).2. Ls = t ( maximum) for i = 90 o (grazing

incidence).

Factors affecting lateral shift :

1.Refractive index of the material of the slab (n) : Lateral shift increases with increase in RI of
the material of the slab.
2.Refractive index of the surrounding medium of the slab:: Lateral shift decreases with
increase in RI of the surrounding medium of the slab.
3.Thickness of the slab ( t): Lateral shift increases with increase in thickness of the slab.
4.Angle of incidence ( i): Lateral shift increases with increase in angle of incidence.
5.Colour or wavelength of light () : Lateral shift decreases with increase in wavelength of light.
Lateral shift is minimum for red coloured light and maximum for violet coloured light.

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Normal Shift :The distance by which an object in one medium viewed from another medium
appears to be shifted along the normal due to normal refraction is called normal shift.

Diagram to represent apparent depth for oblique and normal viewing of an object in a denser
medium:

Factors affecting normal shift:

1.Depth of the object (u).
2.RI of the medium in which the object is placed (n1)
3.RI of the surrounding medium through which the observation is made(n 2).
4.Colour of light or wavelength of light (λ).

Total internal reflection :The bouncing back of light into the denser medium completely, when a
ray of light travelling from denser to rarer medium incident on the interface of the media at an angle
greater than the critical angle is called total internal reflection.

When a ray of light travels from denser medium to rarer medium, it bends away from the normal. If
the angle of incidence is gradually increased, the angle of refraction becomes more and more. At a
particular value of angle of incidence, the angle of refraction becomes 90 o . This angle of incidence
in the denser medium at which the angle of refraction becomes 90 o in the rarer medium is called
critical angle. When the angle of incidence exceeds the critical angle, the ray is totally reflected
back into the denser medium. This phenomenon is called total internal reflection.

Critical angle :The angle of incidence in the denser medium at which the angle of refraction
becomes 90 o in the rarer medium is called critical angle.

Note :
1 Critical angle is always defined for a pair of media.
2.Critical angles of diamond, glass and water wrt air are 240 , 42 o and 48o respectively.

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Conditions for total internal reflection:
1.A ray of light must travel from denser to rarer medium.
2.Angle of incidence must be greater than critical angle.
Relation between Refractive index and Critical angle :Consider a ray of light traveling from
denser medium of refractive index (n1) to rarer medium of refractive index n2.

Let :
i = angle of incidence.
r = angle of refraction.
Snell’s law is:
n2 sin i
 ……………….….(1)
n1 sin r
For i = C = critical angle & r = 90 o , equation (1) becomes :

n2
 sin C ……………...(2)
n1
For n1=n and n2=1(air), equation (2) leads to the form:

1 1
n n ---------(3)
sin C sin ic

 Refractive index of a medium is equal to reciprocal of sine of the critical angle.

Atmospheric refraction: The refraction of light through the earth’s atmosphere is called
atmospheric refraction. The atmospheric refraction occurs in a medium of gradually changing
refractive index.

Illustrations of atmospheric refraction of light:

1.Twinkling of stars: The atmosphere of the earth is considered to be made up of number of
layers. The atmosphere is optically denser near the earth and rarer at higher altitude. A ray of light
from a star undergoes refraction at each layer and keeps on bending towards the normal till it
reaches the earth. The ray of light received by the observer produced backwards appears to come
from a higher position in the sky. This position of
the star is called its apparent position. As the
temperature and density of the atmosphere
change continuously, the atmospheric layers are
not stationary. Therefore, the apparent position of
the star changes continuously. As a result of
fluctuating apparent position of the star, the
amount of star light entering the observer’s eye
flickers. Due to this, the star sometimes appears
brighter and at some other times fainter. This gives
rise to twinkling effect to the observer. Hence,
stars twinkle due to atmospheric refraction.

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Note: The amount of light received from the planets is large, as the planets are nearer. Therefore,
change in the brightness is not appreciable. Hence, no twinkling is observed in case of planets.

2.Early sunrise and delayed sunset: The sun is visible

before actual sunrise and after actual sunset due to the
atmospheric refraction. The actual sunrise means the
actual crossing of the horizon by the sun. The actual and
the apparent positions of the sun with respect to the
horizon are S and S/ respectively. The density and the
refractive index of layers of the atmosphere decrease
with increase in height from the earth’s surface. The rays
of light from the sun travel from rarer to denser layers.
As a result, they bend more and more towards the
normal. Therefore, to an observer O, the sun which is
actually in the position S below the horizon appears in the position S / above the horizon. Thus, the
sun appears to rise early by two minutes before the actual sunrise. And for the same reason, the
sun appears to set late by two minutes after the actual sunset. Due to this, the length of the day
increases by four minutes.
Illustrations of total internal reflection:

1.Sparkling of diamond(Brilliance of diamond): The diamond has high RI and low critical angle.
Due to this, multiple total internal reflections can be made to occur by cutting the diamond to have a
large number of faces. When a ray of light from air enters the diamond through one of its faces, it
undergoes refraction. The refracted ray of light then falls on some other face at an angle greater
than the critical angle of diamond with respect to air. As a result, the light ray undergoes multiple
total internal reflections at different faces and remains within the diamond. Therefore, the diamond
shines very brilliantly. Hence , the brilliance of diamond (sparkling of diamond) is due to total
internal reflection.

2.Mirage: An optical illusion caused by atmospheric refraction seen in desert and on a tar road on a
hot sunny day is called mirage.

On a hot sunny day, the temperature of air near the earth’s surface is maximum. The temperature
of upper layers of air gradually decrease. Therefore, the optical density and refractive index of air
increase with increase in height above the earth’s surface. Due to this, a ray of light from a tree O
travelling from denser layer to rarer layer, bends away from the normal. At a particular layer, the
angle of incidence becomes greater than the critical angle (i>C) and total internal reflection occurs.
The totally reflected ray of light (seen by the observer’s eye) produced backwards seems to come
from a point I. So the observer finds an inverted and virtual image of the tree, creating an
impression of reflection of light from a pool of water below the tree. This optical illusion is called
mirage. Hence, mirage is an optical illusion caused due to total internal reflection and atmospheric
refraction.

Note: An optical illusion of this kind seen in hot desert is called mirage of inferior type
because it appears below the source of light (tree).
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3.An empty test tube immersed in water appears to be silvery ( shines like a mirror) because of
total internal reflection.

4.When a ray of light strikes the air bubble in glass, it undergoes total internal reflection. Hence, the
bubble appears to be silvery due to total internal reflection.

Fibre optics: The branch of optics which deals with the study of communication by transmission of
light through fibres made of glass or plastic is called fibre optics.

Optical fibres: A device based on the principle of total internal reflection used to conduct light
along any desired path is called an optical fibre.

The optical fibres work on the principle of total internal reflection. They are fabricated with fine
quality composite glass (quartz) fibres. Each fibre consists of a core and a cladding. A core is a
transparent material of high refractive index and a cladding is a transparent material of low
refractive index. There is a coating of cladding around the core. When a light signal is incident at
an angle greater than the critical angle of core with respect to its cladding, then it undergoes
multiple total internal reflections along the fibre and emerges out from the other end without much
loss of energy as shown in the following figure.

Cable: A carefully aligned bundle of optical fibres is called a cable.

Application of optical fibres:
1.Optical fibres are used in medical and optical examination.
2.They are used to transmit and receive electrical signals.
3.They are used to measure refractive indices of liquids.
4.They are used to measure temperature, pressure and flow of liquids.
5.They are used to measure the blood flow in the heart & scan the different parts of the jet engine.

Total reflecting prism: Total reflecting prism is a right angled isosceles prism made up of glass. In
other words, a prism having an angle of 900 between its two refracting surfaces and the other two
angles each equal to 450 , is called a total reflecting prism. A ray of light incident normally on any
one face of the prism, undergoes total internal reflection inside the prism.
1.A total reflecting prism is used to deviate a ray of light through an angle of 90 o .

This action of the prism is used in a periscope.

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2.A total reflecting prism is used to deviate a ray of light through an angle of 180 0.

The prism used in this way is called porro prism. This action of the prism is used in prism binocular
and camera.

3.A total reflecting prism is used to erect the inverted image without deviation.

This action of the prism is used in a slide projector.

Uses of total reflecting prism : Total reflecting prisms are used:

1.to turn the beam of light through 900 and 1800.
2.to invert the image of an object.
3.in periscope , prism binocular and slide projector.

Spherical refracting surface: A small portion of a sphere of refracting material is called spherical
refracting surface.

Convex spherical refracting surface: A spherical refracting surface which is convex towards rarer
medium is called convex spherical refracting surface.

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Concave spherical refracting surface: A spherical refracting surface which is concave towards
rarer medium is called concave spherical refracting surface.

Terms connected with spherical refracting surface:

1.Aperture:The area of spherical refracting surface available for refraction is called its aperture.

2.Pole(P): The mid point of the spherical refracting surface is called its pole.

3.Centre of curvature(C):The centre of the sphere of which the given spherical refracting surface
forms a part is called its centre of curvature.

4.Radius of curvature(R):The radius of a sphere of which the given spherical refracting surface
forms a part is called its radius of curvature.

5.Principal axis: A straight line passing through the pole and the centre of curvature of the
spherical refracting surface is called its principal axis.

6.Paraxial ray of light: A ray of light making small angle with the principal axis of the spherical
refracting surface is called paraxial ray of light.

7. Image: A point at which the rays of light from the object after refraction through the spherical
refracting surface actually meet or appear to meet is called image.

8. Real image: A point at which the rays of light from the object after refraction through the
spherical refracting surface actually meet is called real image.
Note: A real image can be obtained on a screen.

9.Virtual image: A point at which the rays of light from the object after refraction through the
spherical refracting surface do not actually meet but appear to diverge from a point is called virtual
image.
Note: A virtual image cannot be obtained on a screen.

10.Object space: The space (medium) containing real object or incident rays of light is called
object space.

11.Image space: The space ( medium) containing real image or refracted rays of light is called
image space.

12.Object distance(u): The distance of the object from the pole of the spherical refracting surface
is called object distance.

13.Image distance(v): The distance of the image from the pole of the spherical refracting surface is
called image distance.

New Cartesian sign conventions for the refraction through the spherical refracting surface:
1.All distances are measured from the pole and along the principal axis of the refracting surface.
2.The distances measured in the same direction of incident light are taken as positive.
3.The distances measured in the opposite direction of incident light are taken as negative.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 18

Assumptions made to study refraction through the spherical refracting surface:
1.The aperture of the surface is small.
2.A point object is placed on the principal axis of the surface.
3.The rays of light should be paraxial.

Equation for refraction at a spherical surface ( when the object is in rarer medium and the
image formed is real) : Consider a convex refracting surface APB of small aperture with P as pole
and C as centre of curvature. A point object O is placed in a rarer medium. The two rays of light
from O after refraction meet at a point I on the principal axis. Therefore, I is the real image of the
object O. The normal N through M to the refracting surface meets at C on the principal axis.

Let:
n1 = R.I. of rarer medium (object space).
n2 = = R.I. of denser medium (image space).
PO = u = object distance.
PI = v = image distance.
PC = R = radius of curvature.
i = angle of incidence.
r = angle of refraction.
α, β and  = small angles made by incident ray, refracted ray and normal with the principal axis
respectively.
As the aperture is small, MP is nearly equal to the perpendicular MD.

From ∆ MOP:
MP
tan  ---------------------------------(1)
PO
From ∆ MIP:
MP
tan   ---------------------------------(2)
PI
From ∆MCP:
MP
tan   ---------------------------------(3)
PC
As the aperture of the refracting surface is small, the angles α, β and γ are also small. Therefore,
these angles are replaced by their tangents (tanα= α ,tanβ = β & tanγ= γ ).

Equations (1), (2) and (3) become:

MP
 --------------------------------------(4)
PO

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 19

 MP
 -------------------------------------(5)
PI
MP
 -------------------------------------(6)
PC
From ∆ OMC:
i  

MP MP
i  -----------------------------(7)
PO PC
From ∆ IMC:
r  

MP MP
r  ----------------------------(8)
PC PI
From Snell’s law:

n1sini = n2sinr-----------------------------(9)
Since i and r are small angles, sini = i & sinr = r. Equation (9) becomes :

n1i  n2 r -----------------------------------(10)

Substituting i and r from equations (7) and (8) in equation (10),

 MP MP   MP MP 
n1     n2   
 PO PC   PC PI 

n1 n n n
 1  2  2
PO PC PC PI

n1 n2 n2 n
   1 ------------------(11)
PO PI PC PC
According to new Cartesian sign conventions: PO = -u , PI = +v & PC = +R.
Substituting these conventions in equation (11),
n1 n2 n n
  2  1
u v  R  R
n2 n1 n2  n1
  -----------------------(12)
v u R
This is the required equation for refraction at a spherical surface.
For n1= 1(air) and n2= n, equation (12) leads to the form:

n 1 n 1
  ----------------------------(13)
v u R

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 20

Note:

RI of image space RI of object space RI of image space RI of object.space.

1.  
Image dis tan ce Object dis tan ce Radius of curvature.

n2  n1
2. The term P is called power of spherical refracting surface.
R
3.The power of a spherical refracting surface is a measure of the surface to converge or diverge
light passing through it.

4. The radius of curvature of spherical refracting surface should be in metre, to express the
power of the surface in dioptre(D).

Lens: An optical medium bounded by two surfaces of which at least one is spherical is called a
lens.

Types of lenses:

Convex lens :A lens thicker at the middle than at the edges is called convex lens.

Concave lens: A lens thicker at the edges than at the centre is called concave lens.

Terms connected with lens :

Aperture : The diametric width of the lens available for refraction is called aperture or the effective
diameter of the circular boundary of the lens is called aperture.

Thick lens: A lens whose aperture is large is called thick lens.

Thin lens : A lens whose aperture is very small is called thin lens.

Principal axis : A straight line passing through the centres of curvature of the two spherical
surfaces of the lens is called principal axis of the lens.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 21

Principal focus (Focal point): When a narrow parallel beam of light close to the principal axis is
incident on a lens, it converges to a fixed point (in convex lens) and appears to diverge from a fixed
point (in concave lens) on the principal axis after refraction through the lens. This fixed point F on
the principal axis is called principal focus of the lens.

Note :
a. The principal focus of convex lens is real and that of concave lens is virtual.
b. A convex lens is called a converging lens as it converges the parallel beam of light.
c. A concave lens is called a diverging lens as it diverges the parallel beam of light.
Focal plane: A plane passing the principal focus of a lens perpendicular to its principal axis is
called focal plane.

Optical centre (O) : When a ray of light passes through a thick lens, such that the emergent ray is
parallel to the incident ray, then the refracted ray in the lens cuts the principal axis at a fixed point
O. This point is called optical centre of the lens.

Note :
A ray of light passing through the optical centre of a thin lens proceeds undeviated and
undisplaced. Therefore, optical centre of a thin lens is a point on the principal axis of the lens
through which a ray of light proceeds without deviation.

Focal length (f): The distance of the principal focus of a lens from its optical centre is called focal
length.

Note:

 According to new Cartesian sign conventions: focal length of convex lens is positive and that of
concave lens is negative.

Object distance(u):The distance of the object from the optical centre of the lens is called object
distance.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 22

Image distance(v):The distance of the image from the optical centre of the lens is called image
distance.

Power of a lens (P) : The ability to converge or diverge a beam of light incident on a lens is called
power of a lens. The power of a lens is defined as the tangent of the angle by which it converges or
diverges a beam of light incident on it at a unit distance from its optical centre.

Consider a thin lens of focal length f. Let h be the perpendicular distance of incident light from the
optical centre of the lens and  be the angle of convergence or divergence.

Power of a lens is defined as:

p  tan  ----------------(1)

From the figure:

h
tan   ---------------(2)
f

For h=1, equation (1) becomes:

1
tan   ---------------(3)
f

From equations (1) and (3):

1
p ------------------(4)
f

Power of a lens is defined as reciprocal of its focal length.

Note :

1.If the focal length of a lens is one metre, then its power is said to be one dioptre (1D).
2.The power of a convex lens is positive and that of a concave lens is negative.

Linear magnification (m): The linear magnification produced by a lens is defined as the ratio of the
height of the image (h/) to the height of the object (h).

h
m=
h

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 23

Note:
1.If h/>h, then image is magnified(enlarged).
2.If h/<h, then image is diminished.
3.If h/=h, then image is neither magnified nor diminished.
4.A convex lens produces both diminished and magnified image.
5.A concave lens always produces diminished image.
Some important paths of light through lens:
1. A ray of light incident parallel to the principal axis of the lens passes through the
principal focus of a convex lens or appears to diverge from the principal focus of a concave
lens after refraction.

2. A ray of light passing through the principal focus of a convex lens or appears to meet at
the principal focus of a concave lens, emerges parallel to the principal axis after refraction.

3. A ray of light passing through the optical centre of the thin lens, proceeds without
deviation after refraction.

4. A ray of light passing along the principal axis of the lens, proceeds without deviation
after refraction.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 24

Image formation by a convex lens:

1.Object at infinity: Image is formed at F. It is real, inverted and highly diminished.

2.Object AB beyond 2F: Image A/B/is formed between F and 2F. It is real, inverted and
diminished.

3.Object AB at 2F: Image A/B/is formed at 2F. It is real, inverted and neither diminished
nor magnified.

4.Object AB between F and 2F: Image A/B/is formed beyond 2F. It is real, inverted and
magnified.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 25

5.Object AB at F:Rays render parallel after refraction (image A/B/is formed infinity).

6.Object between F and O: Image A/B/ is formed on same side of the object. It is virtual,
erect and highly magnified.

Image formation by a concave lens:

1.Object at infinity: Image is formed at F. It virtual, erect and highly diminished.

2.Object at F: Image is formed between F and O. It is virtual , erect and diminished.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 26

3.Object AB between infinity and F: Image A/B/is formed on same side of the object. It is
virtual, erect and diminished.

4.Object AB between F and O : Image A/B/is formed on same side of the object. It is
virtual, erect and least diminished.

New Cartesian sign conventions for refraction through lens :

1. All distances are measured from the optical centre and along the principal axis of the
lens.
2. The distances measured in the same direction of incident light are taken as positive and
that measured in the opposite direction of incident light are taken as negative.
3. The heights measured upwards and perpendicular to the principal axis of the lens are
taken as positive and the heights measured downwards and perpendicular to the principal
axis of the lens are taken as negative.

Lens maker’s formula: The formula which relates the focal length of a lens to the radii of
curvatures of its surfaces and the refractive index of the material of the lens is called lens
maker’s formula. This formula is so called because it is used to design the lenses of
required focal length from a glass of given refractive index.

Assumptions made to derive lens maker’s formula :

1.The lens must be thin.
2.A point object is placed on the principal axis of the lens.
3.The rays of light must be paraxial.

Derivation of lens maker’s formula:

Consider a thin convex lens of focal
length f made of material of RI n2
surrounded by a medium of RI n1 (n2 >
n1). The two rays of light from the
object O after refraction through the
lens meet at a point I on the principal
axis. Therefore, the lens forms the real
image I of the object O.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 27

The refraction phenomenon through the lens is cut into two parts :
Refraction at ABC : In the absence of the second surface ADC, the refracted rays meet
at I1. Therefore, I1 is the real (intermediate) image of the object O. A normal N1 to ABC
through P meets the principal axis at the centre of curvature C1 of the surface.

The equation for refraction at ABC is:

n2 n1 n2  n1
  ------------------------------(1)
v1 u R1
Where:
OB=u = Object distance.
OI1=v1 = Image distance.
BC1 =R1 = Radius of curvature of the spherical surface ABC.

Refraction at ADC : For refraction at ADC in the absence of ABC, I1 acts as a virtual
object. Its real image is formed at I. A normal N2 to ADC through Q meets the principal axis
at the centre of curvature C2 of the surface.

The equation for refraction at ADC is:

n1 n2 n1  n2
  ---------------------------(2)
v v1 R2
Where:
DI1 = v1 = Object distance.
DI = v = Image distance.
DC2 = R2 = Radius of curvature of the spherical surface ADC.

Adding equations (1) and (2):

n1 n1 n2  n1 n1  n2
  
v u R1 R2
 1 1  n  n1 n2  n1
n1     2 
v u R1 R2
1 1  1 1 
n1     n2  n1   
v u  R1 R2 
1 1  n2  n1  1 1 
      -------------------------(3)
v u  n1  R1 R2 
If the object O is placed at infinity, then the image I is formed at the principal focus of the
lens.u    v  f .
Substituting these in equation (3):

1 1  n2  n1  1 1 
     
f   n1  R1 R2 

1  n2  n1  1 1 
     -------------------------(4)
f  n1  R1 R2 

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 28

Comparing equations (3) and (4):
1 1 1
  ------------------------------------------(5)
v u f

This is the lens formula.

For n1 = 1 (air) and n2 = n, the lens maker’s formula leads to the form:
1  1 1 
 n  1   -----------------------------(6)
f  R1 R2 

Factors affecting the focal length of a lens:

1.Refractive index of the material of the lens.
2.Refractive index of the surrounding medium of the lens.
3.Radii of curvature of surfaces of the lens.

Combination of thin lenses: Two or more lenses are used either in contact or with a gap
between them:
1.to increase the magnification of the image.
2.to increase the sharpness of the final image.
3.to increase the field of view.
4.to erect the final image.
5.to obtain diverging or converging lenses of desired magnification.

Total magnification: When a number of lenses are kept in contact with each other, each
lens magnifies the image produced by the previous lens. Hence, the net magnification m
produced by the combination of n lenses is equal to the product of the magnifications
m1, m2, m3…………mn produced by the individual lenses.
m = m1 x m2 x m3 x………x mn

Equivalent lens: A single lens which produces the same effect as that of the combination
of lenses is called equivalent lens.

Equivalent focal length of combination of two thin lenses in contact : Consider two
thin convex lenses L1 and L2 placed in contact with each other so as to have a common
principal axis. A point object O is placed on the common principal axis of the lens
combination. The two rays of light from the object O incident on the combination, after
refraction through the combination meet actually at a point I on the principal axis.
Therefore, I is the real image of the object O.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 29

The refraction phenomenon through the combination is cut into two parts:

Refraction through L1 : For refraction through L 1 in the absence of L2 , I1 is the real

image of the object O.

 Lens formula for L1is :

1 1 1
  …………………………..….(1)
v1 u f1
Where:
u= object distance.
v1= image distance.
f1= focal length of L1.

Refraction through L2: For refraction through L2, I1 acts as virtual object. Its real image is
formed at I.

Lens formula for L2 is :

1 1 1
  ………………………....….(2)
v v1 f 2
Where:
v1= object distance.
v = image distance.
f2= focal length of L2.

Adding equations (1) and (2):

1 1 1 1
   …………………..……..(3)
v u f1 f 2

Refraction through equivalent lens L: For refraction through L, I is the real image of the
object O.

Lens formula for the equivalent lens L is :

1 1 1
  ……………….……………(4)
v u f
Where:
u = object distance.
v= image distance.
f= focal length of L.

Comparing equations (3) and (4):

1 1 1
  …………………..…......(5)
f f1 f 2

The reciprocal of the focal length of the equivalent lens is equal to the sum of the
reciprocals of the focal lengths of the lenses in contact.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 30

Note :
1.For n lenses of focal lengths f1,f2,f3,………fn in contact, equation (5) becomes:
1 1 1 1 1
           -------------------------------(6)
f f1 f 2 f 3 fn

1 1 1
2.As power of a lens is equal to reciprocal of its focal length, P   P1  & P2 
f f1 f2
Equation (5) can be rewritten as :
P = P1 + P2 ………………………………………..……(7)

Power of an equivalent lens (P) is equal to the sum of the powers (P1 and P2) of the
individual lenses in contact.

3.For n lenses of powers P1,P2,P3,………Pn in contact, equation (7) becomes:

P = P1 + P2 +P3-+---------------------+Pn---------------------(8)

4.If the two lenses are separated by a distance d, then equation (5) becomes:
1 1 1 d
   -----------------------------------------------(9)
f f 1 f 2 f 1f 2

5.Equation (9) can be written as :

P = P1 + P2 – d P1 P2 -----------------------------------------(10)

6. Consider a convex lens of focal length f1 kept in contact with a concave lens of focal
length f2.

a).If f1> f2, then f is negative &the equivalent lens behaves like a diverging lens.
b).If f1< f2, then f is positive &the equivalent lens behaves like a converging lens.
c).If f1 = f2, then f= ∞ & P = 0 and the equivalent lens behaves like a glass plate (slab).

Prism : An optical medium bounded by three rectangular surfaces and two parallel
triangular surfaces is called prism.

Where :
ABQP and ACRP = Refracting faces.
BCRQ = Base of the prism.
AP = Refracting edge of the prism.
A = Refracting angle of prism = Angle of prism.
ABC = Principal section of the prism.
CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 31
Refracting surfaces : The plane surfaces through which light passes are called refracting
surfaces.

Refracting edge of the prism : The line of intersection of the two refracting surfaces is
called refracting edge of the prism.

Refracting angle or angle of prism (A) : The angle between the two refracting surfaces of
the prism is called angle of prism.

Thin prism : If the angle of the prism is very small (< 10 0 ), then the prism is said to be
thin.

Principal section of the prism : The section of the prism perpendicular to the refracting
edge is called principal section of the prism.

Refractive index in terms of the angle of prism & angle of minimum deviation(prism
formula): Consider a principal section ABC of the prism of angle A made of material of RI
n2 surrounded by a medium of RI n1 (n2 > n1). A ray of light PQ is incident on the face AB. It
gets refracted along QR and emerges out along RS from the face AC.

Let :

i1 = Angle of incidence at AB.

r1 = Angle of refraction at AB.
r2 = Angle of incidence at AC.
i2 = Angle emergence from AC.
d = Angle of deviation.
d1 = Angle of deviation produced at AB.
d2 = Angle of deviation produced at AC.

In the quadrilateral AQTR :

A + QTR = 1800 ………...………………...(1)

In  QTR :
r1 + r2 + QTR = 1800 …..……………….…(2)
From equations (1) and (2) :

A = r1 + r2 …………………………………...(3)

As the refraction through the prism takes place at two surfaces AB and AC, the ray of light
gets deviated at AB as well as at AC.

Deviation produced at AB is :

d1 = i1 – r1 ……………………………………..(4)

Deviation produced at AC is :
d2 = i2 – r2 ………………………..……………(5)

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 32

Total deviation = Deviation at AB + Deviation at AC

d = d 1 + d2

= i 1 – r1 + i 2 – r 2

= i1 + i2 – (r1 + r2)

d = i1 + i2 – A …………………………….…(6)

A graph between angle of incidence and angle of deviation is plotted.

As the angle of incidence is increased, the angle of deviation first decreases, reaches a
minimum value and then increases. From the graph, it is clear that, for any value of
deviation d, there are two values of angle of incidence i1 and i2.

Under minimum deviation :

d = D = angle of minimum deviation.

i1 = i 2 = i
r1 = r2 = r
From equation (3) :

A = r + r = 2r
A
r = ………………………………….…(7)
2

From equation (6) :

D=i+i–A

A + D = 2i
AD
i = …………………………….…(8)
2

Snell’s law is :

n 2 sin i

n1 sin r

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 33

Substituting i and r from equations (7) and (8):

A  D
sin  
n2  2 
 ……………………….….(9)
n1 A
sin  
2

For a prism of RI n surrounded by air (n2 = n and n1 = 1), equation (9) becomes:

A  D
sin  
 2 
n= ………………….….….(10)
A
sin  
2

This equation gives the refractive index of the material of the prism in terms of the angle of
the prism & the angle of minimum deviation.

Ray diagram showing the prism in minimum deviation position:

In the minimum deviation position, the incident and the emergent rays of light are
symmetrical with respect to their refracting faces. The refracted ray of light in the prism is
parallel to the base of the prism.

Deviation produced by thin prism: The RI n of the material of the prism in terms of angle
of prism A and angle of minimum deviation D is given by:

 A D
sin  
 2 
n …………...........................(1)
 A
sin  
2

For thin prism A and D are small. Therefore, equation (1) becomes:
 A D
 
2 
n
 A
 
2

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 34

 A D
n
A

nA  A  D

nA  A  D

D  n  1A ............................................(2)

This equation gives the deviation produced by a thin prism. It follows from this expression
that the deviation produced by a thin prism does not depend on the angle of incidence. It is
constant for a given prism.

Rainbow: A spectrum of sunlight in nature is called rainbow. A rainbow is the collective

effect of refraction, dispersion and internal reflection of sunlight by spherical water droplets
of rain. The shining sun should be in one part of the sky and the raining should be in the
opposite part of the sky for observing a rainbow. Therefore, an observer can see a rainbow
only when his back is towards the sun.

Formation of rainbow: When the sunlight falls on a rain drop, it undergoes refraction. Due
to this, different colours of white light get deviated through different angles. The red
coloured light is least deviated due to its larger wavelength and the violet coloured light is
most deviated due to its smaller wavelength. Now, the component coloured rays strike the
inner surface of the water drop. If these refracted coloured rays are incident on the water
drop at an angle greater than the critical angle of water wrt air, then they undergo internal
reflection. Finally, the reflected rays get refracted when they emerge from the drop. The
beam of sunlight getting dispersed at different angles produces a cone of coloured rays at
the observer’s eye. Thus, the rainbow is seen as a colourful arc.

Types of rainbow: Primary rainbow and Secondary rainbow.

Primary rainbow: The inner brighter rainbow which consists of violet colour on its inner edge and red
colour on its outer edge is called primary rainbow. The primary rainbow is formed as a result of three step
process because the rays undergo one internal reflection and two refractions before emerging from the water
drops. It is found that, in the primary rainbow, the red rays emerge from the water drops at an angle of 420
and the violet rays emerge at another angle of 400. The remaining colours of light are seen at the
intermediate angles.

Secondary rainbow: The outer fainter rainbow which consists of violet colour on its outer edge and red
colour on its inner outer edge is called secondary rainbow. The secondary rainbow is formed as a result of
four step process because the rays undergo two internal reflections and two refractions before emerging from
the water drops. It is found that, in the secondary rainbow ,the red rays emerge from the water drops at an
angle of 500 and the violet rays emerge at another angle of 530. The remaining colours of light are seen at
the intermediate angles in the reverse order.

Note:
1.In the secondary rainbow, the rays undergo two internal reflections before they emerge from the water
drops. As the intensity of light is decreased at the second internal reflection, the secondary rainbow is fainter
than the primary rainbow.
2.In the secondary rainbow, the rays undergo two internal reflections before they emerge from the water
drops. Due to two internal reflections , the order of colours in the secondary rainbow is opposite to that in the
primary rainbow.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 35

Differences between primary rainbow and secondary rainbow

Primary rainbow Secondary rainbow

1.The rainbow which consists of violet 1.The rainbow which consists of red colour
colour on its inner edge and red colour on its on its inner edge and violet colour on its
outer edge is called primary rainbow. outer edge is called secondary rainbow.
2.The red colour on the outer edge makes 2.The red colour on the inner edge makes
an angle of 42o and the violet colour on the an angle of 50o and the violet colour on the
inner edge makes an angle of 40o. The outer edge makes an angle of 53o . The
remaining colours of light are seen at the remaining colours of light are seen in the
intermediate angles. reverse order.
3.The primary rainbow makes an angle of 3.The secondary rainbow makes an angle of
41o at the observer’s eye. 51.5o at the observer’s eye
4.It is formed by the rays which undergo one 4.It is formed by the rays which undergo two
internal reflection and two refractions before internal reflections and two refractions
emerging finally from the water droplets. before emerging finally from the water
droplets.
5.It is more bright. 5.It is less bright.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 36

 OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS
Microscope: An optical instrument used to see magnified image of very small object is
called microscope.
There are two types of microscopes : simple microscope and compound microscope.

Simple microscope (magnifying glass): A simple microscope is an optical instrument used

to observe the magnified images of the minute objects placed close to the eye. It consists
of a convex lens of small focal length f. The tiny object AB whose minute details are to be
seen is brought within the principal focus F of the lens. The microscope forms an erect,
virtual and highly magnified image A1B1on the same side of the object. The eye is held
close to the lens. The distance of the lens from the object is adjusted till the image is
formed at a distance of 25cm from the eye. This is the minimum distance from the eye at
which the eye can see the object clearly and distinctly without any strain and is called least
distance of the distinct vision D.

Magnifying power (angular magnification): The magnifying power of a simple microscope is

defined as the ratio of angle subtended by the image to the angle subtended by the object
at the eye, when both the image and the object are at the least distance of distinct vision
from the eye.


m ……………………………………..…(1)


Where:
 = angle subtended by the object at the eye at the least distance of distinct vision D.
  angle subtended by the image at the eye at the least distance of distinct vision D.

As the angles  &  are small,   tan  &   tan  . Equation (1) can be written as:
tan 
m
tan 

AB
m OB
B1C
OB1

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 37

 AB OB1
m X  B1C  AB
B1C OB
OB1
m …………………………………….(2)
OB

According to new Cartesian sign conventions: OB1   D and OB  u .

Substituting these conventions in equation (2):

D
m
u

D
m ………………………………….....(3)
u

Lens formula is:

1 1 1
  ……………………………..….(4)
v u f

According to new Cartesian sign conventions: v =-D, u =-u and f = +f.

Substituting these conventions in equation (4):

1 1 1
 
 D u  f

1 1 1
  ………………………...…..(5)
D u f

Multiplying both sides of equation (5) by D:

D D D
 
D u f

D
1  m 
f

D
m 1 ………………………………..(6)
f

This gives the expression for magnifying power of simple microscope at the least
distance of distinct vision. It follows from this expression that smaller the focal length of
the convex lens, greater is the magnifying power.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 38

Note: 1) As the object is held close to the convex lens, the image is very bright and sharp.
2) When the object is at the focus of the lens, then the image is formed at infinity.

Magnifying power(angular magnification)when the image is formed at infinity: The

magnifying power of a simple microscope is defined as the ratio of angle subtended by the
image formed at infinity at the eye to the angle subtended by the object at the least
distance of distinct vision at the eye.

m ……………………………………………(1)


Where:
 = angle subtended by the object at the eye at the least distance of distinct vision D.
  angle subtended by the image formed at infinity at the eye.

As the angles  &  are small,   tan  &   tan  . Equation (1) can be written as:

tan 
m
tan 

AB
f
m
AB
D

D
m …………………………………………(2)
f

This is the expression for magnifying power of a simple microscope when the image
is formed at infinity. It follows from this expression that this magnifying power is one less
than its value, when the image is formed at the least distance of distinct vision.

Uses of simple microscope (magnifying glass):

1.To obtain magnified view of the tiny parts of the watch and fine jewellery work.
2.To magnify the vernier scale reading while performing the experiment.
3.To magnify the printed letters in a book and details of stamp.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 39

Compound microscope: A compound microscope is an optical instrument used to
observe magnified images of tiny objects. It consists of two convex lenses L o and Le . The
lens Lo which faces the object is called objective and the lens Le through which the final
image is observed by the eye is called eyepiece. The objective is of small focal length and
small aperture. Whereas an eyepiece is of slightly greater focal length and large aperture.
The objective and the eyepiece are fitted co-axially at the free ends of a long metallic tube.
The eyepiece can be made to slide in or out. The distance between the objective and the
eyepiece is called length of the microscope. The length of the microscope L can be
adjusted by rack and pinion arrangement.

Working: An object AB is placed slightly beyond the principal focus Fo of the objective Lo.
The two rays of light from the object AB, after refraction through L o meet at A1. A
perpendicular A1B1 to the principal axis gives the real, inverted and magnified image of the
object. The image A1B1 acts as an object for eyepiece Le . It is brought within the principal
focus Fe of the eyepiece. The eyepiece forms a virtual, erect and magnified image A 2B2.
The adjustments of objective and eyepiece are so made that the final image A 2B2 is formed
at the least distance of distinct vision D. The final image A2B2 is real, inverted and
magnified with respect to the object AB.

Magnifying power(angular magnification)(m): The magnifying power of a

compound microscope is defined as the ratio of the angle subtended by the
final image at the eye to the angle subtended by the object at the eye, when
both final image and object are at the least distance of distinct vision from the
eye.

m ……………………………………………….(1)

Where:
 = angle subtended by the object AB at the eye at the least distance of
distinct vision D.
  angle subtended by the final image A2B2 at the eye at the least distance of
distinct vision D.
As the angles  &  are small,   tan  &   tan  .

Equation (1) can be written as:

tan 
m
tan 

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 40

 A2 B2
Oe B2
m
CB2
Oe B2

A2 B2
m  B2 C  AB
AB

 A B  A B 
m   1 1  2 2 
 AB  A1 B1 

m  mO me ………………………………………..……(2)

A1 B1 AB
  mO  Magnification.of .objective & . 2 2  me  Magnification.of .eyepiece.
AB A1 B1

 The magnifying power of compound microscope is equal to product of

magnifications produced by objective and eyepiece.

vO v
But mO   and me  e
uO ue

 Equation (2) becomes:

v  ve 
m   O   ………………………………….……(3)
 uO  ue 

Lens formula for eyepiece is:

1 1 1
  ………………………………….………(4)
ve u e fe

According to new Cartesian sign conventions: ve= -D , ue=-ue and fe =+fe

Substituting these conventions in equation (4):

1 1 1
 
 D  ue  f e

1 1 1
  ………………………..………………(5)
 D ue fe

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 41

Multiplying both sides of equation (5) by D:

D D D
 
 D ue fe

D v D
 1  me   me  e 
fe ue ue

D
me  1  ………………………….…….…………(6)
fe

Substituting me from equation (6) in equation (3):

vO  D
m 1   ………………………….…...……(7)
uO  fe 

This gives the expression for magnifying power of compound

microscope.

Magnitude of magnifying power of compound microscope is:

vO  D
m 1   ……………….………………..……(8)
uO  fe 

As the object AB is placed close to the principal focus F O of the objective,

uo = fo

As the intermediate image A1B1 is formed close to the eyepiece whose focal
length is short,

vo = L

Substituting these in equation (8):

L  D
m 1   ……………………………………(9)
fO  fe 

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 42

Note:
1. When the final image is formed at the least distance of distinct vision, then
the length of the compound microscope becomes:

L = vo + ue

2. When the final image is formed at infinity, then equation (8) leads to the
form:

L D
m x
fO fe

3. When the final image is formed at infinity, then the length of the compound
microscope becomes:

L = vo + fe

Visual angle: When an object from a large distance is moved towards the eye
, it appears bigger and bigger. But the actual size of an object does not change.
The angle subtended by the apparent size of an object at the eye is
called visual angle.

Telescope: An optical instrument used to observe the distant objects clearly

and magnified is called telescope. There are two types of telescopes

1.Refracting telescope: A telescope in which lenses are used to observe the

distant objects is called refracting telescope. and

2.Reflecting telescope: The telescope in which the combination of a mirror

and a lens is used to observe the distant objects is called reflecting telescope.

Astronomical telescope: A telescope used to observe heavenly objects like moon, sun, stars,
planets etc. is called astronomical telescope. An astronomical telescope consists of two convex
lenses Lo and Le. The lens Lo faces the object, so it is called objective and the lens Le faces the
eye through which image of the distant object is observed, is called eyepiece. The objective is
of large aperture and large focal length. Whereas the eyepiece is of small aperture and small
focal length. The objective and the eyepiece are mounted co-axially at the free ends of two
sliding metallic tubes. The eyepiece can be made to slide in or out. The distance between the
objective and the eyepiece is called length of the telescope. The length of the telescope L can
be changed by rack and pinion arrangement.

Working:
1.Telescope at a near point adjustment ( the least distance of distinct vision): The
parallel beam of light from the distant object AB falls on the objective Lo. The objective forms a
real, inverted and diminished image A1B1 at its principal focus Fo. This image A1B1 acts as an
object for eyepiece Le . It is brought within the principal focus Fe of the eyepiece. The eyepiece
forms a virtual, erect and magnified image A2B2. The adjustments of objective and eyepiece are
so made that the final image A2B2 is formed at the least distance of distinct vision D. The final
image A2B2 is real, inverted and magnified with respect to the object AB

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 43

Magnifying power(angular magnification)(m): The magnifying power of an
astronomical telescope is defined as the ratio of the angle subtended by the
final image at the eye at the least distance of distinct vision to the angle
subtended by the object at the eye at infinity, when seen directly.


m ………………………………………..……(1)

Where:
 = angle subtended by the object AB at the eye at infinity.
  angle subtended by the final image A2B2 at the eye at the least distance of
distinct vision D.

As the angles  &  are small,   tan  &   tan  . Equation (1) can be written
as:
tan 
m
tan 

A1 B1
Oe B1
m
A1 B1
Oo B1

Oo B1
m …………………………………………(2)
Oe B1
According to new Cartesian sign conventions:

OoB1=+fo=focal length of the objective.

OeB1=-ue= distance of A1B1 from the eyepiece.

Substituting these conventions in equation (2):

fo
m ………………………………..……..……(3)
ue

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 44

Lens formula for eyepiece is:

1 1 1
  ………………………………..………(4)
ve u e fe

Where:
ue= object distance for eyepiece.
ve = image distance for eyepiece.
fe = focal length of the eyepiece.

According to new Cartesian sign conventions: v =-D, u =-u and f = +f.

Substituting these conventions in equation (4):

1 1 1
 
 D u  f

1 1 1
  ………………………...…..(5)
D u f

Multiplying both sides of equation (5) by D:

D D D
 
D u f

D
1  m 
f
D
m 1 ………………………………..(6)
f

Substituting this in equation (2):

fo  f 
m 1  e  ………………………(7)
fe  D

This gives the expression for the magnifying power of an astronomical telescope
at a near point adjustment. The negative sign indicates that the final
image formed is real and inverted.

Magnitude of magnifying power of telescope at a near point adjustment is:

fo  f 
m 1  e  ……………………….…(8)
fe  D

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 45

2.Telescope at a far point adjustment (in normal adjustment): In normal
adjustment, the image A1B1 by the objective is brought exactly at the principal
focus Fe of the eyepiece. The eyepiece forms the final image A2B2 at infinity.
The final image is virtual, erect and magnified wrt A 1B1 but it is real, inverted
and magnified wrt object AB. In this case, the telescope is said to be in normal
adjustment and the telescope is focused to infinity.

Magnifying power( angular magnification)(m): The magnifying power of an

astronomical telescope is defined as the ratio of the angle subtended by the
final image at the eye to the angle subtended by the object at the eye, when
both the final image and the object are at infinity.


m …………………………………………..(1)


Where:
 = angle subtended by the object AB at the eye at infinity.
  angle subtended by the final image A2B2 at the eye at infinity.

As the angles  &  are small,   tan  &   tan  . Equation (1) can be written
as:

tan 
m
tan 

A1 B1
Oe B1
m
A1 B1
Oo B1

Oo B1
m …………………………….…………(2)
Oe B1

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 46

According to new Cartesian sign conventions:
OoB1=+fo=focal length of the objective.
OeB1=-ue= distance of A1B1 from the eyepiece=-fe.
Substituting these conventions in equation (2):
f
m   o …………………………….……….. (3)
fe

This gives the expression for the magnifying power of an astronomical

telescope in normal adjustment. The negative sign indicates that the final
image is real and inverted.

Magnitude of magnifying power of astronomical telescope in normal adjustment

is:
f
m  o ………………………………………(4)
fe

Note:
Focal length of objective
1.Magnifyingpower of an astronomical telescope in normal adjustment  
Focal length of eyepiece
2.Length of the telescope in normal adjustment = Focal length of objective + Focal length of
eyepiece
L = fo + fe

3.It follows from the above expression that , to increase the magnifying power
of an astronomical telescope, the objective should be of large focal length and
the eyepiece should be of small focal length.

4.The magnifying power of an astronomical telescope at a near point

adjustment is more than that when it is in normal adjustment.

Cassegrain telescope: The Cassegrain telescope consists of a concave parabolic mirror

(primary) of large aperture with a hole at its centre. This primary mirror is used as an
objective of large light gathering power and high resolving power. There is a small convex
hyperbolic mirror (secondary) near the principal focus of the primary mirror. A convex lens
acts as an eyepiece . The eyepiece is placed on the principal axis of the telescope near the
hole of the primary mirror. The parallel rays of light from the distant object are made to
incident on the objective. The objective reflects the rays towards its principal focus F o .
Before these rays come to focus Fo, they are reflected by the secondary mirror. The
secondary mirror forms an inverted image at I just outside the hole. This image I at the
back of the objective is seen through the eyepiece.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 47

Expression for magnifying power of Cassegrain telescope:

1.When the final image is formed at the least distance of distinct vision:

fo  f 
m 1  e 
fe  D 

2.When the final image is formed at infinity (normal adjustment):

R
fo
m  2
fe fe

Where:
fo= focal length of the objective.
fe = focal length of the eyepiece.
R = radius of curvature of the objective.
D = least distance of distinct vision.

Advantages of reflecting telescope over refracting telescope:

1.As the objective in the reflecting telescope is a mirror, the image produced is free from
the chromatic aberration.
2.The spherical aberration can be reduced by using a parabolic mirror.
3.The reflecting telescope has a high resolving power due to large aperture of its objective.
4.As there is no loss of light, the image produced by reflecting telescope is more bright and
sharp.
5. A concave mirror of large aperture can be designed easily.

Differences between refracting telescope and reflecting telescope

Refracting telescope Reflecting telescope

1.The objective is a convex lens. 1.The objective is a concave mirror.
2.It suffers from spherical and chromatic 2.It is free from spherical & chromatic
aberrations. aberrations.
3.The image formed is coloured and 3.The image formed is sharp and bright.
blurred.
4.The light gathering power and 4.The light gathering power and
resolving power are small. resolving power are large.
5.The lenses of large aperture are 5.The mirrors of large aperture are easy
difficult to construct. to construct.
6.It is handy and used for general 6.It is not handy and used for
purposes . astronomical purposes.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 48

QUESTIONS FROM MODEL PAPERS & BOARD EXAMINATIONS
1.Write the expression for magnifying power of a telescope in terms of focal lengths. (1M )
2.Draw the ray diagram to construct a real inverted image by a concave mirror (2M)
3.Derive the expression for the refractive index of the material of a prism in terms of the
angle of the prism and angle of minimum deviation. (5M)
4.Give the reason for red colour of the sun during sunset. (1M)
5.A small bulb is placed at the bottom of a tank containing water to a depth of 1m.
Find the critical angle for water air interface and also calculate the diameter of the
circular bright patch of light formed on the surface of water of RI of 4/3. (5M)
6. Write the two conditions for total internal reflection. (2M)
8. A convex lens of focal length 0.24m and refractive index 1.5 is completely
immersed in water of refractive index 1.33. Find the change in the focal length of
the lens. (5M)
9. Draw the ray diagram for the formation of image in case of a concave mirror
when the object is placed at the centre of curvature of a mirror. (1M)
11.What is a thin prism? Write its deviation expression. (1M)
12.How does the power of a lens vary with its focal length? (1M)
13.Derive the expression for the refractive index of the material of the prism in
terms of angle of prism A and angle of minimum deviation D. (5M)
14.An object of size 3cm is placed 14cm in front of a concave lens of focal length
21cm. Calculate position and size of the image. (5M)
15.Mention three applications of total internal reflection of light. (3M)
16.Name the lens used to correct myopia. (1M)
17. Write the Cartesian sign convention used in spherical mirrors. (3M)
18. A convex lens of focal length 0.24m and refractive index of 1.5 is completely
immersed in water of refractive index 1.33. Find the change in focal length of
the lens. (5M)

March-2014
19.Two lenses of focal lengths 0.20m and 0.30m are kept in contact. Find the focal
length of the combination. Calculate powers of two lenses and combination. (5M)
20. What type of lens is used to correct myopia (short sightedness)? (1M)
21.State laws of refraction. (2M)

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 49

July-2014
22.A prism of angle 600 produces angle of minimum deviation of 400. What is its
refractive index? Calculate the angle of incidence. (5M)
23.How does the power of a lens vary with its focal length? (1M)

March-2015
24.Draw the ray diagram of image formation in case of compound microscope. (2M)
25. Derive the expression for the refractive index of the material of the prism in
terms of the angle of the prism and angle of minimum deviation. (5M)

July – 2015 (Supplementary)

26. What is the nature of the lens used to rectify Myopia ? (1M)
27. Write the two conditions for total internal reflection. (2M)
28. Derive Lens maker’s formula. (5M)

March – 2016
29. How does the power of a lens vary with its focal length ? (1M)
30. What is myopia ? How to correct it ? (2M)
31. Derive an expression for equivalent focal length of two thin lenses kept in contact.
(5M)
July – 2016 (Supplementary)
32. What is total internal reflection? Mention two applications of optical fibres. (3M)
33. Derive Lens Maker's formula for a convex lens. (5M)

March – 2017
34. How does the power of a lens vary with its focal length ? (1M)
35. Name the type of lens which is used to correct (2M)
i). Myopia ii) Hypermetropia.
36. Derive Lens Maker's formula for a convex lens. (5M)

March – 2018
37. Two lenses of power +1.5D and -0.5D are kept in contact on their principal axis. What
is the effective power of the combination ? (1M)
38. What is ‘myopia’ ? How to rectify it ? (2M)
39. Deduce the relation between n, u, v, and R for refraction at a spherical surface, where
the symbol have their usual meaning. (5M)

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 50

March – 2019
40. For which position of the object magnification of convex lens is -1. (minus one) ?
(1M)
41. Write the ray diagram for formation of image in the simple microscope. (2M)
42. Derive “Lensmaker’s” formula. (5M)

June – 2019
43. Derive the relation between focal length and radius of curvature of a concave mirror.
(3M)
44. An object of 3 cm is placed 14 cm in front of a concave lens of focal length 21 cm.
find the position, nature and size of the image formed. (5M)

March – 2020
45. Why does sky appear blue ? (1M)
46. Arrive at the relation between focal length and radius of curvature of spherical
concave mirror. (5M)
47. At what angle should a ray of light be incident on the face of an equilateral prism, so
that it just suffers total internal reflection at the other face ? The refractive index of
the material of the prism is 1.5. (5M)

July – 2020
48. How does the power of a lens related to its focal length ? (1M)
49. What is total internal reflection ? Mention the conditions for total internal reflection.
(3M)
50. The refractive index of an equilateral prism is 1.532. Calculate the angle of minimum
deviation when it is immersed in water of refractive index 1.33. (5M)

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 51

 ONE MARK QUESTIONS WITH ANSWERS

Q. What is reflection of light?

Answer: The bouncing back of light into the same medium on striking a surface is called
reflection of light of light.

Q. Out of speed, wavelength and frequency of light, which quantities of light remain the
same after reflection of light?
Answer: All remain the same.

Q. What is a curved(spherical) mirror?

Answer: A mirror whose reflecting surface forms a part of the hollow sphere is called spherical
mirror. Or A part of the hollow sphere whose one side is reflecting and the other side is silvered
(non- reflecting surface) is called spherical mirror.

Q. What is a concave mirror?

Answer: A spherical mirror whose reflecting surface is towards the centre of the sphere of which
the mirror forms a part is called concave mirror.

Q. What is a convex mirror?

Answer: A spherical mirror whose reflecting surface is away from the centre of the sphere of
which the mirror forms a part is called convex mirror.

Q. What is pole of a spherical mirror?

Answer: The midpoint of the spherical mirror is called pole.

Q. What is an aperture of a spherical mirror?

Answer: A portion of the spherical mirror exposed to the incident light is called aperture.

Q. What is centre of curvature of a spherical mirror?

Answer: The centre of the hollow sphere of which the given spherical mirror forms a part is
called centre of curvature.

Q. What is radius of curvature of a spherical mirror?

Answer: The radius of the hollow sphere of which the given spherical mirror forms a part is
called radius of curvature.

Q. What is principal focus of a spherical mirror?

Answer: When a narrow parallel beam of light close to the principal axis is incident on a
spherical mirror, it converges to a fixed point (in concave mirror) and appears to diverge from a
fixed point (in convex mirror) on the principal axis after reflection from the mirror. This fixed point
F on the principal axis of the spherical mirror is called principal focus.

Q. Name the spherical mirror which has real principal focus.

Answer: Concave mirror.

Q. Name the spherical mirror which has virtual principal focus.

Answer: Convex mirror.

Q. What is focal length of a spherical mirror?

Answer: The distance of principal focus of the spherical mirror from its pole is called focal length.

Q. What is an image?
Answer: A point at which the rays of light after reflection from the spherical mirror actually meet
or appear to meet is called image.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 52

Q. What is real image?
Answer: A point at which the rays of light after reflection from the spherical mirror actually meet
is called real image.

Q. What is virtual image?

Answer: A point at which the rays of light after reflection from the spherical mirror appear to
meet is called virtual image.

Q. What is linear magnification produced by a spherical mirror?

Answer: The ratio of the height of the image (h/) to the height of the object (h) is called linear
h
magnification. m=
h
Q. What is mirror equation(formula)?
Answer: A relation between object distance , image distance and focal length of the spherical
mirror is called mirror formula.

Q. Write the mirror equation.

1 1 1
Answer:  
u v f
Where: u = object distance, v= image distance and f= focal length of the mirror.

Q. Write the relation between focal length and radius of curvature of a spherical mirror?

R
Answer: f 
2
f= focal length of the mirror and R=radius of curvature of the mirror.

Q. Write the relation between object distance(u) , image distance(v) and radius of
curvature(R) of a spherical mirror?
1 1 2
Answer:  
u v R
Q. Express linear magnification(m) produced by a spherical mirror in terms of image
distance (v) and object distance(u).

v
Answer: m
u

Q. Express linear magnification(m) produced by a spherical mirror in terms of image

distance (v) and focal length(f).
f v
Answer: m
f

Q. Express linear magnification(m) produced by a spherical mirror in terms of object

distance (u) and focal length(f).
f
Answer: m
f u

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 53

Q. An object is kept in front of a concave mirror at a distance equal to its radius of
curvature. What is the linear magnification produced by the mirror.
Answer: one(1)

Q. Show the variation of object distance(u) &image distance(v) in case of a convex mirror.
Answer:

Q. Will the reflected rays converge at a point when a parallel beam of light is incident on a
concave mirror of large aperture?
Answer :No.

Q. What type of mirror is used for shaving or make up?

Answer: Concave mirror.

Q. If you are driving a car, what type of mirror would you prefer to use for observing
traffic at your back?
Answer: Convex mirror.

Q. Can a convex mirror form a magnified image?

Answer: No.

Q. Name the spherical mirror which can form virtual image only.
Answer: Convex mirror.

Q. Name the spherical mirror which can form real as well as virtual image.
Answer: Concave mirror.

Q. Can a virtual image be obtained on the screen?

Answer: No.

Q. Can a virtual image be photographed?

Answer: Yes.
Q. Can we obtain the image of an object formed by a convex mirror on the screen?
Answer: No, as the convex mirror always forms virtual image.

Q. What is the focal length( radius of curvature) of a plane mirror?

Answer: Infinity.

Q. Why is convex mirror used as driving mirror(rear view)?

Answer: A small convex mirror can give a wider field of view.

Q. How does the focal length of a spherical mirror change, when it is placed inside water?
Answer: As the focal length of a spherical mirror does not depend on the medium in which the
mirror is placed, the focal length remains the same.

Q. What is spherical aberration?

Answer: The inability of a spherical mirror to focus the paraxial and marginal rays of light to a
single point on the principal axis after reflection from it, is called spherical aberration.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 54

Q. Why does a concave mirror of small aperture form a sharp image?
Answer: A concave mirror of small aperture is free from spherical aberration.

Q. What type of spherical mirror is used to see an enlarged ( magnified) of an object?

Answer: Concave mirror.

Q. What is refraction of light?

Answer: The phenomenon of bending of a ray of light when it passes from one medium
into another is called refraction of light.

Q. State Snell's law of refraction of light?

Answer: The ratio of the sine of angle of incidence (i) to the sine of angle of refraction( r) is
constant for a given pair of media. This constant is called RI of the second medium with
respect to the first medium (1n2).

n 2 sin i
1n 2  
n1 sin r
This law is known as Snell’s law.
Where: n1 = RI of the first medium and n2 = RI of the second medium .

Q. When is Snell’s law not valid?

Answer: For normal incidence.

Q. For what angle of incidence Snell’s is not valid?

Answer: When the angle of incidence is 00.

Q. Is speed of light same for all colours in air or vacuum?

Answer: Yes.

Q. Is speed of light same in all media?

Answer: No.

Q. Which colour of white light travels with the least speed in a medium?
Answer: Violet.

Q. Which colour of white light travels with the maximum speed in a medium?
Answer: Red.

Q. What happens to the speed of light, when light travels from denser to rarer
medium?
Answer: Increases.

Q. What happens to the speed of light, when light travels from rarer to denser
medium?
Answer: Decreases.

Q. Light passes through a tube filled with a liquid at a certain speed. What happens to
the speed of light when the tube is emptied?
Answer: Speed of light increases.

Q. How does frequency of light change, when light passes from one medium to
another ? or which physical quantity remains constant, when light travels from one
medium to another?
Answer: The frequency of light remains constant.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 55

Q. What happens to the wavelength of light, when it travels from glass to air?
Answer: Wavelength of light increases.

Q. What is the cause of refraction of light?

Answer: Change in speed of light.

Q. What is relative refractive index?

Answer : Refractive index of a medium with respect to any other medium other than air or
vacuum is called relative refractive index .

Q. Can relative refractive index be less than one or greater than one?
Answer: Relative RI can be greater than 1 or less than 1.

Q. What is absolute refractive index of a medium.

Answer: Refractive index of a medium with respect to air or vacuum is called absolute
refractive index.

Q. Define absolute refractive index of a medium.

Answer: Absolute refractive index of a medium is defined as the ratio of speed of light in air
to that in a medium.

c
n
v

Where: c = speed of light in air or vacuum and v= speed of light in a medium.

Q. The speed of light in air is 3x108ms-1. What is its speed in glass of RI 1.5?
c c 3 x10 8
Answer: n   v    2 x10 8 ms 1
v n 1 .5

Q. If the refractive indices of glass and water are 3/2 and 4/3 respectively, then what is
the refractive index of water glass interface?
ng 3
9
Answer: ng   2   1.125
w
nw 4 8
3

Q. Can absolute refractive index of a medium be less than one ?

Answer: No, absolute RI of a medium is always greater than 1.

Q. For the same angle of incidence, the angles of refraction in three different media A,
B and C are 150, 250 and 350 respectively. In which medium will the velocity of light be
minimum?
Answer: In medium A.

Q. Monochromatic light is refracted from air into glass of RI n. Find the ratio of
wavelengths of incident and refracted light.
n2 1 g
Answer:  n
n1 2 a

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 56

Q. How does the refractive index of an optical medium depend on the colour of light?
Answer: RI of a medium is different for different colours in a medium.

Q. How does the refractive index of an optical medium vary with the temperature of
medium?
Answer: RI of the medium decreases, if the temperature of the medium increases.

Q. How is thickness of an optical medium related to wavelength of light?

Answer: Thickness of the optical medium = Number of waves x Wavelength → t = N.λ

Q. What is an optical path?

Answer: The optical path is the distance that the light travels in vacuum in the same time as
it travels the distance in a medium is called optical path or The product of refractive index of
the medium and the distance travelled by light in a medium is called optical path.

Q. What is an optical density?

Answer: The ability of an optical medium to refract light is expressed in terms of its optical
density. Optical density is the ratio of speeds of light in the two media.

Q. Does an optical density depend on the RI of the medium?

Answer: Yes, for a medium having higher refractive index, the optical density is more and
for a medium having lower refractive index, the optical density is less.

Q. Are the mass density and an optical density one and the same?
Answer: No, Optical density is the ratio of speeds of light in the two media. Whereas mass
density is mass per unit volume.

Q. What is lateral shift ?

Answer: The perpendicular distance between the emergent ray and the direction of the
incident ray, when a ray of light passes through a parallel sided glass slab is called lateral
shift.

Q: Write an expression lateral shift produced when a ray of light passes through a
parallel sided glass slab.
Answer:
t sin(i  r )
LS 
cos r
Where:
Ls = lateral shift , t= thickness of the glass slab, i =angle of incidence and r=angle of
refraction.

Q. For what angle of incidence is the lateral shift produced by a parallel sided glass
slab maximum?
Answer: Maximum for grazing incidence(i = 900).
Q. For what angle of incidence is the lateral shift produced by a parallel sided glass
slab minimum?
Answer:. Minimum for normal incidence (i=00).

Q. What is normal shift?

Answer: The distance by which an object in one medium appears to be shifted along the
normal due to normal refraction when observed from another medium is called normal shift.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 57

Q:Write an expression for the normal shift when an object in a denser medium is
viewed from a rarer medium.
Answer: The normal shift is given by:
 1
Ns = u – v = u 1  
 n
Where:
u=real depth , v = apparent depth & n = refractive index of the medium in which object is
kept

Q. Why does a bird appear farther for a fish in water?

Answer: Due to normal shift (normal refraction).

Q. Why does a coin in a beaker containing water appear to be raised?

Answer: Due to normal shift (normal refraction).

Q. What is total internal reflection?

Answer: The bouncing back of light into the denser medium, when a ray of light travelling
from denser to rarer medium incident on the interface of the media at an angle greater than
the critical angle, is called total internal reflection.

Q. Define critical angle for a pair of media.

Answer: The angle of incidence in the denser medium at which the angle of refraction
becomes 90 o in the rarer medium is called critical angle for a pair of media.

Q. Can total internal reflection take place when light travels from rarer to denser
medium?
Answer: No.

Q. Write the relation between refractive index and critical angle.

Answer: The RI(n) and critical angle (C) are related by:

1
n=
sin C

Q. How does RI of a medium vary with critical angle?

Answer: Refractive index of a medium is equal to reciprocal of sine of the critical angle.

Q. For which coloured light, the critical angle is maximum, when light passes from
glass to air?
Answer: Red

Q. For which coloured light, the critical angle is minimum, when light passes from
glass to air?
Answer: Violet.

Q What is critical angle for a material of RI 2 ?

1 1 1 1
Answer: n   sin C    C  sin 1  45 0
sin C n 2 2

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 58

Q.A substance has a critical angle of 300 for a certain coloured light. What is its
refractive index?
1 1 1
Answer: n    2
sin C sin 30 0
1
2

Q. Calculate the speed of light in a medium whose critical angle is 300.

1 1 1 c c 3 x108
Answer: n     2   2  v    1.5 x108 ms 1
sin C sin 30 0
1 v 2 2
2

Q. For glass-air interface the critical angle is C. Then, the critical angle for glass-water
interface be greater or lesser than C?
Answer: Greater than C.

Q. What is an optical fibre?

Answer: A device based on the principle of total internal reflection used to conduct light
along any desired path is called an optical fibre.

Q. What is the principle of an optical fibre?

Answer: Total internal reflection.

Q. Which of the two main parts of an optical fibre has higher value of refractive index?
Answer: Core.

Q. Which of the two main parts of an optical fibre has lower value of refractive index?
Answer: Cladding.

Q. What is light pipe?

Answer: The sleeve containing a bundle of optical fibres is called light pipe.

Q. Why does a diamond sparkle ? or Why does an air bubble shine in water?
Answer: Due to total internal reflection.

Q. What is mirage?
Answer: An optical illusion caused by atmospheric refraction seen in desert and on a tar
road on a hot sunny day is called mirage.

Q. Why is mirage seen in hot desert called mirage of inferior type?

Answer: As it appears below the source of light (tree).

Q. What is looming?
Answer: An optical illusion caused by atmospheric refraction seen in polar region or over a
body of cold water (sea or lake) is called looming.

Q. Why is mirage seen in polar region called mirage of superior type?

Answer: As it appears above the source of light (boat).

Q. What is the cause for mirage? or What is the cause for looming?
Answer: Atmospheric refraction and total internal reflection.

Q. What is total reflecting prism?

Answer: A prism having an angle of 900 between its two refracting surfaces and the other
two angles each equal to 450 , is called a total reflecting prism.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 59

Q. Mention one use of total reflecting prism.
Answer: A total reflecting prism is used to deviate a ray of light through an angle of 90 o in
periscope.

Q. Write the equation for refraction at a spherical surface.

Answer:
n2 n1 n2  n1
 
v u R
Where:n1= RI of object space, n2= RI of image space, u=object distance ,v=image distance
and R=radius of curvature.

Q. Write the equation for power of a spherical refracting surface.

Answer:
n2  n1
P
R
Where: P= power of a spherical refracting surface, n1= RI of object space, n2= RI of image
space and R=radius of curvature.

Q. What does the power of a spherical surface indicate?

Answer: The power of a spherical refracting surface indicates the measure of degree of
deviation of deviation of light passing through it.

Q. What is the power of a plane refracting surface?

Answer: Zero.

Q. What is lens?
Answer: An optical medium bounded by two surfaces of which at least one is spherical is
called a lens.

Q. What is thin lens?

Answer: A lens whose aperture is very small is called a thin lens.

Q. What is an optical centre of a thin lens?

Answer: An optical centre of a thin lens is a point on the principal axis of the lens through
which a ray of light proceeds without deviation.

Q. What should be the position of an object relative to biconvex lens so that it

behaves like a magnifying glass?
Answer: An object should be placed between the principal focus and optical centre of the
lens.

Q. An object is placed at the focus of a concave lens. Where will be its image formed?
Answer: Between focus and optical centre (on the same side of the object).

Q. What is power of a lens?

Answer: The ability to converge or diverge a beam of light incident on a lens is called power
of a lens.

Q. Define power of a lens.

Answer: The power of a lens is defined as the tangent of the angle by which it converges or
diverges a beam of light incident on it at a unit distance from its optical centre.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 60

Q. Define power of a lens.
1
Answer: Power of a lens(P) is defined as reciprocal of its focal length(f). p
f
Q. Why is the power measured by the reciprocal of its focal length?
Answer: As power of a lens is its ability to converge or diverge a beam of incident, power is
measured by the reciprocal of focal length.

Q. Mention the SI unit of power of a lens.

Answer: dioptre(D).

Q. Define SI unit of power of a lens.

Answer: If the focal length of a lens is one metre, then its power is said to be one dioptre
(1D).

Q. If the power of a lens +5D, what is its focal length?

1 1 1
Answer: p  f    0.2m
f p 5

Q. How does the power of a convex lens vary, if the incident red light is replaced by
violet light?
Answer: Power of lens increases.

Q. How does the power of a concave lens vary, if the incident violet light is replaced
by red light?
Answer: Power of lens decreases.

Q. What is the power of a lens surrounded by an optical medium of RI equal to that of

the lens?
Answer: Zero.

Q. A glass lens of RI 1.45 disappears when immersed in a liquid. What must be the RI
of the liquid to make the lens disappear?
Answer:1.45

Q. Draw a plot showing the variation of power of a

lens with the wavelength of the incident light.
Answer:

Q. How does the focal length of a convex lens change, if monochromatic red light is
used instead of monochromatic blue light?
Answer: Focal length increases.

Q. How does the focal length of a convex lens change on immersing it in water?
Answer: Focal length increases.

Q. A glass lens is immersed in water. What will be its effect on the power of the lens?
Answer: Power of the lens decreases.

Q.A converging lens of RI 1.5 is kept in a liquid medium having the same RI. What
would be the focal length of the lens in this medium?
Answer: Infinite.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 61

Q. What is lens maker's formula?
Answer: A relation connecting the focal length, RI of the lens material and radii of
curvatures of its curved surfaces is called lens maker's formula.

Q. Why is lens maker's formula so called?

Answer: The formula is so called because the formula is used to design the lens of required
focal length by the lens manufacturer(maker).

Q. Write down the lens maker's formula of lens of focal length f, RI n and radii of
curvatures R1 & R2 in air.
1 1 1
Answer:  ( n  1)   
f  R1 R2 

Q. The radius of curvature of a plano-convex of RI 1.5 is 10cm. Find its focal length.
1 (n  1) 1.5  1 0.5 1
Answer:     0.05  f   20cm  0.2m
f R 10 10 0.05

Q. How can a convex lens behaves like diverging lens?

Answer: If the convex lens is placed in a medium of RI greater than the RI of the lens
material.

Q. How can a concave lens behaves like converging lens?

Answer: If the concave lens is placed in a medium of RI less than the RI of the lens
material.

Q. Why do the sun glasses have curved surfaces(goggles) of no power?

Answer: The outer surfaces of the sun glasses are convex and the inner ones are concave.
The surfaces are equally curved. Therefore, the sunglasses behave like thin glass sheet of
zero power instead of lenses though they are curved.

Q. What is lens equation(formula)?

Answer: A relation between object distance , image distance and focal length of the
spherical mirror is called lens formula.

Q. Give the lens formula.

1 1 1
Answer:  
v u f
Where: u = object distance, v= image distance and f= focal length of the lens.

Q. What is linear magnification produced by a lens?

Answer: The ratio of the height of the image (h/) to the height of the object (h) is called
h
linear magnification. m=
h

Q. Express linear magnification(m) produced by a lens in terms of image distance (v)

and object distance(u).
v
Answer: m
u

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 62

Q. Express linear magnification(m) produced by a lens in terms of image distance (v)
and focal length(f).
f v
Answer: m
f
Q. Express linear magnification(m) produced by a lens in terms of object distance (u)
and focal length(f).
f
Answer: m
f u

Q. An object is placed in front of a convex lens at twice its focal length. What is the
linear magnification produced by the lens?
Answer: One(1)

Q. What is an equivalent lens?

Answer: A single lens which produces the same effect as that of the combination of lenses
is called an equivalent lens.

Q. Write an expression for equivalent focal length of combination(f) of two thin lenses
of focal lengths f1 and f2 coaxially kept in contact with each other.
1 1 1
Answer:  
f f1 f 2

Q. An equiconvex lens of focal length 15cm is cut into two equal halves as shown.
What is the focal length of each half?
Answer: Each part behaves like a plano-convex lens of focal length f/. The
equivalent focal length f of two identical plano-convex lenses kept in contact with
each other is given by:

1 1 1 2
 /  /  /  f /  2 f  2 x15cm  30cm
f f f f

Q.A diverging lens of focal length F is cut into two identical parts each forming a
plano-concave lens. What is the focal length of each part?
Answer: The focal length of each part becomes 2F.

Q. What is the nature of an equivalent lens, when a convex lens of greater focal length
is kept in coaxial contact with a concave lens of lesser focal length ?
Answer: The equivalent lens behaves like a diverging lens.

Q. What is the nature of an equivalent lens, when a convex lens of lesser focal length
is kept in coaxial contact with a concave lens of greater focal length ?
Answer: The equivalent lens behaves like a converging lens.

Q. What is the nature of an equivalent lens, when a convex and a concave lens of
equal focal length are kept in coaxial contact with each other?
Answer: The equivalent lens behaves like a glass plate(slab) of infinite focal length and zero
power.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 63

Q. In the figure given below, path of a parallel beam of light
passing through a convex lens of RI  g kept in medium of RI m is
shown. Is  g  m or  g  m or  g  m ?

Answer:  g  m
Q. In the figure given below, path of a parallel beam of light passing through a convex
lens of RI  g is shown. Is  g  m or  g  m or  g  m ?

Answer:  g  m

Q. In the figure given below, path of a parallel beam of light passing through a
concave lens of RI  g is shown. Is  g   m or  g   m or  g   m ?

Answer:  g  m

Q. In the figure given below, path of a parallel beam of light passing through a
concave lens of RI g kept in medium of RI m is shown. Is  g  m or  g  m or
 g  m ?

Answer:  g  m

Q. In the figure given below, path of a parallel beam of light passing through a
concave lens of RI  g is shown. Is  g  m or  g  m or  g  m ?

Answer:  g  m

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 64

Q. What is the minimum distance between the real object and the real image formed
by a convex lens?
Answer: Four times the focal length of the lens.

Q. What is chromatic aberration?

Answer: The inability of a lens to focus the different colours of white light at a single point on
the principal axis after refraction through it is called chromatic aberration.

Q. What is spherical aberration in a lens?

Answer: The inability of a lens to focus the paraxial and marginal rays of light to a single
point on the principal axis after refraction through it, is called spherical aberration.

Q. What is prism?
Answer: An optical medium bounded by three rectangular surfaces and two parallel triangular
surfaces is called prism.

Q. What is angle of prism?

Answer: The angle between the two refracting surfaces of the prism is called angle of prism.

Q. What is thin prism?

Answer: If the angle of the prism is very small (< 10 0 ), then the prism is said to be thin.

Q. Write an equation for deviation produced by a prism.

Answer: d= i1 + i2- A
Where: i1=angle of incidence, i2=angle of emergence and A=angle of prism.

Q. A glass prism of refracting angle 300 produces a deviation of 300 for a ray of light striking
its first surface at an angle of incidence of 300. Find the angle of emergence.
Answer: d  i1  i2  A  i2  d  A  i1  300  300  300  300

Q. Give an expression for refractive index of a prism in terms of the angle of the prism &
angle of minimum deviation.
Answer:

 A D
sin 
 2 
n
 A
sin 
2
Where: n = RI of the material of the prism, A = angle of prism & D= angle of minimum deviation.

Q. Give an equation for angle of incidence(angle of emergence) in terms of the angle of the
prism & angle of minimum deviation.
A D
Answer: i 
2
Where: i =angle of incidence=angle of emergence, A=angle of prism and D=angle of minimum
deviation.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 65

Q. Give an equation for angle of refraction in terms of the angle of the prism when the prism
is in the minimum deviation position.
A
Answer: r 
2
Where: r =angle of refraction and A=angle of prism.

Q. Draw a neat diagram to show refraction of a ray of monochromatic light passing through a
prism in the minimum deviation position.
Answer:

Q. Show graphically the variation of angle of deviation produced by a prism with angle of
incidence taking deviation along y-axis and angle of incidence along x-axis.
Answer:

Where:
i1= angle of incidence, i2= angle of emergence, d=angle of deviation and D= angle of minimum
deviation (at i1=i2=i).

Q. Write the expression for deviation produced by a thin prism.

Answer: The expression for deviation d produced by thin prism of angle A made of material
of RI n is : d = A ( n – 1)

Q. An equilateral prism gives minimum deviation of 300 for an angle of incidence i.

Find the angle of emergence.
Answer: In the minimum deviation position:
A  D 600  300
i   450  angle of emergence
2 2

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 66

Q. An equilateral glass prism is in minimum deviation position. Find the angle of
refraction

A 600
Answer: r    300
2 2

Q. A thin prism of 60 gives a deviation of 30. What is the refractive index of material of
prism?

d d 30
Answer: d  A(n  1)  n  1   n   1  0  1  0.5  1  1.5
A A 6

Q. Calculate the RI of material of an equilateral prism producing a minimum deviation

of 600.
 A  D  sin 60  60 
0 0

sin    sin 600 3

 2   2  2  3  1.732
Answer: n  
 A  60 0
sin 30 0
1
sin  sin  2
2  2 

Q. How does the angle of minimum deviation of a glass prism vary, if the incident
violet light is replaced by red light?
Answer: Angle of minimum deviation decreases.

Q. How does the angle of minimum deviation of a glass prism of RI 1.5 change, if it is
immersed in a liquid of RI 1.3?
Answer: Angle of minimum deviation decreases.

Q. What is meant by dispersion of light?

Answer: The phenomenon in which white light splits up into its constituent colours on passing
through a prism is called dispersion of light.

Q. When a ray of white light passes through a prism, which colour is most deviated?
Answer: Violet.

Q. When a ray of white light passes through a prism, which colour is least deviated?
Answer: Red.

Q. For which colour of white light, is the refractive index of glass of prism is maximum?
Answer: Violet.

Q. For which colour of white light, is the refractive index of glass of prism is minimum?
Answer: Red.

Q. What is scattering of light?

Answer: The phenomenon of absorption and re-emission of light by the atoms and molecules of the
atmosphere in all directions, when light falls on them is known as scattering of light.

Q. What do you mean by Rayleigh’s scattering?

Answer: When the dimensions of the scattering particles are very small as compared with the wavelength
of the incident radiation, then the scattering is called Rayleigh’s Scattering.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 67

Q. State the Rayleigh’s law of scattering.
Answer: According to Rayleigh’s scattering, the intensity of the scattered light(I) is inversely proportional
to the fourth power of the wavelength of incident light (λ).

Q. Why does the sky appear blue?

Answer: Due to scattering of light.
Q. Why does the sky appear reddish during sunrise and sunset?
Answer: The light reaching the observer is rich in red colour, as it travels larger atmospheric distances
during sunrise or sunset. Hence, during sunrise or sunset, the sun appears to be reddish.

Q. Why is red light used in danger signals?

Answer: As the wavelength of the red colour is large, the red colour is least scattered. So it can be seen
from maximum distance. Hence, the red light is used in danger signals.

Q. What is the reason for white colour of clouds?

Answer: The clouds scatter all wavelengths or colours in the sunlight to the same extent. As a
result, all the scattered colours merge together to produce the sensation of white. Hence, the
clouds appear white.

Q. What is rainbow?
Answer: A spectrum of sun’s light in nature is called rainbow. A rainbow is the collective effect of
refraction, reflection and dispersion of light.

Q. What is primary rainbow?

Answer: The rainbow which consists of violet colour on the inner edge and red colour on the
outer edge of the rainbow is called primary rainbow.

Q. How many refractions and reflections occur during the formation of primary rainbow?
Answer: Two refractions and one total internal reflection.

Q. What is secondary rainbow?

Answer: The rainbow which consists of red colour on the inner edge and violet colour on the
outer edge of the rainbow is called secondary rainbow.

Q. How many refractions and reflections occur during the formation of secondary
rainbow?
Answer: Two refractions and two total internal reflections.

Q. What do you mean by least distance of distinct vision( D)?

Answer: The minimum distance from the eye at which an object is clearly and distinctly visible
without strain is called the least distance of distinct vision.

Q. What is the least distance of distinct vision for normal eye?

Answer:25cm.

Q. What is far point of the eye?

Answer: The farthest point upto which the eye see can the objects clearly is called far point of the
eye.

Q. What is the far point position for normal eye?

Answer: Infinity.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 68

Q. What is the range of normal vision?
Answer: The distance infinity and 25cm is called range of normal vision.

Q. What is visual angle?

Answer: The angle subtended by an object at the eye is called visual angle.
Q. On which factor, size of the object as observed by the eye depends upon?
Answer: Visual angle.

Q.Is human eye an optical instrument(natural)?

Answer: Yes.

Q. What is the main purpose of an optical instrument?

Answer: The main purpose of an optical instrument is to increase the visual angle.

Q. What is the function of an iris?

Answer: An iris controls the size of the pupil.

Q. Which part of the eye controls the amount of light entering the eye?
Answer: Pupil.

Q. Which nerve connects the light sensitive cells of the retina to the brain?
Answer: Optic nerve.

Q. What is the role of ciliary muscles in the eye action?

Answer: By contracting or relaxing, the ciliary muscles help in changing the focal length of the eye
lens.

Q. What is the nature of the image formed on the retina of the eye?
Answer: Real and inverted

Q. What do you mean by power of accommodation?

Answer: The ability of the eye lens to adjust its focal length automatically through cillary muscles so as to
form the sharp images of the objects at different distances on the retina is called power of
accommodation.

Q. What is myopia?
Answer: The defect of the human eye by virtue of which the eye can see nearby objects clearly but
cannot see distant objects distinctly is called myopia. A person with the myopia defect has the far point
nearer than infinity.

Q. Where is the position of image of distant object in a myopic eye?

Answer: In a myopic eye, the image of the distant object is formed in front of the retina.

Q. What is the cause for myopia?

Answer: The myopia arises due to the elongation of the eye ball or decrease in the length of the eye ball
or excessive curvature of the cornea.

Q. How can myopia be corrected?

Answer: Myopia can be corrected by using a concave lens of suitable focal length.

Q. What is hypermetropia?
Answer: The defect of the human eye by virtue of which the eye can see the distant objects clearly but
cannot see the nearby objects distinctly is called hypermetropia.A person with hypermetropia has the near
point farther away from the normal near point(25 cm).

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 69

Q. Where is the position of the image of the nearby object in hypermetropic eye?
Answer: In hypermetropic eye, the image is formed behind the retina.

Q. What is the cause for hypermetropia?

Answer: The hypermetropia arises due to increase in focal length of the eye lens or decrease in the size
of the eye ball.

Q. How can hypermetropia be corrected?

Answer: The hypermetropia can be corrected by using a convex lens of suitable focal length.

Q. What is simple microscope?

Answer: A simple microscope is an optical instrument used to observe the magnified images of
the minute objects placed close to the eye.

Q. Define magnifying power or angular magnification of simple microscope.

Answer: The magnifying power of a simple microscope is defined as the ratio of angle
subtended by the image to the angle subtended by the object at the eye, when both the image
and the object are at the least distance of distinct vision from the eye.

Q. Write the expression for magnifying power of a simple microscope at a near point
adjustment (at the least distance of distinct vision).
D
Answer: m  1 
f

Q.A convex lens of focal length 5cm is used as a simple microscope. What is the
magnifying power, if the final image is formed at the least distance of distinct vision?

D 25
Answer : m  1   1 1 5  6
f 5

Q. Write the expression for magnifying power of a simple microscope when the image is
formed at infinity.
D
Answer: m 
f

Q.A convex lens of focal length 2.5cm is used as a simple microscope. What is the
magnifying power, if the final image is formed at infinity?

D 25
Answer : m    10
f 2.5

Q. What is the nature of the image formed in a simple microscope?

Answer: Virtual, erect and magnified.

Q. What is compound microscope?

Answer: A compound microscope is an optical instrument used to observe magnified images of
tiny objects.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 70

Q. Define magnifying power or angular magnification of compound microscope.
Answer: The magnifying power of a compound microscope is defined as the ratio of the angle
subtended by the final image at the eye to the angle subtended by the object at the eye, when
both final image and object are at the least distance of distinct vision from the eye.

Q. Give an expression for magnifying power of compound microscope when the final
image is formed at the least distance of distinct vision.
vO  D
Answer: m   1  
uO  fe 

The negative sign indicates that the final image is real and inverted.

Q. Give an expression for magnifying power of compound microscope when the final
image is formed at infinity.
L D
Answer: m   x
fO fe

Q.A compound micrscope has a magnification of 30. The focal length of its eyepiece
is 5cm.Calculate the magnification produced by its objective,if the final image is
formed at the least distance of distinct vision.
vO  D   D 25
Answer: m  1    mo 1    30  mo 1    30  6mo  mo  5
uO  fe   fe   5 

Q. What is an astronomical telescope?

Answer: A telescope used to observe heavenly objects like moon, sun, stars, planets etc is
called astronomical telescope.

Q. When is the telescope in normal adjustment?

Answer:The telescope is said to be in normal adjustment, if the final image is formed at
infinity.

Q.Define magnifying power or angular magnification(m) of an astronomical telescope.

Answer: The magnifying power of an astronomical telescope is defined as the ratio of the
angle subtended by the final image at the eye at the least distance of distinct vision to the
angle subtended by the object at the eye at infinity, when seen directly.

Q. Give the expression for the magnifying power of an astronomical telescope at a

near point adjustment.
fo  f 
Answer : m   1  e 
fe  D 
The negative sign indicates that the final image formed is real and inverted.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 71

Q.Define magnifying power or angular magnification of an astronomical telescope in
normal adjustment.
Answer: The magnifying power of an astronomical telescope is defined as the ratio of the
angle subtended by the final image at the eye to the angle subtended by the object at the
eye, when both the final image and the object are at infinity.

Q. Give the expression for the magnifying power of an astronomical telescope in

normal adjustment.
fo
Answer: m  
fe

The negative sign indicates that the final image is real and inverted.

Q. What is the length of telescope in normal adjustment?

Answer: Length of telescope in normal adjustment = Focal length of objective + Focal length of
eyepiece L = f o + fe

Q. What is the magnifying power of a telescope whose objective and eyepiece have
focal lengths 180cm and 3cm respectively?

fo 180
Answer: m     60
fe 3

Q. An astronomical telescope in normal adjustment is of length 15cm. If the focal

length of its eyepiece is 3cm, find the focal length of objective.
Answer: L  f o  f e  f o  L  f e  15  3  12cm

Q. An astronomical telescope of magnifying power 8 consists of two lenses 36cm

apart. Calculate the focal length of eyepiece.
fo f
Answer: m  8  o  f o  8 f e ..........(1)
fe fe

36
L  f o  f e  36  8 f e  f e  9 f e  f e   4cm.
9

Q. An astronomical telescope of consists of two convex lenses of powers 10D and

5D. Which one of the two lenses is an eyepiece.
Answer: The convex lens of 10D is an eyepiece.

Q. For making a telescope, two convex lenses focal lengths 5cm and 50cm are to be
used. Which one of the two lenses is considered as objective?
Answer: The convex lens of focal length 50cm must be used as an objective.

Q. What is a reflecting telescope?

Answer: The telescope in which the combination of a mirror and a lens is used to observe
the distant objects is called reflecting telescope.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 72

Q. Give the expression for the magnifying power of an reflecting type telescope in
normal adjustment.
R
fo
Answer: m   2
fe fe
Where: fo=R/2= focal length of objective, R= radius of curvature of objective and f e= focal
length of eyepiece.

Q. A reflecting type telescope has an objective of radius of curvature 100cm. Find the
focal length of the eyepiece to produce a magnification of 5.
R 100
Answer: m 
fo
 2 5 2  50  f  50  10cm  0.1m
e
fe fe fe fe 5

Q. State one advantage of reflecting telescope over refracting telescope.

Answer: As the objective in the reflecting telescope is a mirror, the image produced is free
from the chromatic aberration.

Q. State one difference between refracting telescope and reflecting telescope.

Answer: In refracting telescope, the objective is a convex lens but in reflecting telescope, it
is a concave mirror.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 73

 RAY OPTICS

SYNOPSIS

Number of images formed by two plane mirrors inclined at some angle: Let n be the
number of images formed and  be the angle of inclination between the mirrors.
360o 360o
1. n  , if is an odd integer & the object lies unsymmetrically (the object
 
is not placed at the same distance from the mirrors).

Example:
360o 360o
If  = 72o, then n  o 5
 72
o o
360 360
2. n  1 , if is an even integer.
 
Example:
360o 360o
If  = 60o, then n 1  1  6 1  5
 60o
o o
360 360
3. n   1, if is an odd integer and the object lies symmetrically on the
 
angle bisector of the two mirrors (if the object is placed at the same distance from the
mirrors).

Example:
360o 360o
If  = 72o, then n  1  1  5 1  4
 72o
 360 o
 360o
4. n  Int  if is a fractional number.
  , 
Example:
360o 360o
If  = 75o, then n  o  4.8 and Int[4.8]=4.
 75

5. n  3 , if the mirrors are perpendicular to each other (   90 ).

0

360o 360o
n  1  1  4 1  3
 90o

6. n   , if the two mirrors are parallel to each other and face each other (   0 ).
0

360o 360o
n   
 0o
This means that infinite number of images are formed, all lying on a straight line passing
through the object and perpendicular to the mirrors.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P. U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 74

Axial magnification( Longitudinal magnification) : When a small sized object lies along
the principal axis , then its magnification is known as axial magnification. For small object,
the axial magnification is given by:
v v2
 2
u u

Areal magnification (superficial magnification): When a two dimensional object is

placed with its plane perpendicular to the axis, then its magnification is known as areal
magnification.
The areal magnification is given by:
2
AI  v 
 
AO  u 
The ratio of the area of the image (AI=v2) to the area of the object (AO=u2) is called areal
magnification.

Newton’s formula: An object O is placed at a distance of p from the principal focus F of a

concave mirror. The mirror forms a real image I at a distance q from F.

The focal length of the mirror is given by:

f  pq

This is called Newton’s formula.

Axial magnification( Longitudinal magnification) : When a small sized object lies along
the principal axis , then its magnification is known as axial magnification.

For small object, axial magnification is given by:

v v 2

u u 2

Areal magnification (superficial magnification): When a two dimensional object is

placed with its plane perpendicular to the axis, then its magnification is known as areal
magnification.

The areal magnification is given by:

2
AI  v 
 
AO  u 

The ratio of the area of the image (AI=v2) to the area of the object (AO=u2 )is called areal
magnification.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P. U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 75

Note:
1. A convex lens produces both:
a) real and virtual image.
b) diminished and magnified image.
c) inverted and erect image.

2..A concave lens always produces:

a) virtual image.
b) diminished image.
c) an erect image

Lens maker’s formula :

1  n2  n1  1 1 
    
f  n1  R1 R2 

For n1 = 1 (air) and n2 = n, the lens maker’s formula leads to the form:

1 1 1 
 n  1  
f  R1 R2 
1
p the lens maker’s formula can be written as:
f
 1 1 
P  n  1  
 R1 R2 

Power of an equivalent lens (P) is equal to the sum of the powers (P 1 and P2) of the
individual lenses in contact.

2..For n lenses of focal lengths f1,f2,f3,………fn in contact, equation (1) becomes:

1 1 1 1 1 n
1
      ------------(3)
f f1 f 2 f 3 f n i 1 f i

3.For n lenses of powers P1,P2,P3,………Pn in contact, equation (3) becomes:

n
P = P1 + P2 +P3-+---------------------+Pn   Pi ----------------------------(4)
i 1
4.If the two lenses are separated by a distance d, then equation (1) becomes:

1 1 1 d
   ---------------------------------------------------------------(5)
f f1 f 2 f 1f 2

5.Equation (5) can be written as :

P = P1 + P2 – d P1 P2 -------------------------------(6)

CHETAN & SACHETAN P. U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 76

6. Consider a convex lens of focal length f1 kept in contact with a concave lens of focal
length f2.
a).If f1 > f2, then f is negative and the equivalent lens behaves like a diverging lens.

b).If f1 < f2, then f is positive and the equivalent lens behaves like a converging lens.

c).If f1 = f2, then f= ∞ & p = 0 and the equivalent lens behaves like a glass plate(slab).

Newton’s formula: An object AB is placed at a distance of p from the principal focus F of

a convex lens. The lens forms a real image A/B/ at a distance q from F.

The focal length of the lens is given by:

f  pq
This is called Newton’s formula.

Minimum distance between the real object and the real image formed by a convex
lens:

d 4f
The minimum distance between the object and the real image formed by the convex lens
should be equal to four times its focal length.
Note:
1.When a glass lens of RI =3/2 of focal length fa in air is immersed in water of RI 4/3, then
the focal length of the lens increases by four times.(fw =4fa)
2.The focal length of a lens increases and its power decreases on immersing it in water.
3.The focal length of a lens increases, when the RI of the surrounding medium of the lens
increases.
4.The power of a lens decreases, when the RI of the surrounding medium of the lens
increases.
5.Variation of power of a lens with the wavelength of the incident light.

6.The focal length of a lens increases, if monochromatic red light is used instead of
monochromatic blue light.
7.If the convex lens is placed in a medium of RI greater than the RI of the lens material.
then it behaves like a diverging lens.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P. U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 77

8. If the concave lens is placed in a medium of RI less than the RI of the lens material, then
it behaves like a converging lens.
9.The outer surfaces of the sun glasses are convex and the inner ones are concave. The
surfaces are equally curved. Therefore, the sunglasses behave like thin glass sheet of zero
power instead of lenses though they are curved.

10. An equiconvex lens of focal length f is cut into two equal halves as shown in the figure.

Each part behaves like a plano-convex lens of focal length f/. The equivalent focal length f
of two identical plano-convex lenses kept in contact with each other is given by:

1 1 1 2
 /  /  /  f / 2f
f f f f

Therefore focal length of each part becomes two times.

11.A biconvex lens of focal length f is cut into two equal parts parallel to the axis of the lens
as shown in the figure. The focal length of each part remains the same (f ) but the light
gathering power is reduced. Therefore, image formed by the lens is not affected but
brightness of the image becomes less.

12. When the two parts each of focal length f are kept in coaxial contact as shown in the
figure, then the focal length of the combination becomes f/2 and power gets doubled.

13.When the two parts each of focal length f are kept in coaxial contact as shown in the
figure, then the focal length of the combination becomes infinite and power becomes zero.
It is because the rays of light passing through the first part converge downwards and that
passing through the second part bend upwards equally. Therefore, the focal length of
the combination becomes infinite and hence power becomes zero.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P. U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 78

14.If the central portion of the lens is wrapped in black paper or black painted as shown in
the figure, then the image formed by the lens is not affected but the brightness of the
image becomes less.

15.If a convex lens is made of three layers of glass of different materials as shown in the
figure, then the lens forms three images of a point object placed on its axis.

16.If a convex lens is made of three layers of glass of different materials as shown in the
figure, then the lens forms a single image of a point object placed on its axis.

17.In the figure given below, path of a parallel beam of light passing through a convex lens
of RI  g kept in medium of RI m . In this case:  g   m
m m

g

18.In the figure given below, path of a parallel beam of light passing through a convex lens
of RI  g kept in medium of RI m . In this case:  g   m

CHETAN & SACHETAN P. U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 79

19. In the figure given below, path of a parallel beam of light passing through a convex lens
of RI  g is shown. In this case:  g   m

20. In the figure given below, path of a parallel beam of light passing through a concave
lens of RI  g is shown. In this case:  g   m

21. In the figure given below, path of a parallel beam of light passing through a concave
lens of RI  g kept in medium of RI m is shown. In this case:  g   m

22. In the figure given below, path of a parallel beam of light passing through a concave
lens of RI  g is shown. In this case:  g   m

Silvering of a lens: When a beam of light is allowed to strike the one of the surfaces of a
silvered lens, then the beam gets refracted through the first surface, then it gets reflected
from the silvered surface and finally again undergoes refraction through the lens.
Therefore, the beam undergoes two refractions and one reflection.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P. U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 80

The effective focal length of the silvered lens is given by:

1 1 1 1 2 1
    
f fL fm fL fL fm

Where:
f = effective focal length of the silvered lens.
fL= focal length of the lens.
fm= focal length of the concave mirror.

Note:

Lens name Surface Focal length of Lens nature

silvered Silvered lens after silvering
Equi-convex lens R
R Any one surface f  Concave mirror
of f L  2(2n  1)
2(n  1)

Plano-convex
R R
lens of f L  Plane f  Concave mirror
(n  1) 2(n  1)

Plano-convex lens
R R
of f L  Spherical f  Concave mirror
(n  1) 2n

Equi-concave lens R
R Any one surface f  Convex mirror
of f L  2(2n  1)
2(n  1)

Plano-concave R
R Plane f  Convex mirror
lens of f L  2(n  1)
(n  1)

Plano-concave
R R
lens of f L  Spherical f  Convex mirror
(n  1) 2n

CHETAN & SACHETAN P. U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 81

Displacement method to find the conjugate points: The points which are related to
interchangeable properties of object and image are called conjugate points. To get the
real image of the object, the lens is displaced from one position to another, so it is called
displacement method and the method is used to find the focal length of a convex lens.

Let:
f= focal length of the convex lens.
D =distance between the object and the screen.
L1= first position of the lens.
L2= second position of the lens.
L1L2=s=displacement of the lens.
h=size of the object AB.
h1=size of the image A1B1 in the first position of the lens.
h2=size of the image A2B2 in the second position of the lens.

Note:
1.Expression for focal length of convex lens:

D2  s2
f 
4D

2.Size of object:

h  h1 h2

3.Ratio of magnification in the first position to that in the second position of lens:

m1 v 2

m2 u 2

CHETAN & SACHETAN P. U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 82

Prism : An optical medium bounded by three rectangular surfaces and two parallel
triangular surfaces is called prism.

Refracting angle or angle of prism (A) : The angle between the two refracting surfaces
of the prism is called angle of prism.

Thin prism : If the angle of the prism is very small (< 10 0 ), then the prism is said to be
thin.

Refraction through prism:

Note:
1. Angle of the prism:

A = r1 + r2

2. Deviation produced by the prism:

d = i1 + i2 – A

3. Conditions for minimum deviation:

d = D = angle of minimum deviation.

i1 = i2 = i
r1 = r2 = r

4. Angle of refraction in terms angle of prism when the prism is in the minimum
deviation position:

A
r
2

5. Angle of incidence in terms angle of prism and angle of minimum deviation

position:

A D
i
2

CHETAN & SACHETAN P. U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 83

6.Refractive index in terms of the angle of prism & angle of minimum deviation
(prism formula):

 A D
sin  
n2  2 

n1  A
sin  
2

7.For a prism of RI n surrounded by air (n2 =n and n1 = 1), above equation

becomes:

 A D
sin  
n  2 
 A
sin  
2

8. Limiting value of the angle of prism is equal to twice its critical angle.

A=2C

Graph to show the variation of angle of deviation with the angle of incidence:

Ray diagram showing the prism in minimum deviation position:

In the minimum deviation position, the incident and the emergent rays of light are
symmetrical with respect to their refracting faces. The refracted ray of light in the prism is
parallel to the base of the prism.

Dispersion of light: The phenomenon in which white light splits up into its constituent
colours on passing through a prism is called dispersion of light”.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P. U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 84

Deviation produced by a thin prism:

d = A ( n – 1)

It follows from this expression that the deviation produced by a thin prism does not depend
on the angle of incidence. It is constant for a given prism.

Angular dispersion :

dV – dR = (nV – nR) A

Dispersive power (  ):“The dispersive power of a medium for two colours is defined as
the ratio of the angular dispersion between them to the mean deviation”.

Angular dispersion
Dispersive power =
Mean deviation

d v  d R nV  nR
= 
d n 1
Where :
d  dR
d V  Mean.deviation.
2
n  nR
n V  Mean.RI .
2
Note:
1.Dispersive power depends only on the nature of the material of the prism.
2.Dispersive power is independent of the angle of the prism.
3.Dispersive power has no unit and is positive.
4.Dispersive power of a material for blue and red rays is given by:

d B  d R nB  nR
= 
dy ny 1

Where :
dB  dR
 d y  Mean.deviation.
2
nB  nR
 n y  Mean.RI .
2

PHOTOMETRY: The measurement of light as perceived the by human eye is called

photometry.

Physical quantities connected with photometry:

i. Luminous flux   : The amount of light energy, which passes in unit time across a
surface held normal to the radiant energy, is called luminous flux. SI unit of luminous
flux is lumen (lm).

CHETAN & SACHETAN P. U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 85

ii. Luminous intensity or Illuminating power of the source (I): The luminous
intensity of a light source is defined as the luminous flux per unit solid angle
subtended at the source. SI unit of luminous intensity is candela(cd).

Lu min ous. flux 

Lu min ous.int ensity  I 
Solid.angle 4

iii. Intensity of illumination or Illuminance of the source(E): Illuminance of a

source is defined as the luminous flux incident normally per unit area of the surface. SI
unit of illuminance is lux or lm/m2 .

Lu min ous. flux  4I I

Illu min ance  E   2
Area.of .the.surface A 4r 2
r

iv. Luminance(L): A quantity used to characterize the brightness of emitting or

reflecting flat surfaces is called luminance. SI unit of luminance is cd/m2 or nit.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P. U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 86

 CET
K-CET

CET - 2000 CET - 2002

1) The relation between n1 and n2 if the behaviour of
7) A ray of light travels from an optically denser to a
light ray is as shown in the figure
rarer medium. The critical angle for the two media
1) n1 > > n2
is C. The maximum possible deviation of the ray
2) n2 > n1
n1 n2 will be
3) n1 = n2
4) n1 > n2 
1) -C 2) 2C
2
2) If f0 and fe are the focal lengths of the objective 3)  - 2C 4)  - C
and eye-piece respectively for a telescope its
magnifying power is 8) The light reflected by a plane mirror may form a
1) 0e 2) e /0 real image
3) 0 x e 4) 0 / e 1) if the rays incident on the mirror are diverging

2) if the rays incident on the mirror are converging

3) Light is incident on a glass plate at an angle of
600. The reflected and refracted rays are mutually 3) if the object is placed very close to the mirror
perpendicular to each other. The refractive index 4) under no circumstances
of the plate is
9) A convex lens is made up of three different
1) 1.5 2) 1.73 3) 1.22 4) 0.5
materials as shown in the figure. For a point object
CET - 2001 placed on its axis, the number of images formed

4) A small object is placed 10 cm in front of a plane are

mirror. If you stand behind the object, 30 cm from 1) 1

the mirror, and look at its image, for what distance 2) 5
must you focus your eyes ? 3) 4

1) 80 cm 2) 40 cm 4) 3
3) 20 cm 4) 60 cm
10) Light appears to travel in straight line because
1) the frequency of light is very small
5) A ray of light is incident normally on one of the
2) light consists of very small particles
faces of a prism of angle 300 and refractive index
3) the wavelength of light is very small
2. The angle of deviation of the ray is
4) the velocity of light is different for different colours
1) 150 2) 00 3) 230 4) 130

6) How will the image formed by a convex lens be CET - 2003

affected, if the central portion of the lens is wrapped 11) If a ray of light in a denser medium strikes a rarer
in black paper, as shown in the figure ? medium at an angle of incidence i, the angle of
1) Full image will be formed but reflection and refraction are respectively r and r’, if
without the central portion the reflected and refracted rays are at right angles
2) Two images will be formed, to each other, the critical angle for the given pair of
one due to each exposed half media is
3) No image will be formed 1) cot-1 (tan i) 2) tan-1 (sin i)
4) Full image will be formed but it is less bright 3) sin-1 (tan r) 4) sin-1 (tan i)
CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U.SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 87
 CET
12) A fish, looking up through the water sees the 17) Which of the following is a wrong statement ?
outside world contained in a circular horizon. If 1) D =1/f where f is focal length and D called
the refractive index of water is 4/3 and the fish is refractive power of a lens
12 cm below the surface of water, the radius of 2) power is expressed in a dioptres when f is in
the circle in centimeter is meter
3) power is called a dioptres and does no depend
12 x 3
1) 12 x 3 x 7 2) on the system of unit to measure f
7 4) D is positive for convergent lens and negative
12 x 3 for divergent lens
3) 12 x 3 x 5 4)
5
CET - 2006
13) A given ray of light suffers minimum - deviation in
18) The twinkle effect of star light is due to
an equilateral prism P. Additional prisms Q and R
of identical shape and material are now added to 1) constant burning of hydrogen in the star
P, as shown in the figure. The ray will suffer 2) the fluctuating apparent position of the star
1) no deviation being slightly different from the actual position
2) total internal reflection of the star.
3) greater deviation P Q R 3) total internal reflection
4) same deviation 4) high dense matter of star

CET - 2004
14) Rainbow is formed due to 19) A transparent cube of 0.21m edge contains a small
1) refraction air bubble. Its apparent distance when viewed
2) dispersion and total internal reflection through one face of the cube is 0.10m and when
3) total internal reflection viewed from the opposite face is 0.04m. The actual
4) scattering distance of the bubble from the second face of the
cube is
15) A beam of parallel rays is brought to a focus by a
1) 0.05m 2) 0.04m
plano-convex lens. A thin concave lens of the same
3) 0.06m 4) 0.17m
focal length is joined to the first lens. The effect of
this is
20) For a given lens, the magnification was found to be
1) the focal point shifts away from the lens by a
small distance twice as large as when the object was 0.15m
2) the focus remains undisturbed distant from it as when the distance was 0.2m.
3) the focus shifts to infinity The focal length of the lens is.
4) the focal point shifts towards the lens by a small 1) 0.10 m 2) 0.05 m
distance 3) 0.15 m 4) 0.20 m

CET - 2005
21) To a fish under water viewing obliquely a fisherman
16) Which mirror is to be used to obtain parallel beam
standing on the bank of a lake, the man looks:
light from a small lamp?
1) the same height as he actually is
1)Plane mirror
2) depends on the obliquity
2) Convex mirror
3) concave mirror 3) Taller than what he actually is
4) any one of the above 4) Shorter than he actually is

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U.SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 88

 CET
CET - 2007 27) A ray of light enters from a rarer to a denser
22) A ray of light is traveling from glass to air. medium. The angle of incidence is i. Then the
(Refractive index of glass = 1.5). The angle of reflected and refracted rays are mutually
incidence is 50 . The deviation of the ray is :
0
perpendicular to each other. The critical angle for
1) 80 0
2) 0 0
the pair of media is
-1 -1
sin 500 sin 500 1) Sin (Cot i) 2) Cos (tan i)
-1 -1
3) sin-1 500 4) 500 –sin-1 3) Sin (tan i) 4) tan (Sin i)
1.5 1.5

23) A vessel of height 2d is half filled with a liquid of 28) A fish in water (refractive index n) looks at a bird
refractive index 2 and the other half with a liquid vertically above in the air. If y is the height of the

of refractive index n. ( the given liquids are bird and x is the depth of the fish from the surface,

immiscible).Then the apparent depth of the inner then the distance of the bird as estimated by the

surface of the bottom of the vessel (neglecting the fish is

thickness of the bottom of the vessel ) will be : 1

1) x + y 1 +
n
d (n+2) n
1) 2)
n 2 d (n+2) 1
2) y + x 1 -
n
nd 2n
3) 4)
d +2n d (n+2) 1
3) x + y 1 -
n
4) x + ny
24) A ray of light is incident normally on one face of a
right angled isosceles prism. It then grazes the 29) Figure shows a mixture of blue, green and red
hypotenuse. The refractive index of the material of coloured rays incident normally on a right angled
the prism is prism. The critical angles of the material of the
1) 1.414 2) 1.33 0
prism for red, green and blue are 46 , 44 and 43
0 0

3) 1.732 4) 1.5 respectively. The arrangement will separate

1) green colour from red and blue
25) Two thin equiconvex lenses each of focal length 2) all the three colours.
0.2m are placed coaxially with their optic centers 3) red colour from blue and green
0.5m apart. Then the focal length of the 4) blue colour from red and green
combination is :
1) 0.4m 2) – 0.4m 0
43
3) 0.1m 4) – 0.1m B
0
44
G
CET 2008 0
46
26) Blue colour of sea water is due to R
0
45
1) image of sky in water
2) refraction of sunlight
30) A convex and a concave lens seperated by
3) interference of sunlight reflected from the water
distance d are then put in contact. The focal
surface
length of the combination
4) scattering of sunlight by the water molecules
1) becomes 0 2) remains the same
3) decreases 4) increases

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U.SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 89

 CET
31) A convex lens is made of 3 layers of glass of 3 36) A parallel of beam of light is incident on a converging
different materials as in the figure. A point object lens parallel to its principal axis. As one moves
is placed on its axis. The number of images of the away from the lens on the other side of the principal
object are axis, the intensity of light
1) 3 1) first increases and then decreases
2) 4 2) first decreases and then increases
3) 1 3) continuously increases
4) 2 4) continuously decreases.

CET - 2009 CET 2010

32) A convex lens made of glass has focal length 37) Critical angle for certain medium is Sin-1 (0.6).
0.15 m in air. If the refractive index of glass is 3/2 The polarizing angle of that medium is - - - - - -
and that of water is 4/3 , the focal length of lens
when immersed in water is 1) tan-1 [1.5] 2) Sin-1 [0.8 ]

1) 0.6 m 2) 0.45 m 3) tan-1 (1.6667) 4) tan-1 [0.6667]

3) 0.15 m 4) 0.30 m

38) A point object O is kept at a distance of OP = u.

33) A ray of light is incident on a surface of glass slab The radius of curvature of the spherical surface
o
at an angle 45 . If the lateral shift produced per APB is CP = R. The refractive index of the media
unit thickness is 1/3 m, the angle of refraction are n1 and n2 which are as shown in the diagram.
produced is Then,
-1 2 -1
3
1) tan
3 - 1 2) tan
2

-1 2 -1 2
3) tan 1 - 4) sin 1 -
3  3 a) if n1 > n2, image is virtual for all values of ‘u’.
b) if n2 = 2n1, image is virtual when R > u.
34) The angle of minimum deviation for an incident light
c) the image is real for all values of u, n1 and n2.
ray on an equilateral prism is equal to its refracting
angle. The refractive index of its material is Here, the correct statement/s is / are - - - - -

1) 3/2 2) 1/2 1) only b) 2) both a) and b)

3) 3 4) 3/2 3) only a) 4) a), b) and c)

35) A ray of light is incident on a plane mirror at an 39) Two beams of red and violet colours are made to
o
angle of 60 . The angle of deviation produced by
pass separately through a prism of A = 600. In the
the mirror is
o o minimum deviation position, the angle of refraction
1) 90 2) 120
o o inside the prism will be
3) 30 4) 60 .
1) greater for red colour
2) equal but not 300 for both the colours
3) greater for violet colour
4) 300 for both the colours.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U.SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 90

 CET
40) A, B and C are the parallel sided transparent media 43) Wavelength of given light waves in air and in a
of refractive index n1, n2 and n3 respectively. They medium are 6000 Å and 4000 Å respectively. The
are arranged as shown in the figure. A ray is critical angle is - - - - - - - -
incident at an angle  on the surface of separation
2 3
of A and B which is as shown in the figure. After 1) tan-1 2) tan-1
3 2
the refraction into the medium B, the ray grazes
the surface of separation of the media B and C.
2 3
Then, Sin  = - - - - - - - - - 3) Sin-1 4) Sin-1
3 2

44) The time required for the light to pass through a

glass slab (refractive index = 1.5) of thickness
4 mm is - - - - - - - -
-11 -11
1) 10 sec 2) 2 x 10 sec
+11 -5
3) 2 x 10 sec 4) 2 x 10 sec
n n
3 1
1) 2)
n n
1 3 45) A prism having refractive index 1.414 and refracting
o
angle 30 has one of the refracting surfaces
n2 n
1
3) 4) silvered. A beam of light incident on the other
n n
3 1 refracting surface will retrace its path, if the angle
41) The focal length of a plano convex lens is ‘f’ and of incidence is - - - - - - - - -
o o
its refractive index is 1.5. It is kept over a plane 1) 0 2) 30
o o
glass plate with its curved surface touching the 3) 60 4) 45
glass plate. The gap between the lens and the
glass plate is filled by a liquid. As a result, the 46) A plano-convex lens has a maximum thickness of
effective focal length of the combination becomes 6 cm. When placed on a horizontal table with the
2f. Then the refractive index of the liquid is - - - - - curved surface in contact with the table surface,
1) 1.5 2) 2 the apparent depth of the bottommost point of the
3) 1.25 4) 1.33 lens is found to be 4 cm. If the lens is inverted
such that the plane face of the lens is in contact
with the surface of the table, the apparent depth of
the centre of the plane face is found to be
CET 2011
42) The critical angle of a certain medium is 17
cm. The radius of curvature of the lens is - - -
4
3
Sin-1 . The polarizing angle of the medium
5 1) 69 cm 2) 75 cm
3) 128 cm 4) 34 cm
is - - - - - - -

4 5 47) Two thin lenses have a combined power of + 9 D.

1) Sin-1 2) tan-1
5 3 When they are separated by a distance of 20 cm,

27
3 4 their equivalent power becomes + D. Their
3) tan-1 4) tan-1 5
4 3
individual powers (in diopters) are - - - - - - - -
1) 1, 8 2) 2, 7
3) 3, 6 4) 4, 5
CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U.SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 91
 CET
CET 2012 CET 2013
48) A point source of light is kept below the surface 52) Pick out the WRONG statement from the following:
of water (nw = 4/3) at a depth of 7m. The radius 1) Lateral shift increases as the angle of incidence
of the circular bright patch of light noticed on the increases.
surface of water is - - - - - - m. 2) Lateral shift increases as the value of refractive
index increases.
3
1) 2) 3 3) Normal shift decreases as the value of
 7 refractive index increases
4) Both normal shift and lateral shift are directly
7
3) 4) 7 proportional to the thickness of the medium.
3

49) A monochromatic beam of light is travelling from 53) The refraction through the prisms are shown. Pick
medium A of refractive index n1 to a medium B of out the WRONG statement from the following. Path
refractive index n2. In the medium A, there are x of the light ray in
numbers of waves in certain distance. In the
medium B, there are y number of waves in the
same distance. Then, refractive index of medium
A with respect to medium B is - - - -

y x
1) 2)
x  y

x x
3) 4)
y-x y

50) White light is incident normally on a glass slab.

Inside the glass slab, 1) a is correct if n2 > n1 and n2 > n3
1) red light travels faster than other colours 2) b is correct if n1 = n2 and n2 > n3
2) violet light travels faster than other colours 3) c is correct if n2 < n1 and n2 = n3
3) yellow light travels faster than other colours 4) d is correct if n1 > n2 and n2 < n3
4) all colours travel with the same speed.
54) The distance between an object and its real image
51) Two thin plano-convex lenses each of focal length produced by a converging lens is 0.72 m.
f are placed as shown in the figure. The ratio of The magnification is 2. W hat will be the
their effective focal lengths in the three cases is magnification when the object is moved by
0.04 m towards the lens ?
1) 2 2) 4 3) 3 4) 6

55) The speed of light in media M1 and M2 are

1.5 x 108 ms-1 and 2 x 108 ms-1 respectively.
1) 1 : 2 : 3 2) 1 : 2 : 1 A ray travels from medium M1 to the medium M2
3) 1 : 1 : 1 4) 3 : 2 : 1 with an angle of incidence . The ray suffers total
internal reflection. Then the value of the angle of
incidence is
1) > sin-1 (3/4) 2) < sin-1 (3/4)
3) = sin-1 (3/4) 4)  sin-1 (3/4)
CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U.SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 92
 CET
CET 2014 63) A ray of light passes through four transparent media
56) An object is placed at 20 cm in front of a concave with refractive index n1, n2, n3 and n4 as shown.
mirror produces three times magnified real image. The surfaces of all media are parallel.
What is focal length of the concave mirror ?
1) 10 cm 2) 15 cm
3) 7.5 cm 4) 6.6 cm

57) A focal length of a lens is 10 cm. What is power of If the emergent ray DE is parallel to incident ray
a lens in dioptre ? AB, then
1) 15 D 2) 0.1 D 3) 20 D 4) 10 D (1) n1 = n4 (2) n2 = n4
n2 + n3 + n 4
(3) n = n (4) n =
3 4 1 3
58) A microscope is having objective of focal length 1
cm and eyepiece of focal length 6 cm. If tube length 64) Focal length of a convex lens is 20 cm and
is 30 cm and image is formed at the least distance its RI is 1.5. It produces an erect, enlarged image
of distinct vision, what is the magnification if the distance of the object from the lens is
produced by the microscope ? Take D = 25 cm. (1) 20 cm (2) 15 cm (3) 30 cm (4) 40 cm
1) 25 2) 6 3) 125 4) 150
65) A plane glass plate is placed over a various
CET 2015 coloured letters (violet, green, yellow, red). The
59) Calculate the focal length of a reading glass of a letter which appears to be raised more
person if his distance of distinct vision (1) Violet (2) Green
is 75 cm. (3) Yellow (4) Red
1) 37.5 cm 2) 100.4 cm
3) 25.6 cm 4) 75.2 cm 2017
66) According to Cartesian sign convention, in ray
optics
60) A person wants a real image of his own,
1) all distances are taken positive
3 times enlarged. Where should he stand infront
2) all distances are taken negative
of a concave mirror of radius of curvature 30 cm ?
3) all distances in the direction of incident ray
1) 30 cm 2) 20 cm
are taken positive
3) 10 cm 4) 90 cm
4) all distances in the direction of incident ray
are taken negaitive
61) If 0 and 0 are the permittivity and permeability
of free space and  and  are the corresponding
67) A linear object of height 10 cm is kept in front of a
quantities for a medium, then refractive index of
concave mirror of radius of curvature 15 cm, at a
the medium is
distance of 10 cm. the image formed is
 1) magnified and erect
1)
 0 0 2) Insufficient information 2) magnified and inverted
3) diminished and erect
0 0
4) diminished and inverted
3)
  4) 1
CET 2016
62) A ray of light suffers a minimum deviation when 68) During scattering of light, the amount of scattering
is inversely proportional to ______ of wavelength
incident on an equilateral prism of refractive index
of light
2 . The angle of incidence is
1) cube 2) square
(1) 50° (2) 60° (3) 45° (4) 30°
3) fourth power 4) half

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U.SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 93

 CET
2018 74. A transparent medium shows relation between
69. An object is placed at the principal focus of a i and r as shown. If the speed of light in vacuum is
convex mirror. The image will be at C the Brewster angle for the medium is
o
1) Centre of curvature 1) 45
o
2) Principal focus 2) 90
o
3) Infinity 3) 30
o
4) No image will be formed 4) 60

70. An object is placed at a distance of 20 cm from 75. The phenomenon involved in the reflection of
the pole of a concave mirror of focal length 10 cm. radio-waves by ionosphere is similar to
The distance of the image formed is 1) Total internal reflection of light in air during a
1) + 20 cm 2) + 10 cm mirage
3) - 20 cm 4) - 10 cm 2) Scattering of light by air particles
3) Reflection of light by plane mirror
71. A candle placed 25 cm from a lens forms an 4) Dispersion of light by water molecules during
image on a screen placed 75 cm on the other side the formation of a rainbow
of the lens. The focal length and type of the lens 2020
should be 76. An object approaches a convergent lens from
1) + 18.75 cm and convex lens the left of the lens with a uniform speed 5 m/s
2) - 18.75 cm and concave lens and stops at the focus, the image
3) + 20.25 cm and convex lens 1) Moves away from the lens with an uniform
4) - 20.25 cm and concave lens speed 5 m/s
2) Moves away from the lens with an uniform
2019 acceleration
72. A point object is moving uniformly towards the pole 3) Moves away from the lens with a non-uniform
of a concave mirror of focal length 25cm along its acceleration
axis as shown below. The speed of the object is 4) Moves towards the lens with a non-uniform
-1
1ms . At t = 0, the distance of the object from acceleration
the mirror is 50cm. The average velocity of the
image formed by the mirror between time t = 0 77. The following figure shows a beam of light
and t = 0.25s is :
converging at point P. When a concave lens of
focal length 16 cm is introduced in the path of the
beam at a place shown by dotted line such that
OP becomes the axis of the lens, the beam
converges at a distance x from the lens. The value
of x will be equal to
1) 20cms-1 2) infinity
1) 12 cm
3) 40cms-1 4) zero
2) 24 cm
3) 36 cm
73. A certain prism is found to produce a minimum
o o 4) 48 cm
deviation of 38 . It produces a deviation of 44 when
o o
the angle of incidence is either 42 or 62 .
W hat is the angle of incidence when it is 78. The refracting angle of prism is A and refractive
undergoing minimum deviation ? index of material of prism is cot A/2. The angle of
1) 40
o
2) 60
o minimum deviation is
o o
3) 30
o
4) 49
o 1) 180 - 3A 2) 180 + 2A
o o
3) 90 - A 4) 180 - 2A

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U.SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 94

 JEE (MAIN)
2002 2004
1. Which of the following is used in optical 6. A plano convex lens of refractive index 1.5 and
fibres? radius of curvature 30 cm is silvered at the
1) total internal reflection curved surface. Now this lens has been used
2) scattering to form the image of an object. At what
3) diffraction distance from this lens an object be placed in
4) refraction order to have a real image of the size of the
object?
2. Wavelength of light used in an optical 1) 20 cm 2) 30 cm
o o
instrument are 1= 4000 A and 2 = 5000 A , 3) 60 cm 4) 80 cm
then ratio of their respective resolving
powers (corresponding to 1 and 2) is 7. A light ray is incident perpendicular to one face
1) 16: 25 2) 9: 1 of a 90° prism and is totally internally reflected
3) 4: 5 4) 5 : 4 at the glass- air interface. If the angle of
reflection is 45°, we conclude that the
3. If two mirrors are kept at 60° to each other, refractive index n
then the number of images formed by them 1
1) n < 2) n > 2
is 2
1) 5 2) 6 1
3) n > 4) n < 2
3) 7 4) 8 2

2003 8. The angle of incidence at which reflected light

4. To get three images of a single object, one in totally polarized for reflection from air to

should have two plane mirrors at an angle of glass (refractive index n), is

1) 60° 2) 90° 1) sin-1(n) 2) sin-1(1/n)

3) 120° 4) 30° 3) tan-1(1/n) 4) tan-1(n)

5. The image formed by an objective of a

compound microscope is 2005

1) virtual and diminished 9. A thin glass (refractive index 1.5) lens has

2) real and diminished optical power of -5 D in air. Its optical power in

3) real and enlarged a liquid medium with refractive index 1.6 will

4) virtual and enlarged be

1) 25 D 2) -25 D
3) 1 D 4) -1 D
5
5) * D
8

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U.SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 95

10. A fish looking up through the water sees the 2009
outside world contained in a circular 14. A transparent solid cylindrical rod has a
horizon. If the refractive index of water is 4/3 2
refractive index of . It is surrounded by air..
3
and the fish is 12 cm below the surface, the
A light ray is incident at the midpoint of one
radius of this circle in cm is
end of the rod as shown in the figure.
1) 36 5 2) 4 5
3) 36 7 4) 36 / 7

2006 The incident angle θ for which the light ray

11. The refractive index of glass is 1.520 for red grazes along the wall of the rod is
light and 1.525 for blue light. Let D1 and D2
 3
be angles of minimum deviation for red and  1 -1  
1) sin  
-1
2) sin  2 
blue light respectively in a prism of this glass. 2  

Then
1) D1 > D2  2   1 
3) sin-1  3  4) sin-1  3 
2) D1 < D2    

3) D1 = D2
4) D 1 can be less than or greater than 2010
depending upon the angle of prism. 15. As the beam enters the medium, it will
1) travel as a cylindrical beam
2007 2) diverge
12. Two lenses of power -15 D and +5 D are in 3) converge
contact with each other. The focal length of
4) diverge near the axis and converge near the
the combination is
periphery
1) + 10 cm 2) -20 cm
3) -10 cm 4) + 20 cm
2011
16. Let the x-z plane be the boundary between two
2008
transparent media. Medium 1 in z  0 has a
13. A student measures the focal length of a
convex lens by putting an object pin at a
refractive index of 2 and medium 2 with

distance u from the lens and measuring the z < 0 has a refractive index of 3 . A ray of

distance v of the image pin. The graph light in medium 1 given by the vector

between u and v plotted by the student A  6 3 ˆi  8 3 ˆj  10 kˆ is incident on the

should look like plane of separation. The angle of refraction in

medium 2 is
1) 2)
1) 30° 2) 45°
3) 60° 4) 75°

3) 4)

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U.SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 96

17. A car is fitted with a convex side - view
21. A green light is incident from the water to the
mirror of focal lenght 20 cm. A second car
air-water interface at the critical angle ( θ ).
2.8 m behind the first car is overtaking the
Select the correct statement.
first car at a relative speed of 15 m s-1. The
speed of the image of the second car as seen 1) The entire spectrum of visible light will come
in the mirror of the first one is
out of the water at various angles to the
1 1
1) ms-1 2) ms-1 normal.
10 15

3) 10 ms-1 4) 15 ms-1 2) The entire spectrum of visible light will come

out of the water at an angle of 90° to the

2013
normal.
18. Diameter of a plano-convex lens is 6 cm and
thickness at the centre is 3 mm. If speed of 3) The spectrum of visible light whose frequency
light in material of lens is 2 x 108 m/s, the
is less than that of green light will come out to
focal length of the lens is
1) 10 cm 2) 15 cm the air medium.

3) 20 cm 4) 30 cm
4) The spectrum of visible light whose frequency

is more than that of green light will come out

19. The graph between angle of deviation (  )
and angle of incidence (i) for a triangular to the air medium.
prism is represented by
2015
22. Monochromatic light is incident on a glass
1) 2) prism of angle A. If the refractive index of
the material of the prism is, a ray, incident
at an angle , on the face AB would get
transmitted through the face AC of the prism
3) 4) provided.
A

2014
20. A thin convex lens made from crown glass B C

 3
 μ   has focal length f. When it is
 2 1)
measured in two different liquids having
4 5
refractive indices and , it has the focal
3 3 2)
lengths f1 and f2 respectively. The correct
relation between the focal lengths is
3)
1) f1 and f2 both become negative
2) f1 = f2 < f
3) f1 > f and f2 becomes negative
4)
4) f2 > f and f1 becomes negative
CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U.SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 97
2016 2019 8th April Shift - II
23. An observer looks at a distant tree of height 27. Calculate the limit of resolution of a telescope
10 m with a telescope of magnifying power objective having a diameter of 200 cm, if it
of 20. To the observer the tree appears : has to detect light of wavelength 500 nm
1) 10 times taller 2) 10 times nearer coming from a star.
3) 20 times taller 4) 20 times nearer 1) 610 x 10-9 rad 2) 305 x 10-9 rad
3) 457.5 x 10-9 rad 4) 152.5 x 10-9 rad
24. In an experiment for determination of
refractive index of glass of a prism by 2019 8th April Shift - I
i- , plot, it was found that a ray incident at 28. In figure, the optical fibre is l = 2 m long and

angle 350, suffers a deviation of 400 and that has diameter of d = 20 m. If a ray of light is
it emerges at angle 790. In that case which of incident on one end of the fibre at angle
the following is closest to the maximum 1 = 40o, the number of reflections it makes
possible value of the refractive index ? before emerging from the other end is close
1) 1.5 2) 1.6 3) 1.7 4) 1.8 to (refractive index of fibre is 1.31 and
sin40o = 0.64)
2017
25. A diverging lens with magnitude of focal
length 25 cm is placed at a distance of 15 cm
from a converging lens of magnitude of focal
length 20 cm. A beam of parallel light falls on 1) 55000 2) 66000
the diverging lens. The final image formed is : 3) 45000 4) 57000
1) real and at a distance of 40 cm from
convergent lens. 2019 8th April Shift - II
2) virtual and at a distance of 40 cm from 29. A convex lens (of focal length 20 cm) and a
convergent lens. concave mirror, having their principal axes
3) real and at a distance of 40 cm from the along the same lines are kept 80 cm apart
divergent lens. from each other. The concave mirror is to the
4) real and at a distance of 6 cm from the right of the convex lens. When an object is
convergent lens. kept at a distance of 30 cm to the left of the
convex lens, its image remains at the same
2019 8th April Shift - I position even if the concave mirror is removed.
26. An upright object is placed at a distance of The maximum distance of the object for which
40 cm in front of a convergent lens of focal this concave mirror by itself would produce a
length 20 cm. A convergent mirror of focal virtual image would be
length 10 cm is placed at a distance of 60 cm 1) 25 cm 2) 20 cm
and the other side of the lens. The position 3) 10 cm 4) 30 cm
and size of the final image will be
1) 20 cm from the convergent mirror, same size
2019 9th April Shift - I
as the object
30. A convave mirror for face viewing has focal
2) 40 cm from the convergent mirror, same size
length of 0.4 m. The distance at which you
as the object
hold the mirror from your face in order to see
3) 40 cm from the convergent lens, twice the size
of the object your image upright with a magnification of 5 is
4) 20 cm from the convergent mirror, twice size 1) 0.16 m 2) 1.60 m
of the object 3) 0.32 m 4) 0.24 m

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2019 9th April Shift - II 2019 10th April Shift - I
31. A thin convex lens L (refractive index = 1.5) 36. One plano-convex and one plano-concave
is placed on a plane mirror M. When a pin is lens of same radius of curvature R but of
placed at A such that OA = 18 cm, its real different materials are joined side by side as
inverted image is formed at A itself as shown shown in the figure. If the refractive index of

in figure. When a liquid of refractive index the material of 1 is 1 and that of 2 is 2,then
the focal length of the combination is
l is put between the lens and the mirror, the
pin has to be moved A, such that OA = 27, to
1) 2)
get its inverted real image at A itself.
The value of l will be
3) 4)

2019 10th April Shift - II

37. The graph shows how the magnification m
produced by a thin lens varies with image
distance v. What is the focal length of the lens used ?

1) 2) 3) 4)

2019 9th April Shift - II

33. A convex lens of focal length 20 cm produces
images of the same magnification 2 when an
object is kept at two distances x1 and x2
(x1 > x2) from the lens. The ratio of x1 and x2 1) 2) 3) 4)
1) 5 : 3 2) 2 : 1
2019 12th April Shift - I
3) 4 : 3 4) 3 : 1
38. The value of numerical aperture of the
objective lens of a microscope is 1.25. If light
2019 9th April Shift - II
of wavelength 5000 Å is used, the minimum
34. Diameter of the objective lens of a telescope
separation between two points to be seen as
is 250 cm. For light of wavelength 600 nm
distinct will be
coming from a distant object, the limt of
resolution of the telescope is close to 1) 0.24 m 2) 0.38 m
1) 3.0 x 10-7 rad 2) 2.0 x 10-7 rad 3) 0.12 m 4) 0.48 m
-7
3) 1.5 x 10 rad 4) 4.5 x 10-7 rad
2019 12th April Shift - I
2019 10th April Shift - I 39. A concave mirror has radius of curvature of
35. A ray of light AO in vacuum is incident on a 40 cm. It is at the bottom of a glass that has
glass slab at angle 60o and refracted at angle water filled up to 5 cm (see figure). If a small
30 o along OB as shown in the figure. particle is floating on the surface of water, its
The optical path length of light ray from A to B is image as seen, from directly above the glass,
is at a distance d from the surface of water.
1) The value of d is close to [Refractive index of
water = 1.33]
2)
1) 6.7 cm

3) 2) 13.4 cm
3) 8.8 cm
4)
4) 11.7 cm

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U.SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 99

2019 12th April Shift - II 2019 9th Jan. Shift - I
40. A transparent cube of side d made of a 43. A convex lens is put 10 cm from a light source
material of refractive index 2, is immersed and it makes a sharp image on a screen kept
in a liquid of refractive index 1(1 < 2). 10 cm from the lens. Now a glass block
A ray is incident on the face AB at an angle  (refractive index is 1.5) of 1.5 cm thickness is
(shown in the figure). Total internal reflection placed in contact with the light source.
takes place at point E on the face BC. To get the sharp image again, the screen is
shifted by a distance d. Then, d is
1) 0
2) 1.1 cm away from the lens
3) 0.55 cm away from the lens
4) 0.55 cm towards the lens

Then,  must satisfy 2019 10th Jan. Shift - I

44. A plano-convex lens of refractive index 1 and
1) 2) focal length f1 is kept in contact with another
plano-concave lens of refractive index 2 and
focal length f2. If the radius of curvature of
3) 4) their spherical faces is R each and f1 = 2f2,
then 1 and 2 are related to
2019 9th Jan. Shift - I
41. Consider a tank made of glass (refractive 1) 32 - 21 = 1 2) 22 - 1 = 1
index is 1.5) with a thick bottom. It is filled 3) 21 - 2 = 1 4) 1 + 2 = 3
with a liquid of refractive index . A student
finds that irrespective of what the incident 2019 10th Jan. Shift - II
angle i (see figure) is for a beam of light 45. The eye can be regarded as a single refracting
entering the liquid, the light reflected from surface. The radius of curvature of this
the liquid glass interface is never completely
surface is equal to that of cornea (7.8 mm).
polarised. For this to happen, the minimum
This surface separates two media of refractive
value of  is
indices 1 and 1.34. Calculate the distance from
the refracting surface at which a parallel
beam of light will come to focus.
1) 4.0 cm 2) 2 cm
3) 3.1 cm 4) 1 cm

1) 2) 2019 11th Jan. Shift - I

46. An object is at at distance of 20 m from a
convex lens of focal length 0.3 m. The lens
3) 4)
forms an image of the object. If the object
moves away from the lens at a speed of
2019 9th Jan. Shift - II 5 m/s, the speed and direction of the image
42. The plane mirrors (M 1 and M2) are inclined to will be
each other such that a ray of light incident
1) 3.22 x 10-3 m/s towards the lens
on mirror M 1 and parallel to the mirror M 2 is
reflected from mirror M 2 parallel to the 2) 0.92 x 10-3 m/s away from the lens
mirror M1. The angle between the two mirror is
3) 2.26 x 10-3 m/s away from the lens
o o
1) 45 2) 75
4) 1.16 x 10-3 m/s towards the lens
3) 90o 4) 60o

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U.SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 100

2019 11th Jan. Shift - I 2019 12th Jan. Shift - I
47. The variation of refractive index of a crown 50. A point source of light S is placed at a
glass thin prism with wavelength of the distance L in front of the centre of plane
incident light is shown. Which of the follow- mirror of width d which is hanging vertically
ing graphs is the correct one, if Dm is the angle on a wall. A man walks in front of the mirror
of minimum deviation ? along a line parallel to the mirror at a
distance 2L as shown below.
The distance over which the man can see the
image of the light source in the mirror is

Dm

1) 2) 1) d/2 2) d 3) 3d 4) 2d

2019 12th Jan. Shift - I

51. What is the position and nature of image
Dm formed by lens combination shown in figure ?
3) 4) (where f1 and f2 are focal lengths)

2019 11th Jan. Shift - II

48. A monochromatic light is incident at a 1) 20/3 cm from point B at right, real
certain angle on an equilateral triangular 2) 70 cm from point B at right, real
prism and suffers minimum deviation. If the 3) 40 cm from point B at right, real
refractive index of the material of the prism 4) 70 cm from point B at left, virtual
is 3, then the angle of incidence is
2019 12th Jan. Shift - II
1) 45o 2) 90o
52. Formation of real image using a biconvex
3) 60o 4) 30o lens is shown below. If the whole set up is
immersed in water without disturbing the
2019 12th Jan. Shift - II object and the screen positions, what will one
49. A plano-convex lens (focal length f2, refractive observe on the screen ?
index 2, radius of curvature R) fits exactly
into a plano-concave lens (focal length f1,
refractive index 1, radius of curvature R).
Their plane surfaces are parallel to each
other. Then the focal length of the
combination will be 1) No change 2) Magnified image
1) 2) 3) Image disappears 4) Erect real image

3) 4)

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U.SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 101

2020 7th Jan. Shift - I 2020 9th Jan. Shift - I
53. If we need a magnification of 375 from a 58. A vessel of depth 2h is half filled with a liquid
compound microscope of tube length 150 mm of refractive index 22 and the upper half with
and an objective of focal length 5mm, the another liquid of refractive index  2.
focal length of the eye-piece should be close to The liquids are immiscible. The apparent
1) 22 mm 2) 12 mm depth of the inner surface of the bottom of
3) 33 mm 4) 2 mm vessel will be

2020 7th Jan. Shift - II 1) 2)

54. A thin lens made of glass (refractive index = 1.5)
of focal length f = 16 cm is immersed in a 3) 4)
liquid of refractive index 1.42. If its focal length
in liquid is fl, then the ratio fl/f is closest to
integer 2020 9th Jan. Shift - II
1) 5 2) 1 3) 17 4) 9 59. There is a small source of light at some depth
below the surface of water (refractive index = 4/3)
2020 9th Jan. Shift - I
in a tank of large cross sectional surface area.
55. The magnifying power of a telescope with tube
length 60 cm is 5. What is the focal length of Neglecting any reflection from the bottom and
its eye piece ? absorption by water, percentage of light that
1) 30 cm 2) 40 cm emerges out of surface is (nearly)
3) 10 cm 4) 20 cm [Use the fact that surface area of a spherical
cap of height h and radius of curvature r is
2020 8th Jan. Shift - I
2rh]
56. A point object in air is in front of the curved
1) 34% 2) 17%
surface of a plano-convex lens. The radius of
curvature of the curved surface is 30 cm and 3) 21% 4) 50%
the refractive index of the lens material is 1.5,
then the focal length of the lens (in cm) is ___ 2020 2nd Sept. Shift - I
60. A spherical mirror is obtained as shown in
2020 8th Jan. Shift - II the figure from a hollow glass sphere. If an
57. An object is gradually moving away from the
object is positioned in front of the mirror, what
focal point of a concave mirror along the axis
will be the nature and magnification of the
of the mirror. The graphical representation of
the magnitude of linear magnification (m) image of the object ? (Figure drawn as
versus distance of the object from the mirror schematic and not to scale)
(x) is correctly given by
(graphs are drawn schematically and are not
to scale)

1) 2)

1) Inverted, real and magnified

2) Erect, virtual and magnified
3) 4) 3) Erect, virtual and unmagnified
4) Inverted, real and unmagnified

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U.SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 102

2020 2nd Sept. Shift - II
2020 4th Sept. Shift - II
61. A light ray enters a solid glass sphere of 65. The distance between an object and a screen
refractive index  = 3 at an angle of is 100 cm. A lens can produce real image of
incidence 60°. The ray is both reflected and
the object on the screen for two different
refracted at the farther surface of the sphere. positions between the screen and the
The angle (in degrees) between the reflected object. The distance between these two
and refracted rays at this surface is______.
positions is 40 cm. If the power of the lens is
 N 
close to  100  D where N is an integer, the
 
2020 3rd Sept. Shift - I value of N is ______.
62. An observer can see through a small hole on
the side of a jar (radius 15 cm) at a point at 2020 5th Sept. Shift - I
height of 15 cm from the bottom (see figure). 66. For a concave lens of focal length f, the
The hole is at a height of 45 cm. When the jar relation between object and image distance
is filled with a liquid up to a height of 30 cm u and v, respectively, from its pole can best
the same observer can see the edge at the be represented by (u = v is the reference line):
bottom of the jar. If the refractive index of the
liquid N/100, where N is an integer, the valueof
N is___________.

67. A compound microscope consists of an

objective lens of focal length 1 cm and an
eye piece of focal length 5 cm with a
2020 3rd Sept. Shift - II separation of 10 cm.
63. When an object is kept at a distance of 30 cm The distance between an object and the
from a concave mirror, the image is formed objective lens, at which the strain on the eyeis
at a distance of 10 cm from the mirror. If the
n
object is moved with a speed of 9 cms–1, the minimum is cm. The value of n is ____.
40
speed (in cms–1) with which image moves at
that instant is _______. 2020 5th Sept. Shift - II
68. A prism of angle A = 1° has a refractive index
2020 4th Sept. Shift - I  = 1.5. A good estimate for the minimum
64. In a compound microscope, the magnified angle of deviation (in degrees) is close to
virtual image is formed at a distance of 25 cm
N
from the eye-piece. The focal length of its . Value of N is ______.
10
objective lens is 1 cm. If the magnification is
100 and the tube length of the microscope is
20 cm, then the focal length of the eye-piece
lens (in cm) is ________.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U.SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 103

2020 6th Sept. Shift - I
69. A point like object is placed at a distance of
1m in front of a convex lens of focal length
0.5 m. A plane mirror is placed at a distance
of 2 m behind the lens. The position and
nature of the final image formed by the
system is :
1) 1 m from the mirror, virtual
2) 1 m from the mirror, real
3) 2.6 m from the mirror, real
4) 2.6 m from the mirror, virtual

2020 6th Sept. Shift - II

70. A double convex lens has power P and same
radii of curvature R of both the surfaces. The
radius of curvature of a surface of a plano-
convex lens made of the same material with
power 1.5 P is:
R
1) 2) 2R
2
3R R
3) 4)
2 3

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U.SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 104

 NEET
2000 7. Optical fibre are based on
1) total internal reflection
1. Rainbow is formed due to
2) less scattering
1) scattering and refraction
3) refraction
2) internal reflection and dispersion
4) less absorption coefficient
3) reflection only
4) diffraction and dispersion 2002
8. For the given incident ray as shown in figure,
2. For a pIano convex lens ( μ = 1.5) has radius the condition of total internal refraction of this
of curvature 10 cm. It is silvered on its plane ray the required refractive index of prism will
surface. Find focal length after silvering be Incident ray
1) 10 cm 2) 20 cm
3) 15 cm 4) 25 cm

3. A tall man of height 6 feet, want to see his

fullimage. Then required minimum length of
3 1 2 1
1) 2)
the mirror will be 2 2
1) 12 feet 2) 3 feet
3 7
3) 6 feet 4) any length 3) 4)
2 6

4. A bubble in glass slab ( μ = 1.5) when viewed

9. A bulb is located on a wall. Its image is to be
from one side appears at 5 cm and 2 cm from
obtained on a parallel wall with the help of
other side, then thickness of slab is
1) 3.75 cm 2) 3 cm convex lens. The lens is placed at a distance

3) 10.5 cm 4) 2.5 cm d ahead of second wall, then required focal

length will be
2001 d d
1) only 2) only
5. A disc is placed on a surface of pond which 4 2
has refractive index 5/3. A source of light is d d
3) more than but less than
placed 4 m below the surface of liquid. The 4 2
minimum radius of disc needed so that light d
4) less than
is not coming out is, 4
1)  2) 3 m 3) 6 m 4) 4 m
2003
6. A ray of light travelling in air have wave- 10. A convex lens is dipped in a liquid whose
length  , frequency n, velocity v and inten- refractive index is equal to the refractive
sity I. If this ray enters into water then these index of the lens. Then its focal length will
parameters are  ', n'; v' and I' respectively.. 1) become zero 2) become infinite
Which relation is correct from following?
3) become small, but non-zero
1)  = ' 2) n = n'
4) remain unchanged
3) v = v' 4) I = I'

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U.SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 105

11. An equiconvex lens is cut into two halves 14. A microscope is focussed on a mark on a
along (i) XOX’ and (ii) YOY’ as shown in the piece of paper and then a slab of glass of thick-
ness 3 cm and refractive index 1.5 is placed
figure. Let f, f’, f” be the focal lengths of the
over the mark. How should the
complete lens. of each half in case (i), and of
microscope be moved to get the mark in
each half in case (ii), respectively.
focus again?
Choose the correct statement from the
following : 1) 2 cm upward
2) 1 cm upward
3) 4.5 cm downward
4) 1 cm downward.

2007
15. The frequency of a light wave in a material is
o
1) f’ = f, f” = 2f 2) f’ = 2f, f” = f 2 x 1014 Hz and wavelength is 5000 A . The
3) f’ = f, f” = f 4) f’ = 2f, f” = 2f refractive index of material will be
1) 1.50 2) 3.00
2004 3) 1.33 4) 1.40
12. The refractive index of the material of a prism
is 2 and its refracting angle is 30°. One of 16. A small coin is resting on the bottom of a
the refracting surfaces of the prism is made a beaker filled with liquid. A ray of light from
mirror inwards. A beam of monochromatic the coin travels upto the surface of the liquid
light entering the prism from the other face and moves along its surface. How fast is the
will retrace its path after reflection from the light travelling in the liquid?
mirrored surface if its angle of incidence on
the prism is
1) 45°
3) 60°
3) 0
4) 30° 1) 2.4 x 108 m/s 2) 3.0 x 108 m/s
2) 1.2 x 108 m/s 4) 1.8 X 108 m/s
2006
13. A convex lens and a concave lens, each 2008
having same focal length of 25 cm, are put in 17. A boy is trying to start a fire by focusing
contact to form a combination of lenses. The sunlight on a piece of paper using an

power in diopters of the combination is equiconvex lens of focal length 10 cm. the

1) zero diameter of the sun is 1.39 x 109 m and its

mean distance from the earth is 1.5 x 1011 m.
2) 25
what is the diameter of the sun’s image on
3) 50
the paper ?
4) infinite
1) 6.5 x 10-5 m 2) 12.4 x 10-4 m
3) 9.2 x 10-4 m 4) 6.5 x 10-4 m

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U.SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 106

18. Two thin lenses of focal lengths 1 and 2 are 22. A ray of light is incident on a 60° prism at the
in contact and coaxial. The power of the minimum deviation position. The angle of

combination is refraction at the first face (i.e., incident face)

of the prism is
f1  f 2 f1  f 2
1) 2) 1) zero 2) 30° 3) 45° 4) 60°
2 f1 f 2

f1 f 2 2011
3) 4)
f 2 f1 23. Which of the following is not due to total

2010 internal reflection ?

19. A ray of light travelling in a transparent 1) Working of optical fibre

medium of refractive index  , falls on a 2) Difference between apparent and real depth of

surface separating the medium from air at an a pond

angle of incidence of 45º. For which of the 3) Mirage on hot summer days

following value of  the ray can undergo 4) Brilliance of diamond

total internal reflection?

1)  = 1.33 2)  = 1.40 24. A biconvex lens has a radius of curvature of

3)  = 1.50 4)  = 1.25 magnitude 20 cm. Which one of the

following options describe best the image

20. A lens having focal length  and aperture of formed of an object of height 2 cm placed

diameter d forms an image of intensity I. 30 cm from the lens.

1) Virtual, upright, height = 1 cm
d
Aperture of diameter in central region of 2) Virtual, upright, height = 0.5 cm
2
lens is covered by a black paper. Focal length 3) Real, inverted, height = 4 cm

of lens and intensity of image now will be 4) Real, inverted, height = 1 cm

respectively
25. A converging beam of rays is incident on a
I 3f I
1) f and 2) and diverging lens. Having passed through the
4 4 2
lens the rays intersect at a point 15 cm from
3I f I
3) f and 4) and the lens on the opposite side. If the lens is
4 4 2
removed the point where the rays meet will

21. The speed of light in media M 1 and M 2 are move 5 cm closer to the lens. The focal length

1.5 x 108 m/s and 2.0 x 108 m/s respectively. A of the lens is

ray of light enters from medium M 1 to M2 at an 1) 5 cm 2) -10 cm 3) 20 cm 4) -30 cm

incidence angle i. If the ray suffers total 2012

internal reflection, the value of i is 26. When a biconvex lens of glass having
2  refractive index 1.47 is dipped in a liquid, it
1) Equal to sin-1  
 3
acts as a plane sheet of glass. This implies
-1  3 
2) Equal to or less than sin   that the liquid must have refractive index
5

 3  1) equal to that of glass

3) Equal to or greater than sin-1  
 4  2) less than one
2
4) Less than sin-1   , 3) greater than that of glass
 3
4) less than that of glass
CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U.SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 107
27. A ray of light is incident at an angle of 31. A rod of length 10 cm lies along the principal
incidence i, on one face of a prism of angle A axis of a concave mirror of focal length

(assumed to be small) and emerges 10 cm in such a way that its end closer to the

normally from the opposite face. If the pole is 20 cm away from the mirror. The length

refractive index of the prism is , the angle of the image is

of incidence i, is nearly equal to 1) 10 cm 2) 15 cm

A 3) 2.5 cm 4) 5 cm
1) A 2)
2
2013
A A
3) 4) 32. A plano convex lens fits exactly into a plano
 2
concave lens. Their plane surfaces are
parallel to each other. If lenses are made of

28. A concave mirror of focal length 1 is placed different materials of refractive indices 1 and

at a distance of d from a convex lens of focal 2 and R is the radius of curvature of the
length  2 . A beam of light coming from curved surface of the lenses, then the focal

infinity and falling on this convex lens - length of the combination is :

concave mirror combination returns to R R

infinity. The distance d must equal 1) 2)
2(1 - 2) (1 - 2)

1) 1 +2 2) 1 +2

2R R
3) 21 +2 4) -21 +2 3) 4)
(2 - 1) 2(1 - 2)

29. The magnifying power of a telescope is 9. 33. For a normal eye, the cornea of eye provides
When it is adjusted for parallel rays the a converging power of 40 D and the least
distance between the objective and eyepiece converging power of the eye lens behind the
is 20 cm. The focal length of lenses are cornea is 20 D. Using this information, the
1) 10 cm, 10 cm 2) 15 cm, 5 cm distance between the retina and the
3) 18 cm, 2 cm 4) 11 cm, 9 cm cornea-eye lens can be estimated to be :
1) 2.5 cm 2) 1.67 m
30. For the angle of minimum deviation of a prism 3) 1.5 cm 4) 5 cm
to be equal to its refracting angle, the prism
must be made of a material whose refractive 2014
index 34. If the focal length of objective lens is

1) lies between 2 and 1 increased then magnefying power of :

1) microscope will increase but that of telescope
2) lies between 2 and 2
decrease
3) is less than 1
2) microscope and telescope both will increase
4) is greater than 2
3) microscope and telescope both will decrease
4) microscope will decrease but that of
telescope increase

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U.SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 108

35. The angle of a prism is ‘A’. One of its
39. A beam of light consisting of red, green and
refracting surfaces is silvered. Light rays blue colours is incident on a right angled
falling at an angle of incidence 2A on the prism. The refractive index of the material of
first surface returns back through the same the prism for the above red, green and blue
path after suffering reflection at the silvered wavelengths are 1.39, 1.44 and 1.47

surface. The refractive index , of the prism is : respectively.

A
1) 2sin A 2) 2cos A Blue
3) ½ cos A 4) tan A
Green

2015 Red
0
36. Two identical thin plano-convex glass lenses 45
B C
(refractive index 1.5) each having radius of
curvature of 20 cm are placed with their The prism will :

convex surfaces in contact at the centre. 1) separate the red colour part from the green and
blue colours
The intervening space is filled with oil of
2) separate the blue colour part from the red and
refractive index 1.7. The focal length of the
green colours
combination is :
3) separate all the three colours from one another
1) - 20 cm 2) - 25 cm 4) not separate the three colours at all.
3) - 50 cm 4) 50 cm
2016
37. The refracting angle of a prism is A, and 40. The angle of incidence for a ray of light at a
refractive index of the material of the prism refracting surface of a prism is 45° . The angle
is cot(A/2). The angle of minimum deviation is : of prism is 60°. If the ray suffers minimum
o o
1) 180 - 3A 2) 180 - 2A deviation through the prism, the angle of
o o
3) 90 - A 4) 180 + 2A minimum deviation and refractive index of the
material of the prism respectively, are :
RE-AIPMT 2015 1
(1) 45°, (2) 30°, 2
38. In an astronomical telescope in normal 2

adjustment a straight black line of length L 1

(3) 45°, 2 (4) 30°,
2
is drawn on inside part of objective lens.
The eye-piece forms a real image of this line.
41. An astronomical telescope has objective and
The length of the image is I. The
eyepiece of focal lengths 40 cm and 4 cm
magnification of the telescope is :
respectively. To view an object 200 cm away
1) L/I 2) L/(I + 1)
from the objective, the lenses must be
3) L/(I - 1) 4) (L + I) / (L - I)
separated by a distance :-
(1) 37.3 cm (2) 46.0 cm
(3) 50.0 cm (4) 54.0 cm

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U.SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 109

42. Match the corresponding entries of column-1 2017
with coloumn-2 (Where m is the magnefication 46. A beam of light from a source L is incident
produced by the mirror) :- normally on a plane mirror fixed at a certain
Column-1 Column-2 distance x from the source. The beam is
(A) m = -2 (a) Convex mirror reflected back as a spot on a scale placed
1 just above the source L. When the mirror is
(B) m = - (b) Concave mirror rotated through a small angle , the spot of
2
(C) m = +2 (c) Real image the light is found to move through a distance

1 y on the scale. The angle  is given by :

(D) m = + (d) Virtual image
2 x y
1) 2)
y 2x
(1) A b and c, B  b and c, C  b and d, y x
3) 4)
D a and d. x 2y
(2) A  a and c, B  a and d, C  a and b,
D  c and d 47. A thin prism having refracting angle 10° is
(3) A  a and d, B  b and c, C  b and d, made of glass of refractive index 1.42. This
D  b and c prism is combined with another thin prism of
(4) A c and d, B  b and d, C  b and c, glass of refractive index 1.7. This
D  a and d combination produces dispersion without
deviation. The refracting angle of second
2016 NEET - II prism should be:
43. Two identical glass (  g = 3/2) equiconvex 1) 10º 2) 4º
lenses of focal length f each are kept in 3) 6º 4) 8º
contact. The space between the two lenses is
filled with water (w = 4/3). The focal length 2018
of the combination is 48. The refractive index of the material of a prism
1) 4f/3 2) 3f/4 3) f/3 4) f is 2 and the angle of the prism is 30o. One
of the two refracting surfaces of the prism is
44. An air bubble in a glass slab with refractive
made a mirror inwards, by silver coating.
index 1·5 (near normal incidence) is 5 cm
A beam of monochromatic light entering the
deep when viewed from one surface and
prism from the other face will retrace its path
3 cm deep when viewed from the opposite
(after reflection from the silvered surface)
face. The thickness (in cm) of the slab is
if its angle of incidence on the prism is
1) 12 2) 16 3) 8 4) 10
1) 30o 2) 45o
3) 60o 4) zero
45. A person can see clearly objects only when
they lie between 50 cm and 400 cm from his 49. An object is placed at a distance of 40 cm
eyes. In order to increase the maximum from a concave mirror of focal length 15 cm.
distance of distinct vision to infinity, the type If the object is displaced through a distance
and power of the correcting lens, the person of 20 cm towards the mirror, the displacement
has to use, will be of the image will be
1) concave, -0·2 diopter 1) 30 cm towards the mirror
2) convex, +0·15 diopter 2) 36 cm away from the mirror
3) convex, +2·25 diopter 3) 30 cm away from from the mirror
4) concave, -0·25 diopter 4) 36 cm towards the mirror

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U.SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 110

NEET - 2019
50. Which colour of the light has the longest
wavelength ?
1) red 2) blue
3) green 4) violet

51. Pick the wrong answer in the context with

rainbow.
1) When the light rays undergo two internal
reflections in a water drop, a secondary rainbow
is formed.
2) The order of colours is reversed in the
secondary rainbow.
3) An observer can see a rainbow when his front
is towards the sun.
4) Rainbow is a combined effect of dispersion
refraction and reflection sunlight.

52. Two similar thin equi-convex lenses, of focal

length f each, are kept coaxially in contact
with each other such that the focal length of
the combination is F 1 . When the space
between the two lenses is filled with
glycerin (which has the same refractive
index (µ = 1.5)
as that of glass) then the equivalent focal
length is F2. The ratio F1 : F2 will be :

1) 2 : 1 2) 1 : 2

3) 2 : 3 4) 3 : 4

53. In total internal reflection when the angle of

incidence is equal to the critical angle for
the pair of media in contact, what will be
angle of refraction ?
1) 180°
2) 0°
3) equal to angle of incidence
4) 90°

NEET - 2020
54. A ray is incident at an angle of incidence i
on one surface of a small angle prism (with
angle of prism A) and emerges normally from
the opposite surface. If the refractive index
of the material of the prism is µ, then the angle
of incidence is nearly equal to:
1) A/2 2) A/2 3) 2A/ 4) A

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U.SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 111

 WAVE OPTICS

Introduction: Physical optics deals with the wave nature of light. The phenomena of
interference, diffraction and polarization can be explained through wave nature of light.
Light is a form of energy and it can be transferred from one point to another either by
particle motion or by wave motion. Accordingly different theories on the nature of light have
been proposed. The theories of light are: Newton’s corpuscular theory of light, Huygens
wave theory of light, Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory & Planck’s quantum theory of
radiation.

I. Newton’s corpuscular theory of light (1672) : According to this theory:

1.Light consists of a stream of extremely light, perfectly elastic and tiny material particles
called corpuscles.
2.The corpuscles travel in straight lines with the speed of light.
3.The corpuscles produce the sensation of vision when they enter the eye.
4.Different colours of the light are due to different sizes of the corpuscles.
5.Speed of light in a denser medium is greater than that in a rarer medium.
6.Reflection of light is due to repulsive force offered by a reflecting surface.
7.Refraction of light is due to attractive force offered by a refracting surface.

Advantages: The theory could explain:

1.Rectilinear propagation of light.
2.Reflection of light.
3.Dispersion of light.

Disadvantages:
1.The theory fails to explain: simultaneous reflection and refraction of light, formation of
Newton’s rings, interference, diffraction and polarization of light.
2.The theory predicts that speed of light in a denser medium is more than that in a rarer
medium, which is incorrect as per the experimental results of Focault and Michleson.
3.As per this theory, different colours of the light are due to different sizes of corpuscles.
But different colours of light are due to different wavelengths.

II. Huygens wave theory of light (1678) : According to this theory :

1.Light propagates in the form of longitudinal waves in a hypothetical medium called ether
which is present everywhere in the universe.
2.Speed of light in a rarer medium is more than that in a denser medium.
3.Different colours of the light are due to different wavelengths of waves.
4.The waves produce sensation of vision when they enter the eye.

Advantages:
1.The theory could explain : reflection , refraction, simultaneous reflection and refraction ,
interference and diffraction of light.
2.The theory predicts that the speed of light is more in a rarer medium than that in a denser
medium. This prediction is in agreement with the experimental results.
3.According to the wave theory, different colours of light are due to different wavelengths of
waves, which is correct as per the experimental facts.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 112

Disadvantages:
1.According to this theory, there exists ether medium every where in the universe for the
propagation of wave. But such a medium does not exist.
2.The theory fails to explain, polarization of light, rectilinear propagation of light,
photoelectric effect and Compton effect.
3.According to the wave theory, light is longitudinal in nature. But light is transverse in
nature.

III. Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory ( 1873): According to this theory :

1.Light propagates in the form of electromagnetic waves.
2.An electromagnetic wave consists of changing electric and magnetic fields.
3.The electric and magnetic fields change with time and space with the same frequency.
4.The electromagnetic waves are transverse in nature.
5.The speed of the electromagnetic wave in space is given by:

1
c=  3  10 8 ms 1
 0 0
Where:
 0 = absolute permeability of free space = 4   10 7 Hm 1
 0 = absolute permittivity of free space = 8.854  10 12 Fm 1

This confirms that light is an electromagnetic wave.

6.The two fields are perpendicular to each other and also perpendicular to the direction of
wave propagation as shown in the figure.

Advantages: The theory could explain: reflection, refraction, interference, diffraction and
polarization of light.

Disadvantages: The theory failed to explain: photoelectric effect, Compton effect, emission
and absorption of radiation.

IV. Planck’s quantum theory of radiation (1900) : According to this theory:

1.Light transmits in the form of tiny, invisible packets of energy called photons.
2.A photon travels in a straight line with a speed of light in vacuum ( 3  10 8 ms 1 )
3.A photon can never be at rest in vacuum.
4.A photon at rest has zero mass.
5.A photon behaves like a particle during interaction of radiation with matter.
6. As photon is electrically neutral it cannot be deflected by electric and magnetic fields.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 113

7.The energy of photon is given by:
E  h
Where:
h = Planck’s constant = 6.625  10-34 Js.
 = frequency of light (radiation).

Advantages: The theory could explain: photoelectric effect, Compton effect, Raman effect,
reflection, refraction, rectilinear propagation, black body radiation, emission and absorption
spectra.

Disadvantages: The theory failed to explain interference, diffraction and polarization of

light.

V. Dual nature of light: Light exhibits both wave nature and particle nature. This is called
dual nature of light. Since light has dual nature, de-Broglie suggested that matter must also
possess dual nature. Therefore, the material particles (electron, proton and neutron) exhibit
the properties of waves. The wave associated with a moving material particle is called
matter wave or de-Broglie wave. The wavelength of matter wave is called de-Broglie
wavelength

The wavelength of matter wave(de- Brogile wavelength) is given by:

h

mv

Where:
m= mass of the material particle.
v = velocity of the particle.
h=Planck’s constant.

Wavefront: When a stone is dropped into a pond of water, the water surface gets
disturbed. A moving disturbance is created in the form of ripples (circular rings). This
disturbance produced in the water medium is called wave. The particles of the water move
up and down about their mean positions, when a wave is produced. The waves spread from
the point of impact. Every point on the surface starts oscillating with time. The position of an
oscillating particle at any instant is called phase. All points on a circular ring oscillate in phase as
they lie at the same distance from the point of impact(source). Such a surface (locus) of
points which oscillate in phase is called a wavefront.
A surface (locus) passing through the particles of the medium which are in the same phase
is called a wavefront.

Definition of wavefront: A wavefront is defined as a surface of constant phase.

Types of wavefront:
Spherical wavefront ,Cylindrical wavefront & Plane wavefront.

1.Spherical wavefront: A wavefront produced by a point source of light at a small distance in a

homogeneous medium is called spherical wavefront.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 114

The particles P1, P2, P3, P4, P5, P6, P7& P8 are equidistant from the point source of light S.

The small portion AB of the sphere gives a spherical wavefront.

2. Cylindrical wavefront: A wavefront produced by a linear source of light

at a small distance in a homogeneous medium is called cylindrical wavefront.

The particles P1, P2, P3 ……P6 and Q1, Q2, Q3, ……..Q6 are equidistant from
linear source of light S.The locus for these particles represents a cylindrical wavefront.

3.Plane wavefront : A small portion of a spherical wavefront or a cylindrical wavefront

produced by a distant source of light is called a plane wavefront. The particles P 1, P2,
P3, P4 and P5 are equidistant from a distant source of light.

The locus AB for these particles represents a plane wavefront.

Note :
1.Spherical wavefront is produced by a point source of light.
2.Cylindrical wavefront is produced by a linear source of light.
3.Plane wavefront is produced by a distant source of light(point or linear source of light).

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 115

4.The wavefront representing a converging or diverging beam of light is called a
spherical wavefront.
5.The wavefront representing a parallel beam of light is called a plane wavefront.
6.A spherical wavefront AB after refraction through a convex lens is rendered into a
plane wavefront A1B1, when the point source of light is placed at the focus of the lens.

7.A plane wavefront AB after refraction through a convex lens is rendered into a
spherical wavefront A1B1..

8.A plane wavefront AB after refraction through a prism is rendered into a plane
wavefront A1B1.

9.A plane wavefront AB after reflection from a concave mirror is rendered into a
spherical wavefront A1B1.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 116

10.A spherical wavefront AB after reflection from a concave mirror is rendered into a
plane wavefront A1B1.

11.A plane wavefront AB after reflection from a convex mirror is rendered into a
spherical wavefront A1B1.

12.The energy of the wave travels in a direction perpendicular to the wavefront.

13.A ray of light is always perpendicular to the plane of wavefront.

14.The speed with which the wavefront moves outwards from the source is called the
speed of the wave.
Huygens principle: Huygens principle is used to construct a wavefront at a later
instant (secondary wavefront), if a wavefront at an earlier instant (primary wavefront)
is given.
According to this principle:
1.The points on the primary wavefront AB act as sources of secondary wavelets(new
disturbances).
2.The secondary wavelets travel in all directions with the velocity of light.
3.The wavefront A1B1 at a later instant is obtained by drawing a common envelope to
the secondary wavelets at that instant.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 117

Proof of laws of refraction on the basis of Huygens principle (Refraction of light
on the basis of wave theory): Consider a plane wavefront incident on a plane
refracting surface separating a rarer medium from a denser medium.

Let:
XY = a plane refracting surface.
n1 = RI of rarer medium.
n2 = RI of denser medium.
v1 = velocity of light in the rarer medium.
v2 =velocity of light in the denser medium.
AB = incident plane wavefront ( primary wavefront).
CD = refracted plane wavefront ( secondary wavefront).
N and N/ = normals to XY through A and C respectively.
i = angle of incidence.
r = angle of refraction.
Since AB is the given wavefront, the points A and B on it act as sources of secondary
wavelets. The distance covered by the secondary wavelet emitted by B in the rarer
medium in time t is BC . At the same time t, the distance covered by the secondary
wavelet emitted by A in the denser medium is AD. Keeping A as centre and AD as
radius, an arc in the denser medium is drawn. The tangent CD to this arc represents
the refracted wavefront, as the points C and D are in the same phase.

Velocities of the secondary wavelets emitted by B and A are given by:

BC
v1   BC  v1t …………………..(1)
t

AD
v2   AD  v 2 t ……………….....(2)
t

From ABC :
BC
sin i  ……………......................…(3)
AC

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 118

From  ADC :
AD
sin r  …………......................……(4)
AC

Dividing equation (3) by (4):

sin i BC

sin r AD
sin i v1t

sin r v 2 t
sin i v1
 …………...............................(5)
sin r v 2
Velocity .of .light .in.vacuum
Absolute.RI 
Velocity .of .in.a.medium

 Absolute refractive indices of the given media are given by:

c
n1  .................................................(6)
v1
c
n2  ................................................(7)
v2

Dividing equation (7) by (6):

n 2 v1
 …….....................................….(8)
n1 v 2

On comparing equations (5) and (8):

n 2 sin i
  n1 sin i  n 2 sin r ……...…..(9)
n1 sin r

This is the Snell’s law of refraction.

Further, the incident wavefront AB , the refracted wavefront CD and the refracting
surface XY are all perpendicular to the plane of the paper. This means that, the
incident ray, the refracted ray & the normal to the refracting surface through the point of
incidence all lie in the same plane.

Proof of laws of reflection on the basis of Huygens principle (Reflection of light

on the basis of wave theory): Consider a plane wavefront incident on a plane
reflecting surface.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 119

Let:
XY = a plane reflecting surface.
v =velocity of light.
AB = incident plane wavefront ( primary wavefront).
CD = reflected plane wavefront ( secondary wavefront).
N and N/ = normals to XY through A and C respectively.
i = angle of incidence.
r = angle of reflection.
Since AB is the given wavefront, the points A and B on it act as sources of secondary
wavelets. The distance covered by the secondary wavelet emitted by B in time t is BC.
At the same time t, the distance covered by the secondary wavelet emitted by A is
AD. Keeping A as centre and AD as radius, an arc is drawn. The tangent CD to this
arc represents the reflected wavefront, as the points C and D are in the same phase.

Velocities of secondary wavelets emitted by B and A are given by:

BC
v  BC  vt ………………………..(1)
t

AD
v  AD  vt …….......................…(2)
t

From equations (1) and (2), it follows that:

BC= AD..................................................(3)

In ABC . & ADC :

LABC=LADC=900

AD=BC .................... from equation (3)

AC is common.

 ABC . & ADC are congruent.

LBAC=LDCA

i  r ……………………...................….(4)

 Angle of incidence is equal to angle of reflection.

Further, the incident wavefront AB , the reflected wavefront CD and the reflecting
surface XY are all perpendicular to the plane of the paper. This means that, the incident
ray, the reflected ray and the normal to the reflecting surface through the point of
incidence all lie in the same plane.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 120

Doppler effect in light: The apparent change in the frequency or wavelength of light due to
the relative motion between the source and the observer is called Doppler effect in light.

Note:
1.If the distance between the source and the observer decreases, then the apparent
frequency of light increases and its apparent wavelength decreases.
2.If the distance between the source and the observer increases, then the apparent
frequency of light decreases and its apparent wavelength increases.
i. When the source is receding (moving away) from the stationary observer:

a.Expression for apparent wavelength:

v
    
c
It is clear from this equation that,     .

Therefore, when the source moves away from the stationary observer, the apparent
wavelength of light increases.
As the apparent wavelength of light increases, the spectral lines in the middle of the visible
spectrum get shifted towards red end of the spectrum (longer wavelength side). This is
called red shift.

b. Expression for fractional change in wavelength:

 v

 c

c. Expression for percentage increase in wavelength:

 v
x100%  x100%
 c

d. Expression for apparent frequency:

v
f f  f
c

It is clear from this equation that, f   f .

Therefore, when the source moves away from the observer, the apparent frequency of
light decreases.

e. Expression for fractional change in frequency:

f v

f c

f. Expression for percentage decrease in frequency:

f v
x100%   x100%
f c

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 121

ii. When the source is approaching (moving towards) the stationary observer:

a. Expression for apparent wavelength:

v
    
c
It is clear from this equation that,    

Therefore, when the source moves towards the stationary observer, the apparent
wavelength of light decreases.
As the apparent wavelength of light decreases, the spectral lines in the middle of the visible
spectrum get shifted towards blue (shorter wavelength).This is called blue shift.

b. Expression for fractional change in the wavelength:

 v

 c

c. Expression for percentage decrease in the wavelength:

 v
x100%   x100%
 c

d. Expression for apparent frequency

v
f f  f
c

It is clear from this equation that, f   f .

Therefore, when the source moves towards the observer, the apparent frequency of light
increases.

e. Expression for fractional change in the frequency:

f v

f c

f. Expression for percentage increase in the frequency:

f v
x100%  x100%
f c

Note: The apparent frequency of light remains the same, either the source moves towards
the stationary observer or the observer moves towards the stationary source. Therefore,
Doppler effect in light is symmetric.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 122

Applications of Doppler effect in light:
1.To measure the speed of a star.
2.To measure the speed of rotation of the sun.
3.To measure plasma temperatures.
4.To estimate the velocity of aeroplanes, satellites, rockets and submarines etc.

Principle of superposition of waves: It states that when two or more waves meet at a
point simultaneously, then the resultant displacement at that point is equal to the vector
sum of displacements of individual waves at that point.
    
y  y1  y 2  y 3             y n

Where:

y = resultant displacement.
   
y1 , y 2 , y 3 ,          y n = displacements produced by individual waves.

Note:
1.If the two superposing waves are in the same phase(if the crest of one wave falls on
the crest of the other wave), then their displacements get added.
y = y 1 + y2

2.If the two superposing waves are in the opposite phases(if the crest of one wave falls
on the trough of the other wave), then their displacements get subtracted.
y = y 1 - y2

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 123

Interference of light: The phenomenon of modification in the distribution of light
energy due to the superposition of two or more light waves is called interference of
light.

Examples of interference of light:

1.Colours seen on an oil
2.Colours seen on a soap bubble.

Note:
1.The law of conservation of energy holds good, when interference of light takes place.
2.The longitudinal waves exhibit the phenomenon of interference.

Relation between phase difference and path difference:

Path difference = propagatio n constant  phase difference


 
2

Intensity of a wave : Intensity of a wave at a point is defined as the amount of energy

flowing per second normally through unit area around that point.

Intensity of a wave is given by:

I = 2  2f 2 A 2 v

Where:
A=wave amplitude, f= wave frequency,  =density of the medium and v = wave velocity.

Theory of interference due to the superposition of two waves of equal amplitude:

Consider two light waves of same frequency traveling in a medium in the same
direction. The displacements y1 and y2 of the two waves of each of amplitude ao at any
instant t having a phase difference  and angular frequency  are given by :

y1 = aosin  t …………………………………….....(1)

y2 = aosin (  t +  ) ……..…………………………....(2)

Applying the principle of superposition, the resultant displacement is:

y = y1 + y2

= aosin  t + aosin (  t +)

= aosin  t + ao[sin  t cos + cos  t.sin]
= aosin  t + aocos. sin  t + aosin.cos  t.
y =ao(1 + cos) sin  t + (aosin) cos  t ……………(3)

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 124

Let :

A cos  = ao( 1 + cos) …………….....…....…….(4)

A sin  = aosin .…...…………………................(5)

Where :
A = amplitude of the resultant wave.
 = phase difference between the resultant wave & the first wave.

Equation (1) becomes:

y = A cos  sin  t + Asin  . cos  t

= A [sin  t cos  + cos  t . sin  ]

y = A sin (  t +  ) …………………………………..(6)

This equation represents that resultant wave is also simple harmonic wave of
same frequency.

Squaring and adding equations (4) and (5):

A2cos2  + A2sin2  = a o2 (1 + cos  )2 + a o2 sin 2 

A2(sin2  + cos2  ) = a o2  a o2 cos 2   2a o2 cos   a o2 sin 2 

A 2  a o2  a o2 (sin 2   cos 2  )  2a o2 cos 

A2 = a o2  a o2  2a o2 cos 

A 2  2a o2  2a o2 cos 

A 2  2a o2 (1  cos  )


A 2  2a o2 (2 cos 2  1  1)
2

A 2  2a o2 (2 cos 2 )
2

A 2  4a o2 cos 2 ……………………………………….….(7)
2


A = 2a o cos ………………………………………...….(8)
2

This gives the amplitude of the resultant wave.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 125

Dividing equation (5) by (4):

sin  sin 

cos  1  cos 

sin 
tan  
1  cos 

 sin  
  tan 1   ………..................................…(9)
 1  cos  

This gives the phase difference between the resultant wave & the first wave.

The intensity of a wave is directly proportional to square of its amplitude.

If I is the resultant intensity of wave of amplitude A, then

I  A 2  I  kA 2 ……………………………….….(10)

If Io is the intensity of each wave of amplitude ao , then

2 2
I o  a o  I o  ka o ………………….…..…….….(11)
Multiplying both sides of equation (7) by K:


KA 2  4kao2 cos 2
2


I  4 I o cos 2 ………………..............................….(12)
2

This equation gives the expression for resultant intensity of waves each of intensity I o
at a point, when the phase difference is .

Condition for constructive interference: When the constructive interference takes

place, the resultant intensity becomes maximum.

For maximum intensity: cos  1
2

 0,  ,2 ,3 ,...........
2
  0,2 ,4 ,6 ,...........

  2n Where: n = 0,1,2,3………….

 The constructive interference takes place, when the phase difference is an even
integral multiple of 
.

I  4I o
Note: For constructive interference, equation (12) becomes:

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 126

 Condition for destructive interference: When the destructive interference takes
place, the resultant intensity becomes minimum.

For minimum intensity: cos 0
2
  3 5
 , , ,...........
2 2 2 2

   ,3 ,5 ,...........

  (2n  1) Where: n = 1,2,3………….

 The destructive interference takes place, when the phase difference is an odd
integral multiple of 
.

Note:
For destructive interference, equation (12) becomes:

I 0

Differences between constructive and destructive interference of light

Constructive interference Destructive interference

1.In this type, the crest of one wave falls upon 1. In this type, the crest of one wave falls upon
crest of the other. the trough of the other.
2.The phase difference between the two waves 2.The phase difference between the two
should be an even integral multiple of  . waves should be an odd integral multiple of  .

  2 n Where n = 0, 1, 2, 3 …….   ( 2 n  1)  Where n = 0, 1, 2, 3…

3.The path difference between the two 3.The path difference between the two
 
waves should be an even integral multiple of . waves should be an odd integral multiple of .
2 2

  
  n = 2n.   Where n = 0, 1, 2, 3…  = 2n  1 Where n = 0, 1, 2, 3 ….
2 2
4. The resultant amplitude is equal to the 4. The resultant amplitude is equal to the
sum of amplitudes of individual waves. difference between the amplitudes of individual
waves.
Amax = a1 + a2 Amin = a1 – a2

5 . Resultant intensity is maximum. 5. Resultant intensity is minimum.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 127

Young’s double slit experiment for producing interference pattern:
The experimental arrangement consists of a narrow slit S illuminated by a
monochromatic source of light. Light after passing through S illuminates the two
identical closely lying slits S1 and S2. The light diverging from S1 has exactly the same
frequency as that of S2 and the light diverging from S1 is in phase with that from S2.
Hence, S1 and S2 act as coherent sources of light. The two sets of waves emerging
from S1 and S2 interfere with each other and produce interference pattern on the
screen. The screen consists of alternate dark and bright bands of equal width. The dark
bands of zero intensity and the bright bands of equal intensity are at equal distances on
either side of the screen.

Fringe width: The distance between two consecutive bright or dark fringes is called
fringe width.

Expression for fringe width in Young’s double slit experiment: S1 and

S2are the two slits separated by a distance d. Let D be the distance of the
screen from the double slit. The light waves emerging from S1and
S2interfere with each other at a point P on the screen. Let x be the distance
of P from the centre O of the screen. The fringe formed at O is called
central bright fringe.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 128

Path difference between the waves from S1 and S2 arriving at P is:

  S 2 P  S1 P ………… …………………...(1)

From  S1MP :

S1 P2 = S1M2 + MP2
2
 d
S1 P2 = D2 +  x   …………….…...(2)
 2

From  S2NP

S2 P2 = S2 N2 + NP2

2
 d
S2P2 = D2 +  x   ………….……….(3)
 2

Subtracting equation (2) from (3):

2 2
 d  d
S2P2 – S1P2= D2 +  x    D 2   x  
 2  2
2 2
d d
= x2 +  xd  x 2   xd
4 4

(S2P + S1P) (S2P –S1P) = 2xd ……..….(4)

Since d <<< D  S1P  S2P  D

Equation (4) becomes:

(D + D)  = 2xd

2D.  = 2xd
D.  = xd

xd
 = ….…………………….………..(5)
D
For nth bright fringe:
 = n  ……..………………..………....(6)
Where:
n = 0, 1, 2, 3………….
 = wavelength of light.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 129

From equations (5) and (6):

xd
 n
D

nD
x=
d

Distance of nth bright fringe from O is:

n D
xn  ………………….…..……….(7)
d

Distance of (n+1)th bright fringe from O is:

D
xn+1 = (n + 1) …………………..….(8)
d

 Fringe width is :

 = xn+1 - xn

 D n D
= (n+1) 
d d

D
 = …….………………..….…….(9)
d

This gives the expression for fringe width.

Factors on which fringe width depends:

1.Wavelength of light.
2.Slit separation.
3.Distance of the screen from the slit.

Characteristics of interference pattern in Young’s double slit experiment:

1.Alternate bright & dark fringes are formed at equal distances on either side of the
screen.
2.The bright and dark fringes are of equal width.
3.The bright fringes are perfectly bright and have equal intensity.
4.The dark fringes are perfectly dark and have zero intensity.

Incoherent sources: Two sources of light are said to be incoherent, if they do not emit
light waves with a constant phase difference.

Example of incoherent sources:

Two tiny bulbs separated by a small distance.
Note: Two incoherent sources cannot produce interference pattern.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 130

Coherent sources: The two sources of light are said to be coherent, if they emit light
waves with a constant phase difference.
When two or more waves travel through a medium simultaneously, the resultant
intensity at any point in the medium depends on whether the waves interfere
constructively or destructively. It also depends upon the phase difference between the
waves. The resultant intensity at any point remains constant with time, if the phase
difference between the waves does not change. But, two independent sources can
never have a constant phase difference. The resultant intensity at any point undergoes
a continuous change due to change in phase difference between them. Due to this, no
sustained (fixed) interference pattern is obtained. Hence, to produce fixed interference
pattern, the sources of light must be coherent.

Example of coherent sources:

Two narrow slits separated by a small distance illuminated by a source of light.

Conditions for obtaining two coherent sources of light:

1.The path difference between the two light waves arriving on the screen must be
small.
2.The two sources of light should be obtained from a single source.
3.The two sources must produce monochromatic light.

Conditions for sustained interference pattern:

1.Two sources of light must be coherent.
2.The two light sources should be monochromatic.
3.Two sources of light should emit light waves continuously.
4.Two sources of light should be placed very close to each other.
5.The two coherent sources of light should be very narrow.
6.The amplitudes of the two waves emitted by the coherent sources should be equal.

Diffraction of light :The bending phenomenon of light around the corners of an

obstacle (slit) and hence its encroachment into the region of geometrical shadow is
called diffraction of light.

Fraunhoffer diffraction: In Fraunhoffer diffraction, the source of light and the screen
are at infinite distances from the obstacle (slit).

As the slit is at an infinite distance both from the source and the screen, both incident
wavefront AB and emergent wavefront CD are plane.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 131

Experimental set-up to produce Fraunhoffer diffraction at a single slit:
A monochromatic source of light S is placed at the focus of a convex lens L 1.
The emergent parallel beam of light is made to fall on the slit AB. The diffracted
beam at the slit is passed through another convex lens L 2. The diffraction
pattern is obtained on the screen placed at the focus of the lens L 2.

Intensity distribution curve for the diffraction bands : The diffraction pattern due to
a single slit consists of a central bright band with alternate dark and bright bands on
either side. The central bright band is called central maximum. The dark and the less
bright bands are called the minima and secondary maxima respectively. The intensity
and width of bright bands on either side are in decreasing order.

Analysis of diffraction at a single slit (Fraunhoffer type):

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 132

When a plane wavefront is incident on the slit AB, each point on it acts as a source of
secondary waves. The secondary waves arriving at the point O travel equal distances.
Therefore, the waves interfere constructively & give rise to central (principal) maximum
at O. A point P on the screen is at a distance x from O.

The path difference between the waves starting from A and B in arriving at P is:

BD = AB sin 

 = d sin  ………..(1)

Where: BD =  = path difference and AB = d = slit width.

Position of secondary minimum:

I. If the path difference between the extreme secondary waves is equal to the wave
length of light, then the whole wavefront (slit AB) is imagined to be divided into two
equal parts AC and CB. For every point in the upper half AB, there is a corresponding
point in the lower half CB. The secondary waves from A in the upper half and a

corresponding point C in the lower half arrive at P with a path difference of and a
2
phase difference of  . Hence destructive interference takes place and the point P is of
minimum intensity. This point P is called first secondary minimum.

For the first secondary minimum:

d sin 1  

sin 1  ………..(2)
d
Since 1 is very small, sin 1  1

Equation (2) becomes:


1  …………….(3)
d

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 133

ii. If the path difference between the extreme secondary waves is equal to two times
the wave length of light, then the whole wavefront (slit AB) is imagined to be divided
into four equal parts AC1,C1C2,C2C3 and C3B. For every point in the first part AC1,there
is a corresponding point in the second part C1C2. The secondary waves from A in the
first part and a corresponding point C1 in the second part arrive at P with a path

difference of and a phase difference of  . Hence destructive interference takes
2
place and the point P is of minimum intensity. This point P is called second secondary
minimum.

For the second secondary minimum:

d sin  2  2
2
sin  2  ………..(4)
d

Since  2 is very small, sin  2   2

Equation (2) becomes:

2
2  …………….(5)
d

In general, for the nth secondary minimum:

d sin n  n Where n = 1, 2, 3, ……

n
sin  n  …………..(6)
d

If  n is small, then sin n   n .

Equation (6) becomes:

n
n  ……….……..(7)
d

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 134

Position of secondary maximum:

i.If the path difference between the extreme secondary waves is 3 , then the whole
2
wavefront ( slit AB) is imagined to be divided into three equal parts AC 1, C1C2 and C2B.
For every point in the first part AC1,there is corresponding point in the second part
C1C2. The secondary waves from the first two parts arrive at P with a path difference of

& a phase difference of  . Hence they interfere destructively and their effect gets
2
cancelled. As the secondary waves from the third part are not used, its effect does not
get cancelled.

Due to this, the secondary waves

from it interfere constructively
producing the first secondary
maximum. Therefore the point P
is of maximum intensity. As the
intensity of this maximum is very
much less than that of the central
maximum, so it is called
secondary maximum.

For the first secondary maximum:

3
d sin 1 
2
3
sin 1  ………..(8)
2d

Since 1 is very small, sin 1  1

Equation (8) becomes:

3
1  ………….(9)
2d

ii. If the path difference between the extreme secondary waves is 5 , then the whole
2
wavefront ( slit AB) is imagined to be divided into five equal parts AC1,C1C2, C2C3, C3C4
and C4B. For every point in the first part AC1, there is a corresponding point in the
second part C1C2 . The secondary waves from the four parts arrive at P with a path

difference of and a phase
2
difference of  . Hence they
interfere destructively and their
effect gets cancelled. As the
secondary waves from the fifth
part are not used, its effect
does not get cancelled. Due to
this, the secondary waves from
it interfere constructively
producing the second
secondary maximum.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 135

For the second secondary maximum:
5
d sin  2 
2

5
sin  2  ………..(10)
2d

Since  2 is very small, sin  2   2

Equation (10) becomes:

5
2  …………….(11)
2d

In general, for the nth secondary maximum:


d sin  n  (2n  1) Where n = 1, 2, 3,….. ..
2


sin  n  (2n  1) …(12)
2d

If  n is very small, sin n   n

Equation (12) becomes:


 n  (2n  1) …………….(13) where n = 1, 2, 3,….. ..
2d

Width of central maxima: The width of central maximum is the distance between the
first secondary minima on both sides of the centre of the screen.

For the first minima:


1  ………………………….(1)
d
Where:
1  angular position of the first secondary minimum from the centre of the screen.
  wavelength of light. D = slit separation.
Also:
x
1  1 ………………………….(2)
D

Where:

x1= distance of the first minimum from the centre of the screen
D= distance of the screen from the slit.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 136

From equations (1) and (2):

x1 

D d

D
x1  ………………….…….(3)
d

Width of central maximum is:

2D
o  …….………………..(4)
d

Note:

1.Distance of nth minimum from the central maximum :

D
xn = ( n )
d

2.Distance of nth secondary maximum from the central maximum:

D 
xn = ( 2n  1)
d 2

3.Angular width of the central maximum :

2
2 =
d

The secondary maxima are less bright than central maximum:

As the central maxima receive the wavelets from all parts of the slit where as the
secondary maxima receive wavelets from only a part of the slit, therefore the secondary
maxima are less intense.

Fresnel distance( Ray optics is a limiting case of wave optics):

The distance of the screen from the slit, when the spreading of light due to diffraction
becomes equal to the size of the slit, is called Fresnel distance (ZF) .

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 137

For the first minima:


1  ………………………….(1)
d
Where:
1  angular separation of the first secondary minimum from the centre of the screen.
  wavelength of light and d= slit separation.

Also:
x1
1  ………………………….(2)
D
Where:
X1= distance of the first minima from the centre of the screen.
D= distance of the screen from the slit.

From equations (1) and (2):

x1 

D d

x1 d
D ………………….…….(3)

If D = ZF , then x1 = d.

Equation (3) becomes:

d .d
ZF 


d2
ZF  ……………………(4)


This equation shows that for distance much less than ZF, the spreading of light due to
diffraction, is smaller compared to the size of the beam. For distance much greater
than ZF, the spreading of light due to diffraction, dominates that due to ray optics.
Therefore, ray optics is regarded as a limiting case of wave optics.

Note:
1.The type of wavefront used in Fraunhoffer diffraction is plane wavefront.
2.The type of wavefront used in Fresnel diffraction is spherical wavefront.
3. For violet colour of light, angle of diffraction is minimum.
4. For red colour of light, angle of diffraction is maximum.
5.If light of smaller wavelength is used, then the diffraction pattern becomes narrower.
6. If yellow light is replaced by X-rays, then the diffraction pattern is not be observed as
the wavelength of x rays is much smaller than that of yellow light.
7.The wavelength should be of the order of the size of the obstacle for diffraction. As
the wavelength of sound waves is much greater than that of light waves, therefore the
sound waves are diffracted more easily than light waves.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 138

 Differences between interference of light and diffraction of light

Interference of light Diffraction of light

1.It is the phenomenon of modification in 1. It is the bending phenomenon of light
the distribution of light energy due to the around the corners of an obstacle and its
superposition of two or more light waves. encroachment into the region of geometrical
shadow.
2. It is due to the superposition of two 2. It is due to the superposition of secondary
waves from the two coherent sources. waves from the same wavefront.
3.The bright fringes are of the same 3. The bright fringes are of varying intensity.
intensity.
4. The dark fringes are perfectly dark 4. The dark fringes are not perfectly dark.

Note: In interference and diffraction, light energy is redistributed. If it reduces in one

region, producing a dark fringe, it increases in another region, producing a bright fringe.
Thus there is no gain or loss of light energy, which is in consistent with the principle of
conservation of energy.

Rayleigh’s Criterion :
1.Two point objects are unresolved, if the separation between their central maximum is less
than the separation between the central maximum of one and its first minimum.

2.Two point objects are just resolved, if the separation between their central maximum is equal
to the separation between the central maximum of one and its first minimum.

3.Two point objects are well resolved, if the separation between their central maximum is
greater than the separation between the central maximum of one and its first minimum.

Limit of resolution of an optical instrument: The limit of resolution of an optical instrument is

defined as the minimum separation between two point objects at which they are just resolved.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 139

Resolving Power of an optical instrument: The resolving power of an optical instrument is defined as
the reciprocal of its limit of resolution.

The relation between resolving power and limit of resolution: The resolving power of an optical
instrument is equal to reciprocal of its limit of resolution.

1
Re solving power 
Limit of resolution

Limit of resolution of a microscope: The limit of resolution of a microscope is defined as the minimum
distance between the two point objects at which they are just resolved.

Expression for limit of resolution of microscope: Limit of resolution of a microscope is given by :


dx =
2n sin 

where:
 = wavelength of light used.
n = RI of the medium between the objective and the object.
 =semi vertical angle of the cone of rays from the object entering the objective.
n sin  =numerical aperture.

Resolving power of a microscope: The resolving power of a microscope is defined as the reciprocal of
minimum distance between the two point objects at which they are just resolved.

Resolving power of a microscope is given by:

1 2n sin 
RP = 
dx 

The factors on which resolving power of a microscope depends:

1.RI of the medium between the object and the objective.
2.Wavelength of the light.

Methods to increase the resolving power of a microscope:

1.By decreasing the wavelength of light used. 2.By
increasing the refractive index of the medium between the object & the objective.

Note:
1.The resolving power of a microscope increases when the microscope is immersed in oil.
2.The resolving power of a microscope increases, when the wavelength of the light used decreases.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 140

Limit of resolution of a telescope: The limit of resolution of a telescope is defined as the minimum
angular separation between the two objects at which they are just resolved.

Expression for limit of resolution of telescope: Limit of resolution of a telescope is given by:

1.22
d 
D

where:
 = wavelength of light used, D = diameter of the objective.
Resolving power of a telescope: The resolving power of a telescope is defined as the reciprocal of
minimum angular separation between the two point objects at which they are just resolved.
Resolving power of a telescope is given by :

1 D
RP = 
d 1.22

Factors on which the resolving power of a telescope depends:

1.Diameter of the objective of the telescope.
2.Wavelength of light used.

Methods to increase the resolving power of a telescope:

1.By increasing the diameter of the objective.
2.By decreasing the wavelength of light used.

Phenomenon of polarization of light: When an unpolarised light passes through a tourmaline crystal
whose face is cut parallel to its crystallographic axis, then the crystal permits the vibrations which are
parallel to its face and cuts the other vibrations.

Therefore, light after passing through the crystal gains certain one sided property. This one sided
property gained by the light is called polarization of light.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 141

Polarization of light: The phenomenon, due to which the vibrations of light are restricted in a particular
plane, is called polarization of light.

Plane of vibration: A plane which contains the vibrations of plane polarised light is called plane of
vibration.

Plane of polarization: A plane perpendicular to the plane of vibration is called plane of polarization.

Plane polarised light :A plane polarized light is defined as the light in which the vibrations of the light
are restricted to a particular plane.

Representation of unpolarised light:

Representation of plane polarised light : The plane polarised light having vibrations in the plane of the
paper is represented as shown below.

The plane polarised light having vibrations in a direction perpendicular to the plane of the paper is
represented as shown below :

Experiment to demonstrate transverse nature of light.: When an ordinary light is incident normally on
a pair of crystals C1 and C2, the intensity of emergent beam becomes maximum, when the axes of the
two crystals are parallel.

When the axes of the two crystals are perpendicular to each other, then the intensity of emergent beam
becomes minimum.

This experiment demonstrates the transverse nature of light.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 142

Note:
1.In polarization, vibrations perpendicular to the direction of propagation are confined to just one
direction. In transverse waves (light waves), vibrations occur perpendicular to the direction of
propagation. In longitudinal waves (Sound waves), vibrations occur along the direction of propagation.
Therefore, light waves can be polarized but sound waves cannot be polarized.

2.The two light beams polarized in perpendicular planes cannot produce interference pattern. Because,
in each beam the vibrations are restricted to a particular plane and these planes are perpendicular to
each other for the two beams.
3.In ordinary beam of light, the transverse vibrations are not restricted to a particular plane.
4.In a plane polarised light, the transverse vibrations are restricted to a particular plane.

Polarizer: A crystal used to produce a plane polarized light is called polarizer.

Analyzer : A crystal used to detect a plane polarized light is called analyzer.

Methods of obtaining plane polarized light:

1.Polarisation by reflection.
2.Polarisation by refraction.
3.Polarisation by double refraction.
4.Polarisation by selective absorption.
5.Polarisation by scattering.

Polarization by reflection: When an ordinary beam of light is incident on a transparent medium, both
refraction and reflection take place. The light reflected from the medium becomes partially polarised. The
degree of polarisation of reflected light depends on the angle of incidence. If the angle of incidence is
increased, the degree of polarisation also increases. At a particular value of angle of incidence, the
reflected beam becomes completely polarised. This angle of incidence is called polarising angle.

Polarizing angle(Brewster's angle):“The angle of incidence at which the degree of polarisation of

reflected beam becomes maximum, when an ordinary beam of light is incident on a transparent medium,
is called polarising angle for that medium”.

Note: The angle between reflected and refracted rays is 900, when the angle of incidence is equal to the
polarizing angle.

Brewster’s law: Brewster’s Law states that the refractive index of the transparent medium (n) is equal
to the tangent of the angle of polarisation (  p ).

n = tan  p

Note: For a ray of light travelling from a medium of RI n1 to a medium of RI n2, Brewster’s law becomes:

n2
 tan  p
n1

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 143

Proof of Brewster's law: Consider a ray of light incident at the polarising angle on a transparent
medium.

Let :
n = RI of the transparent medium. p
= angle of incidence = angle of polarization.
r = angle of refraction.
Snell’s law is :

sin  p
n ………........……(1)
sin r
At the polarising angle, the reflected ray and the refracted ray are perpendicular to each other.
r   p  90 0
r  90 0   p .......................(2)
Equation (1) becomes:
sin  p
n

sin 90 0   p 
sin  p
n
cos p

n  tan  p ..........................(3)

 R.I. of the transparent medium is equal to tangent of angle of polarization.

To show that the reflected and the refracted rays are normal (perpendicular) to each other at the
polarising angle: Consider a ray of light incident at the polarising angle on a medium of RI n.

Let :
 p = angle of polarization.
r = angle of refraction.
n = RI of the transparent medium.

Snell’s law is :
sin i
n= ……………(1)
sin r

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 144

Brewster’s law is :

n = tan  p …………..(2)

From equations (1) and (2) :

sin i
 tan  p
sin r
sin i sin  p

sin r cos  p
1 1
  i  p
sin r cos p
sin r = cos  p

sin r = sin (900 –  p )

r = 900 -  p
r +  p = 900 ………….(3)

 At the polarising angle, the reflected ray and the refracted ray are perpendicular to each other.
Polarisation by scattering: When a beam of light passes through a medium, it gets scattered from the
particles of the medium, if the size of the particles is of the order of the wavelength of the light. When the
scattered light is seen in a direction perpendicular to the direction of the beam of light, it is found to be
plane polarised. This is called polarisation of light by scattering.

When a beam of unpolarised light propagates along X-axis, then the vibrations are restricted to YZ-
plane. If the beam gets scattered from the particle O, then the scattered light along Y-axis contains only
those vibrations which are perpendicular to Y-axis and parallel to Z-axis. The scattered light along Z-axis
contains only those vibrations which are perpendicular to Z-axis and parallel to Y-axis. In this way, the
scattered light gets plane polarized.

Polarisation by refraction : When a beam of unpolarised light is incident at the polarising angle on a
transparent medium, then it is found that the reflected beam is completely polarised and the refracted
beam is partially polarised. If this partially polarised refracted beam is passed through a number of
plates, then the emergent light will be plane polarised. This is called polarisation of light by refraction.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 145

Polarisation by double refraction : When an unpolarised light (light from an ordinary source) is passed
through certain crystals (quartz, calcite, mica etc) , it gets refracted along two directions. This
phenomenon is called double refraction. The crystals having this property are said to have birefringence.
One of the two refracted rays obeys the laws of refraction and is called ordinary ray. The other ray which
does not obey the laws of refraction is called extraordinary ray. But ,both the rays are polarised in
mutually perpendicular planes. The ordinary ray lies in the plane of incidence and the extraordinary ray
does not lie in the plane of incidence. The ordinary ray passes through without deviation and the
extraordinary ray deviates even at normal incidence. The ordinary rays have equal velocities in all
directions but the extraordinary rays have different velocities along different directions.

Note :
1. The crystal in which the speed of ordinary ray is more than that of the extra ordinary ray is called
positive crystal.

For a positive crystal, RI for ordinary ray is less than that for extra ordinary.
vo> ve  no< ne
Example : Quartz.

2. The crystal in which the speed of ordinary ray is less than that of the extra ordinary ray is called
negative crystal.

For a negative crystal, RI for ordinary is more than that for extra ordinary ray.
vo< ve  no> ne

Example : Calcite.

Optic axis : In a doubly refracting crystal, the speeds of ordinary and extra ordinary rays are different.
But there is one particular direction in the crystal along which the speeds are equal. Such a direction is
called optic axis.
“A particular direction in a doubly refracting crystal along which both ordinary and extra -ordinary rays
travel with the same speed is called an optic axis”.

Note :

1. A crystal having one optic axis is called uniaxial crystal.

Example: Quartz, calcite, tourmaline etc.

2. A crystal having two optic axes is called biaxial crystal.

Example: selenite, mica, borax etc.

Selective absorption: Some doubly refracting crystals have the special property of absorbing the
ordinary and the extraordinary rays to different extents. This property is called selective absorption or
dichroism.

Polaroid: Polaroid is a device used to produce the plane polarised light. It works on the principle of
selective absorption of light. The polaroid consists of an extremely thin layer of crystalline substance
called iodosulphate of quinine. Each polaroid has a plane called transmission plane. When an ordinary
light is incident on the layer, the vibrations parallel to the transmission plane are transmitted and the
vibrations perpendicular to the plane are absorbed. Therefore, the transmitted light is plane polarised.
Hence, polaroid is used to produce polarised light.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 146

H-polaroid : The polaroid prepared by stretching a thin film of polyvinyl alcohol subjected to a large
stress is called H-Polaroid.

K-Polaroid : The polaroid prepared by heating a stretched film of polyvinyl alcohol with a dehydrating
agent is called K- Polaroid.

Note : The films of H-polaroid & K- polaroid are mounted between two thin sheets of glass.

Note: In a polaroid, there is a long chain of molecules aligned in a particular direction. The electric
vectors associated with propagating light wave along the direction of aligned molecules get absorbed.
When an unpolarised light wave is incident on polaroid, then the light wave gets linearly polarized with
the electric vector oscillating along a direction perpendicular to the aligned molecules. This direction is
known as pass axis of the polaroid.

Uses of polaroids : Polaroids are used:

1. in sun glasses, window panes, automobiles, 3D movies etc.
2. in microscopes, camera, LCD, calculators, wrist watches etc.
3. to produce and detect plane polarised light.
4. for image processing and instant photography.
5. to study the optical properties of metals.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 147

 QUESTIONS FROM MODEL PAPERS & BOARD EXAMINATIONS

1. Derive the law of reflection of light on the basis of Huygens wave theory. (3M)
2. A beam of light consisting of two wavelengths 500nm and 600nm is used to obtain
interference fringes in Young’s double slit experiment. The distance between the slits is
0.3mm and the distance between the slits and the screen is 1.5m. Compute the least
distance of the point from the central maximum, where the bright fringes due to both
the wavelengths coincide. (5M)
3. What type of wave front emerges from a distant light source? (1M)
4. Using Huygens principle, draw a diagram to show the refraction of plane wave front
incident obliquely on a surface separating two media. (2M)
5. Give reasons for the following:
i). Astronomers prefer to use telescopes with large objective diameters to observe astronomical
objects.
ii).The value of Brewster’s angle for a transparent medium is different for light of different
colours.
iii).Two identical but independent sources of light cannot be coherent. (3M)
6. Obtain the expression for fringe width of interference bands in Young’s double slit
experiment. (5M)
7. Derive the expression for resultant displacement and amplitude when two waves
having same amplitude and a phase difference  superpose. (2M)
8. Using Huygens wave theory of light, derive Snell’s law of refraction. (5M)
9. Using Huygens wave theory of light, show that the angle of incidence is equal to
angle of reflection in case of reflection of a plane wavefront by a plane surface
(5M)
10. What is interference of light? Arrive at the conditions for constructive and destructive
interference by assuming the expression for intensity. (5M)
11.Represent the plane polarized light and unpolarized light diagrammatically. (2M)
12. Who proposed wave theory of light? (1M)
13.Monochromatic light of wavelength 5000 A from a narrow slit is incident on the
0

double slit. If the separation of 10 fringes on the screen 1 m away is 2 cm .

Find the slit separation. (5M)

MODEL PAPER - 2016

14. What happens to the interference fringes when the distance between the two coherent
sources is decreased? (1M)
15. State Huygens’ principle. (2M)
16. In Young’s double slit experiment ,deduce the conditions for constructive and
destructive interference at a point on the screen. (5M)

BOARD PAPERS
March - 2014
17.What is wavefront of light waves ? (1M )
18.Explain Malus law for polaroids. (2M)
19.Obtain the expression for fringe width in the case of interference of light waves.
(5M)
July-2014 (Supplementary)
20.Write the expression for limit of resolution of (a) Microscope and (b) Telescope .
Write one method of increasing the resolving power of microscope. (3M)
21.Derive an expression for fringe width in case of Young’s double slit experiment.
(5M)

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 148

March - 2015
22.What is interference? Write the condition for path difference in case of constructive &
and destructive interference. (3M)
23.In Young’s double slit experiment distance between the slits is 1mm.The fringe width is
found to be 0.6mm. When the screen is moved through a distance of 0.25m away from
the plane of the slit, the fringe width becomes 0.75mm. Find the wavelength of light
used. (5M)

July – 2015 (Supplementary)

24. Explain Young’s double experiment. (3M)
25. A beam of light consisting of two wavelengths 4200A and 5600A is used to obtain
o o

interference fringes in Young’s double slit experiment. The distance between the slits is
0.3mm and the distance between the slits and the screen is 1.5m. Compute the least
distance of the point from the central maximum, where the bright fringes due to both the
wavelengths coincide. (5M)

March - 2016
26. How can the resolving power of a telescope be increased ? (1M )
27. Mention two applications of Polaroids. (2M)
28. In Young’s double slit experiment, fringes of certain width are produced on the screen
kept at a certain distance from the slits. When the screen is moved away from the slits
by 0.1 m, fringe width increases by 6 x 10-5 m. The separation between the slits is 1mm.
Calculate the wavelength of the light used.

July – 2016 (Supplementary)

29. Write the formula for Malus law. (1M)
30. Write the relation between the path difference and wavelength of light
wave used for constructive and destructive interference of light. (2M)
31. In Young's double slit experiment while using a source of light of wavelength
4500 Å, the fringe width is 5 mm. If the distance between the screen and the plane of
the slits is reduced to half, what should be the wavelength of light to get fringe width
4 mm ? (5M)

March - 2017
32. Mention any three applications of polaroids. (3M)
33. Light of wave length 6000 Å is used to obtain interference fringes of width 6 mm in a
Young's double slit experiment. Calculate the wave length of light required to obtain
fringe of width 4 mm when the distance between the screen and slits is reduced to half
of its initial value. (5M)

March - 2018
34. Arrive at Snell’s law of a refraction, using Huygen’s principal for refraction of a plane
wave. (3M)

35. In Young’s double slit experiment the slits are separated by 0.28 mm and the screen is
placed at distance of 1.4m away from the slits. The distance between central bright
fringe and the fifth dark fringe is measured to be 1.35cm. Calculate the wavelength of
the light used. Also find the fringe width if the screen is moved 0.4m towards the slits,
for the same experimental set up. (5M)

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 149

March - 2019
36. For which angle of incidence reflected ray is completely polarized ? (1M)
37. What is diffraction of light ? (2M)
38. In a Young’s double slit experiment wave length of light used is 5000 Å and distance
between the slits is 2 mm, distance of screen from the slits is 1m. Find fringe width
and also calculate the distance of 7th dark fringe from central bright fringe. (5M)

June – 2019
39. Using Huygen’s principle, show that the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of
reflection during a plane wave front is reflected by a plane surface. (3M)
40. Derive an expression for the fringe width of interference fringes in Double slit
experiment. (5M)

March – 2020
41. Mention a method to increase the resolving power of microscope. (1M)
42. Using Huygen’s principle, show that the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of
reflection when a plane wave front is reflected by a plane surface. (5M)
43. Obtain the expression for the fringe width of interference fringes in Young’s Double slit
experiment. (5M)

July – 2020
44. What is diffraction of light ? (1M)
45. What is polarization of light ? Mention two methods of producing plane polarized light.
(3M)
46. Derive an expression for the fringe width in case of Young’s double slit experiment.
(5M)

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 150

 ONE MARK QUESTIONS WITH ANSWERS
Q. Who proposed wave theory of light?
Answer: Christian Huygens.

Q. What is interference of light?

Answer: The phenomenon of modification in the distribution of light energy due to the
superposition of two or more light waves is called interference of light.

Q. Name the physicist who experimentally studied the interference of light for the first
time.
Answer: Thomas young.

Q. Give two examples of interference of light.

Answer:Colours seen on an oil and a soap bubble.

Q. Does the law of conservation of energy hold good, when interference of light takes
place?
Answer: Yes.

Q. Does the longitudinal wave exhibit the phenomenon of interference?

Answer: Yes.

Q. What are incoherent sources?

Answer: The sources of light are said to be incoherent, if they do not emit waves with a
constant phase difference

Q. What are coherent sources?

Answer: The two sources of light are said to be coherent, if they emit light waves of same
frequency with a constant phase difference.

Q. State the conditions which must be satisfied for two light sources to be coherent.
Answer: Light waves from the sources should have the same frequency and in same
(constant) phase.

Q. Give an example of coherent sources.

Answer: Two narrow slits separated by a small distance illuminated by a source of light.

Q. Why cannot two independent sources of light be coherent? or Why cannot two
identical but independent monochromatic sources of light be coherent?
Answer: Because the light waves from them may be of the same frequency but not with a
constant phase difference.

Q. Can two sodium vapour lamps be considered as coherent sources?

Answer: No, as the phase difference between the light waves emitted by the lamps changes
continuously.

Q. Give any one condition for a sustained interference pattern.

Answer: Two sources of light must be coherent.

Q. When does the light from two sources produce sustained interference?
Answer: When the two sources are coherent.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 151

Q. Give the condition for constructive interference in terms of path difference between
the interfering waves.
Answer:For constructive interference, the path difference between the two waves should be an even

multiple of .
2

  n = 2n.   Where n = 0, 1, 2, 3……
2

Q. Give the condition for destructive interference in terms of path difference between
the interfering waves.
Answer: For destructive interference, the path difference between the two waves should be an odd multiple of

.
2

 = 2n  1 Where n = 0, 1, 2, 3 …….
2

Q. Give the condition for constructive interference in terms of phase difference

between the interfering waves.
Answer: For constructive interference, the phase difference between the two waves should
be an even multiple of  .
  2n Where n = 0, 1, 2, 3 …….

Q. Give the condition for destructive interference in terms of phase difference

between the interfering waves.
Answer: For destructive interference, the phase difference between the two waves should
be an odd multiple of  .
  ( 2 n  1) Where: n = 0, 1, 2, 3 …………

Q. Write the expression for resultant amplitude of interfering waves of same

amplitude.
Answer:


A = 2 a o cos
2

Where: A=resultant amplitude, a0=amplitude of individual wave and  =phase difference

between the interfering waves.

Q. Write the expression for resultant intensity of interfering waves of same intensity.

Answer: I  4 I o cos 2
2

Where:
I=resultant intensity,
I0=intensity of individual wave and
 =phase difference between the interfering waves.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 152

Q. What is the maximum intensity of light in Young's double slit experiment if the
intensity of light emerging from each slit is I 0? or What is the intensity of light due to
constructive interference in Young's double slit experiment if the intensity of light
emerging from each slit is I0?
Answer: 4I0

Q. What is the minimum intensity of light in Young's double slit experiment if the
intensity of light emerging from each slit is I 0? or What is the intensity of light due to
destructive interference in Young's double slit experiment if the intensity of light
emerging from each slit is I0?

Answer: Zero.

Q. What is fringe width?

Answer: The distance between two consecutive bright or dark fringes is called fringe width.

Q. Mention the expression for fringe width.

Answer:
D
 =
d
Where:  = fringe width,  = wavelength of light, d = slit separation and D = distance of the
screen from the double slit.

Q. Sketch the variation of intensity of the interference pattern in Young's double slit
experiment.
Answer:

Q. How does the fringe width in interference pattern vary with the wavelength of
incident light?

Answer: The fringe width is directly proportional to the wavelength of incident light.

Q. What will be the effect on the fringe width, if red light is replaced by violet light in
Young’s double slit experiment?
Answer: Decreases.

Q. What is the effect on interference fringes, when yellow light is replaced by blue
light in Young's double slit experiment?
Answer: The fringe width decreases.

Q. How does the fringe width in interference vary with the intensity of incident light?
Answer: The fringe width remains the same.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 153

Q. If the entire Young’s double slit experiment is immersed in a liquid of RI  , then
express the new fringe width in terms of original fringe width  .
Answer:


 


Q. What will be the effect on the fringe width, if the entire Young’s double slit
experiment is immersed in a liquid (water)?
Answer: Decreases.

Q. If the entire Young’s double slit experiment is immersed in a liquid of RI 4/3, then
find the new fringe width if the fringe width before immersing the arrangement was
3.6mm.

 3 . 6 3 .6 x 3
Answer :       0.9 x3  2.7 mm
 4/3 4

Q. What happens when white light is used as source in Young’s double slit
experiment?

Answer: Coloured bands are formed on either side of the central white band.

Q. Mention any one characteristics of interference pattern in Young’s double slit

experiment. Answer: Alternate bright & dark fringes are formed at equal distances on
either side of the screen.

Q. Why do we observe colours on a soap bubble?

Answer: Due to multiple interference at thin film.

Q. What are Newton’s rings?

Answer: The alternate bright and dark circular concentric rings obtained as a result of
interference at a thin film are called Newton’s rings.

Q, What is the ratio of the fringe width for bright and dark fringes in Young's double
slit experiment?
Answer:1

Q. What happens if a thin transparent plate is introduced in the path of one of the
beams in Young's double slit experiment?
Answer: The interference pattern shifts towards the slit covered by the transparent plate.

Q. Instead of using two slits as in Young's experiment, if two separate but identical
sodium lamps are used, what is the result on interference pattern?
Answer: Interference pattern disappears.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 154

Q. In Young’s double slit experiment, the angular width of a fringe formed on distant
screen is 0.10.The wavelength of light used is 6000Ao.What is the spacing between the
slits?

  6 x10 7 6 x10 7
Answer:   d     3.438x10 4 m
d     1.745x10 3
0.1 
 180 

Q. What is wavefront?
Answer: A surface (locus) passing through the particles of the medium which are in the
same phase is called a wavefront.

Q. What is ray of light with respect to wavefront?

Answer:A line perpendicular to the wavefront is known as ray of light or wave normal.

Q. What is the phase difference between any two particles on a wavefront?

Answer: Zero(0).

Q. What is spherical wavefront?

Answer: A wavefront produced by a point source of light at a small distance in a
homogeneous medium is called spherical wavefront.

Q. What is the shape of wavefront obtained from a point source at a small distance?
Answer:Spherical wavefront.

Q. Sketch the wavefront corresponding to divergent rays.

Answer:

Q. Sketch the wavefront corresponding to convergent rays.

Answer:

Q. What type of wavefront is obtained, when a plane wave is reflected by a concave

mirror?
Answer: Spherical wavefront (converging).

Q. What is cylindrical wavefront?

Answer: A wavefront produced by a linear source of light at a small distance in a
homogeneous medium is called cylindrical wavefront.

Q. Under what conditions a cylindrical wavefront is obtained?

Answer: A cylindrical wavefront is obtained at a small distance from a linear source of light.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 155

Q. What is the shape of a wavefront emitted by a light source in the form of a narrow
slit.
Answer: Cylindrical wavefront.

Q. What is plane wavefront?

Answer: A small portion of a spherical wavefront or a cylindrical wavefront produced by a
distant source of light is called a plane wavefront.

Q. What is the shape of wavefront obtained from a point source at a large distance?
Answer: Plane wavefront.

Q. What type of a wavefront emerges from a distant light source?

Answer: Plane wavefront.

Q. What is the geometric shape of a wavefront of light emerging out of a convex lens
when a point source is placed at its focus?
Answer: Plane wavefront.

Q. A plane wavefront is incident on the prism. What is the nature of the wavefront
emerging out of the prism?
Answer: Plane wavefront.

Q. The portion of the wavefront of light from a distant star is intercepted by the Earth.
What is the shape of wavfront?
Answer: Plane wavefront.

Q. Name the wavefront obtained when a plane wave is passed through a thin prism.
Answer: Plane wavefront.

Q.A point source of light is placed at the focus of a convex lens Sketch the refracted
wavefront.

Answer:

Q.A plane wavefront is incident normally on a convex lens. Sketch the refracted
wavefront.

Answer:

Q.Sketch the wavefront of rays coming from a distant source of light.

Answer:

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 156

Q. What is diffraction of light?
Answer: The bending phenomenon of light around the corners of an obstacle (slit) and
hence its encroachment into the region of geometrical shadow is called diffraction of light.

Q. What should be the essential condition to observe diffraction of light?

Answer: The size of the obstacle (slit) must be of the order of the wavelength of the light
used.

Q. Why do we not encounter diffraction effects of light in everyday observations?

Answer: Because the wavelength of light is much smaller than the dimensions of most of
the obstacles.

Q. Draw the intensity distribution curve for the diffraction bands produced.
Answer:

Q. Why are the secondary maxima less bright than the central maxima?
Answer: As the central maxima receive the wavelets from all parts of the slit whereas the
secondary maxima receive wavelets from a part of the slit, therefore the secondary maxima
are less intense.

Q. Which type of wavefront is used in Fraunhofer diffraction?

Answer: Plane wavefront.

Q. Which type of wavefront is used in Fresnel diffraction?

Answer: Spherical wavefront.

Q. Mention the condition for secondary minimum in diffraction pattern.

n
Answer: Condition for secondary minimum: 
d
Where n = 1, 2, 3, …, d= slit width ,  = wavelength of light &  = angle of diffraction.

Q. What is condition for the first minimum in case of diffraction at a single slit?

Answer:   Where n= 1 for the first minimum.
d

Q. Mention the condition for secondary maximum in diffraction pattern.


Answer: Condition for secondary maximum,   ( 2n  1)
2d
Where: n = 1, 2, 3, …, d= slit width,  = wavelength of light &  = angle of diffraction.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 157

Q. Is the width of all secondary maxima in diffraction at slit same? If not, how does it
vary?
Answer: No, as the order of the secondary maximum increases its width decreases.

Q. What is condition for the first secondary maximum in case of diffraction at a single
slit?
3
Answer:   Where n= 1 for the first secondary maximum.
2d
Q. For which colour of light, angle of diffraction is least? or Which colour of light
undergoes diffraction to minimum extent?
Answer: Violet.

Q. For which colour of light, angle of diffraction is maximum? or Which colour of light
undergoes diffraction to maximum extent?
Answer: Red.

Q. What will be the effect on the diffraction pattern, if light of smaller wavelength is
used? Answer: The diffraction pattern becomes narrower.

Q. How will the diffraction pattern due to single slit change, when violet light is
replaced by green light?
Answer: Diffraction bands become wider.

Q. If yellow light is replaced by X-rays, how will the diffraction pattern be affected?
Answer: Diffraction pattern is not observed as the wavelength of x rays is much smaller than
that of yellow light.

Q. Why are sound waves diffracted more easily than light waves?
Answer: The wavelength should be of the order of the size of the obstacle for diffraction. As
the wavelength of sound waves is much greater than that of light waves, therefore the sound
waves are diffracted more easily than light waves.

Q. Do all waves exhibit diffraction or only light?

Answer: All the waves exhibit the phenomenon of diffraction.

Q. Does the law of conservation of energy hold good in diffraction?

Answer: Yes.

Q. How does interference of light differ from diffraction of light?

Answer: Interference of light is due to the superposition of two waves from the two coherent
sources whereas diffraction of light is due to the superposition of secondary waves from the
same wavefront.

Q. What is Fresnel distance?

Answer: The distance of the screen from the slit, when the spreading of light due to
diffraction becomes equal to the size of the slit, is called Fresnel distance (ZF) .

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 158

Q. When are the two point objects just resolved, according to Rayleigh’s criterion?
Answer: Two point objects are just resolved, if the separation between their central maximum is
equal to the separation between the central maximum of one and its first minimum.

Q. Define limit of resolution of an optical instrument.

Answer: The limit of resolution of an optical instrument is defined as the minimum separation
between two point objects at which they are just resolved.

Q. Define resolving Power of an optical instrument.

Answer: The resolving power of an optical instrument is defined as the reciprocal of its limit of
resolution.

Q. What is the relation between resolving power and limit of resolution?

Answer: The resolving power of an optical instrument is equal to reciprocal of its limit of resolution.
1
Re solving power 
Limit of resolution

Q. Define limit of resolution of a microscope.

Answer: The limit of resolution of a microscope is defined as the minimum distance between the two
point objects at which they are just resolved.

Q. Write an expression for limit of resolution of microscope.

Answer: Limit of resolution of a microscope is given by :
 
dx = 
2n sin  2 NA

Where:  = wavelength of light used, n = RI of the medium between the objective and the object,
 =semi vertical angle of the cone of rays from the object entering the objective and NA=nsin  =
numerical aperture.

Q. Define resolving power of a microscope.

Answer: The resolving power of a microscope is defined as the reciprocal of minimum distance
between the two point objects at which they are just resolved.

Q. Give an expression for resolving power of a microscope.

1 2n sin  2 NA
Answer: RP   
dx  
Where:  = wavelength of light used, n = RI of the medium between the objective and the object.
 =semi vertical angle of the cone of rays from the object entering the objective and
NA=nsin  = numerical aperture.

Q. Give a method to increase the resolving power of a microscope.

Answer: By decreasing the wavelength of light used. or by increasing the refractive index of the
medium between the object & the objective.

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Q. How does the resolving power of a microscope vary with the a) immersion of microscope in
oil and b) decrease of wavelength of the light used?
Answer: a)Increases b)Increases.

Q. What happens to the resolving power of a microscope, if the wavelength of light used is
reduced? Justify your answer.

Answer: Increases, as the RP of microscope is inversely proportional to the wavelength of light used.

Q. Define limit of resolution of a telescope.

Answer: The limit of resolution of a telescope is defined as the minimum angular separation between
the two objects at which they are just resolved.

Q. Write an expression for limit of resolution of telescope.

1.22
Answer: d 
D

Where:  = wavelength of light used and D = diameter of the objective.

Q. Define resolving power of a telescope.
Answer: The resolving power of a telescope is defined as the reciprocal of minimum angular
separation between the two point objects at which they are just resolved.

Q. Write an expression for resolving power of telescope.

1 D
Answer: RP  
d 1.22

Where:  = wavelength of light used and D = diameter of the objective.

Q. Give a method to increase the resolving power of a telescope.
Answer: By increasing the diameter of the objective or by decreasing the wavelength of light used.

Q. Why do the astronomers prefer to use telescopes with large objective diameters to observe
astronomical objects?
Answer: The telescope with an objective of large diameter provides high resolving power.

Q. Assume that light of wavelength 5000A0 is coming from a star. What is the limit of
resolution of a telescope whose objective has a diameter of 5.08m?
1.22 1.22 X 5 X 10 7
Answer: d    1.2 X 10 7 rad
D 5.08

Q. What is Doppler effect in light?

Answer: The apparent change in the frequency or wavelength of light due to the relative
motion between the source and the observer is called Doppler effect in light.

Q. What is polarization of light?

Answer: The phenomenon, due to which the vibrations of light are restricted in a particular
plane, is called polarization of light.

Q. What is plane of vibration?

Answer: A plane which contains the vibrations of plane polarised light is called plane of
vibration.

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Q. What is plane of polarization?
Answer: A plane perpendicular to the plane of vibration is called plane of polarization.

Q. What is plane polarized light?

Answer: A plane polarized light is defined as the light in which the vibrations of the light are restricted
to a particular plane.

Q. Give the representation of unpolarised light.

Answer:

Q. Give the representation of plane polarised light.

Answer:
The plane polarised light having vibrations in the plane of the paper is represented as shown below.

The plane polarised light having vibrations in a direction perpendicular to the plane of the paper is
represented as shown below :

Q. Give an example for the wave that cannot be polarsied.

Answer: Sound wave.

Q. Name one phenomenon which is not exhibited by longitudinal waves?

Answer: Polarisation.

Q. Name one phenomenon which is exhibited by light waves but not by sound waves.
Answer: Polarisation.

Q. Name the phenomenon which confirms the transverse nature of light.

Answer: Polarisation of light.

Q. Which among X-rays, sound waves and radio waves can be polarised?
Answer: X-rays and radio waves can be polarised as they are transverse but not sound.

Q. Can two light beams polarized in perpendicular planes interfere?

Answer: The beams cannot produce interference pattern. Because in each beam the vibrations are
restricted to a particular plane and these planes are perpendicular to each other for the two beams.

Q. Ordinary light does not exhibit polarization directly though light waves are transverse.
Answer: In ordinary beam of light, the transverse vibrations are not restricted to a particular plane.

Q. What is polarizer?
Answer: A crystal used to produce a plane polarised light is called polariser.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 161

Q. What is an analyser?
Answer: A crystal used to detect or confirm a plane polarised light is called analyser.

Q. What is polarizing angle( Brewster's angle)?

Answer: The angle of incidence at which the degree of polarisation of reflected beam becomes
maximum, when an ordinary beam of light is incident on a transparent medium, is called polarising
angle for that medium.

Q. What is the angle between reflected and refracted rays, when the angle of incidence is equal
to the polarizing angle?
Answer: 900.

Q. State Brewster’s law.

Answer: Brewster’s Law states that the refractive index of the transparent medium (n) is equal to the
tangent of the angle of polarisation (  p ). ie n  tan  p

Q. The value of Brewster's angle for a transparent medium is different for light of different
colours. Give the reason for this statement.
Answer: RI of the medium is different for different colours as Brewster's angle is different for different
colours.

Q. The polarizing angle for a transparent medium is 600. Calculate RI of the medium.

Answer: n  tan  p  tan 60 0  3  1 .732

Q. What is the polarizing angle for a transparent medium of RI 1.732?

Answer : n  tan  p  tan  p  1 . 732  3   p  60 0

Q. What is the relation between the angle of refraction and polarizing angle?

Answer: r   p  90 0

Q. What is the angle of refraction if a ray of light strikes the surface of a transparent slab at an
angle of incidence 600 such that the reflected light gets completely polarized?

Answer: r   p  90 0  r  90 0   p  90 0  60 0  30 0

Q. What is the polarising of a medium in which the angle of refraction is 330?

Answer: r   p  90 0   p  90 0  r  90 0  33 0  57 0

Q. At What angle of incidence should a light beam strike a glass slab of RI 1.732, such that the
reflected and refracted rays are perpendicular to each other?
1 1 1
Answer: n  tan  p  tan  p      p  30 0
n 1.732 3

Q. What is double refraction?

Answer: When an unpolarised light (light from an ordinary source) is passed through certain crystals
(quartz, calcite, mica etc) , it gets refracted along two directions. This phenomenon is called double
refraction.

Q. What do you mean by birefrigence?

Answer: The crystals having property of double refraction are said to have birefringence.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 162

Q. What is an ordinary ray?
Answer: The ray which obeys the laws of refraction is called ordinary ray.

Q. What is an extraordinary ray?

Answer: The ray which does not obey the laws of refraction is called extraordinary ray.

Q. Name the ray that does not obey Snell’s law?

Answer: Extraordinary ray.

Q. What is meant by polarisation by selective absorption of light(dichroism)?

Answer: Some doubly refracting crystals have the special property of absorbing the ordinary ray and
the extraordinary ray to different extents. This property is called selective absorption or dichroism.

Q. What is Nicol prism?

Answer: Nicol prism is an optical device used to produce & analyse the plane polarised light.

Q. Mention a method of obtaining plane polarized light.

Answer: Polarisation by reflection or refraction or double refraction or selective absorption or
scattering.

Q. What is polaroid?
Answer: Polaroid is a device used to produce the plane polarised light.

Q. What is the working principle of polaroid?

Answer: The polaroid works on the principle of selective absorption of light.

Q. What are crossed polaroids?

Answer: When the axes of two polaroids are mutually perpendicular to each other, they are said to
be crossed. In this case, the light transmitted by the first polaroid is completely blocked by the other.

Q. Mention any one application of polaroid.

Answer: In sun glasses.

Q. What is pass axis(transmission axis)?

Answer: When an unpolarised light wave is incident on a polaroid, the light wave will get linearly
polarised with the electric vector oscillating along a direction perpendicular to the aligned molecules.
This direction is known as pass axis.

Q. State Malus law.

Answer: It states that the intensity of the polarized light transmitted through the analyser is directly
proportional to the square of the cosine of the angle between the planes of transmission of the
analyser and the polariser. Intensity of the light transmitted by the analyser is given by:

I  I o cos 2 

Where:
Io =intensity of light transmitted by the polariser.
 =angle between the planes of transmission of the analyser and the polariser.

Q. If an unpolarised light of intensity Io is incident on the analyser, what is the intensity of light
transmitted by the analyser?

Io
Answer:
2

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 163

Q. By what percentage the intensity of light decreases, when an ordinary unpolarised (like
from sodium lamp) light is passed through a polaroid sheet?
Answer: 50%

Q. What percentage of incident light is transmitted if the angle between the polariser and the
analyser is 300?
3 I 3
Answer : I  I o cos 2   I 0 cos 2 30 0  I 0  %.of .light .transmitte d  X 100%  X 100 %  75%
4 I0 4

Q.A beam of unpolarised light is incident on an arrangement of two polaroids successively. If

the angle between the pass axes of the two polaroids is 600, then what percentage of light
intensity emerges out of the second Polaroid sheet?
1 I 1
Answer : I  I o cos 2   I 0 cos 2 60 0  I 0  %.of .light .transmitte d  X 100%  X 100%  25 %
4 I0 4

Q. What is the angle between the plane of the polariser and that of the analyser, in order that
the intensity of light reduces to half?
I0 1 1
Answer : I  I o cos 2    I 0 cos 2    cos 2   cos      450
2 2 2

Q. Let the intensity of unpolarised light incident on a polaroid P1 be I. What is the intensity of
light crossing polaroid P2, when the pass axis of p2 makes an angle of 900 with the pass axis
of p1?
Answer: Intensity becomes zero (When the polaroids are crossed no light passes through them).

Q. What should be the angle between the pass axes of two polaroids so that the intensity of
transmitted light from the second polaroid will be maximum?
Answer: Zero.

Q. Sketch the graph showing the variation of intensity of polarised light transmitted by the
analyser with the angle between the polariser and the analyser.
Answer:

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 164

 TWO MARKS QUESTIONS
1. State Huygens principle.
2. Name the wavefront obtained when a plane wave passed through (i) a thin convex lens (ii)
thin prism.
3. What is the shape of the wavefront in each of the following cases:
(a) Light emerging out of a convex lens when a point source is placed at its focus.
(b) The portion of the wavefront of light from a distant star intercepted by the Earth.
4. What are coherent sources? Give an example.
5. Can two sodium vapour lamps be considered as coherent sources? Why?
6. Write the expression for fringe width in Young’s double slit experiment.
7. What are the factors which affect the fringe width in Young’s double slit experiment?
8. Let the fringe width in Young’s double slit experiment be  . What is the fringe width if the
distance between the slits and the screen is doubled and slit separation is halved?
9. What is diffraction of light? Give an example.
10. Mention the conditions for diffraction minima and maxima.
11. Give the graphical representation to show the variation of intensity of light in single slit
diffraction.
12. Mention the expression for limit of resolution of microscope.
13. Write the expression for limit of resolution of telescope.
14. Give the two methods of increasing the resolving power of microscope.
15. Write the mathematical expression for Malus law. Explain the terms.
16. Represent polarised light and unpolarised light.
17. Unpolarised light is incident on a plane glass surface. What should be the angle of incidence so
that the reflected and refracted rays are perpendicular to each other? (For glass refractive index =
1.5). OR What is the Brewster angle for air to glass transition? (For glass refractive index = 1.5).

18. In a Young’s double slit experiment, the angular width of a fringe formed on distant
screen is 0.10. The wavelength of light used is 6000 Ǻ. What is the spacing between the
slits?
19. A beam of unpolarised is incident on an arrangement of two polaroids successively. If the angle
between the pass axes of the two polaroids is 600, then what percentage of light intensity emerges out
of the second polaroid sheet?
20. Assume that light of wavelength 5000Å is coming from a star. What is the limit of resolution of a
telescope whose objective has a diameter of 5.08m ?

21. Using Huygens principle, draw a diagram to show the refraction of plane wavefront
incident obliquely on a surface separating two media.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 165

 THREE MARKS QUESTIONS
1. Using Huygens wave theory of light, show that the angle of incidence is equal to angle of
reflection in case of reflection of a plane wave by a plane surface. OR Derive the law of
reflection of light on the basis of Huygens wave theory.

2. Illustrate with the help of suitable diagram, action of the following when a plane wavefront
incident on (i) a prism (ii) a convex lens and (iii) a concave mirror.(each three marks)

3. Briefly describe Young’s experiment with the help of a schematic diagram.

4. Distinguish between interference of light and diffraction of light.

5. Briefly explain Polarisation by reflection with the help of a diagram.

6. Show that the refractive index of a reflector is equal to tangent of the polarising angle. OR

Arrive at Brewster’s law.

7. What are Polaroids? Mention any two uses of polaroids.

FIVE MARKS THEORY QUESTIONS

1. Using Huygens wave theory of light, derive Snell’s law of refraction.
2. Obtain the expressions for resultant displacement and amplitude when two waves having
same amplitude and a phase difference  superpose. Hence give the conditions for
constructive and destructive interference. OR
Give the theory of interference. Hence arrive at the conditions for constructive and
destructive interferences.
3. Derive an expression for the width of interference fringes in a double slit experiment Or
Obtain the expression for fringe width of interference bands in Young's double slit
experiment.
4. Explain the phenomenon of diffraction of light due to a single slit and mention of the
conditions for diffraction minima and maxima.

FIVE MARKS NUMERICAL PROBLEMS

1. A monochromatic yellow light of wavelength 589nm is incident from air on a water surface.
What are the wavelength, frequency and speed of a refracted light? Refractive index of
water is 1.33.
2. In a double slit experiment angular width of a fringe is found to be 0.2 0 on a screen placed
80 cm away. The wave length of light used is 600 nm. Find the fringe width. What will be
the angular width of the fringe if the entire experimental apparatus is immersed in water?
Take refractive index of water to be 4/3.
3. A beam of light consisting of two wavelengths 650 nm and 520 nm, is used to obtain
interference fringes in Young’s double slit experiment with D = 60 cm and d = 1 mm. a) Find
the distance of third bright fringe on the screen from central maximum for wavelength
650nm. b) What is the least distance from the central maximum where the bright fringes due
to both the wavelengths coincide?
4. In Young’s double-slit experiment using monochromatic light of wavelength λ, the intensity
of light at a point on the screen where path difference is λ, is K units. What is the intensity of
light at a point where path difference is (i) λ/3 (ii) λ/2?

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 166

5. A parallel beam of light of wavelength 500 nm falls on a narrow slit and the resulting
diffraction pattern is observed on a screen 1.25 m away. It is observed that the first
minimum is at a distance of 2.5 mm from the centre of the screen. Find (i) the width of the
slit and (ii) angular position of the first secondary maximum.
6. In a Young’s double-slit experiment, the slits are separated by 0.28 mm and the screen is
placed 1.4 m away. The distance between the central bright fringe and the fourth bright
fringe is measured to be 1.2 cm. Determine the wavelength of light used in the experiment.
Also find the distance of fifth dark fringe from the central bright fringe.
7. In Young’s double slit experiment with monochromatic light and slit separation of 1mm,
the fringes are obtained on a screen placed at some distance from the slits. If the screen is
moved by 5cm towards the slits, the change in fringe width is 30 m . Calculate the
wavelength of the light used.
8.A beam of light consisting of two wavelengths 500nm and 400nm is used to obtain
interference fringes in Young's double slit experiment. The distance between the slits is
0.3mm and the distance between the slits and the screen is 1.5m. Compute the least
distance of the point from the central maximum, where the bright fringes due to both the
wavelengths coincide.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 167

 WAVE OPTICS
SYNOPSIS

Expression for resultant amplitude due to the superposition of two waves of

amplitudes a1 and a2:

A= a 12  a 22  2a 1a 2 cos 

Expression for resultant intensity due to the superposition of two waves of

intensities I1 and I2:
I  I 1  I 2  2 I 1 I 2 cos 

Expression for phase difference between the resultant wave & the first wave:
 a 2 sin  
  tan 1  
 a1  a 2 cos  

Condition for constructive interference:

a.In terms of amplitude:

Amax = a1 + a2

b. In terms of phase difference:

  2 n Where n = 0, 1, 2, 3 …….

3. In terms of path difference :


  n = 2n.   Where n = 0, 1, 2, 3……
2

4.In terms of intensity: The interference is said to be constructive, if the intensity is

maximum.

I max   I1  I 2 
2
 a1  a 2 
2

Condition for destructive interference :

1. In terms of amplitude :

Amin = a1 – a2

2. In terms of phase difference :

  ( 2 n  1)  Where: n = 0, 1, 2, …………

  ( 2 n  1) Where: n = 1, 2,,3 …………

CHETAN AND SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 168

3. In terms of path difference :


 = 2n  1 Where n = 0, 1, 2, 3 …
2
….
4.In terms of intensity: The interference is said to be destructive, if the intensity is
minimum.

I min   I1  I 2 
2
 a1  a 2 
2

Fringe visibility: The ratio of difference between the maximum intensity and the
minimum intensity to the sum of maximum intensity and minimum intensity is called
visibility.

I1
2
I max  I min 2 I 1 I 2 I2
V .  
I max  I min I1  I 2 I 
1   1 
 I2 

a 
2 1 
I max  I min 2a a a
V .  2 1 22   2  2
I max  I min a1  a2 a 
1   1 
 a2 

If Imin=0, then V=1. This means that for best visibility, I min  a1  a 2   0  a1  a2 .
2

Therefore , if the two individual waves have equal amplitudes , then fringe visibility is
best.

Note:

1.Ratio of maximum intensity to minimum intensity:

I max r  12 a1
 Where : r   amplitude.ratio
I min r  12 a2

I max  I min 2 
2. .  ..Where :   Intensity.ratio.
I max  I min 1  

CHETAN AND SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 169

3. If I1 & I2 are the intensities of two light waves from the slits of widths w 1 & w2 ,
then:

I 1 w1

I 2 w2

4. If I1 and I2 are the intensities of two light waves of amplitudes a1 and a2 , then

I 1 a12

I 2 a 22

5.From above equations:

I 1 w1 a12
 
I 2 w2 a 22

6.From above equation :

a1 w1

a2 w2

Fringe width: The distance between two consecutive bright or dark fringes is called
fringe width.

Expression for fringe width in Young’s double slit experiment:

D
 =
d

Factors on which fringe width depends:

1.Wavelength of light.
2.Slit separation.
3.Distance of the screen from the slit.

Distance of nth bright fringe from the centre of the screen:

n D  D 
xn   n   n
d  d 

Distance of nth dark fringe from the centre of the screen:

 2n  1  D  2n  1  D   2n  1 
xn       
 2  d  2  d   2 

Note:
1.If the entire Young’s double slit experiment is immersed in a liquid of RI  , then
the new fringe width becomes:

D
  d 
 

CHETAN AND SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 170

Note: Therefore, if the refractive index of the surrounding medium of the
experimental arrangement increases , then the fringe width decreases.
2.If a transparent plate of RI  and thickness t is introduced in one of the paths of
interfering waves, then the entire fringe pattern is displaced by:


s   1t  D   1t
 d

The shifting is towards the side in which the transparent plate is introduced
without any change in fringe width.

Note :
1. Shift is independent of wavelength

2. Number.of . fringes.shifted 
shift
N
  1t
fringewidth 

Coherent sources: The two sources of light are said to be coherent, if they emit
light waves with a constant phase difference.

Example of coherent sources:

Two narrow slits separated by a small distance illuminated by a source of light.

Incoherent sources: Two sources of light are said to be incoherent, if they do not
emit light waves with a constant phase difference.

Conditions for sustained interference pattern:

1.Two sources of light must be coherent.
2.Two sources of light should emit light waves continuously.
3.Two sources of light should be placed very close to each other.
4.The two coherent sources of light should be very narrow.
5.Amplitudes of the two waves emitted by the coherent sources should be equal.
6.The light should be monochromatic.

Note:
1.If red light is replaced by violet light in Young’s double slit experiment, then fringe
width decreases.
2.If the entire Young’s double slit experiment is immersed in a liquid (water), then the
fringe width decreases.
3.When white light is used as source in Young’s double slit experiment, then
coloured bands are formed on either side of the central white band
4.We observe colours on a soap bubble, due to multiple interference at thin film.

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 Characteristics of interference pattern in Young’s double slit experiment:
1.Alternate bright & dark fringes are formed at equal distances on either side of the
screen.
2.The bright and dark fringes are of equal width.
3.The bright fringes are perfectly bright and have equal intensity.
4.The dark fringes are perfectly dark and have zero intensity.

Colour of thin films: When light falls on a thin film, then both reflection and
transmission take place . Due to this, interference at the film occurs due to reflected
as well as transmitted light.

Reflected system:

1.Condition for maximum intensity: 2t cos r  2n  1 n=1,2,3……
2
2.Condition for minimum intensity: 2t cos r  n n=1,2,3……

Transmitted system:

1.Condition for maximum intensity: 2t cos r  n n=1,2,3……


2.Condition for minimum intensity: 2 t cos r  2n  1 n=1,2,3……
2
Diffraction of light : The bending phenomenon of light around the corners of an
obstacle (slit) and hence its encroachment into the region of geometrical shadow is
called diffraction of light.

Types of diffraction of light :

1.Fresnel diffraction: In Fresnel diffraction, the source of light and the screen are at
finite distances from the obstacle (slit).As the slit is at finite distance both from the
source and the screen, both incident wavefront and emergent wavefront are
spherical for a point source or cylindrical for a linear source.

2.Fraunhoffer diffraction: In Fraunhoffer diffraction, the source of light and the

screen are at infinite distances from the obstacle (slit).As the slit is at an infinite
distance both from the source and the screen, both incident wavefront and emergent
wave front are plane.

n n
Condition for nth secondary minimum:  n  or sin n 
d d

Condition for nth secondary maximum:

 
 n  (2n  1) or sin n  (2n  1)
2d 2d

Width of central maxima: The width of central maxima is the distance between the
first secondary minima on both sides of the centre of the screen.

2D
o 
d

CHETAN AND SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 172

Note:
1.Distance of nth minimum from the central maximum :

D
xn = n  n Where: n=1,2,3…….
d

2.Distance of nth secondary maxima from the central maximum:

 2n  1   D  2n  1 
xn =     Where: n=1,2,3…….
 2  d  2 

3.Angular width of the central maximum :

2
2 =
d
Note: The secondary maxima are less bright than central maxima: As the
Central maxima receive the wavelets from all parts of the slit whereas the secondary
maxima receive wavelets from a part of the slit, therefore the secondary maxima are
less intense.

Fresnel distance ( Ray optics is a limiting case of wave optics): The

distance of the screen from the slit, when the spreading of light due to diffraction
becomes equal to the size of the slit, is called Fresnel distance (ZF) .

d2
ZF 

Note:
1.The type of wavefront used in Fraunhofer diffraction is plane wavefront.
2.The type of wavefront used in Fresnel diffraction is spherical wavefront.
3. For violet colour of light, angle of diffraction is minimum.
4. For red colour of light, angle of diffraction is maximum.
5.If light of smaller wavelength is used, then the diffraction pattern becomes
narrower.
6. If yellow light is replaced by X-rays, then the diffraction pattern will not be
observed as the wavelength of x rays is much smaller than that of yellow light.
7.The wavelength should be of the order of the size of the obstacle for
diffraction. As the wavelength of sound waves is much greater than that of light
waves, therefore the sound waves are diffracted more easily than light waves.

Malus' law: It states that the intensity of the polarized light transmitted through the
analyser is directly proportional to the square of the cosine of the angle between the
planes of transmission of the analyser and the polariser.

Intensity of the light transmitted by the analyser is given by:

I  I o cos 2  ----------------(1)

CHETAN AND SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 173

Cases:
1.If   0.o r.1800 , then equation (1) becomes:
I  Io
 Intensity of the light transmitted by the analyser is equal to the intensity of the light
that falls on the analyser from the polarizer, when the analyser is parallel to the
polarsier.

2.If   90 . , then equation (1) becomes:

0

I 0
 Intensity of the light transmitted by the analyser is zero, when the analyser is
perpendicular to the polarsier.

3.If an unpolarised light of intensity Io is incident on the analyser, then the intensity of
light transmitted by the analyser is equal to half the intensity of incident light
Io
I .
2
Optical activity: The property of a substance by virtue of which it rotates the plane
of polarization is called optical activity.

Optically active substance : The substance which shows the property of optical
activity is called optically active substance.

Types of optically active substances:

1.Dextrorotatory substance : A substance which rotates the plane of polarisation

in the clockwise direction or towards right is known as dextrorotatory substance.
Example: Cane sugar

2.Laevorotatory substance :A substance which rotates the plane of polarisation in

the anticlockwise direction or towards left is known as laevorotatory substance.
Example: fruit sugar.

Specific rotation (Specific rotatory power) of an optically active solution : For

an optically active solution, at a given temperature and for a given wavelength of
light, the angle of rotation produced (  ) is directly proportional to the length of the
solution (l) and the concentration of the solution (C).

  lC

 =SlC

S=
lC
Where: S = constant called specific rotation of the solution.

If l = 1 & C = 1, then equation (1) becomes : S = 

The specific rotation of an optically active solution at a given temperature and

for a given wavelength of light is defined as the angle of rotation of the plane
of polarisation produced by a solution of unit length and unit concentration.

SI unit of specific rotation of an optically active solution (S) is radm2kg-1.

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 CET
K-CET
CET - 2000 7. A beam of light consisting of two wavelengths 6500
1. In Young’s double slit experiment the separation Å and 5200 Å, is used to obtain interference fringes
between the slits is halved and the distance in Young’s double slit experiment. Suppose the mth
between the slits and the screen is doubled. The bright fringe due to 6500 Å coincides with nth bright
fringe width will fringe due to 5200 Å at a minimum distance from
1) be quadrupled 2) be doubled the central maximum. Then
3) be halved 4) remain the same 1) m = 8, n = 10 2) m = 10, n = 8
3) m = 4, n = 5 4) m = 5, n = 4
2. Two coherent light beams of intensity I and 4I are
superposed. The maximum and minimum possible 8. In the experiment of diffraction at a single slit, if
intensities in the resulting beam are the slit width is decreased, the width of the central
1) 9 I and 3 I 2) 9 I and I maximum
3) 5 I and 3 I 4) 5 I and I 1) decreases in both Fresnel and Fraunhoffer
diffraction
3. The phenomenon of diffraction of light was 2) increases in both Fresnel and Fraunhoffer
discovered by diffraction
1) Fresnel 2) Grimaldi 3) decreases in Fresnel diffraction but increases
3) Huygens 4) Newton in Fraunhoffer diffraction
4) increases in Fresnel diffraction but decreases
4. Diffraction effects are easier to notice in the case
in Fraunhoffer diffraction
of sound waves then in the case of light waves
because
9. When light is incident on a doubly refracting cystal,
1) sound waves are mechanical waves
2) sound waves are of longer wave length two refracted rays - ordinary ray (O-ray) and extra
3) sound waves are longitudinal ordinary ray (E-ray) are produced. Then,
4) sound is perceived by the ear 1) both O-ray and E -ray are polarised in the plane
of incidence.
5. Waves that cannot be polarised are 2) both O-ray and E-ray are polarised
1) light waves perpendicular to the plane of incidence.
2) electromagnetic waves 3) E-ray is polarised in the plane of incidence and
3) transverse waves O-ray perpendicular to the plane of incidence.
4) longitudinal waves 4) E-ray is polarised perpendicular to the plane of
incidence and O-ray in the plane of incidence.
CET - 2001
6. If white light is used in Young’s double-slit CET - 2002
experiment 10. When one of the slits of Young’s experiment is
1) Very few coloured fringes can be seen, with covered with a transparent sheet of thickness 4.8
first order violet fringes being closer to the mm, the central fringe shifts to a position originally
central white fringe occupied by the 30th bright fringe. What should
2) Very few coloured fringes can be seen with first be the thickness of the sheet if the central fringe
order red fringes being closer to the central has to shift to the position occupied by 20th bright
white fringe fringe ?
3) A very large number of coloured fringes can be 1) 3.8 mm 2) 1.6 mm
seen 3) 7.6 mm 4) 3.2 mm
4) A very large number of coloured fringes with a
central white fringe can be seen
CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U.SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 175
 CET
11. v0 and vE represent the velocities, 0 and E the 17. Yellow light is used in single slit diffraction
refractive indicies of ordinary and extraordinary rays experiment with slit width 0.6 mm. If yellow light is
for a doubly refracting crystal. Then
replaced by x-rays then the pattern will reveal
1) v0  vE,0  E if the crystal is calcite
1) more number of fringes
2) v0  vE,0  E if the crystal is quartz
2) less number of fringes
3) v0  vE,0  E if the crystal is calcite
4) v  v ,   if the crystal is quartz 3) that the central maxima narrower
0 E 0 E
4) no diffraction pattern
12. In Young’s double slit experiment, the central bright
fringe can be identified 18. In an interference experiment, third bright fringe is
1) by using white light instead of monochromatic obtained at a point on the screen with a light of
light
700 nm. What should be the wave length of the
2) as it is narrower than other bright fringes
light source in order to obtain 5th bright fringe at
3) as it is wider than other bright fringes
4) as it has a greater intensity than the other bright the same point ?
fringes 1) 750 nm 2) 420 nm
3) 500 nm 4) 630 nm
CET - 2003
13. Waves that cannot be polarized are CET - 2004
1) transverse waves
19. When light is incident on a diffraction grating the
2) longitudinal waves
zero order principal maximum will be
3) light waves
1) one of the component colours
4) electromagnetic waves
2) absent
14. The phenomenon of rotation of plane of plane 3) spectrum of the colours
polarized light is called 4) white
1) dichroism 2) optical activity
3) double refraction 4) Kerr effect 20. H-polaroid is prepared by
1) stretching polyvinyl alcohol and then heated with
15. As a result of interference of two coherent sources dehydrating agent
of light, energy is 2)stretching polyvinyl alcohol and then
1) decreased impregnating with iodine
2) redistributed and the distribution changes with 3) orienting herapathite crystal in the same
time direction in nitrocellulose
3) increased 4) by using thin tourmaline crystals
4) redistributed and the distribution does not vary
with time 21. In Young’s double slit experiment if monochromatic
light used is replaced by white light, then
16 In Young’s double slit experiment, the fringe width 1) all bright fringes become white
is  . If the entire arrangement is placed in a liquid 2) all bright fringes have colours between violet and
of refractive index n, the fringe width becomes red
  3) no fringes are observed
1) 2)
n n-1 4) only central fringe is white, all other fringes are
coloured

3) 4) n
n+1

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 CET
22. In a Young’s double slit experiment, the separation 27. At Kavalur in India, the astronomers are using a
between the two slits is 0.9 mm and the fringes telescope whose objective had a diameter of one
are observed one metre away. If it produces the meter started using a telescope of diameter 2.54m.
second dark fringe at a distance of 1 mm from the This resulted in
central fringe, the wavelength of the 1) The increase in the resolving power by 2.54
monochromatic source of light used is
times for the same 
1) 500 nm 2) 600 nm
2) The increase in the limiting angle by 2.54 times
3) 450 nm 4) 400 nm
for the 
3) decrease in the resolving power
23. A beam of light of wavelength 600 nm from a distant
4) no effect on the limiting angle
source falls on a single slit 1 mm wide and the
resulting diffraction pattern is observed on a screen
28. When unpolarized light beam is incident from air
2 m away. The distance between the first dark
fringes on either side of the central bright fringe is onto glass ( n= 1.5) at the polarization angle

1) 1.2 mm 2) 1.2 cm 1) reflected beam is polarized 100 percent

3) 2.4 cm 4) 2.4 mm 2) reflected and refracted beams are partially

polarized
3) the reason for 1) is that almost all the light is
CET - 2005
reflected
24. The wave theory of light, in its original form, was
4) All of the above
first postulated by :
1) Issac Newton
29. Select the right option in the following :
2) Chrisitian Huygens
1) Christian Huygens, a contemporary of Newtons
3) Thomos Young established the wave theory of light by assuming
4) Augustin Jeal Fresnel that light waves were transverse
2) Maxwell provided the compelling theoretical
25. Two coherent light beams of intensity  and 4 are evidence that light is transverse wave
superposed. The maximum and minimum possible 3) Thomas Young experimentally proved the wave
intensities in the resulting beam are: behavior of light and Huygens assumption
1) 9 and  2) 9 and 3 4) All three statements given above, correctly
3) 5  and  4) 5  and 3  answers the question what is light

 A single slit of width a is illuminated by violet light CET - 2006

30. The width of the diffraction band varies
of wavelength 400nm and width of the diffraction
1) directly as the distance between the slit and
pattern is measured as y. When half of slit width is
the screen
covered and is illuminated by yellow light of
2) inversely as the size of the slit illuminated.
wavelength 600nm the width of the diffraction pattern is
3) inversely as the wavelength
1) the pattern vanishes and the width is zero
4) directly as the width of the slit
2) y/3
3) 3y
4) none of these

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 CET
31. An unpolarized beam of intensity I0 is incident on 37. A single slit Fraunhoffer diffraction pattern is formed
a pair of nicols making an angle of 600 with each with white light. For what wavelength of light the
other. The intensity of light emerging from the pair third secondary maximum in the diffraction pattern
is : coincides with the second secondary maximum
1) I0 /4 2) I0 /8 in the pattern for red light of wavelength 6500Å ?
3) I0 4) I0 /2 1) 4100Å 2) 44000 Å
3) 9100Å 4) 4642.8 Å
32. A beam of light of wavelength 600 nm from a
distance source falls on a single slit 1 mm wide 38. When the angle of incidence is 60 on the surface
0

and resettling diffraction pattern is observed on a of a glass slab, it is found that the reflected ray is

screen 2m away. The distance between the first completely polarized. The velocity of light in glass
is
dark fringes on either side of the central bright
1) 3 x 108 ms-1 2) 2 x108 ms-1
fringe is:
3) 3 x 108 ms-1 4) 2 x 108 ms-1
1) 2.4 cm 2) 2.4mm
3) 1.2cm 4) 1.2mm
CET - 2008
39. In Young’s double slit experiment, a third slit is
33. The angle between reflected and refracted made in between the double slits. Then
waves at the polarising angle is 1) fringes of unequal width are formed.
o o
1) 45 2) 0 2) contrast between bright and dark frignes is
3) 60
o
4) 90
o reduced.
3) intensity of fringes totally disappears.
4) only bright light is observed on the screen.
CET - 2007
40. The maximum number of possible interference
34. The electromagnetic theory of light failed to explain :
maxima when slit separation is equal to 4 times
1) Polarization 2) Photoelectric effect the wavelength of light used in a double slit
3) Interference 4) Diffraction experiment is
1) 8 2) 4 3)  4) 9

35. Light from two coherent sources of the same

41. In a Fraunhoffer diffraction experiment at a single
amplitude A and wavelength  illuminates the
slit using a light of wavelength 400 nm, the first
screen. The intensity of the central maximum is 0
minimum is formed at an angle of 30 . The direction
o. If the sources were incoherent, the intensity at  of the first secondary maximum is given by.
-1 -1
the same point will be 1) Sin 1/4 2) Tan 2/3
-1 -1
3) Sin 2/3 4) Sin 3/4
1) 2 o 2) 4 0
3) o / 2 4) o 42. Maximum diffraction takes place in a given slit for
1) infrared light
36. In Young’s double slit experiment with sodium 2) radio waves

vapour lamp of wavelength 589 nm and the slits 3)  - rays

4) ultraviolet light
0.589 nm apart, the half angular width of the
central maximum is
43. An unpolarised beam of intensity I0 falls on a
1) sin –1 0.0001 2) sin-1 0.01
polaroid. The intensity of the emergent light is
3) sin-1 0.1 4) sin-1 0.001 1) I0 / 4 2) Zero
3) I0 / 2 4) I0

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 CET
44. Which of the following is a dichroic crystal ? 51. Electromagnetic wave consists of periodically
1) Mica 2) Selenite oscillating electric and magnetic vectors - - - - -
3) Quartz 4) Tourmaline 1) in mutually perpendicular planes but vibrating
with a phase difference of .
CET - 2009 2) in mutually perpendicular but vibrating with
45. Young’s double slit experiment gives interference a phase difference of /2.
fringes of width 0.3 mm. A thin glass plate made 3) in randomly oriented planes but vibrating in
of material of refractive index 1.5 is kept in the phase.
path of light from one of the slits, then the fringe 4) in mutually perpendicular planes but vibrating
in phase.
width becomes
1) 0.15 mm 2) zero
52. Red light of wavelength 625 nm is incident
3) 0.3 mm 4) 0.45 mm
normally on an optical diffraction grating with
5
2 x 10 lines/m. Including central principal
46. Two sources are said to be coherent if they
maxima, how many maxima may be observed on
produce waves
a screen which is far from the grating ?
1) having same shape of wave front
1) 15 2) 17 3) 8 4) 16
2) having a constant phase difference
3) of equal wavelength
2011
4) of equal speed.
53. Wavefront is the locus of all points, where the
particles of the medium vibrate with the same - - -
47. According to Newton’s Corpuscular Theory, the 1) phase 2) amplitude
speed of light is 3) frequency 4) period
1) independent of the medium
2) same in all the media 54. Two monochromatic light waves of amplitudes
3) lesser in rarer medium 3A and 2A interfering at a point have a phase
o
4) lesser in denser medium. difference of 60 . The intensity at that point will
be proportional to - - - - - - - - - - -
2 2 2 2
48. For the constructive interference the path difference 1) 5 A 2) 13 A 3) 7 A 4) 19 A
between the two interfering waves must be equal to
1) (2n + 1) /2. 2) (2n + 1) 55. Consider the following statements in case of
3) 2n  4) n. Young’s double slit experiment.
a) A slit S is necessary if we use an ordinary
2010 extendend source of light.
49. The wavelength of the light used in Young’s double b) A slit S is not needed if we use an ordinary
 . The intensity at a point on
slit experiment is but well collimated beam of light.
the screen where the path difference is / 6 is I. c) A slit S is not needed if we use a spatially
If I denotes the maximum intensity, then the ratio coherent source of light.
0
of I and I is - - - - - - - - Which of the above statements are correct ?
0
1) 0.866 2) 0.5 3) 0.707 4) 0.75 1) a), b) and c) 2) a) and b)
3) b) and c) 4) a) and c)
50. What is the minimum thickness of a thin film
required for constructive interference in the reflected 56. A parallel beam of light of wavelength 6000 Å gets
light from it ? diffracted by a single slit of width 0.3 mm. The
Given, the refractive index of the film = 1.5, angular position of the first minima of diffracted
wavelength of the light incident on the film = 600 nm. light is - - - - - - - -
-3 -3
1) 100 nm 2) 300 nm 1) 2 x 10 rad 2) 3 x 10 rad
-3 -3
3) 50 nm 4) 200 nm 3) 1.8 x 10 rad 4) 6 x 10 rad

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 CET
2012
57. In Young’s double slit experiment, fringes of 63. W hite light reflected from a soap film of
width  are produced on a screen kept at a refractive index 1.5 has a maxima at 600 nm and
distance of 1 m from the slit. When the screen is a minima at 450 nm with no minimum in
-2
moved away by 5 x 10 m, fringe width changes between of the film. Then the thickness of the film
-7
by 3 x 10-5 m. The separation between the slits is ______ x 10 m
is 1 x 10-3 m. The wavelength of the light used 1) 1 2) 2 3) 3 4) 4
is - - - - - - -nm. CET - 2014
1) 500 2) 600 64. A fringe width of a certain interference pattern is
3) 700 4) 400  = 0.002 cm. What is the distance of 5th dark
fringe from centre ?
58. For sustained interference fringes in double slit -2 -2
1) 1.1 x 10 cm 2) 1 x 10 cm
experiment, essential condition/s is/are 6 -3
3) 3.28 x 10 cm 4) 9 x 10 cm
(a) sources must be coherent
(b) the intensities of the two sources must be
65. Diameter of the objective of a telescope is
equal
200cm. W hat is the resolving power of a
Here, the correct option/s is/are
1) both (a) and (b) 2) only (a) telescope ? Take wavelength of light = 5000Å.
6 6
3) only (b) 4) neither (a) nor (b) 1) 1 x 10 2) 6.56 x 10
6 5
3) 3.28 x 10 4) 3.28 x 10
59. In single slit experiment, the width of the slit is
reduced. Then, the linear width of the principal 66. A polarized light of intensity I0 is passed through
maxima - - - - - - - 0
whose pass axis makes an angle of 60 with the
1) increases but becomes less bright pass axis of the former. What is the intensity of
2) decreases but becomes more bright
emergent polarized light from second polarizer ?
3) increases but becomes more bright
1) I0/5 2) I0 3) I0 / 4 4) I0/6
4) decreases but becomes less bright.

60. If the two slits in Young’s slit experiment are of CET - 2015
unequal width, then 67. In a Young’s double slit experiment the slit
1) the bright fringes will have unequal spacing. separation is 0.5 m from the slits. For a
2) the bright fringes will have unequal brightness monochromatic light of wavelength 500 nm, the
3) the fringes do not appear. distance of 3rd maxima from 2nd minima on the
4) the dark fringes are not perfectly dark. other side is
1) 2.5 mm 2) 2.25 mm
61. The phenomenon of polarization shows that
3) 2.75 mm 4) 22.5 mm
light has _______nature.
* Data insufficient
1) particle 2) transverse
3) longitudinal 4) dual
68. The polarizing angle of glass is 57o. A ray of light
CET - 2013 which is incident at this angle will have an angle of
62. Which of the following phenomena support the refraction as
wave theory of light ? 1) 33o 2) 38o 3) 25o 4) 43o
a) scattering b) interference
c) diffraction 69. To observe diffraction, the size of the obstacle
d) velocity of light in a denser medium is less
1) should be /2, where  is the wavelength
than the velocity of light in the rarer medium
2) should be of the order of wavelength
1) a, b, c 2) a, b, d
3) has no relation to wavelength
3) b, c, d 4) a, c, d
4) should be much larger than the wavelength.
CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U.SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 180
 CET
CET - 2016 CET - 2018
70. For what distance is ray optics is good 76. A plane wavefront of wavelength  is incident on a
approximation when the aperture is 4 mm and the single slit of width a. The angular width of principal
wavelength of light is 400 n m ?
maximum is
(1) 30 m (2) 18 m
(3) 40 m (4) 24 m  2
1) 2)
a a
71. Light of wavelength 600nm is incident normally on a a
3) 4)
a slit of width 0.2 mm. The angular width of central  2
maxima in the diffraction pattern is (measured from
minimum to minimum) 77. In a Fraunhofer diffraction at a single slit, if yellow
-3 -3
(1) 4.5 x 10 rad (2) 2.4 x 10 rad light illuminating the slit is replaced by blue light,
-3 -3
(3) 4 x 10 rad (4) 6 x 10 rad then diffraction bands
1) Remain unchanged 2) Become wider
72. In Young's double slit experiment the source is 3) Disappear 4) Become narrower
white light. One slit is covered with red filter and
the other with blue filter. There shall be 78. In Young’s double slit experiment, two wavelengths
(1) No interference 1 = 780 nm and 2 = 520 nm are used to obtain
(2) Alternate dark and yellow fringes inteference fringes. If the nth bright band due to 1
th
(3) Alternate dark and pink fringes coincides with (n + 1) bright due to 1 coincides
(4) Alternate red and blue fringes with (n + 1)th bright band due to 2, then the value
of n is
CET - 2017 1) 4 2) 3 3) 2 4) 6
73. In Young's double-slit experiment if yellow light is
79. In Young’s double slit experiment, slits are
replaced by blue light, the interference fringes
separated by 2mm and the screen is placed at a
become
distance of 1.2 m from the slits. Light consisting
1) wider 2) narrower
of two wavelengths 6500 Å and 5200 Å are used
3) brighter 4) darker to obtain interference fringes. Then the separation
between the fourth bright fringes of two different
74. According to Huygens' principle, during refraction patterns produced by the two wavelengths is
of light from air to a denser medium 1) 0.312 mm 2) 0.123 mm
1) Wavelength and speed decrease 3) 0.213 mm 4) 0.412

2) Wavelength and speed increase KCET - 2019

3) Wavelength increases but speed decreases 80. In Young’s double slit experiment, the
4) Wavelength decreases but speed increases monochromatic light of wavelength , the intensity
of light at a point on the screen where path
difference is  is K units. The intensity of light at a
75. In a system of two crossed polarisers, it is found
point where path difference is /3 is
that the intensity of light from the second polariser
1) K/4 2) 2K 3) K 4) 4K
is half from that of first polariser. The angle
between their pass axes is 81. Due to Doppler’s effect the shift in wavelength

1) 45° 2) 60° observed is 0.1Å for a star producing wavelength

6000 Å. Velocity of recession of the star will be
3) 30° 4) 0°
1) 10km/s 2) 20km/s 3) 25km/s 4) 5km/s

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 CET
KCET - 2020
82. Three polaroid sheets P1, P2 and P3 are kept
parallel to each other such that the angle between
pass axes of P1 and P2 is 450 and that between
o
P2 and P3 is 45 . If unpolarised beam of light of
-2
intensity 128 Wm is incident on P1. What is the
intensity of light coming out of P3 ?
-2
1) 128 Wm 2) 0
-2 -2
3) 16 Wm 4) 64 Wm

83. Two poles are separated by a distance of 3.14 m.

The resolving power of human eye is 1 minute of
an arc. The maximum distance from which he can
identify the two poles distinctly is
1) 10.8 km 2) 5.4 km
3) 188 m 4) 376 m

84. In young’s Double Slit Experiment, the distance

between the slits and the screen is 1.2 m and the
distance between the two slits is 2.4 mm. If a thin
transparent mica sheet of thickness 1m and R.I.
1.5 is introduced between one of the interfering
beams, the shift in the position of central bright
fringe is
1) 2 mm 2) 0.5 mm
3) 0.125 mm 4) 0.25 mm

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 JEE (MAIN)

2002 5. When an unpolarized light of intensity I0 is incident

1. An astronomical telescope has a large on a polarizing sheet, the intensity of the light which
does not get transmitted is
aperture to
1) zero 2) I0
1) reduce spherical aberration
2) have high resolution 1 1
3) I0 4) I0
2 4
3) increase span of observation
4) have low dispersion.
6. If I0 is the intensity of the principal maximum in the
single slit diffraction pattern, then what will be its
2003
intensity when the slit width is doubled?
2. To demonstrate the phenomenon of
1) I0 2) I0/2
interference we require two sources which emit
3) 2I0 4) 4I0
radiation of
1) nearly the same frequency 2007
2) the same frequency 7. A Young's double slit experiment uses a
3) different wavelength monochromatic source. The shape of the
4) the same frequency and having a definite interference fringes formed on a screen

phase relationship. 1) straight line

2) parabola

2004 3) hyperbola
4) circle
3. The maximum number of possible interference
maxima for slit-separation equal to twice the wave-
length in Young’s double-slit experiment is
8. In a Young's double slit experiment the
1) infinite 2) five
λ
3) three 4) zero. intensity at a point where the path difference is
6
( being the wavelength of light used) is I. If I0
2005 denotes the maximum intensity, I/I0 is equal to
4. Two point white dots are 1 mm apart on a black
3 1
paper. They are viewed by eye of pupil diameter 3 1) 2)
4 2
mm. Approximately, what is the maximum dis-
3 1
tance at which these dots can be resolved by the 3) 4)
2 2
eye? [Take wavelength of light = 500 nm]
1) 6 m 2) 3 m
3) 5 m 4) 1 m

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2009 2015
9. A mixture of light, consisting of wavelength 590 13. On a hot summer night, the refractive index of air is
nm and an unknown wavelength, illuminates smallest near the ground and increases with height
Young's double slit and gives rise to two overlap- from the ground. When a light beam is directed
ping interference patterns on the screen. The cen- horizontally, the Huygens’ principle leads us to
tral maximum of both lights coincide. Further, it conclude that as it travels, the light beam :
is observed that the third bright fringe of known 1) becomes narrower
th
light coincides with the 4 bright fringe of the un- 2) goes horizontally without any deflection
known light. From this data, the wavelength of 3) bends downwards
the unknown light is 4) bends upwards
1) 393.4 nm 2) 885.0 nm
3) 442.5 nm 4) 776.8 nm 2016
14. The box of a pin hole camera, of length L, has a
2012 hole of radius a. It is assumed that when the hole
10. An object 2.4 m in front of a lens forms a sharp is illuminated by a parallel beam of light of wave-
image on a film 12 cm behind the lens. A glass length  the spread of the spot (obtained on the
plate 1 cm thick, of refractive index 1.50 is inter- opposite wall of the camera) is the sum of its
posed between lens and and film with its plane geometrical spread and the spread due to
faces parallel to film. At what distance (from lens) diffraction. The spot would then have its minimum
should object be shifted to be in sharp focus on size (say bmin) when :
film?
2  22 
1) a  and b min   
1) 2.4 m 2) 3.2 m L  L 
3) 5.6 m 4) 7.2 m
 2 2 
2) a   L and bmin   
 L 
2013
3) a = L and bmin = 4L
11. A beam of unpolarised light of intensity I0 is passed
2
through a polaroid A and then through another 4) a  and bmin  4L
L
polaroid B which is oriented so that its principal
plane makes an angle of 45° relative to that of A.
2017
The intensity of the emergent light is 15. In a Young's double slit experiment, slits are
1) I0/8 2) I0 3) I0/2 4) I0/4 separated by 0.5 mm, and the screen is placed
150 cm away. A beam of light consisting of two
2014 wavelengths, 650 nm and 520 nm, is used to
12. Two beams, A and B, of plane polarized light with obtain interference fringes on the screen. The least
distance from the common central maximum to
mutually perpendicular planes of polarization are
the point where the bright fringes due to both the
seen through a polaroid. From the position when
wavelengths coincide is :
the beam A has maximum intensity (and beam B 1) 1.56 mm 2) 7.8 mm
has zero intensity), a rotation of polaroid through 3) 9.75 mm 4) 15.6 mm
30° makes the two beams appear equally bright.
If the initial intensities of the two beams are IA and 16. An observer is moving with half the speed of light
towards a stationary microwave source emitting
IA
IB respectively, then equals waves at frequency 10 GHz. What is the frequency
IB
of the microwave measured by the observer?
1 3 (speed of light = 3 x 108 ms-1)
1) 2) 3 3) 4) 1
3 2 1) 17.3 GHz 2) 15.3 GHz
3) 10.1 GHz 4) 12.1 GHz

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2018 2019 10th April Shift - II
17. The angular width of the central maximum in a 21. In a Young’s double slit experiment the ratio of the
o
single slit diffraction pattern is 60 . The width of slit’s width is 4:1. The ratio of the intensity of
the slit is 1  m. The slit is illuminated by maxima to minima, close to the central fringe on
monochromatic plane waves. If another slit of the screen will be
same width is made near it, Young’s fringes can 1) 4 : 1 2) 25 : 9
be observed on a screen placed at a distance 3) 9 : 1 4) (3 + 1)4 : 16
50 cm from the slits. If the observed fringe width
is 1cm, what is slit separation distance ? 2019 12th April Shift - I
(i.e. distance between the centres of each slit). 22. In a double slit experiment, when a thin film of
1) 50 m 2) 75 m thickness t having refractive index m is introduced
3) 100 m 4) 25 m in front of one of the slits, the maximum at the
centre of the fringe pattern shifts by one fringe
18. Unpolarized light of intensity I passes through an width. The value of t is ( is the wavelength of the
ideal polarizer A. Another identical polarizer B is light used)
placed behind A. The intensity of light beyond B
is found to be ½. Now another identical polarizer 1) 2)
C is placed between A and B. The intensity
beyhond B is now found to be 1/8. The angle
3) 4)
between polarizer A and C is :
1) 30o 2) 45o
3) 60o 4) 0o 2019 12th April Shift - II
23. A system of three polarisers P1, P2, P3 is set up
2019 8th April Shift - I such that the pass axis of P3 is crossed with
19. In an interference experiment, the ratio of respect to that of P1. The pass axis of P2 is
a1 1
amplitude of coherent waves is  . inclined at 60o to the pass axis of P3. When a
a2 3
The ratio of maximum and minimum beam of unpolarised light of intensity I 0 is
intensities of fringes will be incident on P1, the intensity of light transmitted
1) 2 2) 18 by the three polarisers is I. The ratio (I0/I) equals
3) 4 4) 9 (nearly)

1) 5.33 2) 16.00
2019 9th April Shift - I
20. The figure shows a Young’s double slit 3) 10.67 4) 1.80
experimental setup. It is observed that when a
thin transparent sheet of thickness t and
refractive index  is put in front of one of the slits, 2019 9th Jan Shift - I
the central maximum gets shifted by a distance 24. Two coherent sources produce waves of different
equal to n fringe widths. If the wavelength of light intensities which interfere. After interference the
used is , t will be ratio of the maximum intensity to the minimum
intensity is 16. The intensity of the waves are in
the ratio
1) 2)
1) 16 : 9 2) 5 : 3

3) 25 : 9 4) 4 : 1
3) 4)

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2019 9th Jan Shift - II 2019 11th Jan Shift - II
25. In a Young’ double slit experiment the slits are 29. In a double-slit experiment, green light (5303 Å)
placed 0.320 mm apart. Light of wavelength falls on a double slit having a separation of
 = 500 n-m is incident on the slits. The total 19.44-m and a width of 4.05 -m. The number of
number of bright fringes that are observed in the bright fringes between the first and the second
angular range -30 o
  30 is
o
diffraction minima is

1) 320 2) 321 1) 5 2) 10

3) 640 4) 641 3) 9 4) 4

2020 7th Jan Shift - I

2019 9th Jan Shift - I
30. A polarizer - analyser is adjusted such that the
26. In a Young’s double slit experiment with slit
intensity of light coming out of the analyser is just
separation 0.1 mm, one observes a bright fringes
10% of the original intensity. Assuming that the
at angle 1/40 rad by using light of wavelength 1.
polarizer - analyser set does not absorb any light,
When the light of the wavelength 2 is used to a the angle by which the analyser need to be
bright fringe is seen at the same angle inthe same rotated further to reduce the output intensity to
set up. Given that 1 and 2 are in visible range zero is
(380 n-m to 740 n-m) their values are 1) 71.6o 2) 90o
3) 18.4o 4) 45o
1) 380 n-m, 525 n-m 2) 400 n-m, 500 n-m

3) 380 n-m, 500 n-m 4) 625 n-m, 500 n-m 2020 7th Jan Shift - I
31. Visible light of wavelength 6000 x 10-8 cm falls
2019 10th Jan Shift - II normally on a single slit and produces a
27. Consider a Young’s double slit experiment as diffraction pattern. It is found that the second
shown in figure. diffraction minimum is at 60o from the central
maximum. If the first minimum is produced at 1,
then 1 is close to
1) 45o 2) 30o
3) 25o 4) 20o

2020 7th Jan Shift - II

32. In a Young’s double slit experiment,the separation
What should be the slit separation d in terms of
between the slits is 0.15 mm. In the experiment,
wavelength  such that the first minima occurs
a source of light of wavelength 589 nm is used
directly in front of the slit (S1) ?
and the interference pattern is observed on a screen
kept 1.5 m away. The separation between the
1) 2) successive bright fringes on the screen is
1) 5.9 mm 2) 4.9 mm
3) 4) 3) 6.9 mm 4) 3.9 mm

2019 11th Jan Shift - I 2020 8th Jan Shift - II

28. In a Young’s double slit experiment, the path 33. In a double-slit experiment, at a certain point on
difference at a certain point on the screen between the screen the path difference between the two
two interfering waves is 1/8th of wavelength. The interfering waves is 1/8th of a wavelength.

ratio of the intensity at this point to that at the The ratio of the intensity of light at that point to
that at the centre of a bright fringe is
centre of a bright fringe is closed to
1) 0.568 2) 0.853
1) 0.80 2) 0.74 3) 0.94 4) 0.85
3) 0.760 4) 0.672
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2020 9th Jan Shift - I 2020 3rd Sept. Shift - I
34. Three harmonic waves having equal frequency  39. In a Young's double slit experiment, light of
and same intensity I , have phase angles 0, /4 500 nm is used to produce an interference
0
and -  /4 respectively. W hen they are pattern. When the distance between the slits is
superimposed the intensity of the resultant wave 0.05 mm, the angular width (in degree) of the fringes
is close to formed on the distance screen is close to :
1) 0.2 I0 2) I0 1) 0.07° 2) 0.17°
3) 3I0 4) 5.8 I0 3) 1.7° 4) 0.57°

2020 9th Jan Shift - I 2020 4th Sept. Shift - I

35. The aperture diameter of a telescope is 5m. 40. A beam of plane polarised light of large cross
The separation between the moon and the earth sectional area and uniform intensity of 3.3 Wm –2
is 4 x 105 km. With light of wavelength of 5500 Å, falls normally on a polariser (cross sectional area
the minimum separation between objects on the 3 × 10-4 m2) which rotates about its axis with an
surface of moon, so that they are just resolved is angular speed of 31.4 rad/s. The energy of light
close to passing through the polariser per revolution, is
1) 600 m 2) 20 m close to :
3) 60 m 4) 200 m 1) 1.0 × 10–5 J 2) 5.0 × 10–4 J
–4
3) 1.0 × 10 J 4) 1.5 × 10–4 J
2020 9th Jan Shift - II
36. In a Young’s double slit experiment 15 fringes are 2020 4th Sept. Shift - II
observed on a small portion of the screen when 41. Orange light of wavelength 6000 × 10-10 m in
light of wavelength 500 nm is used. Ten fringes illuminates a single slit of width 0.6 × 10–4 m. The
are observed on the same section of the screen maximum possible number of diffraction minima
when another light source of wavelength  is used. produced on both sides of the central maximum
Then the value of  is (in nm) ______. is ______.

2020 2nd Sept. Shift - I 2020 5th Sept. Shift - II

37. Interference fringes are observed on a screen by 42. Two coherent sources of sound, S1 and S2,
illuminating two thin slits 1 mm apart with a light produce sound waves of the same wavelength,
source ( = 632.8 nm). The distance between the  = 1 m, in phase. S1 and S2 are placed 1.5 m
screen and the slits is 100 cm. If a bright fringe is apart (see fig.) A listener, located at L, directly in
observed on a screen at a distance of 1.27 mm front of S2 finds that the intensity is at a minimum
from the central bright fringe, then the path when he is 2m away from S2. The listener moves
difference between the waves, which are reaching away from S1, keeping his distance from S2 fixed.
this point from the slits is close to : The adjacent maximum of intensity is observed
1) 1.27 m 2) 2 nm when the listener is at a distance d from S1. Then,
3) 2.87 nm 4) 2.05 m d is :

2020 2nd Sept. Shift - II

38. In a Young's double slit experiment, 16 fringes are
observed in a certain segment of the screen when
light of wavelength 700 nm is used. If the wave-
length of light is changed to 400 nm, the number
of fringes observed in the same segment of the
screen would be : 1) 12m 2) 3m
1) 28 2) 24 3) 5m 4) 2m
3) 18 4) 30

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2020 6th Sept. Shift - I
43. In the figure below, P and Q are two equally
intense coherent sources emitting radiation of
wavelength 20 m. The separation between P and
Q is 5 m and the phase of P is ahead of that of Q
by 90°. A, B and C are three distinct points of
observation, each equidistant from the midpoint
of PQ. The intensities of radiation at A, B, C will
be in the ratio:

1) 0 : 1 : 2 2) 4 : 1 : 0

3) 0 : 1 : 4 4) 2 : 1 : 0

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 NEET
2004 5. In Young’s double slit experiment the distance
1. A telescope has an objective lens of 10 cm between the slits and the screen is doubled. The
diameter and is situated at a distance one separation between the slits is reduced to half. As
kilometer from two objects. The minimum distance a result the fringe width
between these two objects, which can be resolved 1) is halved 2) becomes four times
by the telescope, when the mean wavelength of 3) remains unchanged 4) is doubled
light 5000 Å, is of the order of
1) 0.5 m 2) 5 m 6. A parallel beam of light of wavelength 
3) 5 mm 4) 5 cm is incident normally on a narrow slit.
A diffraction pattern formed on a screen placed
2005 perpendicular to the direction of the incident beam.
2. The angular resolution of a 10 cm diameter At the second minimum of the diffraction pattern,
telescope at a wavelength of 5000 Å is of the order the phase difference between the rays coming from
of the two edges of slit is
6 -2
1) 10 rad 2) 10 rad 1) 2  2) 3 3) 4 4) 
-4 -6
3) 10 rad 4) 10 rad
2014
2013 7. A beam of light of  = 600 nm from distant source
3. A parallel beam of fast moving electrons is incident falls on a single slit 1mm wide and the resulting
normally on a narrow slit.
diffraction pattern is observed on a screen 2m away.
A fluorescent screen is placed at a large distance
The distance between first dark fringes on either
from the slit. If the speed of the electrons is
side of the central bright fringe is :
increased, which of the following statements is
1) 1.2 cm 2) 1.2 mm
correct ?
3) 2.4 cm 4) 2.4 cm
1) The angular width of the central maximum will
decrease
2) The angular width of the central maximum will 8. In the Young’s double slit experiment, the intensity
be unaffected of light at a point on the screen where the path
3) Diffraction pattern is not observed on the difference is  is K, ( being the wave length of
screen in the case of electrons light used). The intensity at a point where the path
4) The angular width of the central maximum of difference is /4 will be :
the diffraction pattern will increase. 1) K 2) K/4
3) K/2 4) Zero
4. In Young’s double slit experiment, the slits are
2mm apart and are illuminated by photons of two 2015
wavelengths  1 = 12000 Å and
9. For a parallel beam of monochromatic light of
2 = 10000 Å. At what minimum distance from
wavelength ‘’, diffraction is produced by a single
the common central bright fringe on the screen
slit width ‘a’ is of the order of the wavelength of the
2m from the slit will a bright fringe from one
light. If ‘D’ is the distance of the screen from the
interference pattern coincide with a bright fringe
slit, the width of the central maxima will be :
from the other ?
1) 4mm 2) 3mm 3) 8mm 6) 6mm 1) 2D/a 2) D/a 3) Da/ 4) 2Da/

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10. In a double slit experiment, the two slits are 1mm 2016 NEET - II
apart and the screen is placed 1m away. A 15. Electrons of mass m with de-Broglie wavelength 
monochromatic light of wavelength 500 nm is used.
fall on the target in an X-ray tube. The cutoff
What will be the width of each slit for obtaining
wavelength (0) of the emitted X-ray is
ten maxima of double slit within the central maxima
2m 2 c 2 3
of single slit pattern ? 1) 0 = h2
2) 0 = 
1) 0.2 mm 2) 0.1 mm
3) 0.5 mm 4) 0.02 mm 2mc 2 2 2h
3) 0 = h
4) 0 = mc

RE-AIPMT 2015
11. At the first minimum adjacent at the central 16. Photons with energy 5 eV are incident
maximum of a single-slit diffraction pattern the on a cathode C in a photoelectric cell.
phase difference between the Huygen’s wavelet The maximum energy of emitted
from the edge of the slit and the wavelet from the photoelectrons is 2 eV. W hen photons of
mid point of the slit is : energy 6 eV are incident on C, no
1) /8 radian 2) /4 radian photoelectrons will reach the anode A, if the stop-
3) /2 radian 4)  radian ping potential of A relative to C is
1) -1 V 2) -3V
12. Two slits in Young’s experiment have widths in
3) +3V 4) +4 V
the ratio 1:25. The ratio of intensity at the maxima
and minima in the interference pattern Imax/Imin is
2017
1) 4/9 2) 9/4
17. Young’s double slit experiment is first performed
3) 121/49 4) 49/121
in air and then in a medium other than air. It is
found that 8th bright fringe in the medium lies where
13. In a diffraction pattern due to a single slit of width
'a', the first minimum is observed at an angle 30º 5th dark fringe lies in air. The refractive index of

when light of wavelength 5000 Å is incident on the medium is nearly :

the slit. The first secondary maximum is observed 1) 1.78 2) 1.25
at an angle of : 3) 1.59 4) 1.69
1 2
1) sin-1   2) sin-1  
4 3 18. Two Polaroids P1 and P2 are placed with their axis
1 3 perpendicular to eachother. Unpolarised light I0 is
3) sin-1   4) sin-1  
2 4 incident on P1. A third polaroid P3 is kept in
between P1 and P2 such that its axis makes an
14. The intensity at the maximum in a Young's double
angle 45º with that of P 1 . the intensity of
slit experiment is I0. Distance between two slits
transmitted light through P2 is :
is d = 5, where  is the wavelength of light used
I0 I0 I0 I0
in the experiment. What will be the intensity in 1) 2) 3) 4)
16 2 4 8
front of one of the slits on the screen placed at a
distance D = 10 d ? 19. The ratio of resolving powers of an optical
1) I0 2) I0 microscope for two wavelengths 1 = 4000 Å and
4 1 = 6000 Å is :
3) 3 4) I0 1) 16 : 81 2) 8 : 27
I0
4 2 3) 9 : 4 4) 3 : 2

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2018 NEET - 2020
20. Unpolarised light is incident from air on a plane 24. Assume that light of wavelength 600 nm is coming
surface of a material of refractive index ‘m’. At a from a star. The limit of resolution of telescope
particular angle of incidence ‘i’, it is found that the whose objective has a diameter of 2 m is :
reflected and refracted rays are perpendicular to 1) 6.00 x 10-7 rad 2) 3.66 x 10-7 rad
each other. Which of the following options is 3) 1.83 x 10-7 rad 4) 7.32 x 10-7 rad
correct for this situation ?
1 25. The Brewsters angle ib for an interface should be:
1) i = sin-1  
 1) ib = 90° 2) 0° < ib < 30°
2) Reflected light is polarised with its electric 3) 30° < ib < 45° 4) 45° < ib < 90°
vector perpendicular to the plane of incidence
3) Reflected light is polarised with its electric 26. In Young's double slit experiment, if the separation
vector parallel to the plane of incidence between coherent sources is halved and the

1 distance of the screen from the coherent sources

4) i = tan-1  
 is doubled, then the fringe width becomes :
1) one-fourth 2) double
21. An astronomical refracting telescope will have 3) half 4) four times
large angular magnification and high angular
resolution, when it has an objective lens of
1) large focal length and large diameter
2) large focal length and small diameter
3) small focal length and large diameter
4) small focal length and small diameter

22. In Young’s double slit experiment the separation

d between the slits is 2mm, the wavelength  of
the light used is 5896 Å and distance D between
the screen and slits is 100 cm. It is found that the
angular width of the fringes is 0.20o. To increase
the fringe angular width to 0.21o (with same  and
D) the separation between the slits needs to be
changed to
1) 2.1 mm 2) 1.9 mm
3) 1.8 mm 4) 1.7 mm

NEET - 2019
23. In a double slit experiment, when light of
wavelength 400 nm was used, the angular width
of the first minima formed on a screen placed 1m
away, was found to be 0.2°. What will be the
angular width of the first minima, if the entire
experimental apparatus is immersed in water
(mwater = 4/3)
1) 0.266° 2) 0.15°
3) 0.05° 4) 0.1°
CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U.SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 191
 DUAL NATURE OF MATTER AND RADIATION
Introduction: The phenomenons like interference, diffraction and polarization of light
firmly establish the wave nature of light. Similarly, the Maxwell’s equations and Hertz
experiment on the production and detection of electromagnetic waves strongly
supported the concept of wave nature of light. However, the phenomenon like
photoelectric and Compton effect could be explained by considering the particle
(photon) nature of light. Thus, the light is accepted to have dual nature.
Free electrons in metals: The electrons in the outer shells (valence electrons) of
the atoms in metals are loosely bound. They are free to move easily within the metal
surface but cannot leave the surface on their own. Such loosely bound electrons are
called free electrons.
Surface barrier of electrons: The free electrons in metals cannot leave the surface
of the metal on their own. When they tend to leave the surface, the metal surface
gets positively charged. This positive charge pulls back the electrons trying to leave
the metal surface. This pull-back force is called surface barrier of electrons.
Therefore, energy must be supplied to overcome the barrier to liberate the electrons
from the metal surface.
Electron emission: The process of liberation of electrons from the surface of a
metal is called electron emission.
Note: Metals are chosen to liberate the electrons because metals have large number of free electrons.
Types of electron emission:
1. Thermionic emission: The process of liberation of electrons from the metal
surface with the help of heat energy is called thermionic emission.
The electrons liberated due to thermal energy are known as thermions. The
substances used for thermionic emission are called thermionic emitters (barium,
tungsten). The current generated due to the flow of thermions is called thermionic
current. The number of electrons liberated depends on the temperature of the
surface.
Example: In Davison-Germer experiment this method is applied.
.2. Photoelectric emission: The process of liberation of electrons from the metal
surface with the help of light energy is called photoelectric emission.
The liberated electrons are called photoelectrons. The metals used for the
photoelectric emission are called photo sensitive metals. The current generated due
to the flow of photo electrons is called photo electric current. The number of
electrons liberated depends on the intensity (number of photons) of incident light.
3. Field emission: The process of liberation of electrons from the metal surface due
to the application of strong electric field (about 108 Vm-1) is called field emission.
A strong electric field is applied to a metal surface using a positively charged
conductor near to it. The strong field exerts a strong attractive force on the free
electrons in the metal. This results in the liberation of electrons from the metal
surface. Since field emission takes place at low temperatures, the field emission is
also known as cold emission or cold cathode emission. The number of electrons
liberated depends on the nature of the metal and the strength of the applied electric
field.

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4. Secondary emission: The process of liberation of electrons from the metal
surface by bombarding it with fast moving electrons is called secondary emission.

Transfer their kinetic energy of fast moving electrons helps the electrons to liberate
from the metal surface. The highly energetic electrons used to liberate the free
electrons are known as primary electrons & the liberated electrons are known as
secondary electrons. The number of secondary electrons depends on the nature of
metal and the speed of the bombarding electrons.

Photoelectric Effect
The phenomenon of the liberation of electrons from the surface of a metal under the
influence of light of suitable frequency is called photoelectric effect.

The liberated electrons are called photoelectrons and the photoelectrons in motion
constitute a photoelectric current.

Hertz’s observations: The phenomenon of photoelectric emission was first

discovered by Henrich Hertz. He observed that when light falls on a metal surface,
some electrons near the surface absorb enough energy from the incident radiation to
overcome the attraction of positive ions in the material of the surface (surface
barrier). The electrons escape from the surface of the metal into the surrounding
space after gaining sufficient energy (more than the surface barrier) from the incident
light.

Hallwachs’ and Lenard’s observations on Photoelectric effect

I. When ultraviolet radiations were allowed to fall on the emitter plate of an

evacuated glass tube enclosing two metal plates, current flows in the circuit.
II. No current flows, when ultraviolet radiations were stopped.
III. The negatively charged zinc plate connected to an electroscope lost its
charge when it was illuminated by ultraviolet light.
IV. The uncharged zinc plate became positively charged when it was illuminated
by ultraviolet light.
V. The positive charge on a positively charged zinc plate was found to be further
increased when it was illuminated by ultraviolet light.
VI. From these observations, Hallwach came to the conclusion that negatively
charged electrons were emitted from the zinc plate under the action of
ultraviolet light.
VII. Lenard observed that when ultraviolet light of frequency less than the
threshold frequency of the emitter plate fell on the emitter plate, no electrons
were emitted. This observation showed that different metals emit electrons by
different electromagnetic radiations.

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Experiment to study of photoelectric effect

The experimental arrangement for the study

of photoelectric effect consists of an
evacuated glass or quartz tube containing a
photosensitive plate C (cathode-an electron
emitter) and a metal plate A (anode-an electron
collector). Monochromatic light from the
source S of sufficiently short wavelength
after passing the quartz window is allowed to
fall on the plate C. As a result, the plate C
emits electrons. The electric field created by
the battery accelerates the liberated
electrons towards the plate A. The flow of
photoelectrons gives rise to photoelectric current which is measured by the
micro-ammeter ( A ). A voltmeter V is used to measure the potential difference
between the emitter C and the collector A. The polarity of the plates C and A can be
reversed by a commutator.

Experimental observations of photoelectric effect (laws of photoelectric

emission):

1. Photoelectric emission is instantaneous : As soon as the light of particular

frequency falls on the metal it emits photoelectrons without any delay. Therefore, the
process of photoelectric emission is instantaneous.

2. For a given photometal, there is a particular frequency below which no

photoelectric emission occurs. This minimum frequency is called threshold frequency
of the metal (v0).

3. If the frequency of incident radiation is greater than the threshold frequency of

metal then electrons are emitted even if the intensity of incident radiation is low.

4. For a given frequency of radiation greater than a

threshold frequency of a metal, the photoelectric current
is directly proportional to the intensity of incident
radiation. This implies that the number of photo-
electrons emitted per second is directly proportional to
the intensity of incident radiation.

5. The kinetic energy of emitted photoelectrons is independent of the intensity of

incident radiation.

6. The kinetic energy of emitted photoelectrons depends on the frequency of incident

radiation. The greater the frequency of radiation, the greater is the kinetic energy of
the emitted electrons.

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7. When the anode is made negative with
respect to the cathode, the photoelectric
current does not fall to zero immediately. This
indicates that emitted electrons have a
certain initial kinetic energy. As anode is made
more and more negative, the
photoelectric current goes on decreasing and
finally becomes zero. This negative potential
of the anode is called stopping potential or cut-
off potential. Even if the intensity of incident
radiation is increased, no electron reaches the
anode. Therefore, the stopping potential is independent of the intensity of the
incident radiation.

8. If the frequency of the incident radiation is increased, the stopping potential is

increased to a more negative value .Therefore, the stopping potential is directly
proportional to the frequency of the incident light and hence the kinetic energy of the
photoelectrons.

Graphs related to photoelectric effect

1. Variation of photoelectric current

with collector plate potential for
different frequencies of incident
radiation:

2. Variation of stopping
potential with frequency of
incident radiation for a given
photosensitive material:

Terms connected with photoelectric effect

Threshold frequency (νo): Threshold frequency of the photometal is defined as the

minimum frequency of the incident radiation below which no photoelectric emission
occurs.

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Threshold wavelength o  : Threshold wavelength of the photometal is defined as
the maximum wavelength of the incident radiation above which no photoelectric
emission occurs.

Work function ( 0 ): The minimum energy required to just liberate the electrons from
the surface of a photometel is called work function of the metal.

Stopping potential (V0): The minimum negative potential of the anode at which the
photoelectrons are prevented from reaching the anode is called the stopping
potential.

Note:

1. Threshold frequency or threshold wavelength is constant for a given metal and

different for different metals.

2. The work function is constant for a given metal and different for different
metals.

3. The work function of a metal of threshold frequency (νo) and corresponding

threshold wavelength o  is given by:
hc
0  h o  Where: h = Planck’s constant and c = speed of photon (radiation)
o

4. According to Planck’s quantum theory of radiation, energy emitted in the form

of photon of frequency (ν ) & wavelength (  ) is given by:

hc
E  h 


Photon picture of electromagnetic radiation (properties of photon)

1. In an interaction of radiation with matter, radiation behaves as if it is made up of
particles called photons.
2. Photons travel at the speed of light.
3. The frequency of photon remains same in different media.
4. The velocity of the photon is different in different media due to the change in its
wavelength.
5. Photons are electrically neutral.

6. Photons are not deflected by electric and magnetic fields.

7. When the photon is in motion it possesses mass and at rest, its mass is zero.
hc h h
8. The energy of each photon is : E  h  and momentum p   .
 c 

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9. In a photon-particle collision, the total energy and momentum are conserved.
However, the number of photons may not be conserved in a collision. The photon
may be absorbed or a new photon may be created.
Note: Number of photons emitted from a lamp of power P:

Number of photons  Energy of each photon

Power 
Time

NE
P
t

 N  PtE  hPt 

Pt
hc
 E  h 
hc


Failure of the wave theory of light to explain photoelectric effect

1. According to the wave theory of light, the energy of the light beam is measured in
terms of its intensity. This means that if the intensity of the light wave is increased,
then its amplitude as well energy increase. When a beam of light is incident on the
metal surface, the light energy is distributed over the entire surface of the metal. Due
to this, the free electrons in the metal surface absorb energy and knocked out of the
surface. Hence, there should not be any threshold frequency. If the intensity of
incident light is increased, then the energy supplied to the free electrons increases.
As a result, the kinetic energy of the liberated electrons will increase. This is against
the experimental fact that the maximum kinetic energy of liberated electrons is
independent of the intensity of incident light.

2. According to the wave theory of light, when a light wave is an incident on the
metal surface, its energy is distributed to all the electrons present on the surface and
not to a particular electron. As a result, the electrons take some time in acquiring the
required energy for their ejection from the metal surface. This conclusion contradicts
the experimental observation that the photoelectric emission is an instantaneous
process.

Hence, it can be concluded from the points discussed above that the wave theory of
light miserably failed to explain the most basic observations of the photoelectric
effect.

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 Einstein’s photoelectric equation
Einstein assumed that, when radiation is incident on a metal, there is a collision
between a photon and an electron in the metal. During any such collision, the
electron completely absorbs the energy of a photon. The energy of the incident
photon is utilized for two purposes: a part of the energy is used in liberating the
electron from the metal and the remaining energy appears as the kinetic energy of
the photoelectron with which it is emitted. Minimum energy is required to liberate the
electron. This minimum energy is called work function of the metal. The remaining
energy of the photon appears as the kinetic energy of the ejected electron.

Energy equation can be written as

Energy of photon E =Work function 0  +Maximum kinetic energy of electron Kmax
E  0  Kmax

h  h 0  Kmax  E  h &  0  h 0
Where:  frequency of photon &  0  threshold frequency .

K max  h  0 

Other forms of Einstein’s photoelectric equation:

1. Einstein’s photoelectric equation is:

Kmax  h 0 

c c  c c
Kmax  h     & 0 
  0   0

Where:   wavelength of photon & 0  threshold wavelength .

1 1 
K max  hc  
  o 

2. Einstein’s photoelectric equation in terms of stopping potential: At stopping

potential, the photoelectric current becomes zero. Hence, the maximum kinetic
energy of ejected electron is equal to the potential energy.

Potential energy = kinetic energy

eV0  Kmax Where : V 0  stopping potential

We know that:

E  0  Kmax

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 h  h 0  eV0

eV0  h  h 0

hc  1 1 
VO    
e   o 

Note:

1. Kmax  h  h 0  y  mx c

 The graph between frequency  &

maximum kinetic energy Kmax is a straight line.
Slope of the graph is given by:

AB Kmax h  0 
tan    h
BC   0    0 

y  intercept 0 h 0
Or tan    h 0  h 0
x  intercept/  0  0

Since x-intercept is  0 and the y-intercept is 0 .

Therefore, the slope of the graph tan  gives the value of Planck’s constant.

2. Variation of stopping potential with the

frequency of radiation: The variation of
stopping potential with frequency of incident
radiation is shown in the following figure.

Let V1 and V2 be the stopping potentials corresponding to frequencies 1 and  2

respectively.

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From the graph:

eV1  h1 0 ………………………… ...(1)

eV2  h 2 0 ……………..……………..(2)

Subtracting equation (1) from equation (2):

eV2 V1   h 2 1 

eV2  V1 
h ……..……………...(3)
 2  1
Hence, the Planck’s constant can be found, if the values of stopping potentials
V1 and V2 at frequencies 1 and  2 are known.

3. According to Einstein, light radiations consist of tiny packets of energy called

quanta. One quantum of light radiation is called a photon. The energy of a photon
of frequency  and wavelength  travelling with a speed of light c is given
hc
by E  h   Where: h=Planck’s constant. Einstein assumed that one photon of

frequency equal to or greater than the threshold frequency of the metal can eject
only one photoelectron from the metal surface. He suggested that only one
electron can absorb the energy of a single photon.

Einstein’s explanation of experimental observations of photoelectric effect:

1. The phenomenon of photoelectric effect is due to an elastic collision between a
photon and an electron inside the metal. During any such collision, the electron
completely absorbs the energy of a photon at once without any time lag. Due to
this, the process of photoelectric emission is instantaneous.
2. As one incident photon liberates one electron from a metal surface, the number
of photoelectrons emitted per second depends on the number of incident photons
on the metal surface. Therefore, number of photoelectrons liberated per second
is directly proportional to the intensity of the incident light. In other words, the
photoelectric current is directly proportional to the intensity of incident radiation.
3. From the equation Kmax  h 0  , it is clear that if  0, then kinetic becomes
negative which is not possible. Therefore, photoelectric emission does not take
place, if the frequency of incident radiation is less than the threshold frequency of
the metal.
 
4. From equation Kmax  h  0 , it is clear that if   o , then Kmax .
Therefore, the maximum kinetic energy of photoelectron depends only
on the frequency of incident radiation. In other words, if the frequency
of the incident radiation increases, then the maximum kinetic energy of
photoelectron also increases.
5. From equation: Kmax  h 0  , it follows that the maximum kinetic energy
of photoelectron does not depend on the intensity of incident radiation.

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de-Broglie’s hypothesis

Since light has dual nature, de-Broglie suggested that matter must also possess dual
nature. Therefore, the material particles (electron, proton and neutron) exhibit the
properties of waves.

“The waves associated with moving material particles are called matter waves or
de-Broglie waves”.

de-Broglie wavelength

The wavelength of matter waves is called de-Broglie wavelength.

According to Planck’s quantum theory, the energy associated with a photon of
frequency ν is given by :
E = h ………..…...(1) Where: h = 6.625 x 10-34 Js (Planck’s constant).

If the photon is considered as a particle of mass m, then according to Einstein’s

mass-energy relation:

E = mc2 ……….…..(2) Where: c = velocity of the photon.

From equations (1) and (2) :

h = mc2

c c
h. = mc2   
 

h
 mc


h
= ………..….(3)
mc

de-Broglie assumed that above equation is applicable to other material particles

moving with some velocity. Therefore, if a material particle of mass m moves with a
velocity v, then de-Broglie wavelength associated with the particle is given by:

h h
  ….………(4) Where : p = mv, momentum of the particle.
mv p

This equation is known as de-Brogile’s wave equation.

Discussion on de-Broglie’s wave equation

1. The de-Broglie wavelength of a moving material particle is inversely proportional

to its momentum.

2. The de-Broglie wavelength of a moving material particle is inversely proportional

to both its velocity and mass. In other words, for heavier particle (large mass) or
more energetic particle (large speed), the de-Broglie wavelength is small.

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3. The de-Broglie wavelength of heavier moving objects is very small and is beyond
any measurement. Due to this, the macroscopic objects do not show wave-like
properties. Hence, the wave character of particles is significant and measurable
in the sub-atomic domain (sub-atomic particles like electrons, protons etc).

4. When the material particles are in motion, then only waves are associated with
them.

5. The de-Broglie wavelength is independent of the charge and nature of the

material particle.

6. de-Broglie waves are known as matter waves because the particles need not
have charge.

7. de-Broglie waves cannot be electromagnetic in nature because the

electromagnetic waves are associated with only accelerated charged particles.

8. The matter wave picture given by de-Broglie incorporates the Heisenberg’s

uncertainty principle. According to Heisenberg’s principle, it is not possible to
measure both the position and momentum of a subatomic particle at the same
time exactly. There is always some uncertainty in the specification of both
position and momentum. The product of the uncertainty in the measurement of
h h
position x  and that in the momentum p  is of the order of . xp 
2 2

Note:
1. If x  0 , then p   so that the product xp  0 .
2. If p  0 , then x   so that the product xp  0 .
h
3. The product xp  , if both x and p are non-zero.
2

Different forms of de-Brogile’s wave equation:

1. de Broglie wavelength in terms of kinetic energy K :

h

2mK

2. de Broglie wavelength in terms of charged particle of charge q accelerated

through a potential difference of V:

h

2mqV

3. For an electron of charge e, above equation becomes:

h

2meV

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4. For electron: m  9 . 1  10  31
kg , e  1 . 6  10  19 C & h  6 . 626  10  34 Js

12.27 0
 A
V

5. From the kinetic theory of matter, the average kinetic energy of particle at a given
temperature T is given by:
3
K  kT Where: k = Boltzmann’s constant=1.38 x 10-38Jmol-1K-1
2

h
   
3mkT

Davisson and Germer experiment

The experimental arrangement consists of an electron gun comprising of a tungsten filament F coated
with barium oxide and heated by a low tension (LT) battery. By applying suitable voltage from a high
tension (HT) battery between the filament and the cylinder, the electrons are accelerated to the
desired velocity. For producing a fine collimated beam, the electrons are made to pass through a
cylinder with holes along its axis. The electron beam is made to fall on the surface of a nickel crystal
and the atoms of the crystal scatter the electrons in all directions. An electron collector (detector)
which can be moved on a circular scale, measures the intensity of the electron beam scattered in a
particular direction. To record the current, the detector is connected to a sensitive galvanometer. The
experimental arrangement is enclosed in an evacuated chamber. By moving the detector on the
circular scale at different positions, the intensity of scattered electron beam is measured for different
values of angle of scattering. For different accelerating voltages (from 44V to 68V), the variation of the
intensity of the scattered electrons with the angle of scattering is obtained. It has been found
experimentally that the deflection of the galvanometer is proportional to the intensity of the scattered
electron beam entering the detector.

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Note :
A graph of intensity of scattered beam and the angle of scattering is plotted.

From the graph, it is noticed that at the accelerating voltage of 54V, there is a sharp peak in the
intensity of the scattered beam for 50o angle of scattering. The appearance of a sharp peak in a
particular direction is due to the constructive interference of electrons scattered from different layers of
regularly spaced atoms of the crystal.
o
Note : The experimental value of de-Brogile wavelength exp  1.65 A  0.165nm

Theoretical value of de-Brogile wavelength: The de-Brogile wavelength of electrons accelerated

through a potential difference of V=54V is given by:

12 . 27 0 12 . 27 0
 the  A  A
V 54
o
the  1.67 A  0.167 nm

Conclusion: Since the theoretical and the experimental values of de-Brogile wavelengths are in close
agreement with each other, the Davisson & Germer experiment on diffraction of electrons confirms
the wave nature of electrons.

Applications of de-Brogile’s hypothesis:

1.In the development of modern quantum mechanics.
2.In the design of electron microscope.

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 QUESTIONS FROM PREVIOUS YEARS EXAMINATION

March - 2014
1. Write any two types of electron emission. (2M)
2. Give three characteristics of photon. (3M)

July – 2014 (Supplementary)

3. The work function of caesium metal is 2.14 eV. When light of frequency 6 x 10 14
Hz is incident on the metal surface, photoemission of electrons occurs.
Find : a) Energy of incident photons. b) Maximum kinetic energy of
photoelectrons. (5M)

March – 2015
4. What is the outcome of Davison and Germer experiment on the nature of electron?
(1 M)
5. Write Einstein’s equation of photoelectric effect. Give Einstein’s explanation of
photoelectric effect. (5M)

July – 2015 (Supplementary)

6. Explain Hallwach’s and Lenard’s observations on photoelectric effect.
Define a) work function b) Threshold frequency and c) stopping potential.
(5M)

March – 2016
7. Write the experimental observations of Photoelectric effect. (5M)

July – 2016 (Supplementary)

8. Define i) Photoelectric work function ii) electron volt (eV) (2M)
9. What are matter waves ? Write the expression for de-Broglie wavelength of a
particle and explain the terms. (3M)

March – 2017
10. Write the expression for de-Broglie wavelength of a particle (1M)
11. What is the conclusion of Davisson - Germer experiment on the nature of electron?
(1M)
12. Write any three experimental observations of photoelectric effect. (3M)

March – 2018
13. Light of frequency 8.41 x 1014 Hz is incident on a metal surface. Electrons with
their maximum speed of 7.5 x 105 m/s are ejected from the surface. Calculate the
threshold frequency for photo emission of electrons. Also find the work function of
the metal in electron volt (eV). Given plank’s constant
h = 6.625 x 10-34 JS and mass of the electron 9.1 x 10-31 kg. (5M)

March – 2019
14. Mention any one type of electron emission. (1M)
15. Write the expression for de-Broglie wavelength of electrons in terms of electric
potential and explain the terms used. (2M)
16. Write three experimental observations of photoelectric effect. (3M)

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 205

June – 2019
17. What is the rest mass of photon ? (1M)
18. Name the three types of electron emission. (3M)

March – 2020
19. An alpha particle, a proton and an electron are moving with equal kinetic energy.
Which one of these particles as the longest de-Broglie wavelength ? Give
reason. (2M)

20. Define work function. Write Einstein’s photoelectric equation and explain the
terms. (5M)

July – 2020
21.Write the experimental observations of photoelectric effect. (5M)

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 206

 ONE MARK QUESTIONS WITH ANSWERS
1. What is an electron emission ?
Ans : The process of liberation of electrons from the surface of metal is called
electron emission.

2. Name the types of electron emission.

Ans: Thermionic emission, Photoelectric emission, Field emission and Secondary
emission.

3. What is thermionic emission ?

Ans: The process of liberation of electrons from the surface of metal with the help
of heat energy is called thermionic emission.

4. What is photoemission?
Ans: The process of liberation of electrons from the surface of metal with the help
of light energy is called photoemission.

5. What is field emission?

Ans: The process of liberation of electrons from the surface of metal due to the
application of strong electric field is called field emission.

6. Why is field emission known as cold emission?

Ans: Since field emission takes place at low temperatures, the field emission is also
known as cold emission or cold cathode emission.

7. What is secondary emission ?

Ans: The process of liberation of electrons from the surface of metal with the help
of fast moving electrons is called secondary emission.

8. Why are metals preferred for electron emission?

Ans: Due to the presence of large number of free electrons.

9. Which theory explains the phenomenon of photoelectric emission?

Ans: Quantum theory of radiation.

10. Who proposed quantum theory of radiation?

Ans: Max Planck.

11. What is photoelectric effect ?

Ans: The phenomenon of emission of electrons from a metallic surface when
radiation of suitable frequency falls on it is called photoelectric effect.

12. What is photocell ?

Ans: A device which converts light energy into electrical energy is called photocell.

13. Can X-rays cause photoelectric effect?

Ans: X-rays can cause photoelectric effect in metals like sodium, zinc and copper.

14. Out of microwaves, ultraviolet rays and infrared rays , which radiations will be
most effective for the emission of electrons from a metallic surface?
Ans: The ultra violet radiations are most energetic as they have highest frequency.
Hence UV rays are most effective for photoelectric emission.
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15. What is intensity of radiation on the basis of wave theory ?
Ans: The amount of light wave energy passing per second normally through unit
area taken around a point is called intensity of radiation.

16. What is intensity of radiation on the basis of photon theory?

Ans:: The number of photons incident per second per unit area is called intensity of
radiation.

17. What is the effect of intensity of incident light on photoelectric current?

Ans: With increase in intensity of incident light photoelectric current increases.

18. How will the photoelectric current change on decreasing the wavelength of
incident radiation for a given photosensitive material?
Ans: The photoelectric current does not depend on the wavelength of incident
radiation.

19. What is a photon?

Ans: A photon is a quantum of radiant energy.

20. Has a photon mass?

Ans: A photon has no mass.

21. Has a photon momentum?

Ans: Yes, a photon has momentum.

22. What is the energy of a photon?

Ans: Energy of a photon is E = h where h is Planck's constant and  is frequency
of radiation.

23. Which photon is more energetic : a red one or a violet one?

Ans: The frequency of violet photon is greater than that of red photon, the violet
photon is more energetic. Since E = h.

24. What is the maximum kinetic energy of emitted photoelectrons?

Ans: Maximum KE of emitted photoelectrons = energy of incident photon -
photoelectric work function

23. What determines the maximum velocity of electrons?

Ans: The frequency of incident radiation and work function of the metal.

24. What is the KE of photoelectrons, when the frequency of the incident radiation
has just threshold frequency ?
Ans: KE of photoelectrons is zero.

25. How does the maximum kinetic energy of electrons emitted vary with the work
function of the metal ?
Ans: Greater the work function of the metal, lesser is the maximum kinetic energy
of electrons.

26. How many photoelectrons can be ejected by one photon?

Ans: Only one photoelectron can be ejected by one photon.

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27. What is the relation between work function and threshold frequency ?
Ans: Work function W0 = hf0 where h is Planck's constant and f0 is threshold
frequency.

28. Work function of Na metal is 2.3eV. Does sodium show photoelectric emission
for light of wavelength 6800Ao
hc 6.625 x10 34 x3 x10 8 19 2.92 x10 19
Ans: E    2. 92 x10 J   1.825eV
 6.8 x10 7 1.6 x10 19
As the energy of incident light is less than the work function, no photoelectric
emission takes place.

29. Define stopping potential.

Ans: The stopping potential is defined as the minimum negative potential given to
the anode of a photocell at which photoelectric current becomes zero.

30. If the intensity of incident radiation in a photocell is decreased, how does the
stopping potential vary?
Ans: The stopping potential does not depend on the intensity of incident radiation

31. Does the stopping potential in photoelectric emission depend upon the
intensity of the incident radiation in a photocell?
Ans: No

32. How does the stopping potential vary with the frequency of incident radiation?
Ans: Above the threshold frequency, the stopping potential increases with increase
in the frequency of incident radiation.

33. What is the nature of graph between stopping potential and frequency of
incident radiation?
Ans: It is a straight line graph with intercept on frequency axis at threshold
frequency f0.

34. Does the stopping potential in photoelectric emission depend upon the
frequency of the incident radiation?
Ans: Yes.

35. Which of the photoelectrons emitted from a photosensitive metal will have
maximum KE?
Ans: The photoelectrons emitted from the surface of the metal will have maximum
KE.

36. If the maximum kinetic energy of electrons emitted in a photocell is 5eV, what
is the stopping potential?
Ans: 5V

37. The stopping potential in an experiment on photoelectric experiment is 1.5V.

What is the maximum kinetic energy of electrons emitted?
Ans : 1.5eV

38. How does the stopping potential applied to a photocell change, if the distance
between the light source and the cathode of the photocell is doubled?
Ans: The stopping potential does not change.

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39. How does the intensity of incident radiation change, if the distance between
the light source and the cathode of the photocell is doubled?
Ans: The intensity of incident radiation becomes one fourth of the initial intensity as
1
I 2
d

40. What is the momentum of a photon ?

h
Ans: Momentum of photon p = where h is Planck's constant,  frequency of
c
radiation, c the speed of light.

41. How many eV make one joule ?

1
Ans : 1 J = eV  6.25  1019 eV
1.6  10 19

42. Calculate energy in eV of photon of wavelength 4000 Å.

hc 6.6  10 34  3  10 8 19 4.95  10 19

Ans: E =   4.95  10 J   3.09 eV
 4000  10 10 1.6  10 19

43. Calculate the frequency of a photon of energy 0.5 k eV. Take h = 6.6 x 10-34 Js.
E 0.5  1000  1.6  10 19 J
Ans : E = h,      1.2  10 17 Hz
h 6.6  10 34 Js

44. If the wavelength of radiation is doubled, what happens to the energy of the
photon?
hc hc E
Ans : Photon energy E = . If wavelength is doubled, E =  , energy
 2 2
becomes halved.

45. Two metals A and B have work functions 2 eV and 4 eV respectively. For
which metal the threshold wavelength is lower?
Ans : Higher the work function, higher the energy, higher the frequency, lower the
wavelength. Threshold wavelength of metal B is lower.

46. What type of transducer is a photocell?

Ans : It converts light energy into electric energy.

47. How does the stopping potential affect, if the intensity of light incident on a
photosensitive plate is increased?
Ans : Stopping potential is independent of intensity of incident light. (So the stopping
potential does not change.)

48. What is the slope of the graph of stopping potential against frequency of
radiation incident equal to?
Ans : It is equal to h/e where h is Planck's constant and e is electronic charge.
(h/e = 4.14x10-15 Js/C)

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49. How does the KE of photoelectrons vary with the wavelength of incident light?
Ans: As the wavelength of incident light decreases, KE of photoelectrons
increases.

50. "Nature loves symmetry" is the basic principle of which hypothesis?

Ans : It is the basic principle of de Broglie's matter wave hypothesis.

51. The distance between source of light and photo sensitive cathode is
decreased. What happens to stopping potential?
Ans: Stopping potential remains same. [Intensity increases, frequency does not
change.]

52. The maximum KE of photoelectrons is 5 eV. What is the sopping potential?

Ans:: The stopping potential is 5V only.

53. State de-Brogile hypothesis.

Ans: The de-Brogile hypothesis states that the material particles in motion show
wave like properties.

54. What are matter waves or de Broglie waves?

Ans: The waves associated with moving material particles are called matter waves
or de Broglie waves.

55. What is de-Broglie wavelength?

Ans : The wavelength of matter wave is called de-Broglie wavelength .

56. Write the equation for the de Brogile wavelength of material particle.
h
Ans:  
mv

57. Write the equation for the de Brogile wavelength of photon.

h
Ans :  = Where:  = de Brogile wavelength, h = Planck’s constant ,m = mass
mc
of photon & c= velocity of photon

58. How does the de Brogile wavelength of an electron change, if its velocity
increases?
Ans: de Brogile wavelength decreases with increase in velocity.

59. Write the relationship of de-Brogile wavelength  associated with a particle of

mass m in terms of its kinetic energy K.
h
Ans :  
2mK

61. The de-brogile wavelength of a particle of kinetic energy K is  What will be

the wavelength of the particle, if its kinetic becomes K/4?
h 1 1  K K
Ans :     &          2
2mK K K  K K
4
The de-Brogile wavelength gets doubled.

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62. The de Broglie wavelength of an electron is . If its KE is halved, what is its
new wavelength?
Ans :  increases to 1.414 .

63. What is the de Broglie wavelength (in Å) of an electron accelerated through pd

of 9 V?
12.27 12.27
Ans : For an electron  = =  4.09 Å
V 9

64. Show on a graph the variation of de-Brogile wavelength with the square root
of the accelerating potential.
Ans :

65. Show on a graph the variation of de-Brogile wavelength with the accelerating
potential for an electron initially at rest.
Ans :

66. Show on a graph the variation of de-Brogile wavelength with the square root of
the kinetic energy.

Ans :

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67. Show on a graph the variation of de-Brogile wavelength with the kinetic energy.
Ans :

68. A proton and an alpha particle have the same KE. What is the relation
between their de Broglie wavelengths?

h p m
Ans:  = ,   2, p :  :: 2 : 1
2mE  mp
.
69. What are photoelectrons?
Ans : The electrons emitted from a metal surface when it is exposed to incident light
of suitable frequency are called photoelectrons.

70. Does each incident photon essentially eject an electron?

Ans : No, only 1% of incident photons are capable ejecting electrons and rest are
absorbed.

71. Why are alkali metals most suited as photosensitive metals?

Ans : Due to their low work function and even visible radiations can eject electrons
from them, the alkali metals are most suited as photosensitive metals.

72. Define threshold frequency.

Ans: The threshold frequency is defined as the minimum value of the frequency of
incident radiation below which no photoelectric emission takes place.

73. Does threshold frequency depend on the nature of emitter?

Ans: Yes

74. Is photoelectric emission possible at all frequencies?

Ans : No.

75. Define threshold wavelength.

Ans : The threshold wavelength is defined as the maximum value of the wavelength
of incident radiation above which no photoelectric emission takes place.

76. If the wavelength of an electromagnetic radiation is doubled, what will happen

to the energy of photons?
 hc 1
Ans : The energy of photons becomes half.  E   E 
  

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77. What happens to the wavelength of a photon after it collides with an electron?
Ans : A part of photon’s energy is transferred to the colliding electron, energy
 hc 1
decreases and wavelength decreases.  E   E 
  

78. Two metals X and Y have work functions 4eV and 10eV respectively. Which
metal has higher threshold wavelength?
Ans : A with lower work function has higher threshold
 hc 1 
wavelength.  W   W 
 0  0 

79. Define photoelectric work function.

Ans: The photoelectric work function is defined as the minimum amount of energy
required to liberate electrons from the surface of the metal.

80. How is work function related to threshold frequency?

Ans : More the work function, more is the threshold frequency.  W  h 0  W 0 

81. How does the work function of a metal surface vary with the frequency of
radiation?
Ans: The work function is constant for a given metal surface, so it does not change.

82. Work function of aluminium is 4.2eV. If two photons each of energy 2.5eV are
incident on its surface, will emission of electrons take place?
Ans : No emission of electrons takes place because energy of a single photon must
be greater than the work function of the metal.

83. Write Einstien’s photoelectric equation.

Ans :
1 
E  W   mv 2   Energy of incident photon 
 2  max
Work function. of metal  Maximum KE of electrons.

84. What is the outcome of Davisson Germer experiment ?

Ans : The experiment’s outcome confirms the wave nature of electrons.

85. What is the momentum of a photon of a frequency  ? (Model Paper)

h
Ans : P 
c

86. A proton and an electron have same kinetic energy. Which one has smaller
de-Brogile wavelength ?
Ans : Proton.

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87. How does the de-Broglie wavelength of a charged particle changes when
accelerating potential increases ?
Ans : The de-Broglie wavelength of a charged particle decreases when accelerating
potential increases.

88. What is the rest mass of photon?

Ans: Zero.

89. What is the outcome of Davison and Germer experiment on the nature of electron?

Ans: The outcome of Davison and Germer experiment on the nature of electron confirms the
wave nature of electrons.

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 ATOMS
Introduction: Matter is made up of atoms. The first contribution in this regard came
from John Dalton. According to Dalton, the atom is the smallest particle which cannot
be subdivided. J. J. Thomson proposed a structure for the atom which was further
modified by Rutherford. Later on, Neil Bohr modified Rutherford’s atomic model. The
objective of this unit is to study all these atomic models in detail.
Thomson’s model of atom: According to Thomson, the
positive charge of the atom is uniformly distributed throughout
the volume of the atom and the negatively charged electrons
are embedded in it like seeds in watermelon or the plums in the
pudding. For this reason, Thomson’s atomic model is also
called plum pudding model of the atom.

Drawbacks (limitations) of Thomson’s atomic model: The Thomson’s atomic

model:
1. doesn’t provide stability of the atom.
2. doesn’t explain the large angle of scattering of alpha particles from the thin foil of
metals.
3. doesn’t explain the origin of spectral lines emitted by hydrogen and other atoms.

Rutherford’s nuclear model (Planetary model) of atom

According to Rutherford:
1. The entire positive charge and most of the mass of the atom are concentrated in
the nucleus with the electrons some distance away.
2. The electrons revolve in circular orbits around the nucleus similar to planets
revolving around the sun.
3. The size of the nucleus is 10-15m and that of the atom is 10-10m. As the atom is 105
times bigger than the nucleus, most of the space in an atom is empty.
4. The number of electrons is equal to the number of positive charges in the nucleus.
Hence, the atom is electrically neutral.
5. The electrostatic force of attraction between the nucleus and the electrons
provides the necessary centripetal force.

Merits of Rutherford’s atomic model

1. On the basis of Rutherford’s atomic model, the large angle of scattering of alpha
particles through the gold foil could be explained.
2. The atomic model provides the experimental evidence for the existence of
nucleus.
3. With the help of this model, size of the nucleus of could be estimated.

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Drawbacks (limitations) of Rutherford’s atomicmodel:
1. Rutherford’s atomic model could not explain the stability of
the atom.
According to Rutherford’s atomic model, the electrons revolve
around the nucleus in circular orbits. An electron revolving in
a circular orbit experiences centripetal acceleration and
according to classical electromagnetic theory, an accelerated
charge must radiate energy. Therefore, an electron must lose
energy continuously. As a result, the electron approaches the
nucleus in a spiral path and ultimately falls into the nucleus.
This violates the mechanical stability of the atom.
2. Rutherford’s atomic model fails to explain the origin of spectral lines.

Geiger–Marsden experiment on the scattering of alpha particles

The alpha particles emitted
from a radioactive source are
made to fall on lead blocks. The
narrow beam of alpha particles
emerging from the blocks is
allowed to strike on a thin gold foil
of thickness 2.1x10-7m and the
beam gets scattered in different
directions by the gold foil. With the
help of a rotatable detector coated
with zinc sulphide and a
microscope , the scattered alpha particles in different directions are observed. The
alpha particles on striking the screen produce flashes which are observed through a
microscope.

A study of the distribution of a number of

scattered particles as a function of the angle of
scattering is made. The graph between the
number of alpha particles scattered in a given
time interval and the angle of scattering is plotted.
Number of alpha particles scattered at an
angle  :

1
N 
 
sin 4  
 2 

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Rutherford’s observations:
1. Most of the alpha particles go straight through the foil without suffering any
deviation.
2. Only about 0.14% of the incident alpha particles scatter by more than 1 o.
3. About 1 in 8000 of the incident alpha particles gets deflected by more than 90 o.
Rutherford’s conclusion: Rutherford argued that scattering of alpha particles from
the gold foil is due to Coulomb’s repulsive force between the positively charged gold
atom and the positive charge of alpha particles. This force could be provided if the
greater of the mass of the atom and its positive charge were concentrated tightly at
its centre. Rutherford named this central part of the atom as a nucleus.
Impact parameter (b) and Alpha particle trajectory: The perpendicular distance of
the initial velocity vector of the alpha particle from the centre of the nucleus, when
the alpha particle is far away from the nucleus of the atom is called impact
parameter. The impact parameter is denoted by b.
The scattering of an alpha particle from the nucleus
of an atom depends on the impact parameter. When
the alpha particle is scattered through small angle
due to small Coulomb’s repulsive force experienced
by the particle, the value of impact parameter is
large. On the other hand, When the particle is
scattered through large angle due to large
Coulomb’s repulsive force experienced by it, the
value of impact parameter is small. If the collision is
head-on, then the angle of scattering is 180o and
impact parameter b is zero. And the alpha particle retraces its path.
Consider an alpha particle of mass m moving with an initial velocity u towards a
nucleus of charge +Ze. The path of an alpha particle is shown in the following figure.
The relation between impact parameter b and scattering angle  as given by
Rutherford is:

 
Ze 2 cot 
1 2
b
4 0  1 2
 mu 
2 

 
Ze 2 cot 
1 2
b
4 0 K

1 2
Where: mu  K  Initial kinetic energy of alpha particles.
2

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Variation of impact parameter with the angle of scattering

The graph between impact parameter b and cot  is a

2
straight line.

The distance of closest approach (d): The distance of closest approach is defined
as the minimum distance between the centre of the nucleus and the point from which
an alpha particle approaching directly to the nucleus stops for a moment and begins
to retrace its path.
Consider an alpha particle moving with an initial velocity towards the centre of a
nucleus of an atom. On account of Coulomb’s repulsive force between nucleus and
alpha particle, the speed of the particle goes on decreasing. At a certain distance
from the nucleus, the alpha particle stops for a moment and begins to retrace its
path. In other words, the particle is scattered through an angle of 180o. At this
distance , the entire initial kinetic energy of the alpha particle is converted into
potential energy. The distance is called the distance of closest approach. The
distance of closest approach estimates the size of the nucleus.
Expression for distance of closest approach
Consider an alpha particle of mass m and
charge 2e moving with an initial velocity u
towards the centre of a nucleus of an atom of
charge +Ze.Let d be the distance of closest
approach.

At the distance of closest approach:

The initial kinetic energy of alpha particle=Potential energy due to charge on the
alpha particle X Charge on the nucleus of the gold foil.
1 1 Ze 2e 
mu 2 
2 4 0 d

1 2 Ze 2
d
4 0  1 2
 mu 
 2 

1 2 Ze 2
d
4 0 K

1
Where : mu 2  K  Initail kinetic energy of alpha particle
2
This gives the expression for the distance of closest approach.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 219

Estimation of size of the nucleus: The expression for distance of closest approach
is given by:

1 2 Ze 2
d …………….(1)
4 0 K

For alpha particles of natural origin K  7.7MeV  1.2  10 12 J ,

1
 9  10 9 Nm 2 C  2 , e  1.6  10 19 C and for gold Z=79.
4 0

On inserting these values in the expression (1),

d  9  10

2  79  1.6  10 19
9 
2

1.2  10 12

d  30  10 15 m  30 fm

This is the size of the nucleus of gold foil.

Stationary orbit: An orbit in which a moving electron does not radiate energy is
called stationary orbit (non-radiating orbit).

Bohr’s postulates
1. First postulate: It states that an electron in an atom revolve in certain stable
orbits without the emission of radiant energy.
According to this postulate, each atom has certain definite stable orbits in which it
can exist and each possible state has definite total energy. These are called the
stationary states of the atom.
2. Second postulate: It states that the electron revolves around the nucleus only in
h
those orbits for which the angular momentum is some integral multiple of .
2
Where: h is Planck’s constant.
Therefore, the angular momentum L of the electron of mass m revolving with a
speed v in a stationary orbit of radius r is quantised.

 h
L  mvr  n  Where: n=positive integer=1,2,3……
 2 
This postulate is known as quantization of angular momentum of an electron.
3. Third postulate: It states that an electron might make the transition from one of
its specified non-radiating orbits to another of lower energy. When it does so, a
photon is emitted having energy equal to the energy difference between the initial
and final states.

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The frequency of the emitted photon (   due to the transition of an electron from the
state of higher energy Ef to that of lower energy Ei is given by:

h  E2  E1  E f  Ei
Where; E1=Ei= energy of the initial state. E2=Ef=energy of the final state.

This postulate is called Bohr’s frequency condition.

Bohr’s atomic model for hydrogen-like atom: To explain the stability and the
spectrum of an atom, Bohr applied Planck’s quantum theory of radiation to
Rutherford’s atomic model. He made the following assumptions
1. An electron instead of revolving in any orbit around the nucleus revolves only in
some specific orbits. These orbits are called non-radiating orbits or stationary
orbits. An electron revolving in a stationary orbit does not radiate any energy.
2. When an electron revolves in a circular orbit, the force of attraction between the
electron and the nucleus provides the necessary centripetal force for its motion in
a circular path.

mv 2 1 Ze 2
 .
r 4 0 r 2

For hydrogen atom: Z=1

mv 2 1 e2
 .
r 4 0 r 2

Where ; m = mass of the electron, v= speed of the electron, r = radius of orbit of the electron, Z =
atomic number. e = charge on the electron,  0 = permittivity of free space.

3. An electron can revolve only in those orbits in which its angular momentum is an
h
integral multiple of .
2
h
mvr  n
2
Where; n = principal quantum number= 1, 2, 3…., h = Planck’s constant = 6.626  10-34Js.
This equation is called quantization of angular momentum.
4. The energy is absorbed when an electron jumps from lower orbit to higher orbit
and the energy is emitted when an electron falls from higher orbit into a lower
orbit.
5. When an electron falls from higher orbit to lower orbit, the frequency of
electromagnetic radiation emitted is given by:

E 2  E1

h
Where; E1 = energy of the electron in the lower orbit, E2 = energy of the electron in the higher orbit.
This equation is called Bohr’s frequency condition.

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The radius of an electron in the nth orbit of hydrogen-like atom
Consider an electron of mass m and charge ‘e’ revolving around
the nucleus of charge +Ze in a stationary orbit of radius r with
speed v.
According to Bohr, the Coulomb’s force of attraction between
the nucleus and the electron provides the required centripetal
force for the circular motion of the electron.

mv 2 1 Ze 2
 .
r 4 0 r 2

Ze 2
mv 2 
4 0 r

Ze 2
v2  ………………….……(1)
4 0 mr

According to Bohr’s postulate of quantization of angular momentum,

nh
mvr 
2
Where: n = principal quantum number and h = Planck’s constant.
nh
v ……………………….......(2)
2mr
Squaring both sides:

n2h2
v2  ……………………… (3)
4 2 m 2 r 2
From equations (1) and (3):

Ze 2 n2h2

4 0 mr 4 2 m 2 r 2

Ze 2 n2h2

0 mr

 0n2h2
r ……………………………(4)
mZe 2

This gives the expression for the radius of the nth orbit of a hydrogen-like atom.
For hydrogen atom Z=1:

 0n2h2
r ……………….…………….(5)
me 2

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Note :

n2
1. As  0 , h, m and e are constants in equation (4); r 
Z

2. As  0 , h, m and e are constants in equation (5); r  n 2

 The radius of an orbit is directly proportional to the square of the principal quantum
number.
2
r1  n1 
3.  
r2  n 2 

Bohr’s orbit: The stationary circular orbit of the electron of the hydrogen atom is
called Bohr’s orbit.
Bohr’s radius: Radius of the innermost orbit of a hydrogen atom is called Bohr’s
radius.

Calculation of Bohr’s radius

Radius of nth orbit of electron of hydrogen-like atom is

 0n2h2
r ……………(1)
mZe 2
Where;  0 = 8.854  10 12 C2 N 1 m 2 , n=1(innermost orbit), h = 6.626  10-34Js, m=9.1  10-31kg,
e=1.6  10-19C, Z =1 (for a hydrogen atom).

Equation (1) becomes;

r

8.854  10 12  1  6.626  10 34  2


3.14  9.1  10 31  1  1.6  10 19  2


r  0.53  10 10 m  0.53 A

The speed of the electron in the nth orbit of hydrogen-like atom

Consider an electron of mass m and charge e revolving around
the nucleus of charge +Ze in a stationary orbit of radius r with
speed v.

The equation of quantization of angular momentum is:

nh
mvr  Where; n= principal quantum number and h= Planck’s constant.
2
nh 1
v 
2m r

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 nh mZe 2  0n2h2
  r 
2m  0 n 2 h 2 mZe 2

Ze 2
v ………………..(1)
2 0 nh

This gives the expression for the speed of an electron in the nth orbit of a hydrogen-
like atom.
For hydrogen atom Z = 1, equation (1) leads to :

e2
v ……….….…...(2)
2 0 nh

Note:
1. In the expression (1), as e,  0 & h are constants:

Z
v
n

2. In the expression(2), as e,  0 & h are constants:

1 v n
v  1  2
n v 2 n1

 The speed of the electron is inversely proportional to the principal quantum

number.

Extra Information:

1. The speed of an electron in terms of fine structure constant :

We know that:

e2 e2 1 e2 c
v    
2 0 nh 2 0 h n 2 0 ch n

c 1 c
v    
n 137 n

Where: e2 1
α  fine structure constant.
2ε 0 ch 137

Circuferen ce
2 . Speed of the electron 
Time period

2 r
v
T
r
T  2 
v

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 224

  0 n 2 h 2 2 0 nh  0n2h2 Ze 2
T  2   r  and v 
mZe 2 Ze 2 mZe 2 2 0 nh
2
4 0 n 3 h 3
T  ……………………..(1)
mZ 2 e 4

This gives the expression for time period of an electron in the nth orbit of a hydrogen-like atom.

For hydrogen-like atom Z=1, equation (1) becomes:

2
4 n 3 h 3
T  0 4 ……………………..(2)
me
1 1
3. Frequency of revolution of electron   f 
Time period T

mZ 2 e 4
f  2
…………….……….(3)
4 0 n 3 h 3
2
4 0 n 3 h 3
T 
mZ 2 e 4
This gives the expression for frequency of revolution of an electron in the nth orbit of a hydrogen-like
atom.

For hydrogen-like atom Z=1, equation (3) becomes:

me 4
f  2
…………….……….(4)
4 0 n 3 h 3

4. For hydrogen-like atom:

n3
T
Z2
5. For hydrogen atom:

T  n3
3
T1  n1 
  
T2  n 2 

Therefore, the time period of revolution of an electron is directly proportional to the

cube of a principle quantum number.
6. For hydrogen-like atom:

Z2
f 
n3

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7. For hydrogen atom:
1
f 
n3
3
f1  n2 
  
f 2  n1 

Therefore, the frequency of revolution of an electron is inversely proportional to the

cube of a principle quantum number.
Energy of the electron in the nth orbit of hydrogen- like atom
An electron revolving around the nucleus of an atom possesses kinetic energy due
to its motion and potential energy due to its position near to the nucleus. The sum of
kinetic and potential energy gives the total energy of the
electron.
Consider an electron of mass m and charge e revolving around
the nucleus of charge +Ze in a stationary orbit of radius r with
speed v.
The expression for kinetic energy : According to Bohr:
Centripetal force = Coulomb’s force of attraction between the electron and the
nucleus.

mv 2 1 Ze 2

r 4 0 r 2

Ze 2 1
mv 2  
4 0 r

1 2 Ze 2 mZe 2  0n2h2
mv    r
2 8 0  0 n 2 h 2 mZe 2

Z 2 me 4
K ……………….(1)
8 02 n 2 h 2

The expression for potential energy

Potential energy = Potential due to the charge on the nucleus  Charge on the
electron.
Ze
U   e
4 0 r

Ze 2 mZe 2  0n2h2
U   r 
4 0  0 n 2 h 2 mZe 2

 Z 2 me 4
U …………………..(2)
4 02 n 2 h 2

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 226

The expression for total energy
The sum of kinetic and potential energy gives total energy.
E  K U

Z 2 me 4 Z 2 me 4
E 
8 02 n 2 h 2 4 02 n 2 h 2

Z 2 me 4
E   2 2 2 ……………….(3)
8 0 n h

This gives the expression for the total energy of the electron in the nth orbit of a
hydrogen-like atom.
 The energy of the electron is inversely proportional to the square of a principal
quantum number. The negative sign indicates that electron is bound to the nucleus
by an electrostatic attractive force.
For hydrogen atom Z =1 :

 me 4
E ………………….(4)
8ε 02 n 2 h 2

Relation between Kinetic energy, Potential energy and Total energy

Kinetic energy is;

Z 2 me 4
K …………….(1)
8 02 n 2 h 2

Potential energy is;

Z 2 me 4
U  …………...(2)
4 02 n 2 h 2

Total energy is;

Z 2 me 4
E ………….….(3)
8 02 n 2 h 2
From equations (3) and (1):
E  K
From equations (2) and (3):
U  2E
From equations (1) and (2):
U  2K

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 227

Calculation of energy of the electron in the nth orbit of hydrogen atom
Energy of the electron in the nth orbit of hydrogen-like atom is:

 Z 2 me 4
En  …………….(1)
8 02 n 2 h 2
31 19
Where: m= 9.1  10 kg e = 1.6  10 C, Z =1 (for hydrogen atom),
34
h = 6.626  10
12 2 1 2
 0 = 8.854  10 C N m , Js.

Equation (1) becomes:

En 

 1 9.1  10 31  1.6  10 19 4


21.65  10 19
J
 
2

8  8.854  10 12  n 2  6.626  10 34  2
n2

21.65  10 19 1
En    2 eV
1.6  10 19 n
13.6
En   eV ……………..(2)
n2
For :

1. n = 1, E1 = -13.6 eV
 13.6
2. n = 2, E2 =  3.4eV
4
13.6
3. n = 3, E3 = --  1.51 eV
9
4. n =  , E  =0

Note:
For hydrogen like atom:

13.6Z 2
En   eV
n2
Energy of the electron in the hydrogen atom in terms of radius of the orbit
Consider an electron of mass m and charge e revolving around
the nucleus of charge +Ze in a stationary orbit of radius r with
speed v.
The expression for kinetic energy
According to Bohr’s Theory;
Centripetal force = Coulomb’s force of attraction between the electron and the
nucleus.

mv 2 1 Ze 2

r 4 0 r 2

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 228

 2 Ze 2
mv 
4 0 r

1 2 Ze 2
mv 
2 8 0 r

Ze 2
K ………….……….(1)
8 0 r

This gives the expression for the kinetic energy of the electron in the hydrogen-like
atom.
The expression for potential energy: Potential energy = Potential due to the
charge on the nucleus  Charge on the electron.
Ze
U   e
4 0 r

Ze 2
U  …………………..(2)
4 0 r

This gives the expression for the potential energy of the electron in the hydrogen-like
atom.
The expression for total energy: The sum of kinetic and potential energy gives the
total energy.
E  K U

Ze 2 Ze 2
E 
8 0 r 4 0 r

Ze 2
E ………………….(3)
8 0 r

For hydrogen atom Z =1 :

e2
E ………..………….(4)
8 0 r

This gives the expression for the total energy of the electron in a hydrogen atom.The
negative sign indicates that electron is bound to the nucleus by an electrostatic
attractive force.From this expression it follows that higher orbit electrons possess
more energy than the lower orbit electrons.
Note:
1. Kinetic energy of an electron of hydrogen atom is:

e2 1
K K
8 0 r r

Therefore, kinetic energy decreases with increase in radius of the orbit.

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2. Potential energy of an electron of hydrogen atom is:

e2 1
U  U  
4 0 r r

Therefore, potential energy increases with increase in radius of the orbit.

3. Total energy of an electron of hydrogen atom is:

e2 1
E E
8 0 r r

This implies that total energy increases with increase in radius of the orbit.
Excitation, Excitation energy and Excitation potential

Excitation: The process of shifting an electron from its lower orbit to the higher orbit
is called excitation.
Excitation energy: The energy required for shifting an electron from its lower orbit to
the higher orbit is called excitation energy.
The energy of the electron in the nth orbit is;
13.6
En   eV ………………….(1)
n2
Note :
1. For n = 1, E1 =-13.6 eV.

2. For n = 2, E2 =-3.4 eV.

3. For n = 3, E3 =-1.51 eV.

4. The energy required to excite an electron from the first orbit to the second orbit is;
E2–E1=-3.4 eV–(-13.6 eV) =10.2eV.
It is called the first excitation energy of the hydrogen atom.

5. The energy required to excite an electron from the first orbit to the third orbit is :
E3–E1=-1.51eV–(-13.6 eV)=12.1eV.
It is called the second excitation energy of the hydrogen atom.

Excitation potential: The potential difference through which an electron in an atom

to be accelerated from the lower orbit to the higher orbit is called excitation potential.
Excitation energy
Excitation potential 
Charge

13.6
Vn   V ………………………….(1)
n2

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Note :
1. The first excitation potential of the hydrogen atom is;
V2–V1=-3.4V–(-13.6 V)=10.2V.
2. The second excitation potential of the hydrogen atom is;
V3–V1=-1.51V–(-13.6V)=12.1V.
Ionisation, Ionisation energy and Ionisation potential
Ionisation: The process of removing an electron from the atom is called ionisation.
Ionisation energy: The energy required for removing an electron from the atom is
called ionisation energy.
Energy of the electron in the nth orbit is:
13.6
En   eV ……………………(1)
n2
For n = 1, equation (1) becomes:
E1=-13.6eV.
For n =  , equation (1) becomes :
E  =0
Energy required to raise the electron from n = 1 to n =  is:
E  -E1 =13.6eV
This gives the ionisation energy of the hydrogen atom.
When the electron is taken from its ground state to the state corresponding to n =  ,
then the electron is no longer bound to the nucleus of the atom and is removed from
the atom.
Ionisation potential: The potential difference through which an electron of the atom
is raised so that it is removed from the atom is called ionisation potential.
Ionisation energy
Ionisation potential 
ch arg e

13.6
Vn  V …………………....(1)
n2
For n = 1, equation (1) becomes :
V = 13.6 V
This gives the ionisation potential of the hydrogen atom.
Expression for wave number of spectral line of hydrogen spectrum
Energy of the electron in the nth orbit of hydrogen-
like atom is :

Z 2 me 4
En   ……………..(1)
8 02 n 2 h 2

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 231

Where: m = mass of the electron, e = charge on the electron, Z = atomic number, n = principal
quantum number, h = Planck’s constant,  0 = permittivity of free space.

Energy of the electron in the lower orbit of principal quantum number n 1 is:

 Z 2 me 4
E1  …………………..(2)
8 02 n12 h 2

Energy of the electron in the higher orbit of principal quantum number n 2 is:

 Z 2 me 4
E2  ………………....(3)
8 02 n 22 h 2

Energy of the emitted electromagnetic radiation of frequency  is given by:

h  E 2  E1

 Z 2 me 4   Z 2 me 4 
h   
8 02 n22 h 2  8 02 n12 h 2 

c Z 2 me 4  1 1 c
h  2 2  2
 2  
 8 0 h  n1 n2  

1 Z 2me 4  1 1
 2 3  2  2
λ 8ε 0 ch  n1 n2 

For hydrogen atom Z =1,

1 me 4 1 1
  2  2
 8 02 ch 3  n1 n2 

1 1 1
 R  2  2  …………..……(4)
  n1 n 2 

me 4
Where: R   Rydberg constant=1.097  10 7 m 1 . [not universal constant]
8 02 ch 3
This gives the expression for wave number.

Note:
1. Let: nf=n1=principal quantum number of lower energy state.
ni=n2=principal quantum number of higher energy state.
Equation (4) leads to the form:

1 1 1
 R 2  2 
  n f ni 

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2. We have:

c Z 2 me 4  1 1
h  2 2  2
 2
 8 0 h  n1 n 2 

Z 2 me 4  1 1 c
h  2 2  2
 2   
8 0 h  n1 n2  

For hydrogen atom: Z=1:

me 4  1 1
h  2 2  2
 2
8 0 h  n1 n 2 

This equation is called Rydberg formula.

hc 1 E
3. Since E  h   
  hc

1 1 1
The expression  R  2  2  becomes:
  n1 n2 

E 1 1
 R 2  2 
hc  n1 n 2 

1 1
E  hcR  2  2 
 n1 n 2 

4. Since E  h  , above expression becomes:

1 1
h  hcR  2  2 
 n1 n2 

1 1
  cR  2
 2
 n1 n2 

1 1 1 1 1 1
5.  R 2  2     2  2 
  n1 n2    n1 n2 

1

1 1
 2  2
 n1 n2 

1 1
6.   cR  2
 2
 n1 n2 

1 1
  2
 2
 n1 n 2 

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 1 1
7. E  hcR  2  2 
 n1 n2 

1 1
E 2  2
 n1 n2 

Transition
The jumping of an electron from a higher excited state to a lower energy state and
ultimately to the ground state is called transition. During the transition, the energy
difference between the two energy states is given out as a photon of energy E  h .
Ground state: The lowest energy state( n=1) is called ground state.
Excited state: The higher energy level is called an excited state.
Spectral line: A radiation of particular frequency and wavelength emitted, when an
electron falls from a higher orbit to the lower orbit is called spectral line.
Series limit : The wavelength corresponding to the transition of an electron from
infinite orbit to any lower orbit is called series limit. This spectral line has the shortest
wavelength.

I. Lyman series : The series of spectral lines emitted when an electron from higher
orbits falls into the first orbit is called Lyman series.
For Lyman series: n1 = 1 and n2 = 2, 3, 4……………
Lyman series lies in the ultra–violet region of electromagnetic spectrum.
Note :
1. For the spectral line of longest wavelength of Lyman series: n 1 =1& n 2 =2.

2. For the spectral line of the shortest wavelength of Lyman series (Series limit):
n1=1 & n2=  .
II. Balmer series: The series of spectral lines emitted when an electron falls from the
higher orbits to the second orbit is called Balmer series.
For Balmer series: n1 = 2 and n2 = 3, 4, 5……………
Balmer series lies in the visible region of electromagnetic spectrum.
Note:
1. For the spectral line of longest wavelength of Balmer series: n 1 =2 & n 2 =3.

2. For the spectral line of the shortest wavelength of Balmer series (Series limit): n1=2
& n 2=  .
3. For H  line n1 = 2 and n2 = 3 (First member of Balmer series).

4. For H  line n1 = 2 and n2 = 4 (Second member of Balmer series).

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5. For H  line n 1 = 2 and n 2 = 5 (Third member of Balmer series).

6. For H  line n 1 = 2 and n 2 = 6 (Fourth member of Balmer series).

Note: The spectral series in the visible region of hydrogen spectrum is called Balmer
series and is shown in the following figure.

Member Spectral line Wavelength

First H  line 656.3nm

Second H  line 486.1nm

Third H  line 434.1nm

Fourth H  line 410.2nm

The wavelengths of the first four members of Balmer series of hydrogen spectrum:
Note:

1. The decreasing order of wavelength of the first four members of Balmer series is:
 α>  β>  γ>  δ
2. The increasing order of frequency of the first four members of Balmer series is:
f  f   f   f

III. Paschen series: The series of spectral lines emitted when an electron from the
higher orbits falls into the third orbit is called Paschen series.
For Paschen series : n1 = 3 and n2 = 4, 5, 6……………….
Paschen series lies in the infrared region of electromagnetic spectrum.
Note :
1. For the spectral line of the longest wavelength : n1 = 3 and n2 = 4.
2. For the spectral line of the shortest wavelength(Series limit):n1 = 3 & n2 =  .

IV. Brackett series: The series of spectral lines emitted when an electron from the
higher orbits falls into the fourth orbit is called Brackett series.
For Brackett series : n1 = 4 and n2 = 5, 6, 7………..
Brackett series lies in the infrared region of electromagnetic spectrum.
Note :
1.For the spectral line of the longest wavelength : n 1 = 4 and n2 = 5.
2.For the spectral line of the shortest wavelength(Series limit) : n1 = 4 and n2 =  .

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V. Pfund series: The series of spectral lines emitted when an electron from the
higher orbits falls into the fifth orbit is called Pfund series.
For Pfund series : n1 = 5 and n2 = 6, 7, 8………..
Pfund series lies in the far infrared region of electromagnetic spectrum.
Note :
1.For the spectral line of the longest wavelength : n 1 = 5 and n2 = 6.
2.For the spectral line of the shortest wavelength(Series limit): n1 = 5 and n2 =  .

SERIES AT A GLANCE:
Energy level diagram of the hydrogen atom: The diagram which represents the
transition of an electron from the higher orbits to the lower orbits is called energy
level diagram.The horizontal energy levels and the vertical lines represent
transitions of the electron.

Note :
1. The total number of possible transitions from the nth state of hydrogen atom is
given by:
nn  1
N
2
2. The wavelength of spectral lines increases with the increase of the order of the
series.

 Pfund >  Brackett >  Paschen >  Balmer >  Lyman

Fine structure of spectral lines of the hydrogen atom : If the spectral lines of the
hydrogen atom are observed with the help of high resolving spectrograph, then each
line consists of several closely packed lines. This is called fine structure of spectral
lines of the hydrogen atom.

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Merits of Bohr’s atomic theory:
1. The theory successfully explains the spectral lines of hydrogen and hydrogen
like atoms.
2. The size of the atom given by Bohr’s theory is in good agreement with the
results of kinetic theory of gases.
3. The value of Rydberg constant calculated using Bohr’s theory is in excellent
agreement with the experimental value.
4. The value of ionisation energy of hydrogen atom calculated from Bohr’s theory
is in close agreement with the experimental value.
5. The theory explains the stability of an atom.

Limitations (demerits) of Bohr’s theory:The Bohr model:

1. is applicable to hydrogenic atoms. It cannot be applied to multi-electron atoms.
2. involves electrical force between the positively charged nucleus and electron. It
does not include the electrical forces between electrons which necessarily
appear in multi-electron atoms.
3. is unable to explain the relative intensities of the frequencies in the spectrum.
4. doesn’t take relativistic variation of the electron mass into consideration.
5. fails to explain the fine structure of spectral lines.
6. fails to explain the distribution of orbital electrons in an atom around the
nucleus.
7. doesn’t explain why the orbits are circular while elliptical orbits are also
possible.
8. doesn’t account for the wave nature of electrons.
9. doesn’t explain Zeeman effect and Stark effect.

de-Broglie’s explanation of Bohr’s second

postulate:
According to de Brogile ,for a moving material particle
there is a wave associated with it. Therefore, an
orbiting electron around the nucleus of an atom is
associated with a wave known as electron wave.
Since the electrons move in circles, the electron wave
must be circular standing wave that closes on itself as
shown in the figure.

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If the wavelength of the wave does not close upon itself, destructive interference takes
place as wave travels around the circular orbit and it quickly dies out. Thus, only those
electron waves exist for which the circumference of the circular orbit contains an integral
number of electron waves. Therefore, according to de Brogile, a stationary orbit is that
orbit whose circumference is an integral multiple of wavelength of the electron wave.
For an electron moving in the nth circular orbit of radius rn, the total distance covered
by an electron is equal to the circumference of the orbit.

2 rn  n ……………….…………..(1)Where: n=1,2,3………..

 h  h
2rn  n    = de- Brogile wavelength.
 mv  mv

 h 
mvrn  n  …………….….…..(2)
 2 
Thus, the angular momentum of an orbiting electron is quantised. This is the
condition proposed by Bohr for the angular momentum of the electron. Hence, de
Brogile hypothesis provided an explanation for Bohr’s second postulate.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 238

 QUESTIONS FROM PREVIOUS YEARS EXAMINATION
March - 2014
1. Write three postulates of Bohr. Mention two limitations of Bohr model. (5M)

July – 2014 (Supplementary)

2. Derive an expression for total energy of an electron in stationary state of
hydrogen atom. (5M)

March – 2015
3. Name the spectral series of hydrogen which lies in the ultraviolet region of
electromagnetic spectrum. (1M)
4. By assuming Bohr’s postulates derive an expression for radius of nth
orbit electron, revolving round the nucleus of hydrogen atom. (3M)

July – 2015 (Supplementary)

5. Name the spectral series of hydrogen atom in the visible region of electromagnetic
spectrum. (1M)
6. State Bohr’s postulates. (3M)

March – 2016
7. Calculate the shortest and longest wavelengths of Balmer series of hydrogen
atom. Given R = 1.097 x 107 m-1. (5M)

July – 2016 (Supplementary)

8. Assuming the expression for radius of the orbit, derive an expression for total
energy of an electron in hydrogen atom. (5M)

March – 2017
9 The first member of the Balmer series of hydrogen atom has wavelength of
6563 Å. Calculate the wavelength and frequency of the second member of the
same series. Given: C = 3 x 108 ms-1 . (5M)

March – 2018
10 Draw the diagram representing the schematic arrangement of Geiger – Marsden
experimental set up for the alpha particle scattering. (2M)
11 Write Bohr’s postulates for the hydrogen atom model. (3M)

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 239

March – 2019
12 Write the expression for energy of an electron in electron orbit of hydrogen atom.
(1M)
13. Write three postulates of Bohr’s atomic model. (3M)

June – 2019
14. Name the spectral series of Hydrogen atom which lies in the visible region of
electro magnetic spectrum. (1M)
15. Derive an expression for the energy of an electron in nth stationary orbit of
Hydrogen atom by assuming the expression for radius. (5M)

March – 2020
16. Using Bohr’s postulates, derive the expression for the radius of nth stationary
orbit of an electron in hydrogen atom. Hence write the expression for Bohr
radius. (5M)

July – 2020
17.Derive an expression for radius of electron in the nth Bohr orbit of hydrogen atom.
(3M)

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 240

 ONE MARK QUESTIONS WITH ANSWERS
Q. Why is Thomson's atomic model called plum pudding model?
Answer: Because, the negatively charged particles i.e. electrons (the 'plums') were
embedded in a sphere of uniform positive charge (the 'pudding").

Q. What was the contribution of Thomson's atomic model?

Answer: It was the result of first in depth thought regarding atomic structure based
on observation.

Q. What was the importance of - scattering experiment?

Answer: It led to the nuclear model of the atom.

Q. How was Rutherford's atomic model unstable?

Answer: The orbit of the electron in the field of the nucleus cannot be circular and
stable but it is helical and radius of the orbit goes on decreasing and the
electron finally falls in the nucleus.

Q. Define distance of closest approach.

Answer: The distance of closest approach is defined as the distance between the
centre of the nucleus and the point from which an alpha particle
wapproaching directly to the nucleus returns.

Q. The kinetic energy of alpha particle incident on the gold foil is doubled. How
does the distance of closest approach change?

 1
Answer: Gets halved  E 
 r0 

Q. Define impact parameter.

Answer: The impact parameter is defined as the perpendicular distance of the
velocity vector of the alpha particle from the central line of the nucleus,
when the particle is far away from the atom.

Q. Why is a very thin gold foil used in Rutherford’s alpha particle scattering
experiment?
Answer: The thin foil does not absorb the kinetic energy of alpha particles and the
particles are able to penetrate into the foil.

Q. How did Bohr provide stability to atom?

Answer: By postulating stationary orbits.

Q. What is stationary orbit?

Answer: An orbit in which a moving electron does not radiate energy is called
stationary orbit(non- radiating orbit).

Q. What is the condition for an electron orbit to become stationary orbit?

Answer: The orbital angular momentum of the electron in that orbit must be an
integral multiple of (h / 2).

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 241

Q. Write the equation for quantization of angular momentum.
h
Answer: m v r = n
2
Where: n = principal quantum number= 1, 2, 3…. and
h = Planck’s constant = 6.63  10-34Js.

Q. What is Bohr’s quantization condition for the angular momentum of an

electron in the second orbit?
h h h 6.63 x10 34
Answer: L  n  2x    2.1x10 34 Js
2 2  3.142

Q. Write the equation for Bohr’s frequency condition.

E  E1
Answer:   2
h
Where : E1 = energy of the electron in the lower orbit. and E 2 = energy of the
electron in the higher orbit.

Q. Write the expression for the radius of nth orbit of hydrogen like atom.
 n2h2
Answer: r = 0
mZe 2

Q. Write the expression for the radius of nth orbit of hydrogen atom.
 0n2h2
Answer: r 
me 2

Q. What is Bohr’s orbit?

Answer: The stationary circular orbit of the electron of the hydrogen atom is called
Bohr’s orbit.

Q. What is Bohr’s radius?

Answer: Radius of the innermost orbit of hydrogen atom is called Bohr’s radius.

Q. How does the radius of Bohr orbit vary with its principal quantum number?
Answer: The radius of Bohr orbit varies directly as the square of its principal
quantum number.

Q. The radius of the innermost electron orbit of a hydrogen atom is

5.3 x 10-11 mm. What is the radius of the second excited state?
2 2 2
r n  n   3
Answer: 3   3   r3  r1  3   5.3x10 11    4.72 x10 10 m
r1  n1   n1  1

Q. The radius of the first electron orbit of a hydrogen atom is 5.3x10 -11mm.
What is the radius of the second orbit?
2 2 2
r n  n  2
Answer: 2   2   r2  r1  2   5.3 x10 11    2.12 x10 10 m
r1  n1   n1  1

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 242

Q. Write the expression for speed of the electron in the nth orbit of hydrogen
like atom
Ze 2
Answer: v =
2 0 nh

Q. Write the expression for speed of the electron in the nth orbit of hydrogen
atom.
e2
Answer: v =
2 0 nh

Q. How does the speed of electron in Bohr orbit vary with its principal quantum
number?
Answer: Speed of the electron is inversely proportional to the principal quantum
number.

Q. What is the order of the speed of electron in a hydrogen atom in ground

state?
Answer: 106ms-1

Q. Write the expression for kinetic energy of the electron in the nth orbit of
hydrogen like atom
Z 2 me 4
Answer: Ek =
8 02 n 2 h 2

Q. Write the expression for potential energy of the electron in the nth orbit of
hydrogen like atom
 Z 2 me 4
Answer: Ep =
4 02 n 2 h 2

Q. Write the expression for total energy of the electron in the nth orbit of
hydrogen like atom
Z 2 me 4
Answer: E = - 2 2 2
8 0 n h

Q. Write the expression for energy of the electron in the nth orbit of hydrogen
atom .
me 4
Answer:: E = - 2 2 2
8 0 n h

Q. How does the energy of an electron in the hydrogen atom vary with the
principal quantum number?
Answer: The energy of the electron increases with increase in principal quantum
number.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 243

Q. Why is the total energy of an orbiting electron negative?
Answer: The orbiting electron is in a bound state. (The negative electrostatic
potential energy of the electron is more than the positive kinetic energy.)

Q. Why do not the negatively charged electrons fall into the positively charged
nucleus?
Answer: Because of the quantum condition on orbital angular momentum. The
electron in hydrogen atom cannot go to the nucleus nearer than one Bohr
radius.

Q. The ground state energy of hydrogen atom is -13.6eV. What is the kinetic
energy of the electron in this state?
Answer: +13.6eV.

Q. The ground state energy of hydrogen atom is -13.6eV. What is the potential
energy of the electron in this state?
Answer:: -27.2eV.

Q. How much is the energy possessed by an electron for n   ?

Answer: Zero.

Q. What is spectral line?

Answer: the radiation of particular frequency and wavelength emitted, when an
electron falls from higher orbit to the lower orbit, is called spectral line.

Q. What is series limit?

Answer: The wavelength corresponding to the transition of an electron from infinite
orbit to any lower orbit is called series limit.

Q. What is Lyman series?

Answer: The series of spectral lines emitted when an electron from higher orbits falls
into the first orbit is called Lyman series.

Q. Name the series which lies in the ultra–violet region of electromagnetic

spectrum.
Answer: Lyman series.

Q. What is Balmer series?

Answer The series of spectral lines emitted when an electron falls from the higher
orbits to the second orbit is called Balmer series.

Q. Name the series which lies in the visible region of electromagnetic

spectrum.
Answer: Balmer series.

Q. What is Paschen series?

Answer: The series of spectral lines emitted when an electron from the higher orbits
falls into the third orbit is called Paschen series.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 244

Q. Name the series which lies in the infra-red region of electromagnetic
spectrum.
Answer: Paschen series.

Q. What is Brackett series?

Answer: The series of spectral lines emitted when an electron from the higher orbits
falls into the fourth orbit is called Brackett series.

Q. Name the series which lies in the infra-red region of electromagnetic

spectrum.
Answer: Brackett series

Q. What is Pfund series?

Answer: The series of spectral lines emitted when an electron from the higher orbits
falls into the fifth orbit is called Pfund series.

Q. Name the series which lies in the far infra-red region of electromagnetic
spectrum.
Answer: Pfund series

Q. What is an energy level diagram?

Answer: The diagram which represents the transition of an electron from the higher
orbits to the lower orbits is called energy level diagram.

Q. Which series of hydrogen spectrum has least wavelength?

Answer: Lyman series has the least wavelength.

Q. What is the radius of the 4th orbit of electron in hydrogen atom?

Answer: 8.48 Å.

Q. What is the radius of the 4th orbit of electron in He + atom?

Answer: 4.24 Å

Q. The speed of the electron in the first orbit of hydrogen atom is 2 x 10 6 m/s.
What is the speed of the electron in the first orbit of He+?
Answer: Its speed is 4 x 106 m/s.

Q. What is the value of Rydberg constant?

Answer: R = 1.097 x 107 m-1.

Q. How many possible spectral lines may be emitted when electron in

hydrogen atom jumps from 4th orbit to 1st orbit?
Answer: 6 spectral lines are emitted.

Q. Write the expression for Bohr's radius in hydrogen atom.

h 2 0
Answer: Bohr radius r1 = , where h is Planck's constant, 0 is absolute
me 2
permittivity of free space, m is mass of electron and e is electronic charge.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 245

Q. What is excitation ?
Answer: The process of shifting an electron from its lower orbit to the higher orbit is
called excitation.

Q. What is excitation energy?

Answer : The energy required for shifting an electron from its lower orbit to the higher
orbit is called excitation energy.

Q. What is excitation potential?

Answer :The potential difference through which an electron in an atom to be
accelerated from the lower orbit to the higher orbit is called excitation
potential.

Q. What is ionization?
Answer: The process of removing an electron from the atom is called ionization.

Q. What is ionization energy?

Answer :The energy required for removing an electron from the atom is called
ionization energy.

Q. What is ionization potential?

Answer : The potential difference through which an electron of the atom is raised so
that it is removed from the atom is called ionization potential.

Q. The electron in hydrogen atom is in first exited state. What is the energy
needed to ionize it?
Answer: Energy required is E  0 - (-3.4 ) = 3.4 eV.

Q. What is the significance of the negative total energy of an electron orbiting

round the nucleus?
Answer: The electron is bound to the nucleus.

Q. Write one limitation of Bohr’s atom model.

Answer::Bohr’s atom model failed to explain fine structure of spectral lines.

Q:. Name the spectral series of hydrogen which lies in the ultraviolet region of
electromagnetic spectrum.
Answer: Lyman series.

Q. Name the spectral series of hydrogen atom in the visible region of

electromagnetic spectrum.
Answer: Balmer series.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 246

 NUCLEI
Introduction: Rutherford through his experiment on scattering of alpha particles,
established that the positive charge of an atom is concentrated in a tiny central hard
core of the atom called nucleus and most of the space around the nucleus of an atom
is empty. Practically, the entire mass of the atom is confined to the nucleus and the
electrons revolve around the nucleus in different orbits.

Composition of the nucleus: The central core of the atom which contains all the
positive charge of the atom and most of its mass is called nucleus.The size of the
nucleus is 105 times smaller than the size of the atom. Therefore, a nucleus occupies a
very small space inside the atom. The nucleus has its own structure and is made up of
two fundamental particles: positively charged protons and electrically neutral
neutrons. As the mass of neutron is nearly equal to that of proton, the protons and
neutrons are collectively called nucleons. The nucleons are held tightly within the
nucleus by attractive nuclear forces.

Proton: It is a fundamental particle which may be called the nucleus of hydrogen. The
proton is positively charged and the charge on it is 1.6 x 10-19C. A proton has rest
mass of 1.6726 x 10-27kg which is about 1836 times the rest mass of an electron. It
possesses spin angular momentum equal to ½ and magnetic moment much smaller
than that of an electron.

Neutron: It is an electrically neutral fundamental particle having mass slightly greater

than that of a proton. A neutron has rest mass of 1.6749 x 10-27kg.The spin angular
momentum of a neutron is equal to that of a proton. In spite of being a charge-less
particle, a neutron possesses a small magnetic moment.

Note:

1. The nuclear force between the protons and neutrons does not distinguish them, as
their masses are nearly the same.So the neutrons and protons are called by a
common name nucleons.

2. The electromagnetic force can distinguish the proton and the neutron, as the proton
is positively charged and the neutron is electrically neutral.

Nucleons: The protons and the neutrons which are present in the nucleus of an atom
are collectively known as nucleons.

Atomic Number (Z): The number of protons in an atom is called atomic number.

Mass Number (A): The total number of nucleons (protons & neutrons) is called mass
number.
A=Z+N Where: N = number of neutrons.

Ex: The nucleus of gold is represented by 197

79 Au . It means that gold nucleus contains

197 nucleons, out of which 79 are protons and the rest 118 are neutrons.

Nuclide: A specific nucleus of an atom characterised by its atomic number and mass
number is called nuclide.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 247

Representation of a nuclide: A nuclide X with an atomic number Z and mass number
A is represented as:
A A
Z X or Z X

Isotopes: The nuclides having the same atomic number (Z) but different mass number
(A) are called isotopes.

Examples
2
1. 1 H and 3
1 H are the isotopes of Hydrogen
12
2. 11
6 C and 6 C are the isotopes of Carbon.

Isobars: The nuclides having the same mass number (A) but different atomic number
(Z) are called isobars.

Examples:
3
1. 1 H and
3
2 He .
16
2. 168 O and 7 N .

Isotones :The nuclides having the same number of neutrons (N) but different mass
number (A) are called isotones.

Examples :
197
1. 198
80 Hg and 79 Au .
14
2. 136 O and 7 N .

Isomers: The nuclides having the same atomic number (Z) and the same mass
number (A) but existing in different energy states are called isomers.

87
Example: The excited nucleus 87
38 Sr  is an isomer of 38 Sr .

Note:
1. A nucleus in its ground state and the identical nucleus in metastable excited state
are the isomers.
2. The isomers have different life times.

Discovery of neutron: Since the nuclei of deuterium and tritium are the isotopes of
hydrogen, they must contain one proton each. But the masses of hydrogen, deuterium
and tritium are in the ratio of 1:2:3. Therefore, these nuclei should have some neutral
particle in addition to proton. This neutral particle called neutron was discovered by
James Chadwick in 1932. Chadwick performed an experiment in which alpha
particles from a radioactive source were used to bombard beryllium nuclei. He
observed the emission of neutral radiations from the nuclei. These radiations could
knock out protons from the light nuclei like helium, carbon and nitrogen. Application of
the laws of conservation of energy and momentum, showed that the neutral radiations
could not be photons. Chadwick solved this puzzle by assuming that these neutral
radiations consisted of unknown neutral particles each having mass nearly equal to
that of a proton. These particles were called neutrons.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 248

Properties of neutrons:
1. A neutron is an elementary particle present in the nuclei of all elements except in
hydrogen.
2. A neutron has no charge and its mass is nearly equal to that of proton.
3. A neutron is stable inside the nucleus but it is unstable outside the nucleus.
4. The neutron is not deflected by electric and magnetic field.
5. The neutron does not interact with an electron, as it is charge-less. So neutron has
low ionising power.
6. As neutron is a neutral particle, it is neither attracted nor repelled by the nucleus
and electrons of an atom. Due to this, a neutron can penetrate into a heavy nucleus
and induce nuclear reactions.
7. The spin angular momentum of a neutron is equal to that of a proton.
8. In spite of being a charge-less particle, a neutron possesses a small magnetic
moment.

Characteristics of a nucleus
1. Size of the nucleus: The volume of a spherical nucleus is directly proportional to
the number of nucleons present in the nucleus.

Volume  Mass number

4
R 3  A
3
R3  A
1
R  A 3

R = Ro A 1 3

Where: Ro = 1.2 x 10 -15 m = proportionality constant= nuclear unit radius.

Note: For nuclei of radii R1 and R2 with mass numbers A1 and A2:
1
R1  A  3
  1 
R2  A2 
2. Nuclear density: Nuclear density is defined as mass per unit volume of a
nucleus.The nucleus has a very high density & is of the order of 10 17kgm-3. The
nuclear density is independent of mass number of an atom.

3. Nuclear charge: Due to the presence of positively charged protons in the nucleus,
the nucleus is positively charged. The charge on the nucleus is Ze, where Z is the
atomic number of the nucleus and e is the charge on the proton.

4. Nuclear mass: The mass of a nucleus is the sum of the masses of protons and
neutrons in it. Since the mass of the electron is negligibly small, the nuclear mass is
taken to be the mass of the atom. The nuclear mass is given by:
M = Zmp +(A – Z)mn

Where: M = nuclear mass; mp= mass of proton; mn= mass of neutron.

Z = atomic number; A = mass number; N = A- Z = number of neutrons.

5. Nuclear spin: The nucleus of an atom contains protons and neutrons. These
protons and neutrons spin about their own axis in addition to orbital motion. Thus,
the nucleus has spin motion as well as orbital motion. The total angular momentum
due to spin and orbital motion of protons and neutrons is called nuclear spin.
CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 249
6. Nuclear magnetic moment: Since the nucleus has spin and is charged, it has a
magnetic moment due to its spin. The nuclear magnetic moment arises due to its
spin motion and also due to its rotation around the centre of mass.

Energy mass relation: According to Einstein, mass and energy can be changed from
one form to another. In other words, mass and energy are inter-convertible.
The energy E , mass m and speed of light c are related by the relation :
E = mc2

Examples to show energy - mass equivalence:

1. Annihilation of matter (conversion of mass into energy): In this process, an

electron combines with a positron and they cancel each other. The masses of
electron and positron are converted into energy. This energy is liberated in the form
of gamma radiations. Thus, mass (matter) is converted into energy.

The process of annihilation of matter is represented as:

Electron + Positron → Energy
e  e    
2. Pair production( conversion of energy into matter): In this process, a photon
interacts with a nucleus. Due to this interaction, an electron and positron pair is
formed. Thus, energy is converted into mass (matter).

The process of pair production is represented as:

Photon + Nucleus → Electron + Positron

  Nucleus  e  e

3. Nuclear reactions: In nuclear fission and fusion reactions, total mass of the
products is less than the total mass of the reactants. This difference in mass is
converted into energy during the reaction.

Electron volt (eV) : The energy gained by an electron when it is accelerated through a
potential difference of one volt is called electron volt.
1eV = 1.6 × 10–19 J

Note: 1 MeV =106 eV =1.6 X10–13 J

Mole: The amount of substance that has a mass in grams equal to its atomic weight is
called one mole.

Avogadro’s hypothesis: According to Avogadro’s hypothesis, one mole of a

substance contains 6.023 X 1023 atoms.

Atomic mass unit (amu) or unified mass (U): One amu is defined as 1/12th the
actual mass of 126 C atom. The atomic mass unit is denoted by amu or u.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 250

Masses of elementary particles in amu

Particle Mass in amu (u)

Proton 1.00727
Neutron 1.00866
Electron 0.00055

Note: 1amu = 1.6605  10–27kg

According to Avogadro’s hypothesis, the number of atoms of 126 C in mole of a
substance is 6.023 X 1023. This means that mass of 6.023 X 1023 atoms of 6 C is
12

12g = 12X10-3 kg.

12 12 g
 Mass of one atom of 6 C 
6 . 023  10 23

1
1 amu   Mass of 126 C atom
12
1 12
1 amu   g
12 6 .023  10 23

1 12  10  3
1 amu   kg
12 6 . 023  10 23
 27
1 amu  1 . 6605  10 kg

Thus ,1 amu or u is equal to 1.6605 X 10-27kg.

Energy equivalent to 1 amu
The mass( m), energy ( E) and speed of light ( c) are related by the relation :

E = mc2
Substituting, m = 1 amu = 1u= 1.6605 × 10 –27 kg and c =3 × 108 ms-1 in the above
equation:

E  1amu  3  10 8 2

E  1 . 6605  10  27  9  10 16

E  1 . 49  10  10 J

1 . 49  10  10
E  eV  1eV  1 .6  10  19 J
1 . 6  10 19

E  0 . 931  10 9 eV
E  931  10 6 eV

E  931 MeV

Thus, the energy equivalent to one amu is equal to 931MeV.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 251

Mass defect: As the nucleus is made up of neutrons and protons, it may be expected
that the mass of the nucleus is equal to the total mass of its individual protons and
neutrons. But the nuclear mass is found to be slightly less than the total mass of its
constituents.
The difference between the mass of a nucleus and total mass of its constituents is
called mass defect.
Mass defect = Total mass of the nucleons – Mass of the nucleus

 M  Zm  p  A  Z m n  M
Where; mp= mass of the proton; mn= mass of the neutron;
M = mass of the nucleus; A = mass number (number of nucleons);
Z = atomic number (number of protons); (A–Z) = number of neutrons.

Nuclear binding energy: The total mass of the nucleus should be equal to the sum of
the masses of protons and neutrons. But the actual mass of the nucleus is always less
than the sum of masses of protons and neutrons. This difference in mass arises
because some energy is utilized in binding the nucleons inside the nucleus. This
energy is called binding energy.

The binding energy of a nucleus is defined as the minimum energy required to

split the nucleus into its constituent nucleons.
Or
The energy which binds the nucleons together within the nucleus is called
binding energy.

The energy equivalent to mass defect is the binding energy of the nucleus.

Binding Energy = Mass defect × (Speed of light)2

2
E b   Mc
Note: Higher the binding energy, greater is the stability of the nucleus and vice-versa.

16
Illustration: Consider a nucleus 8 O which contains 8 protons and 8 neutrons. The masses
of proton and neutron in atomic mass unit (u) are:

Mass of a proton: mp=1.00727u; Mass of a neutron: mn=1.00866u.

Mass of 8 protons=8.05816; Mass of 8 neutrons=8.06928u

16
Theoretical mass of 8 O nucleus is; Mthe=8.05816+8.06928=16.12744u.
16
Experimental mass of 8 O nucleus is; Mexp=15.99053u

The difference between the theoretical value and the experimental value is:

M  M the  M exp

M  16.12744  15.99053  0 .13691 u

16
Therefore, the mass of 8 O nucleus is less than the total mass of its constituents by
0.13691u. This difference in mass of a nucleus and its constituents gives the mass defect.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 252

The energy equivalent to this mass defect is:
2
E b   Mc

E b  0 . 13691  931 MeV  127 . 463 MeV

Therefore,to break the oxygen nucleus into 8 protons and 8 neutrons, an extra energy of 127.463MeV
has to be supplied. This energy is called binding energy of the oxygen nucleus. On the other hand, to
form a nucleus of oxygen, 8 protons and 8 neutrons should be brought together. In this process, an
energy equal to 127.463MeV is released. Thus, energy required to break the nucleus or to separate
the nucleons from each other is called nuclear binding energy.

Significance of binding energy: There is an electrostatic force of repulsion among

the protons inside the nucleus. For the stability of the nucleus, there must exist other
forces between the nucleons and these forces are called nuclear forces. When the
nucleons are brought closer, there is an increase in the potential energy due to
electrostatic forces of the protons but there is a greater decrease in the potential
energy due to nuclear forces of attraction of the nucleons. Hence, there is a net
decrease in the potential energy of all the nucleons. This decrease in potential energy
appears as binding energy per nucleon. Higher the value of binding energy, greater will
be the stability of the nucleus. Therefore, the stability of the nucleus is determined by
the binding energy per nucleon.

Specific binding energy (Binding energy per nucleon): The average energy required to
remove a nucleon from the nucleus is called binding energy per nucleon.

The binding energy per nucleon is the ratio of the binding energy of a nucleus to its mass
number (number of nucleons).
Binding energy
Specific binding energy =
Mass number
2
Eb  Mc
Ebn  
A A

Binding energy curve: It is the graph between the binding energy per nucleon and mass
number.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 253

Observations:
1. The binding energy per nucleon is practically constant. It is independent of the atomic
number for nuclei having mass number in between 30 and170.
2. The curve has a maximum binding energy of 8.75 MeV for nucleus of
mass number 56.
3. As the mass number increases further, the binding energy per nucleon shows
a gradual decrease and drops to 7.6 MeV for the nucleus having mass
number 238.This is due to the Coulomb’s repulsion among the protons which
are greater in number in heavy nucleus. This leads to decrease in binding
energy and makes the heavier nuclei less stable.
4. The binding energy of a nucleus heavier than that of nucleus with mass
number 238 have smaller binding energy. Hence, they are unstable and
radioactive.
5. The binding energy per nucleon is low for both light nuclei and heavy nuclei.
6. There are some kinks (peaks) in the curve upto mass number 20. This
implies that these nuclei are more stable than their neighbours.

Significance of binding energy curve: The binding energy curve is used to explain the
phenomenon of nuclear reactions (nuclear fission & nuclear fusion).

Nuclear fission: The binding energy per nucleon is smaller for heavier
nuclei than the middle ones. Therefore, heavier nuclei are less stable. When a heavier
nucleus splits into the lighter nuclei, the binding energy per nucleon increases from 7.6
MeV to 8.75MeV.The greater binding of the product nuclei results in the liberation of
energy. This is what happens in nuclear fission reaction which is the basis of the atom
bomb.

Nuclear fusion: The binding energy per nucleon is smaller for lighter
nuclei than the middle ones. Therefore, lighter nuclei are less stable. When two lighter
nuclei are combined to form a heavier nucleus, the binding energy per nucleon
increases. The greater binding of heavier nucleus results in the liberation of energy.
This is what happens in nuclear fusion reaction which is the basis of the hydrogen
bomb.

Nuclear forces: The strong forces that bind the nucleons together in a nucleus are
called nuclear forces. The nuclear forces exist between: proton & proton, neutron &
neutron and neutron & proton.

Characteristics of nuclear forces : The nuclear forces are :

1. strongest basic forces in nature.
2. charge independent(Nuclear forces do not depend on the charge of the nucleons)
3. short range (Nuclear forces are effective up to a very small distance of 10 -15m)
4. exchange (Nuclear forces are due to the exchange of pions).
5. saturated (Each nucleon interacts with a limited number of nucleons around it)
6. non-central (The force does not act along the line joining the centres of nucleons).
7. attractive within the nucleus.
8. do not obey inverse square of distance.
9. spin dependent(Nuclear force between two nucleons having parallel spin (up, up)
is stronger than that between the nucleons having antiparallel spin (down, up)

Note: The nuclear forces are about 1038 times stronger than the gravitational
forces.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 254

 RADIOACTIVITY

The phenomenon in which the unstable nuclei of heavy element disintegrates spontaneously with
the emission of certain kinds of radiations is called radioactivity.

Alpha decay: It is a process in which an unstable nucleus transforms into a

new nucleus by emitting an alpha particle (a helium nucleus).

When a nucleus emits an alpha particle, its proton number (atomic number) decreases by two and mass
number decreases by four.

An alpha decay can be represented by the general equation:

A
Z X  
 decay
 A4
Z 2 Y  4
2 He  Q
Where:
X = parent (decaying) nucleus.
Y = daughter (product) nucleus.
Q = energy released in the decay process.

238 234
Example of alpha decay: The decay of uranium 92 U to thorium 90 Th with the emission of a
4
helium nucleus 2 He .

238
92 U   decay
 234
90 Th  4
2 He  Q

Determination of Q value (disintegration energy) of a nuclear reaction: The Q-value is the

difference between the initial mass energy and total mass energy of the decay products.

The Q-value for alpha decay can be determined from Einstein’s mass-energy equivalence relation:

E   Mc 2
 Q  m X  m Y  m He c 2
Where:
mX = mass of the parent (decaying) nucleus. mY = mass of the daughter (product) nucleus.
mHe = mass of the helium nucleus.

Note:
1. The energy released (Q) is shared by the daughter nucleus (Y) and alpha
4
particle( 2 He -a helium nucleus) for alpha decay.
2. As the parent nucleus is at rest before its alpha decay, the alpha particles are
emitted with fixed energy. This energy can be calculated by applying the law of conversation of
energy and momentum.
4
3. It can be shown that the total mass of 234
902 Th and 2 He ( total mass of products is
238
less than mass of 92 U (mass of reactant or parent nucleus).This difference in
mass appears as kinetic energy of the products.
4. From mass-energy relation and energy conservation, it is clear that the
spontaneous decay is possible only when the total mass of products is less than
the mass of the initial nucleus (parent nucleus).

238
5. Calculation of energy released (Q-value) during the alpha decay of 92 U using
the equation:

238
92 U   decay
 234
90 Th  4
2 H e  Q .

Where:

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 255

 4
Mass of
238
92 U =MU=238.05079 u,
234
Mass of 902 Th =MTh=234.04363 u and mass of 2 He
MHe=4.00260 u.

The energy released during the alpha decay process is given by:

Q  M U  M Th  M He c 2
Q  238 . 05079  234 .. 04363  4 . 00260 u  c 2
Q  0 . 00456 u  c 2

0 . 00456 u  931 MeV

Q  Where energy equivalent to 1 u=931MeV
u

Q  4 . 25 MeV

Therefore, the energy released (Q-value) during the alpha decay of

238
92 U nucleus is 4.25MeV.

Properties of alpha rays :

1. Since alpha rays are deflected towards the negative plate of the electric field,
they are positively charged particles.
2. The mass of the alpha particle is equal to the mass of the helium nucleus.
3. The charge on the alpha particle is equal to two times that on the proton.
4. When an alpha particle is emitted from the nucleus of radioactive atom, the mass number
decreases by four and atomic number reduces by two.
5. Alpha rays are deflected by electric and magnetic fields.
6. The speed of alpha rays is 1/20 of speed of light.
7. Alpha rays ionise gases through which they pass. The ionising power of alpha rays is greater than
that of beta and gamma.
8. The penetrating power of alpha rays is lesser than that of beta and gamma.
9. Alpha rays produce heating effect.
10. Alpha rays affect photographic plate.
11. Alpha rays produce fluorescence.
12. The product of alpha decay falls in a group two to the left of the parent element in the periodic
table.

Beta decay: The process of spontaneous emission of an electron (e-) or a positron (e+) from a nucleus
is called beta decay. The electron capture by the nucleus is also called beta decay.

There are two types of beta decay: beta minus decay  

decay  and beta plus decay
 
decay .
1. In beta minus decay   
decay  , the atomic number of the nucleus increases by one and mass
number remains the same.An electron (e-) and a new particle antineutrino   are created during
beta minus decay.

The minus beta decay process can be represented by the general equation:

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 256

 
A
Z X 
decay
 A
Z 1 Y  10 e  

 ZAX   Z A1Y    
decay


 n   p  e  
decay

In beta minus decay, a neutron is converted into proton.

Example of beta minus decay :


32
15 P 
decay 32
 16 S  e  

2.In beta plus decay   

decay  , the atomic number of the nucleus decreases by one and mass
number remains the same. A positron (e+) and a new particle neutrino   are created during beta plus
decay.

The plus beta decay process can be represented by the general equation:


A
Z X 
decay
 A
Z 1 Y  10 e 

 ZAX   Z A1Y     
decay


 p   n  e   
decay

In beta plus decay, a proton is converted into a neutron.

Example of beta plus decay:


22
11 Na 
decay
 22
10 Ne  e  

Properties of beta rays:

1. Since beta rays are deflected towards the positive plate of the electric field, they are negatively
charged particles (electrons).
2. When beta particle is emitted from the nucleus of radioactive atom, its atomic number increases by
one and mass number does not change.
3. The speed of beta rays varies from 0.3c to 0.99 c. Where c is the speed of light.
4. The ionising and penetrating power of beta rays are in between alpha and gamma.
5. Beta rays are deflected by electric & magnetic fields.
6. Beta rays affect photographic plate.
7. Beta rays produce fluorescence.
8. The product of beta decay falls in a group one to the right of the parent element in the periodic
table.

Note: According to neutrino hypothesis, in the process of  -decay a particle which has negligible mass,
zero charge and spin ½ is emitted along with  -particle. This particle is called neutrino. On the basis of
neutrino theory, the conservation of energy, linear momentum and angular momentum in  -decay can
be explained.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 257

1. Neutrino is emitted along with positron, when a proton changes to a neutron.

1 p1  0n1 1e0  v (neutrino)

2. Antineutrino is emitted along with electron, when a neutron changes to

proton.

0 n1  1p1 1e 0  v (antineutrino)

Properties of Gamma rays:

1. Since the gamma rays are not deflected, they are chargeless.
2. When a gamma particle is emitted from the nucleus of radioactive element, neither its mass
number nor its atomic number changes.
3. Gamma rays are electromagnetic radiations of very high frequency and short wavelength.
4. Gamma rays travel with the speed of light.
5. The ionising power of gamma rays is lesser than that of alpha and beta.
6. The penetrating power of gamma rays is greater than that of alpha and beta.
7. Gamma rays affect photographic plate.
8. Gamma rays produce fluorescence.

Soddy’s group displacement law: According to Soddy’s and Fajan’s law, a radioactive element
disintegrates either with the emission of an alpha particle or a beta particle but never both.

Radioactive decay : When a radioactive element disintegrates, the number of nuclei present in it
continuously decreases with time. This is known as radioactive decay.

Radioactive decay law : It states that ‘‘the rate of disintegration of a radioactive element at any instant
is directly proportional to the number of nuclei present in the element at that instant.’’
dN
  N
dt
dN
Where: = rate of disintegration.   radioactive decay constant.
dt

To derive the relation N  N0et from radioactive decay law.

Let:
N0 = number of nuclei present in the radioactive element initially (at t = 0).
N = number of nuclei present in the element at time t.
dN = number of nuclei disintegrated in time dt.
dN
= rate of disintegration.
dt

According to the radioactive decay law :

dN
 N
dt

dN
  N Where:   radioactive decay constant.
dt

The negative sign shows that the number of nuclei decreases with increase in time

dN
   dt ....................(1)
N

Integrating equation (1) both sides,

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 258

 1
 N dN     dt

loge N =  t  C .............(2)

Where: C = constant of integration.

At t = 0, N = N0, then equation (2) becomes,

loge N0 = C ……………….(3)

Substituting for C in equation (2),

loge N =  t  loge N0

loge N – loge N0 = - t

N
loge =  t
N0

N  N0et .....................(4)

From equation (4), it follows that the radioactive decay is exponential.

A graph of N t is plotted.

No

Radioactive exponential decay curve

From the graph, it is clear that, the number of nuclei of a radioactive element
decreases exponentially and exponential decay curve does not touch the time axis. Therefore, the life of
a radioactive element is infinite.

Note:
1.The disintegration is fast but becomes slower with the passage of time.
2.The larger the value of decay constant, the higher is the rate of disintegration.
3. Irrespective of its nature, a radioactive sample will take infinitely long time to disintegrate completely.

Half life of a radioactive element: The half life of a radioactive element is defined as the time during
which the number of nuclei becomes half of its original value.
It can be shown that:

0.693
T=


Therefore, half-life of a radioactive substance is inversely proportional to its decay constant.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 259

 0.693
To show that : T  : Consider a radioactive element of half life T and decay constant  .Let N0 be

the number of atoms present in the radioactive element initially (at t = 0) & N be the number of nuclei
present in the element at time t.

N  N0et .................(1)

N0
If t  T , then N 
2

Equation (1) becomes:

N0
 N0eT
2

1 T
e
2

1 1

2 eT

eT  2

T  loge 2

T  2.303 log10 2

T  2.303 0.3010
T  0.693

0.693
T ...............(2)


From this equation, it follows that half life of a radioactive element is inversely proportional to its decay
constant.

Radioactive decay constant ( ) : Consider a radioactive element of decay constant  .Let N0 be the
number of nuclei present in the radioactive element initially (at t = 0) & N be the number of nuclei
present in the element at time t.

We know that:

N= N0et .................(1)

1
For   , equation (1) becomes:
t

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 260

 1
 t
N  N0 e t

N = N0e-1

1
N   N0
e
N = 0.37 N0

N = 37% N0

The radioactive decay constant may be defined as reciprocal of time during which the number of
nuclei in the radioactive substance falls to 37% of its original value.

Number of atoms left behind after n half lives : Consider a radioactive element of half life T and
decay constant  .

Let:
N0 = original number of nuclei of a radioactive substance.
N = number of nuclei left after time t.

From the definition of half life of a radioactive substance,

N0
After one half-life t = T, N=
2

1  N0  N0
After two half-lives t = 2T, N=  
2  2  22

1  N0  N0
After three half-lives t = 3T, N=   and so on.
2  22  23

After n half-lives t = nT,

 
1  1 
N= N 
 n 0  t N 0
2   T
2 

This equation gives number of nuclei left behind after n half lives.

Note: Graph between N and t:

No
No /2
No /4
No /8
No /16

O T 2T 3T 4T

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 261

Average (mean) life of a radioactive substance: All the nuclei in a radioactive substance do not
disintegrate at the same time. Some may disintegrate right at the beginning and the other may do so
after long time or at the end of the process. Therefore, average life of a radioactive sample is equal to
the sum of lives of all the nuclei divided by the total number of nuclei present in the sample initially.

Average life of a radioactive substance is defined as the ratio of sum of the lives of all the nuclei
to the total number of atoms present originally.

Sum of lives of all the nuclei

Mean life =
Total number of the nuclei

Relation between mean life and radioactive decay constant:

1
 


Relation between half life and mean life of a radioactive material: Consider a radioactive element of
half life T , mean lifeand decay constant  .

The half life of a radioactive material is given by:

0 . 693
T  ………………………(1)

The mean life of a radioactive material is given by:
1
  ……………….…………(2)

Dividing equation (1) by equation (2):
T
 0 . 693


T  0.693 …….…………….......…(3)

Activity of a radioactive substance (A): The rate of decay of nuclei of a radioactive element is called
its activity.
dN
A
dt

Note:
dN
1. A
dt

d
 N 0 e  t
dt

d  t
 N0 e
dt

 N 0 (   )e  t

   N 0 e  t

A  N
CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 262
2.A  N & A o  N 0

A N

A0 N0

A N

A0 N 0

A N 0 e t

A0 N0

A
 e t
A0

A  A0e t
Where:
A=activity of the substance at time t.
A0 = activity of the substance at time t =0.
 = radioactive decay constant.

Units of activity of a radioactive substance :

1. becquerel(Bq): The activity of a radioactive substance is said to be one becquerel, if the rate of
decay is one disintegration per second.

One becquerel = 1 disintegration / second

3. curie(Ci): The activity of a radioactive substance is said to be one curie, if the rate of decay is 3.7
× 1010 disintegrations per second.

One curie = 3.7 × 1010 disintegrations / second

Note:
A0 A0
1. Activity of the substance after n half lives: A   t
2n
2T
0.693
2. A  N  N
T
N
A
T
N1
A 1
T1
N
A2 2
T2
A1 N1 T2
 
A2 N2 T1
Note:

Mass of the radioactive sample = Number of nuclei in the sample  Mass .number
Avogadro ' s Number

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 263

Nuclear Reaction : The conversion of a nucleus of an element into a nucleus of
another element is called nuclear reaction.

Nuclear fission :The process in which a heavy nucleus splits into two lighter nuclei of
nearly equal masses releasing two or three neutrons and an enormous amount of
energy is called nuclear fission.

When uranium isotope 235 92 U is bombarded with a slow moving neutron (thermal
neutron), it captures the neutron to form an unstable compound nucleus
23692 U  Which splits into two intermediate nuclear fragments 14156 Ba and
92
36 Kr with the emission of three neutrons along with 200MeV of energy per fission.

The nuclear fission reaction involved can be represented as follows:

235
92 U  0
1
n   236
92 U  141
56 Ba  92
36 Kr  3 0
1
n  Q

Note1. A mass defect of 0.2153 amu occurs in this reaction. The energy equivalent to
this mass defect is Q=200 MeV.
2.The fragment products are radioactive nuclei, they emit beta particles in succession
to achieve stable end products.

Nuclear fusion: The process in which two lighter nuclei are fused together to form a
heavy nucleus along with the release of enormous amount of energy is called nuclear
fusion.

The nuclear fusion reaction involved can be represented as follows:

2 2 4
1 H  1 H  2 He  Q

A mass defect of 0.0265amu occurs in this reaction. The energy equivalent to this
mass defect is 24.73MeV.

Thermonuclear reaction : To fuse two lighter nuclei, they must be brought so close to
each other so that they should overcome electrostatic repulsive force between them
and they should fall within the attractive range of nuclear forces (10 –15m). When the
nuclei are provided kinetic energy greater than 0.1 MeV, they come within the range of
10–15 m. This is possible, when they are heated to a temperature of 107K. As the
fusion reaction takes place at this extremely high temperature, fusion reaction is also
known as thermonuclear reaction.

Nuclear chain reaction: In the nuclear fission process of an atom of a radioactive

sample, two to three neutrons are produced along with the release of a large amount
of energy. These neutrons can cause further fissions in the other atoms of the sample
and release more number of neutrons. The process continues till the entire sample is
lost and the process is called nuclear chain reaction.
The nuclear fission which once started continues till all the atoms of the
radioactive sample are disintegrated is known as nuclear chain reaction.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 264

Types of nuclear chain reactions:

1. Controlled nuclear chain reaction: In this type, the chain reaction is accelerated
to build up neutron population to a steady level and thereafter the number of fission
producing neutrons is maintained constant. As a result, energy is released at a
constant controlled rate without any explosion.

The nuclear chain reaction in which fission producing neutrons are kept
constant to carry out the reaction slowly without any explosion is known as
controlled chain reaction.

Nuclear reactor works on the principle of controlled nuclear chain reaction.

2. Uncontrolled (explosive) nuclear chain reaction :In this type, the number of
fission producing neutrons is allowed to multiply indefinitely. As a result, a huge
amount of uncontrolled energy is released in a very short interval of time. This
leads to a violent explosion. The uncontrolled chain reaction causes a lot of
damage because of release of an enormous amount of energy.

The nuclear chain reaction in which fission producing neutrons keep on

increasing till the entire radioactive sample is disintegrated to cause violent
explosion is known as uncontrolled chain reaction.

Atom bomb works on the principle of uncontrolled nuclear chain reaction.

Conditions for uncontrolled chain reaction

1. Mass & size of the fissionable material must not be less than the critical mass &
critical size.
2. The fissionable material should be in the pure form.

Differences between nuclear fission reaction and nuclear fusion reaction

Nuclear fission Nuclear fusion
1. It is a process in which a heavy 1. It is a process in which two lighter
nucleus splits into two lighter nuclei are fused together to form a
nuclei of nearly equal masses heavy nucleus along with the
along with the release of an release of enormous amount of
enormous amount of energy energy.
and two or three neutrons.

2. Energy released per fission 2. Energy released per fusion process

process is large. is less.

3. Energy released per unit mass 3. Energy released per unit mass is
is less. more.

4. It is possible even at ordinary 4. It is possible only at very high

temperature. temperature.

5. A large amount of energy is 5. A large amount of energy is

released with harmful released with no harmful radiations.
radiations.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 265

 Differences between controlled chain reaction and uncontrolled chain reaction:
Controlled chain reaction Uncontrolled chain reaction
1. In this type, fission producing neutrons are 1. In this type, fission producing neutrons
kept constant. are allowed to multiply indefinitely.

2. Only one neutron is available to cause 2. More than one neutrons are available to
further fission at each stage. cause further fission at each stage.

3. It is a slow reaction. 3. It is a very fast reaction.

4. A constant amount of energy is released. 4. A large amount of energy is released.

5. The energy released is used for peaceful 5. The energy released is used for
purposes as it causes no explosion. destructive purposes as it causes violent
explosion.
6. Nuclear reactor works on the principle of
controlled chain reaction. 6. Atom bomb works on the principle of
uncontrolled chain reaction.

Critical size & critical mass: The neutrons produced during fission reaction are very
fast and travel a large distance before being slowed down. Some of the neutrons are
absorbed and some are lost due to leakage. If the size of the fissionable material is
small, then the neutrons escape from the material. Therefore, chain reaction cannot be
sustained. For a chain reaction to be sustained, there must be at least one neutron.
For attaining this condition, the size of the fissionable material should have a certain
minimum size called critical size. The minimum size of the fissionable material for
which the number of neutrons produced during one fission reaction just balance
with those lost due to leakage and absorption is called critical size.

The mass of the fissionable material corresponding to the critical size is called
critical mass.
If the size of the material is greater than the critical size, then the rate of production of
neutrons becomes greater than the rate of leakage of neutrons. This causes explosion
as the chain reaction becomes un-controlled.If the size is less than the critical size,
then there is no chain reaction.
Neutron multiplication factor (reproduction factor)(K): The reproduction factor
which determines whether the chain reaction sustains or accelerates or retards is
given by:
Rate of production of neutrons
K=
Rate of leakage of neutrons

Cases:
1. If K =1, then the chain reaction sustains. The size of the fissionable material is
critical.
2. If K > 1, then the chain reaction accelerates. The size of the fissionable material is
supercritical.
3. If K< 1, then the chain reaction gradually retards and comes to an end. The size of
the fissionable material is subcritical.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 266

Nuclear reactor: A device in which a self sustained and a chain reaction is controlled
to supply energy for constructive purposes is called nuclear reactor.

Types of nuclear reactors:

1. Research reactor: The reactor used to produce radioisotopes and neutrons for
research purposes is called research reactor.
2. Breeder reactor: The process of converting a fertile (non-fissionable) material into a
fissile (fissionable) material is known as breeding. The reactor used for the breeding
process is called breeder reactor.
3. Power reactor: The reactor used to generate an electrical power on a large scale is
called power reactor.

Principle of nuclear power reactor: A nuclear reactor works on the principle of

controlled chain reaction of nuclear fission.

Parts of Nuclear Power Reactor:

1. Fuel: The fissionable material used in the reactor is called fuel of the reactor. The
commonly used fissionable materials are: U235, Th232, Pu241 etc.
2. Moderator: A material used to slow down the fast moving fission producing
neutrons is called moderator. The commonly used moderators are: heavy water,
graphite, paraffin wax etc.
3. Coolant: A cooling material used to remove the heat produced due to fission in the
reactor is called coolant. The commonly used coolants are: water, air, carbon
dioxide, nitrogen etc.
4. Control rods: A material used to absorb neutrons to control the rate of fission
reaction is called control rod. The commonly used control rods are cadmium &
boron.
5. Protective shield: To prevent harmful radiations emitted from the nuclear reactor,
the reactor is enclosed in thick concrete walls.

Working of nuclear power reactor:

Initially a slow neutron produces fission
in 92U235 nucleus with the release of
energy about 200 MeV energy and three
fast neutrons. To supply heat energy at
a steady rate, one of the three neutrons
should cause another fission reaction
and the remaining two should not. The
control rods absorb two neutrons and
the moderator slows down the
remaining neutron to cause further fission of 92U235 nucleus. The rate of fission reaction
is controlled by the adjustment of the control rods. When the control rods are
completely inserted into the core of the reactor, all the emitted neutrons are absorbed
and the reaction stops. If the rods are taken out of the core, the rate of reaction
increases. Thus, the neutrons available for the fission reaction can be controlled by
moving the control rods in or out of the core of the reactor. The fission reaction
produces heat in the core of the reactor and the coolant transfers this heat to the heat
exchanger to form steam. The steam at high pressure rotates the turbine to generate
electrical power.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 267

Uses of nuclear reactor:
1. For generating electrical power.
2. For producing radioisotopes and high velocity beam of neutrons.
3. For producing materials needed for research.

Nuclear waste and its disposal: Material containing unusable radioactive by-products
of the scientific, military & industrial applications of nuclear energy is called nuclear
waste. The following methods are used for the disposal of nuclear waste.
1. Nuclear waste is buried underground where the possibility of earthquake is zero.
2. Nuclear waste is stored in deep mines which are not used.
3. Nuclear waste is packed in steel containers & they are buried in the earth’s crust.

Biological effects of radiations: When radiations fall on human body, they cause
biological effects. The biological effects of nuclear radiations are:
1. Short term recoverable effects.
2. Long term irrecoverable effects.
3. Genetic effects.
The first two are limited to individuals & the third one appears in the later generations.

Radiation Hazards:
1. Radiation damage to the chromosomes in the reproductive organs can cause
genetic disorder.
2. Radiation damage to the blood producing cells can increase the possibility of
contracting leukaemia.
3. Exposure to radiations weakens infection resistance mechanism.
4. Acute exposure to radiations causes cancer and blindness.
5. Contaminates the eating food.

Safety measures:
1. Radioactive materials must be stored in thick wall lead containers.
2. Unnecessary exposure to harmful radiations like x-rays, gamma rays should be
avoided.
3. While working in laboratories and nuclear reactor buildings, lead aprons, lead
gloves must be used.
4. Radioactive substances must be handled with great care by a special remote control
process.
5. Food should not be stored near the stock of radioactive substances.
6. Remote controlled systems must be used to shift, mount and handle radioactive
substances.
7. The radioactive substances should be stored in hospitals and nuclear plants with
care.

Examples of nuclear fusion reactions: When two light nuclei fuse to form a larger
nucleus, energy is released as the larger nucleus is more tightly bound. The following
reactions are some Examples of nuclear fusion reactions.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 268

In the first fusion reaction , two protons combine to form a deuteron and a positron with
a release of 0.42MeV energy. In the second, two deuterons combine to form the light
isotope of helium. In the third reaction, two deuterons combine to form a triton and a
proton.

Stellar energy (Source of energy in the Sun and stars): For nuclear fusion reaction
to occur, the two nuclei must come close enough so that the attractive short range
nuclear force is able to affect them. Since they are positively charged particles, they
experience Coulomb’s repulsive force. In order to overcome this Coulomb’s barrier,
they must have enough energy. The required energy is imparted to the nuclei by
heating them to a very high temperature of the order of 109K. Thus the nuclear fusion
takes place at very high temperature. Due to this, the fusion reactions are called
thermo nuclear reactions.

The sun and the stars are constantly radiating out a large amount of energy in space
for billions of years. Bethe suggested that the source of this energy is the process of
nuclear fusion (thermonuclear reaction). The fusion reaction in the sun is a multi-step
process in which the hydrogen is burnt into helium. Therefore, the fuel in the sun is the
hydrogen in its core.The proton-proton cycle by which this occurs is represented
by the following set of reactions.

For the fourth reaction to occur , the first three reactions must occur twice so that two
light helium nuclei may combine to form a normal helium nucleus.

The net effect will be:

Thus four protons combine to form one helium nucleus with the liberation of 26.7MeV
of energy.

Red giant: The age of the sun is about 5 x 109 years. It is estimated that there is
enough hydrogen in the sun to keep it going for another 5 billion years. After that, the
hydrogen burning will stop and the sun will begin to cool and will start to collapse under
gravity. This leads to rise in temperature of the core. As a result the outer layer of the
sun will expand and turns into red giant.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 269

 QUESTIONS FROM PREVIOUS YEARS EXAMINATION
March - 2014
1. State the radioactive decay law. (1M)
2. Calculate the binding energy and binding energy per nucleon (in MeV) of a
nitrogen nucleus 7N14 from the following data :
Mass of proton = 1.00783 u
Mass of neutron = 1.00867 u
Mass of nitrogen nucleus = 14.00307 u. (5M)

July – 2014 (Supplementary)

3. What are Isotopes ? (1M)
4. Define half life period of a radioactive sample. Arrive at the relation between half
life and decay constant. (5M)

March – 2015
5. Define specific binding energy. (1M)
6. Determine the mass of Na22 which has an activity of 5mCi.
Half life of Na22 is 2.6 years. Avagadro’s number = 6.023 x 1023. (5M)

July – 2015 (Supplementary)

7. Write the SI unit of radio activity? (1M)
8. Calculate the half life and mean life of Radium-226 of activity 1Ci. Given the mass of
Radium-226 is 1 gram and 226 gram of radium consist of 6.023 x 1023 atoms.
(5M)

March – 2016
9. In the following nuclear reaction, identify the particle X. (1M)
n → p + e- + X.
10. What are isotopes and isobars ? (2M)
11. Write three characteristics of nuclear forces. (3M)

July – 2016 (Supplementary)

12. What is the ratio of the nuclear densities of two nuclei having mass numbers in the
ratio 1:3 ? (1M)
13. The activity of a radioactive substance is 4700 per minute. Five minute later the activity is
2700 per minute. Find a) decay constant and b) half-life of the radioactive substance.
(5M)

March – 2017
14. Write the SI unit of activity. (1M)
15. State radioactive decay law. Derive N= Noe-t for a radioactive element:
(5M)
March – 2018

16. The decay of proton to neutron is possible only inside the nucleus. Why ?
(1M)
17. Write any two characteristics of nuclear force. (3M)
18. Derive the expression for the half-life of a radioactive nuclide. (3M)

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 270

March – 2019
19. Write the relation between Half-Life and Mean-Life of radioactive element. (1M)
9
20. Half life of U-238 undergoing -decay is 4.5 x 10 years. What is the activity of
one gram of U-238 sample ? (5M)

June – 2019
21. What are isotopes ? (1M)
22. Calculate the binding Energy of an alpha (a) particle in MeV from the following
data.
Mass of Helium Nulceus = 4.00260 u
Mass of neutron = 1.008662 u
Mass of proton = 1.007825 u (5M)

March – 2020
238
23. Write the nuclear reaction equation for alpha decay of 92 U (1M)
.
24. A copper coin has a mass of 63.0 g. Calculate the nuclear energy that would be
required to separate all the neutrons and protons from each other. The coin is
63
entirely made of 29 Cu atoms.
Mass of atom = 62.92960 u
Mass of proton = 1.00727 u
Mass of neutron = 1.00866 u
Avogadro’s number = 6.022 x 1023. (5M)

July – 2020
25. Name the S.I. unit of activity. (1M)
26. Calculate the binding energy and binding energy per nucleon of an alpha ()
particle in MeV from the following data : (5M)
Mass of a-particle nucleus = 4.00260 u.
Mass of neutron = 1.008662 u
Mass of proton = 1.007825 u

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 271

 ONE MARK QUESTIONS WITH ANSWERS
Q. What is nucleon?
Answer: A particle in a nucleus, may be a proton or a neutron is called a nucleon.

Q. Who discovered neutron?

Answer: James Chadwick.

Q. The electrons cannot be a part of a nucleus but protons can be a part of it.
Why?
Answer: It is because of the fact that the de-Brogile wavelength of electrons is larger
than the size of the nucleus while that of protons is smaller than the size of
the nucleus.

Q. Name the stable largest nucleus.

Answer: Lead (Pb)

Q. What are nuclides?

Answer: Different types of nuclei are called nuclides.

Q. What are isotopes?

Answer: Isotopes are the nuclei having same atomic number but different mass
number.

Q. What are isotones?

Answer: : Isotones are the nuclei having same number of neutrons but different
number of protons.

Q. Define nuclear density?

Answer: Nuclear density is defined as mass per unit volume of a nucleus.

Q. What is the order of nuclear density?

Answer: 1017kgm-3.

Q. Does the nuclear density depend on mass number of an atom?

Answer: The nuclear density is independent of mass number of an atom.

Q. Write the equation for size of the nucleus(Write the relation connecting the
radius R of nucleus and its mass number)
Answer: R = Ro A1 3
Where: Ro = 1.3 x 10 -15 m = proportionality constant= nuclear unit radius.

Q. What is the nuclear radius of a nucleus with mass number 125?

Answer: It radius R= R0 A1/3 = 1.2 x 10-15 x (125)1/3 = 6 x 10-15 m.

Q. Two nuclei have mass numbers in the ratio 27:125. What is the ratio of their
nuclear radii?
1/ 3 1/ 3
R1  A1   27  3
Answer:     
R2  A2   125  5

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 272

Q. What is nuclear spin?
Answer: The total angular momentum due to spin and orbital motion of protons and
neutrons is called nuclear spin.
Q. Give an example showing the conversion of mass into energy.
Answer: Annihilation of matter: In this process, an electron combines with a positron
and they cancel each other. The masses of electron and positron are
converted into energy. This energy is liberated in the form of gamma
radiations. Thus, mass is converted into energy.

Q. Write an equation to represent the process of annihilation of matter.

Answer: Electron + Positron → Energy
e- + e + → γ + γ
Q. Give an example showing the conversion of energy into mass.
Answer: Pair production: In this process, a photon interacts with a nucleus. Due to this
interaction, an electron and positron pair is formed. Thus, energy is converted
into matter.
Q. Write an equation to represent the process of pair production.
Answer: Photon + Nucleus → Electron + Positron
γ + Nucleus → e- + e +
Q. Define mass defect.
Answer: Mass defect is defined as the difference between the mass of the nucleons in
a nucleus and the mass of the nucleus.
Q. Write the equation for mass defect
Answer: Mass defect = Net mass of the nucleons – Mass of the nucleus
Δm =Zmp+ (A-Z) mn - m

Q. Define binding energy.

Answer: The binding energy of a nucleus is defined as the minimum energy required
to split the nucleus into its constituent nucleons.
Q. How are mass defect and binding energy related?
Answer: Binding Energy = Mass defect × (Speed of light)2
BE = Δmc2
Q. What is an electron volt?
Answer: The energy gained by an electron when it is accelerated through a potential
difference of one volt is called electron volt.
1eV = 1.6 × 10–19J

Q. Define atomic mass unit (amu).

Answer: One amu is defined as 1/12th the actual mass of 6C12 atom.
1amu = 1.66  10–27kg

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 273

Q. What is an equivalent energy equal to 1 amu in MeV?
Answer: 931MeV.

Q. What is packing fraction? What does it measure?

Answer: The ratio of mass defect (M-A) to mass number (A) is called packing fraction.

Mass defect
Packing fraction =
Mass number
MA
f=
A

Q. What does packing fraction measure?

Answer: The packing fraction measures the stability of a nucleus.

Q. The packing fraction of nucleus is positive. What does it indicate?

Answer: If the packing fraction is positive, then mass of the nucleus is greater than the mass
number. It indicates that the nucleus is less stable.

Q. The packing fraction of nucleus is negative. What does it indicate?

Answer: If the packing fraction is positive, then mass of the nucleus is less than the mass
number. It indicates that the nucleus is more stable.

Q. Define specific binding energy (binding energy per nucleon)?

Answer: Specific binding energy is defined as the ratio of the binding energy of a
nucleus to its mass number.
Binding energy
Specific binding energy =
Mass number
mc 2
BE/A =
A

Q. What is binding energy curve?

Answer: The graph between the binding energy per nucleon and mass number is
called binding energy curve.

Q. What are nuclear forces?

Answer: The strong forces that bind the nucleons together in a nucleus are called
nuclear forces. The nuclear forces exist between: proton & proton, neutron &
neutron and neutron & proton.

Q. Nuclear forces exhibit saturation properties. What does this statement mean?
Answer: The statement means that each nucleon interacts with a limited number of
nucleons around it.

Q. What is the nature of nuclear force?

Answer: Attractive.

Q. Nuclear forces are exchange forces. What does this statement mean?
Answer: The statement means that nuclear forces are due to the exchange of pions.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 274

Q. Name the strongest attractive force in nature.
Answer: Strong nuclear forces that bind the nucleons in a nucleus are the strongest
forces.

Q. What is the ratio of gravitational force (FG), electrostatic force (Fe) and
nuclear force (FN)?
Answer: FG : Fe: FN :: 1:1036: 1038

Q. What is the range of action of nuclear forces?

Answer: It of the order of 10-15 m or 1 fm.

Q. Nuclear forces depend on what factor?

Answer: Nuclear forces are dependent on spin of the nucleons.

Q. What is nuclear fission?

Answer: The process in which a heavy nucleus splits into two lighter nuclei of nearly
equal masses releasing two or three neutrons and an enormous amount of
energy is called nuclear fission.

Q. Why the energy obtained from fission is called 'clean energy'?

Answer: Because fission reaction does not produce any radioactive product or
pollution.

Q. What is nuclear fusion?

Answer: The process in which two lighter nuclei are fused together to form a heavy
nucleus along with the release of enormous amount of energy is called
nuclear fusion.

Q. What is thermonuclear energy?

Answer: Energy released due to fusion reaction which takes place at very high
temperature is called thermonuclear energy.

Q. Why is nuclear fusion difficult to carry out?

Answer: It is because the nuclear fusion reaction requires very high temperature of
106K -107K and no solid container can withstand such a high temperature.

Q. Name the reaction responsible for energy production in the sun.

Answer: Nuclear fusion reaction.

Q. Does the mass of the sun remains constant or goes on decreasing?

Answer: The mass of the sun goes on decreasing every second due to release of
nuclear energy.

Q. Name the phenomenon by which energy is produced in a star.

Answer: : Nuclear fusion reaction.

Q. What is nuclear chain reaction?

Answer: The nuclear fission which once started continues till all the atoms of the
radioactive sample are disintegrated is known as nuclear chain reaction.
Q. What is controlled nuclear chain reaction?
Answer: The nuclear chain reaction in which fission producing neutrons are kept
constant to carry out the reaction slowly without any explosion is known as
controlled chain reaction.
CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 275
Q. Give the working principle of nuclear reactor.
Answer: Controlled nuclear chain reaction.

Q. What is an uncontrolled (explosive) nuclear chain reaction?

Answer: The nuclear chain reaction in which fission producing neutrons keep on
increasing till the entire radioactive sample is disintegrated to cause violent
explosion is known as uncontrolled chain reaction.

Q. Give the working principle of atom bomb.

Answer: Uncontrolled nuclear chain reaction.

Q. What is critical size?

Answer: The minimum size of the fissionable material for which the number of
neutrons produced during one fission reaction just balance with those lost
due to leakage and absorption is called critical size.

Q. What is critical mass?

Answer: The mass of the fissionable material corresponding to the critical size is
called critical mass.

Q. What is nuclear reactor?

Answer: A device in which a self sustained and a chain reaction is controlled to
supply energy for constructive purposes is called nuclear reactor.

Q. What is fuel of the reactor?

Answer: The fissionable material used in the reactor is called fuel of the reactor.

Q. Name the commonly used fissionable materials.

Answer: U235, Th232, Pu241 etc.

Q. What is moderator?
Answer: A material used to slow down the fast moving fission producing neutrons is
called moderator. Q.

Q. Name the commonly used moderators.

Answer: Heavy water, graphite, paraffin wax etc.

Q. What is coolant?
Answer: A cooling material used to remove the heat produced due to fission in the
reactor is called coolant.

Q. Name the commonly used coolants.

Answer: Water, air, carbon dioxide, nitrogen etc.

Q. What is control rod?

Answer: A material used to absorb neutrons to control the rate of fission reaction is
called control rod.

Q. Name the commonly used control rods.

Answer: Cadmium & boron.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 276

Q. What is nuclear chain reaction?
Answer: The nuclear fission which once started continues till all the atoms of the
radioactive sample are disintegrated is known as nuclear chain reaction.

Q. What is controlled nuclear chain reaction?

Answer: The nuclear chain reaction in which fission producing neutrons are kept
constant to carry out the reaction slowly without any explosion is known as
controlled chain reaction.

Q. Give the working principle of nuclear reactor.

Answer: Controlled nuclear chain reaction.

Q. What is an uncontrolled (explosive) nuclear chain reaction?

Answer: The nuclear chain reaction in which fission producing neutrons keep on
increasing till the entire radioactive sample is disintegrated to cause violent
explosion is known as uncontrolled chain reaction.

Q. Give the working principle of atom bomb.

Answer: Uncontrolled nuclear chain reaction.

Q. What is critical size?

Answer: The minimum size of the fissionable material for which the number of
neutrons produced during one fission reaction just balance with those lost
due to leakage and absorption is called critical size.

Q. What is critical mass?

Answer: The mass of the fissionable material corresponding to the critical size is
called critical mass.

Q. What is nuclear reactor?

Answer: A device in which a self sustained and a chain reaction is controlled to
supply energy for constructive purposes is called nuclear reactor.

Q. What is fuel of the reactor?

Answer: The fissionable material used in the reactor is called fuel of the reactor.

Q. Name the commonly used fissionable materials.

Answer: U235, Th232, Pu241 etc.

Q. What is moderator?
Answer: A material used to slow down the fast moving fission producing neutrons is
called moderator.

Q. Name the commonly used moderators.

Answer: Heavy water, graphite, paraffin wax etc.
Q. What is coolant?
Answer: A cooling material used to remove the heat produced due to fission in the
reactor is called coolant.

Q. Name the commonly used coolants.

Answer: Water, air, carbon dioxide, nitrogen etc.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 277

Q. What is control rod?
Answer: A material used to absorb neutrons to control the rate of fission reaction is
called control rod.

Q. Name the commonly used control rods.

Answer: Cadmium & boron.

Q. What is natural radioactivity?

Answer: The phenomenon in which the unstable nuclei of heavy element disintegrates
spontaneously with the emission of certain kinds of radiations is called natural
radioactivity.

Q. Who discovered natural radioactivity?

Answer: A. H. Becquerel discovered natural radioactivity (in 1896).

Q. What is the effect of change of external conditions on the radioactivity?

Answer: There is no effect of change of external conditions (like temperature, pressure or
application electric and magnetic fields).

Q. When does a radioactive nucleus emits an alpha particle?

Answer: When the nucleus is in highly excited state (or it has high excess energy).

Q. Why do alpha particles have a high ionizing power?

Answer: Due to their large masses and large cross section.

Q. Are gamma rays emitted independently?

Answer: No, they are emitted after the emission of alpha or beta particle.

Q. What is the other particle emitted along with beta particle?

Answer: Antineutrino is emitted along with beta particle.

Q. What is neutrino hypothesis of  -decay?

Answer: According to neutrino hypothesis, in the process of  -decay a particle which
has negligible mass, zero charge and spin ½ is emitted along with  -
particle. This particle is called neutrino. On the basis of neutrino theory, the
conservation of energy, linear momentum and angular momentum in  -
decay can be explained.

Q. Which is the particle emitted along with positron, when a proton is converted
into neutron in a nucleus?
Answer: Neutrino is emitted along with positron, when a proton changes to a
neutron.
1 p  0 n  1 e  v (neutrino)
1 1 0

Q. Which is the particle emitted along with electron when a neutron is converted
into proton in a nucleus?
Answer: Antineutrino is emitted along with electron, when a neutron changes to
proton.
0 n  1 p  1 e  v (antineutrino)
1 1 0

Q. Identify the particle P in the following nuclear reaction.

Z X
A
 Z 1Y A  1e 0  P
Answer: Neutrino.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 278

Q. Identify the particle P in the following nuclear reaction.
Z X
A
 Z 1Y A  1e 0  P
Answer: Antineutrino.

Q. Why is it difficult to detect neutrino?

Answer: Neutrino is difficult to detect because it interacts very weakly with matter.

Q. What is the difference between the electron and beta particle?

Answer: The electron and beta particle are one and the same. The beta particle is
an electron of nuclear origin.

Q. The nucleus contains no electrons, yet it ejects electrons. How?

Answer: A neutron of a nucleus decays into a proton, an electron and an antineutrino.
It is this electron which is emitted as beta particle.

Q. Why do all electrons emitted during beta decay not have the same energy?
Answer: During beta decay the particles like antineutrons are also emitted along with
electrons. The available energy is divided between electrons and
antineutrinos in all proportions. The energy of electron is no longer fixed.
Therefore energy distribution during beta decay not continuous.

Q. Why are gamma rays not deflected by electric and magnetic fields?
Answer: As gamma rays contain photons which are neutral particles, they are not
deflected by electric and magnetic fields.

Q. State radioactive decay law. [PU BOARD MARCH 2014]

Answer : It states that ‘‘the rate of disintegration of a radioactive element at any instant
is directly proportional to the number of atoms present in the element at that
instant.’’

Q. Define half life and decay constant of a radioactive element.

Answer: The half life of a radioactive element is defined as the time during which the
number of atoms becomes half of its original value.

Q. Define decay constant (  ) of a radioactive element.

Answer: Decay constant of a radioactive element is defined as reciprocal of time
during which the number of atoms in the radioactive substance falls to 37%
of its original value.

Q. Write the relation between half life and decay constant.

0.693
Answer: T1/2 =

Q. Write an expression for number of atoms left behind after n half lives.
 
 1   1 
Answer: N =  n  N 0   t  N 0
2   T
2 

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 279

Q. Define average (mean) life of a radioactive substance.
Answer: Average life of a radioactive substance is the sum of the lives of all the
atoms divided by the total number of atoms present originally.
Total lives of all the atoms
Mean life =
Total number of the atoms

Q. Write the relation between mean life and decay constant.

1
Answer:  


Q. Write the relation between mean life and half life. Which life is greater ?
Answer: T1 / 2  0.693 .
Where: T1/2 = half life and  = mean life of a radioactive element
Mean life is greater than half life.

Q. What is activity of a radioactive substance (A).

Answer: The rate of decay of atoms of a radioactive element is called its activity.
dN
A
dt

Q. State the SI unit of activity of a radioactive substance and hence define it.
Answer: SI unit of activity is becquerel(Bq).
The activity of a radioactive substance is said to be one becquerel, if the rate
of decay is one disintegration per second.
One becquerel = 1 disintegration / second.

Q. Define curie(Ci).
Answer: The activity of a radioactive substance is said to be one curie, if the rate of
decay is 3.7 × 1010 disintegrations per second.
One curie = 3.7 × 1010 disintegrations / second

Q. What is an induced or artificial radioactivity?

Answer: The phenomenon by which stable nuclei are made unstable by bombarding
them with high energy particles is known as artificial radioactivity.

Q. What are radioisotopes? Give two examples.

Answer: The isotopes of an element which are radioactive are called radioisotopes.

Q. Give two examples of radioisotopes.

Answer:
1.6C11 and 6C13 are the radioisotopes of 6C12.
2.11Na22 and 11Na24 are the radioisotopes of 11Na23.

Q. All radioactive elements finally turn into which element?

Answer: They ultimately become isotopes of lead (Pb).

Q. How does nuclear radius of an atom depend on its mass number?

Answer: The nuclear radius of an atom is directly proportional to cube root of its mass
number.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 280

Q. A radioactive element 92X238 emits one alpha particle and one beta particle
in succession. What is the mass number of new element formed?
Answer: The mass number of new element formed becomes 234.

Q. Write the SI unit of activity.

Answer: becquerel or disintegration/second.

Q. Define mean life of a radioactive element.

Answer: The mean life of a radioactive element is defined as the sum of the lives of
all the atoms divided by the total number of atoms present originally.

Q. State the radioactive decay law.

Answer: The radioactive decay law states that the number of nuclei undergoing the
decay per unit time is proportional the total number of nuclei in the sample.

Q. What are isotopes?

Answer: The chemical elements having the same atomic number but different mass
number are called isotopes.

Q. Define specific binding energy.

Answer: Specific binding energy is defined as the ratio of total binding energy of
nucleons to the number of nucleons present in a nucleus.
Binding energy of nucleons
Specific binding energy 
Number of nucleons

Q. Write the SI unit of radio activity?

Answer: becquerel(Bq)=1 disintegration per second= decay per second.

Q. In proton-proton cycle, what is the approximate energy released?

Answer: 26.7MeV.

Q. In the following reaction, identify the particle X.

n  p  e  X
Answer: Antineutrino.

Q. What is the ratio of the nuclear densities of two nuclei having mass numbers
in the ratio 1:3 ?
Answer: 1:1 (nuclear density does not depend on mass number).

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 281

 DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION & MATTER AND ATOMS
SYNOPSIS
1.

Photo electric
Kineticv energy

current
1 2 3  3   2  1  0

1 2 3
Frequency
Intensity of radiation

V3  V2  V1
 3  2  1
V3

V2
V1

–VS VS
V3 V2 V1 Stopping potential

2. The work function is constant for a given metal and different for different metals.

3. The work function of a metal of threshold frequency (νo) and corresponding

threshold wavelength  o  is given by:

hc
 0  h o 
o

Where: h = Planck’s constant and c = speed of photon (radiation)

4. According to Planck’s quantum theory of radiation, energy emitted in the form of
hc
photon of frequency (ν ) & wavelength (  ) is given by: E  h 


hc h h
5. Energy of each photon is : E  h  and momentum p   .
 c 

6. In a photon-particle collision, the total energy and momentum are conserved.

However, the number of photons may not be conserved in a collision. The photon
may be absorbed or a new photon may be created.

7. Number of photons emitted from a lamp of power P:

Number of photons  Energy of each photon NE Pt Pt Pt

Power   N  
Time t E h hc

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 282

8. Einstein’s equation of photoelectric effect

E  0  K max or h  h 0  K max or
K max  h  0  or

c c  1 1 
K max  h   K max  hc  
  0  or   o 

9. At stopping potential, the photoelectric current becomes zero. Hence the

maximum kinetic energy of ejected electrons is equal to the potential energy.

Potential energy = kinetic energy

K max
eV0  K max stopping potential V0 
or e

10. E  0  eV0 OR h  h 0  eV0 eV0  h  h 0

OR

hc  1 1 
11. stopping potential VO    
e   o 

12. K max  h  h 0  y  mx  c

Therefore the graph between & K max is a straight line.

13. The slope of the graph tan  gives the value of Planck’s constant.
K max
tan  h


h h
14. de Broglie wavelength   
mv p

h
15. de Broglie wavelength in terms of kinetic energy K:  
2mK

16. de Broglie wavelength in terms of charged particle of charge q accelerated

h
through a potential difference of V:  
2mqV

h
17. For an electron of charge e, above equation becomes:  
2meV

18. For electron: m  9 . 1  10  31

kg ,

Js   12 . 27 A
0
e  1 . 6  10  19
C & h  6 . 626  10  34

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 283

19. From the kinetic theory of matter, the average kinetic energy of particle at a given
temperature T is given by: K  3 kT
2
Where: k = Boltzmann’s constant=1.38X10-38Jmol-1K-1

h

3mkT

20. Relation between impact parameter and scattering angle:


cot
Ze 2 2
b .
4 0 1 2
mv
2

21. Graph between impact parameter b and cot  is a straight line.

2

1 2 Ze 2
22. Expression for distance of closest approach; d  .
4 0 K

23. Number of electrons scattered at an angle  : N  Z2

 
sin 4   K 2

 2 

24. Stationary orbit : An orbit in which a moving electron does not radiate energy is
called stationary orbit(non-radiating orbit).

25. Radius of an electron in the nth orbit of hydrogen like atom:

 0n2h2
r=
mZe 2

 0n2h2
26. For hydrogen atom Z=1 : r 
me 2

27. r. . n 2  The radius of an orbit is directly proportional to the square of the

principal quantum number.
2
r2 Z1  n2 
28. For hydrogen like atom;   
r1 Z 2  n1 

2
r2  n2 
29. For hydrogen atom:  
r1  n1 

30. Bohr’s orbit : The stationary circular orbit of the electron of the
hydrogen atom is called Bohr’s orbit.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 284

31. Bohr’s radius : Radius of the innermost orbit of hydrogen atom is called Bohr’s

radius and is found to be: r= 0.531 A

32. Speed of the electron in the nth orbit of hydrogen like atom:

Ze 2
v=
2 0 nh

For hydrogen atom Z = 1, above equation leads to :

e2
33. v=
2 0 nh

1
34. As e,  0 &h are constants, v
Speed of the electron is inversely proportional
n;
to the principal quantum number.

v2  Z 2  n1 
35. For hydrogen like atom:   
v1  Z 1  n 2 

v2 n
36. For hydrogen atom:  1
v1 n2

37. Speed of electron in terms of fine structure constant :

e2 e2 1 e2 c c 1 c
v= =  =  =  = 
2 0 nh 2 0 h n 2 0 ch n n 137 n

e2 1
Where:   fine structure constant.
2 0 ch 137

38. Kinetic energy of the electron in the nth orbit of hydrogen like atom:

Z 2 me 4
K=
8 02 n 2 h 2

39. For hydrogen atom Z =1:

me 4
K=
8 02 n 2 h 2

40. Potential energy of the electron in the nth orbit of hydrogen like atom:

 Z 2 me 4
U=
4 02 n 2 h 2

41. For hydrogen atom Z =1:

 me 4
U=
4 02 n 2 h 2

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 285

42. Total energy of the electron in the nth orbit of hydrogen like atom:

Z 2 me 4
E=-
8 02 n 2 h 2

43. Energy of the electron is inversely proportional to the square of principal quantum
number. The negative sign indicates that electron is bound to the nucleus by an
electrostatic attractive force.

44. For hydrogen atom Z =1:

 me 4
E=
8 02 n 2 h 2

45. Relation between Kinetic energy, Potential energy and Total energy:

Z 2 me 4
Kinetic energy is, K=
8 02 n 2 h 2

Z 2 me 4
Potential energy is: U= -
4 02 n 2 h 2

Z 2 me 4
Total energy is: E = -
8 02 n 2 h 2

Therefore E=-K ; U=2E and U = - 2 Ek

46. For an atom other than hydrogen(hydrogen like atom) : En =

47. For an atom other than hydrogen(hydrogen like atom) :
13.6
En = - eV
n2
2 2
Z2 E Z   n1 
48. For hydrogen like atom: E n  2  2   2   
n E1  Z 1   n2 
2
1 E n 
49. For hydrogen atom: E n  2  2   1 
n E1  n 2 

50.Excitation energy : The energy required for shifting an electron from its lower orbit
to the higher orbit is called excitation energy.
The energy of the electron in the nth orbit is :
13.6
En = - eV ………………….(1)
n2
For n = 1, E1 = -13.6 eV ; For n = 2, E2 = -3.4 eV ; For n = 3, E3 = -1.51 eV

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 286

51. The energy required to excite an electron from the first orbit to the second orbit is
: E2 – E1 = -3.4 eV – (-13.6 eV) = 10.2 eV. It is called the first excitation energy of
the hydrogen atom.

52. The energy required to excite an electron from the first orbit to the third orbit is:
E3 – E1 = -1.51 eV – (-13.6 eV) = 12.1 eV. It is called the second excitation
energy of the hydrogen atom.

53. Excitation potential : The potential difference through which an electron in an

atom to be accelerated from the lower orbit to the higher orbit is called excitation
potential.

Excitation energy
54. Excitation potential =
ch arg e

 13.6
Vn = V ………………………….(1)
n2

55. Ionisation energy : The energy required for removing an electron from the atom is
13.6
called ionisation energy. En = - 2 eV ……………………(1)
n

56. Ionisation potential : The potential difference through which an electron of the
atom is raised so that it is removed from the atom is called ionisation potential.

Ionisation energy
Ionisation potential =
ch arg e

13.6
Vn = V
n2

57. Expression for wave number of spectral line of hydrogen spectrum :

1 1 1
 R 2  2 
  n1 n 2 

me 4
58. Where: R =  Rydberg’s constant. = 1.097  10 7 m 1
8 02 ch 3

59. Series limit : The wavelength corresponding to the transition of an electron from
infinite orbit to any lower orbit is called series limit. This spectral line has the
shortest wavelength.

60.The decreasing order of wavelength of the first four members of Balmer series is:
 α>  β >  γ>  δ

61.The wave length of spectral lines increases with the increase of the order of the
series.  Pfund >  Brackett >  Paschen >  Balmer >  Lyman

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 287

62. IMPORTANT FORMULAE AT A GLANCE:

Expression for For hydrogen like atom For hydrogen atom

2 2
Centripetal force mv 1 Ze mv 2 1 e2
 
r 4 0 r 2 r 4 0 r 2

 0n2h2  0n2h2
Radius of the orbit r r
mZe 2 me 2

Velocity of the Ze 2 e2
v= v=
electron 2 0 nh 2 0 nh

Z 2 me 4 Ze 2 me 4 e2
KE of the electron K= = K= =
8 02 n 2 h 2 8 0 r 8 02 n 2 h 2 8 0 r

Z 2 me 4 Ze 2 me 4 e2
PE of the electron U=- =  U=- = 
4 02 n 2 h 2 4 0 r 4 02 n 2 h 2 4 0 r

Z 2 me 4 Ze 2 Z 2 13.6 me 4 e2 13.6
TE of the electron E=- =  =- eV E=- =    2 eV
8 02 n 2 h 2 8 0 r n2 8 0 n h
2 2 2
8 0 r n

1 Z 2 me 4 1 1 2  1 1 1 me 4  1 1 1 1
Wave number   2  2   Z R 2  2       R   2 
 8 02 ch 3 n
 1 n 2   n1 n2   8 02 ch 3  n12 n22 
2
 n1 n 2 

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 288

 NUCLEI
SYNOPSIS

1. Size of the nucleus: R = Ro A1 3

Where: Ro = 1.2 x 10 -15 m = proportionality constant= nuclear unit radius.

2. The nucleus has a very high density & is of the order of 1017kgm-3.The nuclear density
is independent of mass number of an atom.

3. The charge on the nucleus is Ze, where Z is the atomic number of the nucleus and e is
the charge on the proton.

4. Nuclear mass M = Zmp +(A – Z)mn

1
5. Each proton and neutron possesses a spin of  .
2
6. The overall nuclear spin is zero, if the number of protons and the number of neutrons
are both even.

1 3 5 
7. The nucleus has a half integer spin  , , , .......... . , if the sum of number of
2 2 2 
protons and the number of neutrons in it are both odd.

h
8. The angular momentum of a nucleus is given by: L = s
2

9. The nuclear magnetic moment expressed in terms of Bohr magneton is given by:
eh
µB =
4m

10. The direction of the magnetic moment of the proton is same as that of the spin.
11. The value of the magnetic moment of a proton is 5.05 x 10-27 JT-1

12. Energy mass relation E = mc2

13. Annihilation of matter(conversion of mass into energy):In this process, an electron

combines with a positron and they cancel each other. The masses of electron and
positron are converted into energy. This energy is liberated in the form of gamma
radiations. Thus, mass is converted into energy.

e- + e +→γ + γ

14. Pair production( conversion of energy into matter): In this process, a photon interacts
with a nucleus. Due to this interaction, an electron and positron pair is formed. Thus,
energy is converted into matter.

γ + Nucleus → e- + e +

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 289

15. Mass defect = Net mass of the nucleons – Mass of the nucleus

ΔM =Zmp+ (A-Z) mn -M

16. Binding Energy = Mass defect × (Speed of light)2

BE = Δmc2

17. Specific binding energy (Binding energy per nucleon):The ratio of the binding energy of
a nucleus to its mass number is called binding energy per nucleon.
Binding energy
Specific binding energy =
Mass number

mc 2
BE/A =
A

18. Mole: The amount of substance that has a mass in grams equal to its atomic weight is
called one mole.

17. Avogadro’s number: N = 6.023  1023

18. Avogadro’s hypothesis: According to Avogadro’s hypothesis, one mole of a substance

contains 6.023  1023 atoms.

19. Atomic mass unit (amu):One amu is defined as 1/12th the actual mass of 6C12atom.

20. Energy equivalent to 1 amu: E = 931 MeV

21. Masses of elementary particles in amu:

P Particle Mass in amu

P Proton 1.007277
N Neutron 1.008665
E Electron 0.00055

22. Packing Fraction: The ratio of mass defect (M-A) to mass number (A) is called packing
fraction.
Mass defect
Packing fraction =
Mass number
MA
f=
A

23. Packing fraction is zero for 6C12

24. Packing fraction is negative for elements with A between 20 and 200.
25. Packing fraction is positive for elements with A > 200.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 290

26. The atoms with negative packing fraction are more stable than those with
positive packing fraction.
27. Binding energy curve : It is the graph between the binding energy per
nucleon and mass number.

BE/A 4

3
(MeV)
2

A
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240

28. Critical size & critical mass: The minimum size of the fissionable material for which the
number of neutrons produced during one fission reaction just balance with those lost
due to leakage and absorption is called critical size.
The mass of the fissionable material corresponding to the critical size is called critical
mass.

29. Neutron multiplication factor (reproduction factor)(K): The reproduction factor which
determines whether the chain reaction sustains or accelerates or retards is given by:

Rate of production of neutrons

K=
Rate of leakage of neutrons

30. Nuclear reactor: A device in which a self sustained and a chain reaction is controlled
to supply energy for constructive purposes is called nuclear reactor.

31. Research reactor: The reactor used to produce radioisotopes and neutrons for research
purposes is called research reactor.

32. Breeder reactor: The process of converting a fertile (non-fissionable) material into a
fissile (fissionable) material is known as breeding. The reactor used for the breeding
process is called breeder reactor.

33. Power reactor: The reactor used to generate an electrical power on a large scale is
called power reactor.

Parts of Nuclear Power Reactor

34. Fuel: The fissionable material used in the reactor is called fuel of the reactor. The
commonly used fissionable materials are: U235, Th232, Pu241 etc.

35. Moderator: A material used to slow down the fast moving fission producing neutrons is
called moderator. The commonly used moderators are: heavy water, graphite, paraffin
wax etc.

36. Coolant: A cooling material used to remove the heat produced due to fission in the
reactor is called coolant. The commonly used coolants are: water, air, carbon dioxide,
nitrogen etc.

37. Control rods: A material used to absorb neutrons to control the rate of fission reaction is
called control rod. The commonly used control rods are cadmium & boron.
CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 291
38. Protective shield: To prevent harmful radiations emitted from the nuclear reactor, the
reactor is enclosed in thick concrete walls.

39. Neutrino is emitted along with positron, when a proton changes to a neutron.
1 1 0
1 p  0 n  1 e  v (neutrino)
This is known as positive beta decay. In this case neutron to proton ratio increases.
40. Antineutrino is emitted along with electron, when a neutron changes to proton.

0 n 1  1 p 1  1 e 0  v (antineutrino)
This is known as negative beta decay. In this case neutron to proton ratio decreases.

41. Soddy’s group displacement law: According to Soddy’s and Fajan’s law, a radioactive
element disintegrates either with the emission of an alpha particle or a beta particle but
never both.

42. Radioactive decay law : It states that ‘‘the rate of disintegration of a radioactive element
at any instant is directly proportional to the number of atoms present in the element at
that instant.’’
 t
N = N 0e

From equation (4), it follows that the radioactive decay is exponential.

A graph of N t is plotted.
N

No

Radioactive exponential decay curve

43. Half life of a radioactive element :The half life of a radioactive element is defined as the
during which the number of atoms becomes half of its original value.

0.693
It can be shown that: T =


44. Therefore ,half-life of a radioactive substance is inversely proportional to its decay

constant.

N = 0.37 N0 N = 37% N0

 
 1   1 
45. After n half-lives t = nT, N =  n N 0   t  N 0
2   T
2 

1
The mean life of a radioactive element is given by:  
46. 

47. Relation between half life and mean life: T  0.693 

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 292

 Activity of a radioactive substance (A): The rate of decay of atoms of a radioactive
48. element is called its activity.
dN
A or A   N or A  A 0 e  t
dt

48. Units of activity of a radioactive substance :

becquerel(Bq): The activity of a radioactive substance is said to be one becquerel, if the

rate of decay is one disintegration per second.

One becquerel = 1 disintegration / second

curie(Ci): The activity of a radioactive substance is said to be one curie, if the rate of
decay is 3.7 × 1010 disintegrations per second.

One curie = 3.7 × 1010 disintegrations / second

A0 A0
49. Activity of the substance after n half lives: A   t
2n
2T
50.
In terms of →
S.No. ↓ Number of atoms Activity Mass

dN dA dm
1  N   A  m
dt dt dt
2 N  N 0 e  t A  A 0 e  t m  m 0 e  t
N0 N0 A0 A0 m0 m0
3 N=  t A=  t m=  t
2n 2n 2n
2T 2T 2T
1 N  1 A  1 m 
4 t= log e  0  t= log e  0  t= log e  0 
  N    A    m 

A 1 N 1 T2
51.  
A 2 N 2 T1
52. Mass of the radioactive sample = Number of atoms in the sample  Mass number
Avogadro' s Number

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 293

 CET

K-CET
Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter

2000 2001
1) Two radiations containing photons of energy 6) The electron in a hydrogen atom makes a
twice and five times the work function of a metal transistion from n=n1 to n=n2 state.The time period
are incident successively on the metal surface. of the electron in the initial state is eight times
The ratio of the maximum velocities of the that in the final state. The possible values of n1
emitted electrons in the two cases will be and n2 are
1) 1 : 3 2) 1 : 4 1) n1 =4, n2 = 2 2) n1 = 8, n2 = 2
3) 1 : 2 4) 1 : 1 3) n1 = 8, n2 =1 4) n1 = 6, n2 = 2

2) When visible light is incident on a metal surface

7) If radiations of all wavelengths from ultraviolet to
no photoelectrons are emitted. If a second beam
infrared is pased through hydrogen gas at room
is to be selected it must be
temperature, absorption lines will be observed in
1) IR radiation 2) Microwave
1) Balmer series
3) Radio wave 4) uv radiation
2) Lyman series
3) both Lyman & Balmer series
3) Solar spectrum at the time of total solar
eclipse is 4) Lyman , balmer and Paschen series

1) Line emission spectrum

2) Band absorption spectrum 8) Let the potential energy of hydrogen atom in the
3) Continuous emission spectrum ground state be zero. Then its total energy in the
4) Line absorption spectrum first excited state will be
1) 10.2eV 2) 13.6eV
4) Radio waves and visible light in Vacuum have 3) 23.8eV 4) 27.2eV
1) Different velocity different wavelength
2) Same velocity same wavelength 9) Pick out the statement which is not true
3) Same wavelength but different velocity 1) Sun is a natural source of UV radiations.
4) Same velocity but different wavelength
2) UV radiations have wavelengths extending from
200nm to 400nm.
4) If R is the Rydberg constant for hydrogen, the
3) Shortest wavelength UV radiations are benefi
wave - number of the first line in the Lyman series
is cial to living tissues while longer wavelengths

1) R / 2 2) 2 R UV are harmful.
3) R / 4 4) 3 R / 4 4) UV radiations are used for sterilisation of water.

5) The energy that should be added to an 10) The work function for aluminium is 4.125eV. The
electron to reduce its deBroglie wavelength from cut off wavelength for photoelectric effect for
10-10 m to 0.5 x 10-10 m will be
Aluminium is
1) Four times the initial energy
1) 300nm 2) 200nm
2) Equal to the initial energy
3) 420nm 4) 150nm
3) Twice the initial energy
4) Thrice the initial energy

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 294

 CET
2002 2003
11) Whenever a hydrogen atom emits a photon in the 16) A particle of mass M at rest decays into two
Balmer series. masses m 1 and m 2 with non zero velocities.
1) It need not emit any more photon. The ratio of de-Broglie wave lengths of the
particles 1/ 2
2) It may emit another photon in the Paschen series.
1) m1 2) 1 :1
3) It must emit another photon in the Lyman series.
m2
4) It may emit another photon in the Balmer series.
3) m2 4) m1
m1 m2
12) Pick out the statement which is not true.
1) IR radiations are used for long distance photog 17) For an electron in the second orbit of Bohr Hydro-
raphy gen atom, the moment of linear momentum is -
2) IR radiations arise due to inner electron 1) h /  2) 2h / 
transitions in atoms 3) h 4) 2h
3) IR radiations are detected by using a bolometer.
4) Sun is the natural source of IR radiation. 18) If elements with principal quantum number n > 4
were not allowed in nature, the number of
13) In the Bohr model of the hydrogen atom, let R,V possible elements would have been
and E represent the radius of the orbit, the speed a) 64 b) 4

of electron and the total energy of the electron c) 32 d) 60

respectively. Which of the following quantity is

19) In photoelectric effect, the number of electrons
proportional to the quantum number n?
ejected per second is -
1) R/E 2) E/V
1) Proportional to the work function of the metal
3) RE 4) VR
2) Proportional to the frequency of light
14) A caesium photocell, with a steady potential
3) Proportional to the wave length of light
difference of 60V across it, is illuminated by a bright
4) Proportional to the intensity of light
point source of light 50cm away. when the same
light is placed 1m away the photoelectrons 2004
emitted from the cell. 20) Excitation energy of a hydrogen like ion in its first
1) are one quarter as numerous excitation state is 40.8 eV. Energy needed to re-
2) are half as numerous move the electron from the ion in ground state is
3)each carry one quarter of their previous ................
momentum 1) 54.4 eV 2) 13.6 eV
4) each carry one quarter of their previous energy. 3) 40.8 eV 4) 27.2 eV
15) There are n1 photons of frequency 1 in a beam of
light. In an equally energetic beam there are n 2 21) Threshold wavelength for photoelectric emission
photons of frequency  . Then the correct relation from a metal surface is 5200 Å. Photoelectrons
2

is will be emitted when this surface is illuminated

with monochromatic radiation from ................
n1 12 n1 2 1) 50 W IR lamp 2) 10 W IR lamp
1) = 2) =
n2 2 2 n2 1 3) 1 W IR lamp 4) 50 W UV lamp

n1  n1
1
3) = 4) =1
n2 2 n2
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26) The electron in a hydrogen atom makes a transi-
22) The spectrum obtained from the chromosphere of
tion from n = n1 to n = n2 state. The time period of
the sun at the time of total solar eclipse is .............
the electron in the initial state (n1) is eight times
1) continuous emission spectrum
that in the final state (n2). The possible values of
2) line absorption spectrum
3) line emission spectrum n1 and n2 are......
4) band absorption spectrum 1) n1 = 1, n2 = 8
2) n1 = 2, n2 = 4
2005 3) n1 = 4, n2 = 2
23) The energy that should be added to an electron to 4) n1 = 8, n2 = 1
reduce its de Broglie wavelength from 1 nm to
0.5 nm is........ 27) Infrared radiation was discovered in 1800 by .......
1) Thrice the initial energy 1) Thomas Young
2) Twice the initial energy 2) Wihelm Roentgen
3) Equal to the initial energy 3) William Herschel
4) Four times the initial energy
4) William Wollaston
24) Bohr's atom model assumes...........
1) The nucleus is of infinite mass and is at rest. 2006
2) Mass of the electron remains constant 28) When light of wavlength 300 nm falls on a photo-
3) Electrons in a quantised orbit will not radiate energy. electric emitter, photoelectrons are liberated. For
4) All the above conditions. another emitter, light of wavelength 600 nm is
sufficient for liberating photoelectrons. The ratio
25) From the figure describing photoelectric effect we
may infer correctly that...... of the work function of the two emitters is
1) Al is a better photo sensitive material than Na. 1) 4 : 1 2) 1 : 4
2) The stopping potentials are different for Na and 3) 1 : 2 4) 2 : 1
Al for the same change in frequency.
3) Maximum kinetic energy for both the metals 29) White light is passed through a dilute solution of
depend linearly on the frequency. potassium permanganate. The spectrum produced
4) Na and Al both have the same threshold frequency. by the emergent light is
1) band absorption spectrum
y
Na Al 2) line absorption spectrum
4 3) band emission spectrum
4) line emission spectrum.
3

30) If 1 and 2 are the wavelengths of the first

2
members of the Lyman and Paschen series
1 respectively, then 1 : 2 is - - - - - - - - - - -
1) 7 : 50 2) 7 : 108
 
x 3) 1:3 4) 1 : 30
5 10
0
2007
31) All components of the electromagnetic spectrum
in vacuum have the same
1) Frequency 2) Wavelength
3) velocity 4) energy

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32) Which one of the following graphs represents the 38) W hen a piece of metal is illuminated by a
variation of maximum kinetic energy( Ek ) of the monochromatic light of wavelength  , then
emitted electrons with frequency í in photoelectric stopping potential is 3Vs. When same surface is
effect correctly ? illuminated by light of wavelength 2 , then

1) Ek 2) Ek stopping potential becomes Vs. The value of

|threshold wavelength for photoelectric emission
will be
  1) 6  2) 4/3 

3) Ek 4) Ek 3) 8  4) 4 

39) The maximum kinetic energy of emitted electrons

in a photoelectric effect does not depend upon
  
1) work function 2) intensity

33) A and B are two metals with threshold frequencies 3) frequency 4) wavelength
14
1.8 x1014 Hz. 2.2 x 10 Two identical photons of
energy 0.825 eV each are incident on them. Then 40) The ratio of minimum wavelengths of Lyman
photoelectrons are emitted in and Balmer series will be

1) A alone 1) 10 2) 5

2) B alone 3) 0.25 4) 1.25

3) in both A and B
4) in neither A nor B ( Take h=6.6x10-34Js) 41) Hydrogen atom does not emit X-rays because
1) energy levels in it are very close to each other

34) The ionization energy of Li++ is equal to 2) its size is very small

1) hcR 2) 2hcR 3) 6 hcR 4) 9 hcR 3) energy levels in it are far apart

4) it contains only a single electron.

35) Electrons in a certain energy level n=n, can emit 3

spectral lines. When they are in another energy 42) If an electron and a proton have the same
level n=n They can emit 6 spectral lines. The de-Broglie wavelength, then the kinetic energy of
2.

orbital speeds of the electrons in the two orbits the electron is

are in the ratio 1) equal to that of proton

1) 1:2 2) 2:1 3) 3:4 4) 4:3 2) more than that of proton

3) less than that of proton

36) The deBroglie wavelength of a proton 4) zero.

(charge = 1.6x10 -19 C, mass = 1.6x10 -27kg )

accelerated through a p. d of 1kV is 2009

1) 0.9 nm 2) 7Å 43) The kinetic energy of an electron gets tripled, then

3) 0.9x10-12 m 4) 600 Å the de-Broglie wavelength associated with it

changes by a factor

2008 1) 3 2) 1/3

37) Solar spectrum is an example for 1

1) line absorption spectrum 3) 3 4)
3
2) band absorption spectrum
3) continuous emission spectrum
4) line emission spectrum.

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44) Hydrogen atom from excited state comes to the 50) The spectrum of an oil flame is an example for
ground state by emitting a phton of wavelength . _____
If R is the Rydberg constant, the principal 1) line emission spectrum
quantum number 'n' of the excited state is 2) continuous emission spectrum
3) line absorption spectrum
R R
1) 2) 4) band emission spectrum.
 - 1 R - 1
 51) According to Einstein's photoelectric equation, the
 R2
3) 4) graph of K.E. of the photoelectron emitted from
R - 1  R - 1
the metal versus the frequency of the incident
radiation gives a straight line graph, whose slope
45) In fog, photographs of the objects with infra-red ______
radiations are more clear than those obtained 1) depends on the intensity of the incident
with visible light because radiation
1) scattering of I-R light is less than visible light. 2) depends on the nature of the metal and also
2) I-R radiation has lesser wavelength than on the intensity of incident radiation
visible radiation. 3) is same for all metals and independent of the
3) scattering of I-R light is more than visible light. intensity of the incident radiation.
4) the intensity of I-R light from the object is less. 4) depends on the nature of the metal.

46) G.P. Thomson experimentally confirmed the 52) An electron is moving in an orbit of a hydrogen
existence of matter waves by the phenomena atom from which there can be a maximum of six
1) scattering 2) diffraction transitions. An electron is moving in an orbit of
3) refraction 4) polarisation another hydrogen atom from which there can be a
maximum of three transitions. The ratio of the
47) The spectral series of the hydrogen atom lies in velocity of the electron in these orbits is ______
the visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum 1) 1/2 2) 2/1
1) Brackett 2) Paschen 3) 5/4 4) 3/4
3) Balmer 4) Lyman
53) 1 is the frequency of the series limit of Lyman
48) Continuous emission spectrum is produced by series, 2 is the frequency of the first line of Lyman
1) The sun series and 3 is the frequency of the series limit
2) Incandescent electric lamp of the Balmer series. Then ______
3) Mercury vapour lamp 1) 1 - 2 = 3 2) 1 = 2 - 3
4) Sodium vapour lamp.
1 1 1 1 1 1
3)
2010
2 = 1+ 3 4) =
2 2 3
+

49) The de-Broglie wavelength of the electron in the

2011
ground state of the hydrogen atom is ________
54) The ratio of minimum wavelengths of Lyman and
(radius of the first orbit of hydrogen atom = 0.53 Å).
Balmer series will be ...........
1) 1.67 Å 2) 3.33 Å 1) 1.25 2) 0.25
3) 5 4) 10
3) 1.06 Å 4) 0.53 Å

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55) An electron of mass me and a proton of mass mp CET - 2012
are moving with the same speed. The ratio of their 60) X-rays, gamma rays and microwaves travelling in
vacuum have
e 1) same wavelengths but different velocities
de-Broglie's wavelengths
p
2) same frequency but different velocities
1) 1 2) 1836 3) same velocity but different wavelengths
4) same velocity and same frequency
1
3) 4) 918
1836
61) In n is the orbit number of the electron in a
hydrogen atom, the correct statement among the
56) Flash spectrum confirms a/an....... following is
1) total solar eclipse 1) electron energy increases as n increases
2) lunar eclipse 2) hydrogen emits infrared rays for the electron
3) earthquake transition from n =  to n = 1.
4) magnetic storm 3) electron energy is zero for n = 1.
4) electron energy varies as n2.
57) The photoelectric threshold wavelength for silver is
0. The energy of the electron ejected from the 62) The ratio of the magnetic dipole moment to the
surface of silver by an incident wavelength angular momentum of the electron in the 1st orbit
0 will be............ of hydrogen atom is

hc e
1) hc (0 -) 2) 1) 2) e
0 - 2m m


0 - 0 - 2m m
3) h 4) hc 3) 4)
c e e
0 0

58) Rutherford's atomic model could account for...... 63) ' n ' photons of wavelength '  ' are absorbed by
1) stability of atoms a black body of mass ' m '. The momentum gained
2) origin of spectra by the body is
3) the positively charged central core of an atom
h mnh
4) concept of stationary orbits 1) 2)
m 
59) When an electron jumps from the orbit n = 2 to
3) nh 4) nh
n = 4, then wavelength of the radiations absorbed
m 
will be....... (R is Rydberg's constant)
64) A proton and an alpha particle are accelerated
16 16
1) 2) under the same potential difference. The ratio of
3R 5R de-Broglie wavelengths of the proton and the
alpha particle is
5R 3R
1) 2)
16 16 1
1) 8 2)
8
3) 1 4) 2

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65) In hydrogen atom, electron excites from ground 70) The figure shows the energy level of certain atom.
state to higher energy state and its orbital velocity When the electron de excites from 3E to E, an
is reduced to 1/3rd of its initial value. The radius of electromagnetic wave of wavelength  is
the orbit in the ground state is R. The radius of the emitted. W hat is the wavelength of the
orbit in that higher energy state is - - - - - - - electromagnetic wave emitted when the electron
1) 2 R 2) 3 R de excites from 5E/3 to E ?
3) 27 R 4) 9 R 3E
5E/3
66) Spectrum of sunlight is an example for
E
1) Band emission spectrum
2) Line absorption spectrum 1) 3 2) 2
3) Continuous emission spectrum 3) 5 4) 3/5
4) Continuous absorption spectrum
71) Maximum velocity of the photoelectron
CET - 2013 emitted by a metal is 1.8 x 106 ms-1. Take the
67) Light emitted during the de excitation of value of specific charge of the electron is
electron from n = 3 to n = 2, when incident on a 1.8 x 1011 Ckg-1. Then the stopping potential in
metal, photoelectrons are just emitted from that volt is
metal. In which of the following de 1) 1 2) 3
excitations photoelectric effect is not possible ? 3) 9 4) 6
1) From n = 2 to n = 1
2) From n = 3 to n = 1 72)  1 and  2 are used to illuminate the slits.
3) From n = 5 to n = 2 1 and 2 are the corresponding fringe widths.
4) From n = 4 to n = 3 The wavelength  1 can produce
photoelectric effect when incident on a metal. But
68) The additional energy that should be given to an the wavelength 2 cannot
electron to reduce its de-Broglie wavelength from produce photoelectric effect. The correct
1nm to 0.5 nm is relation between 1 and 2 is
1) 2 times the initial kinetic energy 1) 1 < 2 2) 1 = 2
2) 3 times the initial kinetic energy 3) 1 > 2 4) 1  2
3) 0.5 times the initial kinetic energy
4) 4 times the initial kinetic energy 2014
73) What is the de Broglie wavelength of the electron
69) The ionisation energy of an electron in the ground accelerated through a potential
state of helium atom is 24.6 eV. The energy difference of 100 volt ?
required to remove both the electron is 1) 0.001227 Å 2) 0.1227 Å
1) 51.8 eV 2) 79 eV 3) 1.227 Å 4) 12.27 Å
3) 38.2 eV 4) 49.2 eV
74) The maximum k inetic energy of the
photoelectrons depends only on
1) pressure 2) incident angle
3) frequency 4) potential

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 CET
75) W hich of the following spectral series of 2016
hydrogen atom is lying in visible range of 82) The variation of photo-current with collector
electromagnetic wave ? potential for different frequencies of incident
1) Balmer series 2) Lyman series radiation v1, v2 and v3 is as shown in the graph,
3) Pfund series 4) Paschen series then

76) What is the energy of the electron revolving in third

orbit expressed in eV ?
1) 4 eV 2) 4.53 eV
3) 3.4 eV 4) 1.51 eV

(1) v1 = v2 = v3 (2) v1 > v2 > v3

2015 v1 + v2
77) An -particle of energy 5meV is scattered through (3) v1 < v2 < v3 (4) v3 =
2
180o by gold nucleus. The distance of closest
approach is of the order of
1) 10-12 cm 2) 10-16 cm 83) Total energy of electron in an excited state of

3) 10-10 cm 4) 10-14 cm hydrogen atom is -3.4 eV. The kinetic and

potential energy of electron in this state

78) Find the de-Broglie wavelength of an (1) K = + 10.2 eV U = - 13.6 eV

electron with kinetic energyof 120 eV. (2) K = -6.8 eV U = + 3.4 eV

1) 102 pm 2) 124 pm (3) K = 3.4 eV U = - 6.8 eV

3) 95 pm 4) 112 pm (4) K = -3.4 eV U = -6.8 eV

79) Light of two different frequencies whose 84) When electron jumps from n = 4 level to n = 1
photons have energies 1 eV and 2.5 eV level, the angular momentum of electron changes

respectively, successively illuminate a by

metallic surface whose work function is 1) h/2 2) 2h/2

0.5 eV. Ratio of maximum speeds of emitted 3) 3h/2 4) 4h/2

electrons will be
1) 1 : 4 2) 1 : 1 85) The de Broglie wavelength of an electron

3) 1 : 5 4) 1 : 2 accelerated to a potential of 400 V is

approximately

80) What is the wavelength of light for the least ener- (1) 0.06 nm (2) 0.12 nm

getic photon emitted in the Lyman (3) 0.04 nm (4) 0.03 nm

series of the hydrogen spectrum

(take hc = 1240 eV nm) 2017

1) 102 nm 2) 150 nm 86) A particle is dropped from a height 'H'. The de

3) 82 nm 4) 122 nm Broglie wavelength of the particle depends on

height as

81) If an electron in hydrogen atom jumps from an 1) Hº 2) H-1/2

orbit of level n = 3 to an orbit of level 3) H 4) H1/2

n = 2, the emitted radiation has a frequency 87) The scientist who is credited with the discovery of
(R = Rydberg constant, C = velocity of light) 'nucleus' in an atom is

1) RC/25 2) 5RC/36 1) Niels Bohr 2) Balmer

3) 3RC/27 4) 8RC/9 3) Rutherford 4) J.J. Thomson

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 CET
2018 93. The de-Broglie wavelength associated with
88. A mass of 1 kg carrying a charge of 2 C is electron of hydrogen atom in this ground state is
accelerated through a potential of 1 V. The 1) 0.3 Å 2) 3.3 Å
velocity acquired by it is 3) 6.26 Å 4) 10 Å
-1 -1
1) 2 ms 2) 2 ms
1 1
3) ms 1 4) ms 1
2 2

KCET - 2019
89. Light of certain frequency and intensity incident
on a photosensitive material causes
photoelectric effect. If both the frequency and
intensity are doubled, the photoelectric saturation
current becomes
1) Doubled 2) unchanged
3) quadrupled 4) halved

90. An electron is moving with an initial velocity

 
V = V0^i and is in uniform magnetic field B = B0^j
Then its de Broglie wavelength
1) Increases with time
2) Remains constant
3) Increase and decreases periodically
4) Decreases with time

KCET - 2020
91. A light beam of intensity 20 W/cm 2 is incident
normally on a perfectly reflecting surface of sides
25 cm x 15 cm. The momentum imparted to the
surface by the light per second is
1) 2 x 10-5 kg ms-1 2) 1 x 10-5 kg ms-1
3) 5 x 10-5 kg ms-1 4)1.2 x 10-5 kg ms-1

92. The following graph represents the variation of

photo current with anode potential for a metal
surface. Here 1, 2 and 3 represents intensities
and 1, 2, 3 represent frequency for curves 1, 2
and 3 respectively, then

1) 1 = 2 and 1 2
2) 1 = 3 and 1 3
3) 1 = 2 and 1 2
4) 2 = 3 and 1 3

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K-CET
Atoms and Nuclei

2000 7) Pick out the statement which is true

1) If E1 is the energy released per unit mass in 1) The energy released per unit mass is more in
Nuclear fusion and E2 that in Nuclear fission then fission than in fusion.
1) E1 = E2 2) E1 = - E2 2) The energy released per atom is more in fusion
3) E1 > E2 4) E1 < E2 than in fission.
3) The energy released per unit mass is more in
2) In the Nuclear reaction given below 7N14 + fusion and that per atom is more in fission.
2
He  X +
4
1
H . The nucleus X is
1
4) Both fission and fusion produce same amount
1) N
8
16
2) 8N
17
of energy per atom as well as per unit mass.
3) 8O16 4) 8O17
2002
3) An atom of mass number A and atomic number 8) The SI unit of radioactivity is
Z emits successively an  - particle,  - particle 1) Roentgen 2) Rutherford
and  - rays. The mass number and atomic 3) Curie 4) Becqueral
number of the end product are
1) A, Z + 1 2) A - 1, Z - 4 9) In nuclear fission the percentage of mass converted
3) A - 4, Z - 1 4) A - 4, Z + 2 into energy is about
1) 10% 2) 0.01% 3) 0.1% 4) 1%

4) After an interval of one day 1/16 th of the initial

10) In a sample of radioactive materials , what per-
amount of a radioactive material remains in a
centage of the initial number of active nucleii will
sample. Then its half life is
decay during one mean life?
1) 6 hour 2) 12 hour
1) 69.3% 2) 63% 3) 50% 4) 37%
3) 1.5 hour 4) 3 hour

2003
2001 11) Half life of a radio-active substance is 20 minutes.
5) Two nucleons are at a separation of 1 x 10-15m. The time between 20% and 80% decay will be :
The net force betwen them is F1, if both are neu- 1) 25 minutes 2) 30 minutes
trons, F2 if both are protons, and F3 if one is a pro- 3) 40 minutes 4) 20 minutes
ton and the other is a neutron.
1) F1 = F2 = F3 2) F2 > F1> F3 12) A hypothetical radioactive nucleus decays accord-
3) F1 = F3> F2 4) F1 = F2 > F3 ing to the following series

 
6) Three fourths of the active nuclei present in a ra- A A1 A2

dioactive sample decay in 3/4 sec. The half life of  

A3 A4
the sample is
If the mass number and atomic number of A are
1) 1 s 2) 1/2 s
respectively 180 and 72 then the atomic number
3) 3/4 s 4) 3/8 s
and mass number of A4 will be respectively.
1) 68, 172 2) 69, 172
3) 69. 171 4) 70, 172
CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 303
 CET
13) Nucleus A is converted into C through the 19) The nuclear reactor at Kaiga is a ....................
following reactions 1) breeder reactor 2) power reactor
A B+ [alpha particle 3) research reactor 4) fusion reactor

B C + 2   beta particle] 2005

Then, 20) Mean life of a radioactive sample is 100 seconds.
1) A and B are isobars Then its half life (in minutes) is........
2) A and C are isotopes 1) 1.155 2) 10-4
3) A and B are isotopes 3) 1 4) 0.693
4) A and C are isobars

21) Consider two nuclei of the same radioactive

14) If m, mn and mp are the masses of Z X A nucleus,
nuclide. One of the nuclei was created in a super-
neutron and proton respectively
nova explosion 5 billion years ago. The other was
1) m > (A - Z) mn + Zmp
created in a nuclear reactor 5 minutes ago.
2) m = (A - Z) mp + Zmn
The probability of decay during the next time is.......
3) m = (A - Z) mn + Zmp
1) Independent of the time of creation.
4) m < (A - Z) mn + Zmp
2) Nuclei created in the creator decays first.
3) Nuclei created in explosion decays first.
15) Which state of triply ionised Beryllium (Be+++) has
4) Different for each nuclei.
the same orbital radius as that of the ground state
of hydrogen ?
1) n = 1 2) n = 2 22) Two nucleons are at a separation of one Fermi.
3) n = 3 4) n = 4 Protons have a charge of + 1.6 x 10-19 C. The net
nuclear force between them is F1, if both are
16) If M is the atomic mass and A is the mass num- neutrons, F2 if both are protons and F3 if one is
ber, packing fraction is given by ................. proton and the other is neutron. Then.....

A A- M 1) F1 > F2 > F3 2) F1 < F2 < F3

1) 2)
M-A A
3) F1 = F2 = F3 4) F1 = F2 > F3
M M-A
3) 4)
M-A A 2006
2004 23) If r1 and r2 are the radii of the atomic nuclei of
17) A count rate shows a count of 240 per minute from mass numbers 64 and 125 respectively, then
a given radioactive source. One hour later the
r1
meter shows a count rate of 30 per minute. The the ratio is
half-life of the source is ............ r2

1) 20 min 2) 30 min
5 4
3) 80 min 4) 120 min 1) 2)
4 5

18) Heavy water is 64 64

3) 4)
125 125
1) water, in which soap does not lather
2) compound of heavy oxygen and heavy
hydrogen
3) compound of deuterium and oxygen
4) water at 4oC
CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 304
 CET
1 235
24) Activity of a radioactive sample decreases ( /3)rd 30) On bombarding U by slow neutron, 200 MeV
of its original value in 3 days.Then, in 9 days its energy is released. If the power output of atomic
activity will become - - - - - - - - - - - - reactor is 1.6 MW, then the rate of fission will be
16 16
1 1) 20 x 10 /s 2) 8 x 10 /s
1) of the original value
18 16 22
3) 5 x 10 /s 4) 5 x 10 /s
1
2) of the original value
3 31) The masses of radioactive substances are same
1 and their half lives are 1 year and 2 years
3) of the original value
27 respectively. The ratio of their activities after 4 years
will be
1
4) of the original value 1) 1:6 2) 1 : 3
9
3) 1 : 2 4) 1 : 4
2007
25) A radioactive element forms its own isotope after 3
consecutive disintegrations. The particles emitted 32) 92
U235 undergoes successive disintegrations

are with the end product of 82

Pb203. The number of

1) 2 particles and 1 particle  and  particles emitted are

2) 2 particles and 1 particle 1)  = 3,  = 3 2)  = 8,  = 6

3) 2 particles and 1 particle 3)  = 6,  = 0 4)  = 6,  = 4

4) 3  particles
33) The most stable particle in Baryon group is

26) A radioactive substance contains 10,000 nuclei 1) lamda - particle 2) proton

and its half life period is 20 days. The number of 3) omega - particle 4) neutron

nuclei present at the end of 10 days is

1) 7,500 2) 8,000 2009

3) 9,000 4) 7,070 34) In a radioactive disintegration, the ratio of initial

number of atoms to the number of atoms present

27) The volume of a nucleus is directly proportional to at an instant of time equal to its mean life is

……………. 1) e2 2) 1/e2

1) A1/3 2) A 3) 1/e 4) e

3) A3 4) A
35) The amount of energy released when one

28) An electron is microgram of matter is annihilated is

1) A lepton 2) A nucleon 1) 0.5 x 105 kWh 2) 0.25 x 105 kWh

3) Baryon 4) Hadron 3) 9 x 1010 kWh 4) 3 x 1010 kWh

2008 36) -decay means emission of electron from

29) The ratio of the nuclear radii of elements with mass 1) radioactive nucleus

numbers 216 and 125 is 2) innermost electron orbit

1) 6:5 2) 216 : 125 3) a stable nucleus

3) 216 : 125 4) none of these 4) outer most electron orbit

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 305

 CET
37) The phenomena in which proton flips is 43) The fraction of the initial number of radioactive
1) nuclear fusion nuclei which remain undecayed after half of a
2) nuclear magnetic resonance half-life of the radioactive sample is ..........
3) lasers
1 1
4) radioactivity 1) 2)
4 22

38) According to the quark model, it is possible to build

1 1
all the hadrons using 3) 4)
2 2
1) 2 quarks and 2 anitquarks
2) 2 quarks and 3 antiquarks 44) 1 curie represents..............
3) 3 quarks and 2 antiquarks 1) 3.7 x 107 disintegrations per second
4) 3 quarks and 3 antiquarks 2) 3.7 x 1010 disintegrations per second
3) 106 disintegrations per second
4) 1 disintegrations per second
2010
39) Pick out the correct statement from the following :
2012
1) Energy released per unit mass of the reactant
45) The radius of 29
Cu 64 nucleus in Fermi is
is less in case of fusion reaction.
(given R0 = 1.2 x 10-15 m)
2) Packing fraction may be positive or may be
1) 4.8 2) 1.2 3) 7.7 4) 9.6
negative
3) Pu239 is not suitable for a fission reaction 46) In a radioactive decay, an element ZXA emits
4) For stable nucleus, the specific binding energy four -particles, three -particles and eight
is low. gamma photons. The atomic number and mass
number of the resulting final nucleus are
40) A ratioactive element sample S 1 having the 1) Z - 11, A - 16 2) Z - 5, A - 13
activity A1 has twice the number of nuclei as 3) Z - 5, A - 16 4) A - 8, A - 13
another sample S2 of activity A2. If A2 = 2A1, then
the ratio of half life of S1 to the half life of S2 is 47) A radioactive nucleus has specific binding energy
1) 4 2) 2 ' E1 '. It emits an a-particle. The resulting nucleus
has specific binding energy ' E2 '. Then
3) 0.25 4) 0.75
1) E2 = E1 2) E2 < E1
3) E2 > E1 4) E2 = 0
41) W hen a neutron is disintegrated to give a
-particle, _________
48) Decay constants of two radio-active samples
1) a neutrino alone is emitted
A and B are 15x and 3x respectively. They have
2) a proton and neutrino are emitted equal number of initial nuclei. The ratio of the
3) a proton alone is emitted number of nuclei left in A and B after a time 1/6x is
4) a proton and an antineutrino are emitted. 1) e 2) e2 3) e-1 4) e-2

2011 49) Mass numbers of the elements A, B, C and D are

42) The thermonuclear reaction of hydrogen inside the 30, 60, 90 and 120 respectively. The specific
stars is taking place by a cycle of operations. binding energy of them are 5 MeV, 8.5 MeV,
8 MeV and 7 MeV respectively. Then, in which of
The particular element which acts as a catalyst
the following reaction/s energy is released ?
is....
a) D  2B b) C  B + A
1) nitrogen 2) oxygen c) B  2A
3) helium 4) carbon 1) only in (a) 2) in (b), (c)
3) in (a), (c) 4) in (a), (b) and (c)

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 306

 CET
2013 55) The binding energy /nucleon of deuteron (1H2) and
50) Pick out the correct statements from the the helium atom (2He4) are 1.1 MeV and 7MeV
following respectively. If the two deuteron atoms fuse to form
I. Electron emission during b-decay is a single helium atom, then the energy released is
always accompanied by neutrino 1) 26.9 MeV 2) 25.8 MeV
II. Nuclear force is charge independent 3) 23.6 MeV 4) 12.9 MeV
III. Fusion is the chief source of stellar
energy. 2014
1) I, II are correct 2) I, III are correct 56) The relation between half life (T) and decay con-
3) Only I is correct 4) II, III are correct stant () is
1)  = log 2T 2) T = loge2
A
51) A nucleus z
X emits an a-particle with 3) T = 1/2 4) T = 1
velocity v. The recoil speed of the daughter nucleus
is 57) A force between two protons is same as the force
1) (A - 4)/rv 2) 4v/(A - 4) between proton and neutron. The
3) v 4) v/4 nature of the force is
1) Gravitational force 2) Electrical force
52) A radioactive substance emits 100 beta 3) Strong nuclear force 4) Weak nuclear force
particles in the first 2s and 50 beta particles in
the next 2s. The mean life of the sample is 2015
1) 4s 2) 2s 58) A nucleus at rest splits into two nuclear parts
3) 2/0.693 s 4) 2 x 0.693 s having radii in the ratio 1:2. Their velocities are in
the ratio
53) Which one of the following is not correct ? 1) 8 : 1 2) 6 : 1
1) In forward biased condition conducts 3) 4 : 1 4) 2 : 1
2) If the packing fraction is negative, the element
is stable 59) The half life of a radio active substance is
3) Binding energy is the energy equivalent to 20 minutes. The time taken between 50%
mass defect decay and 87.5% decay of the substance
4) Radioactive element can undergo will be
spontaneous fission. 1) 30 minutes 2) 40 minutes
3) 25 minutes 4) 10 minutes
54) A and B are the two radioactive elements. The
mixture of these elements show a total activity of 60) A radioactive decay can form an isotope of the
1200 disintergrations/minute. The half-life of A is original nucleus with the emission of
1 day and that of B is 2 days. What will be the particles
total activity after 4 days ? Given, the initial num- 1) one  and four  2) one  and two 
ber of atoms in A and B are equal 3) one  and one  4) four  and one 
1) 200 dis/min 2) 250 dis/min
3) 500 dis/min 4) 150 dis/min

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 307

 CET
2016
2018
61) An element X decays into element Z by
67) The energy equivalent to a substance of mass 1 g is
two-step process.
1) 18 x 1013 J 2) 9 x 1013 J
4
X Y + He
2 3) 18 x 106 J 4) 9 x 106 J
Y Z + 2e- then

1) X and Z are isobars 68) The half-life of tritium is 12.5 years. What mass of

2) X and Y are isotopes tritium of initial mass 64 mg will remain undecayed

3) X and Z are isotones after 50 years ?

4) X and Z are isotopes 1) 32 mg 2) 8 mg

3) 16 mg 4) 4 mg

62) A radio - active sample of half - life 10 days

contains 1000 x nuclei. Number of original nuclei 69) A mass of 1 kg carrying a charge of 2C is
present after 5 days is accelerated through a potential of 1V. The velocity

1) 250 x 2) 500 x acquired by it is

-1
3) 750 x 4) 707 x 1) 2 ms 2) 2ms-1
1
-1
3) 2 ms 4) ½ ms-1
63) A nucleus of mass 20 u emits a  photon of
energy 6MeV. If the emission assume to
70) The number of photons falling per second on a
occur when nucleus is free and rest, then the
completely darkened plate to produce a force of
nucleus will have kinetic energy nearest to (take
6.62 x 10-5 N is 'n'. If the wavelength of the light
-27
1 u = 1.6 x 10 kg)
falling is 5 x 10-7 m, then n = _______x 1022.
1) 100 KeV 2) 0.1 KeV
(h = 6.62 x 10-34 J-s)
3) 1 KeV 4) 10 KeV
1) 1 2) 5
3) 0.2 4) 3.3
2017
238 234
64) The particle emitted in the decay of 92 U to 92 U 71) The maximum kinetic energy of emitted
1) 1  and 1  2) 1  and 2  photoelectrons depends on
3) 1  only 4) 2  and 2  1) Intensity of incident radiation
2) Frequency of incident radiation
4
65) The mass defect of 2 He is 0.03 u. the binding 3) Speed of incident radiation
energy per nucleon of helium (in MeV) is 4) Number of photons in the incident radiation
1) 27.93 2) 2.793
3) 69.825 4) 6.9825 72) A proton and an a-particle are accelerated through
the same potential difference V. The ratio of their
66) In a nuclear reactor the function of the Moderator de Broglie wavelengths is
is to decrease 1) 2 2) 2 2
1) number of neutrons
2) speed of neutrons
3) 3 4) 2 3
3) escape of neutrons
4) temperature of the reactor

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 308

 CET
73. The total energy of an electron revolving in the 80. Which one of the following nuclei has shorter
second orbit of hydrogen atom is mean life ?
1) B
1) -13.6 eV 2) -1.51 eV
2) same for all
3) - 3.4 eV 4) Zero
3) A
4) C
74. The period of revolution of an electron in the ground
state of hydrogen atom is T. The period of
KCET - 2020
revolution of the electron in the first excited state is
81. The period of revolution of an electron revolving in
1) 2 T 2) 4 T nth orbit of H-atom is proportional to
3) 6 T 4) 8 T 1) n2 2) 1/n
3
3) n 4) Independent of n
KCET - 2019
75. In Rutherford experiment, for head-on collision of 82. Angular momentum of an electron in hydrogen
 particles with a gold nucleus, the impact atom is 3h/2  (h is the Planck's constant).
parameter is The K.E. of the electron is
1) of the order of 10-14 m 1) 4.35 eV 2) 1.51 eV
2) of the order of 10-6m 3) 3.4 eV 4) 6.8 eV
3) zero
4) of the order of 10-10m 83. A beam of fast moving alpha particles were directed
towards a thin film of gold. The parts A, B and C of
76. Frequency of revolution of an electron revolving in the transmitted and reflected beams corresponding
nth orbit of H-atom is proportional to to the incident parts A, B and C of the beam are
1) n 2) 1/n3 shown in the adjoining diagram. The number of
3) 1/n2 4) n independent of n alpha particles in

77. A hydrogen atom in ground state absorbs 10.2eV

of energy. The orbital angular momentum of the
electron is increased by
1) 2.11 x 10-34Js 2) 4.22 x 10-34Js 1) B' will be minimum and in C' maximum
3) 1.05 x 10-34Js 4) 3.16 x 10-34Js 2) A' will be maximum and in C' minimum
3) A' will be minimum and in B' maximum
78. The end product of decay of 90
Th232 is 82
Pb208. 4) C' will be minimum and in B' maximum
The number of  and  particles emitted are
respectively 84. Two protons are kept at a separation of 10 nm.
1) 6,4 2) 4, 6
Let F n and F e the nuclear force and the
3) 3,3 4) 6,0
electromagnetic force between them

79. Two protons are kept at a separation of 10nm. 1) Fe = Fn

Let Fn and Fe be the nuclear force and the
electromagnetic force between them 2) Fe > > Fn

1) Fe >> Fn 3) Fe << Fn
2) Fe and Fn differ only slightly
3) Fe = Fn 4) Fe and Fn differ only slightly
4) Fe<< Fn

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 CET
-
85. During a  decay
1) An atomic electron is ejected
2) An electron which is already present within
the nucleus is ejected
3) A neutron in the nucleus decays emitting an
electron
4) A proton in the nucleus decays emitting an
electron

86. A radio-active elements has half-life of 15 years.

What is the fraction that will decay in 30 years ?
1) 0.25 2) 0.5
3) 0.75 4) 0.85

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 310

 JEE (MAIN)
DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION
5. According to Einstein's photoelectric equation,
2002
the plot of the kinetic energy of the emitted
1. Sodium and copper have work functions
photo electrons from a metal vs the frequency,
2.3 eV and 4.5 eV respectively. Then the ratio
of the incident radiation gives a straight line
of the wavelengths is nearest to
whose slope
(1) 1 : 2 (2) 4 : 1
(1) depends on the nature of the metal used
(3) 2 : 1 (4) 1 : 4
(2) depends on the intensity of the radiation
(3) depends both on the intensity of the radiation
2003
and the metal used
2. Two identical photocathodes receive light of
(4) is the same for all metals and independent of
frequencies f1 and f2. If the velocities of the
the i'lltensity of the radiation.
photoelectrons (of mass m) coming out are
respectively 1 and 2, then
2005
2 2 2h
(1) v1  v2  m ( f1  f 2 ) 6. If the kinetic energy of a free electron doubles,
1 its de Broglie wavelength changes by the factor
(2) v1  v2   2h ( f1  f 2 )
2

m


 (1) 1/2 (2) 2

2h (3) 1/2 (4) 2.

(3) v12  v22  ( f1  f 2 )
m
1
7. A photocell is illuminated by a small bright
 2h 2
(4) v1  v2   ( f1  f 2 ) source placed 1 m away. When the same source
m 
oflight is placed (1/2) m away, the number of

2004 electrons emitted by photocathode would

3. A charged oil drop is suspended in a uniform (1) decrease by a factor of 2

field of 3 x 104 Vim so that it neither falls nor (2) increase by a factor of 2

rises. The charge on the drop will be (take (3) decrease by a factor of 4

the mass of the charge = 9.9 x 10-15 kg and (4) increase by a factor of 4

g = 10 m/s2)
(1) 3.3 x 10-18 C 2006

(2) 3.2 x 10-18 C 8. The anode voltage of a photocell is kept fixed.

(3) 1.6 x 10-18 C The wavelength  of the light falling on the

(4) 4.8 x 10-18 C. cathode is gradually changed. The plate

current I of the photocell varies as follows

4. The work function of a substance is 4.0 eV

The longest wavelength of light that can (1) (2)

cause photoelectron emission from this

substance is approximately
(1) 540 nm (2) 400 nm (3) (4)

(3) 310 nm (4) 220 nm.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 311

9. The threshold frequency for a metallic 12. lf a strong diffraction peak is observed when

surface corresponds to an energy of 6.2 eV, electrons are mcident at an angle i from the

and the stopping potential for a radiation normal to the crystal planes with distance d

incident on this surface 5 V. The incident between them (see figure), de Broglie

radiation lies in wavelength dB of electrons can be calculated

(1) X-ray region by the relationship (n is an integer)

(2) ultra-violet region (1) d cosi = ndB (2) d sini = ndB

(3) infra-red region (3) 2d cosi = ndB (4) 2d sini = ndB

(4) visible region.

13. In an experiment, electrons are made to pass
through a narrow lit of width d comparable to
10. The time by a photoelectron to come out after
their de Broglie wavelength. They are detected
the photon strikes is approximately
on a screen at a distance D from the slit.
(1) 10-1 s (2) 10-4 s

(3) 10-10 s (4) 10-16 s

Directions: Questions 11 and 12 are based on the

paragraph. Which of the following graphs can be
Wave property of electrons implies that they expected to represent the number of electrons
will show diffraction effects. Davisson and N detected as a function of the detector
Germer demonstrated this by diffracting position y (y = 0 corresponds to the middle of
electrons from crystals. The law governing the slit)?
the diffraction from a crystal is obtained by
requiring that electron waves reflected from (1) (2)
the planes of atoms in a crystal interfere
constructively (see figure).

(3) (4)

14. If g E and gM are the accelerations due to

gravity on the surfaces of the earth and the
2007
moon respectively and if Millikan 's oil drop
11. Electrons accelerated by potential V are
experiment could be performed on the two
diffracted from a crystal. If d = 1 Å and
surfaces, one sill find the ratio
-34
i = 30°, V should be about (h=6.6 x 10 Js,
electronic charge on the moon
me = 9.1 x 10 -31
kg, e = 1.6 x 10 -19
C) to be
electronic charge on the earth
(1) 1000 V (2) 2000 V (1) gM /gE (2) 1
(3) 50 V (4) 500 V. (3) 0 (4) gE/gM
CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 312
 2011
15. Photon of frequency  has a momentum
19. This question has Statement-1 and Statement-2.
associated with it. If c is the velocity of light,
Of the four choices given after the statements,
the momentum is
choose the one that best describes the two
(1) h/c (2) /c
statements :
(3) hc (4) h/c2 Statement-1 : A metallic surface is irradiated by a
monochromatic light of frequency  >  o (the
2009 threshold frequency). The maximum kinetic energy
16. The surface of a metal is illuminated with and the stopping potential are K max and V o
the light of 400 nm. The kinetic energy of respectively. Ifthe frequency incident on the surface
the ejected photoelectrons was found to be is doubled, both the Kmax and Vo are also doubled.
1.68 eV The work function of the metal is Statement-2 : The maximum kinetic energy and
(hc = 1240 eV nm) the stopping potential of photoelectrons emitted

(1) 3.09 eV (2) 1.41 eV from a surface are linearly dependent on the

(3) 1.51 eV (4) 1.68 eV frequency of incident light.

(1) Statement-1 is true, statement-2 is false.
(2) Statement-1 is true, Statement-2 is true,
2010
Statement-2 is the correct explanation of
17. If a source of power 4 kW produces 1020
Statement-1.
photons/second, the radiation belongs to a
(3) Statement-1 is true, Statement-2 is true,
part of the spectrum called
Statement-2 is not the correct explanation of
(1) -rays (2) X-rays
Statement-1.
(3) ultraviolet rays (4) microwaves
(4) Statement-I is false, Statement-2 is true.

18. Statement-1: When ultraviolet light is incident 2012

on a photocell its stopping potential is Vo and 20. This question has statement-1 and Statement 2.
the maximum kinetic energy of the Of the four choices given after the statements,
photoelectrons is Kmax. When the ultraviolet light choose the one that best describes the two
is replaced by X-rays, both V o and K max statements.
increase. Statement-1 : Davisson - Germer experiment
Statement-2 : Photoelectrons are emitted with established the wave nature of electrons.
speeds ranging from zero to a maximum value Statement 2 : If electrons have wave nature, they
because of the range of fiequencies present in can interfere and show diffraction.
the incident light. (1) Statement 1 is true, Statement 2 is false.
(1) Statement-1 is true, Statement-2 is false. (2) Statement 1 is true, Statement 2 is true,
(2) Statement-1 is true, Statement-2 is true; Statement 2 is the correct explanation for
Statement-2 is the correct explanation of Statement 1.
Statement-1. (3) Statement 1 is true, Statement 2 is true,
(3) Statement-1 is true, Statement-2 is true; Statement 2 is not the correct explanation of
Statement-2 is not the correct explanation Statement 1.
of Statement-1. (4) Statement 1 is false, Statement 2 is true.
(4) Statement-1 is false, Statement-2 is true.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 313

2013 2016
21. The anode voltage of a photocell is kept fixed. 24. Radiation of wavelength  , is incident on a
The wavelength . of the light falling on the photocell. The fastest emitted electron has
speed v. If the wavelength is changed to
cathode is gradually changed. The plate
3/4, the speed of the fastest emitted electron
current I of the photocell varies as follows
will be :
1) > v(4/3)½ 2) < v(4/3)½
3) = v(4/3)½ 4) = v(3/4)½
(1) (2)
2017
25. A particle A of mass m and initial velocity

(3) (4) v colloides with a particle B of mass m/2 which

is at rest. The collision is head on and elastic.
The ratio of the de-Broglie wavelengths A to
B after the collision is

2014 1) 2) 3) 4)
22. The radiation corresponding to 3  2
transition of hydrogen atom falls on a metal 26. An electron beam is accelerated by a potential
surface to produce photoelectrons. These difference V to hit a metallic target to produce
electrons are made to enter a magnetic field X-rays. It produces continuous as well as
of 3 x 10-4 T. lf the radius of the largest circular characteristic X-rays. If  min is the smallest
path followed by these electrons is 10.0 mm, possible wavelength of X-rays in the spectrum,

the work function of the metal is close to the variation of log min with log V is correctly
represented in
(1) 1.6 eV (2) 1.8 eV
(3) 1.1 eV (4) 0.8 eV
1) 2)

2015
23. As an electron makes a transition from an
excited state to the ground state of a 3) 4)
hydrogen - like atom / ion ;
1) its kinetic energy increased but potential
2018
energy and total energy decrease
49. An electron from various excited states of
2) kinetic energy, potential energy and total
hydrogen atom emit radiation to come to the
energy decrease ground state. Let  n,  g be the de Broglie
3) kinetic energy decreases, potential energy wavelength of the electron in the nth state and
increases but total energy remains same the ground state respectively. Let   n be the
wavelength of the emitted photon in the
4) kinetic energy and total energy decrease but
transition from the nth state to the ground state.
potential energy increases
For large n, (A, B are constants)

1)  n  A  Bn 2) 2 n  A  B2 n
B
3) 2 n   4)  n  A   2
n

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 314

2019 8th April Shift - I 2019 10th April Shift - I
50. Two particles move at right angle to each 54. In a photoelectric effect experiment, the
other. Their de-Broglie wavelengths are 1 threshold wavelength of light is 380 nm. If the
and  2 respectively. The particles suffer wavelength of incident light is 260 nm, the
perfectly inelastic collision. The de-Broglie maximum kinetic energy of emitted electrons
wavelength  of the final particle is given by will be

1) 2)
1) 15.1 eV 2) 3.0 eV
3) 1.5 eV 4) 4.5 eV
3) 4)

2019 10th April Shift - II

2019 9th April Shift - I
55. Light is incident normally on a completely
51. The electric field of light wave is given as
absorbing surface with an energy flux of
25 Wcm-2. If the surface has an area of 25 cm2,
the momentum transferred to the surface in
This light falls on a metal plate of work
40 min time duration will be
function 2eV. The stopping potential of the
photoelectrons is 1) 3.5 x 10-6 N-s 2) 6.3 x 10-4 N-s
Given E (in eV) 3) 1.4 x 10-6 N - s 4) 5.0 x 10-3 N-s

1) 0.48 V 2) 0.72 V 2019 10th April Shift - II

3) 2.0 V 4) 2.48 V 56. A 2mW laser operates at a wavelength of
500 nm. The number of photons that will be
2019 9th April Shift - II emitted per second is

52. A particle P is formed due to a completely [Given, Planck’s constant h = 6.6 x 10-34 Js,
inelastic collision of particles x and y having speed of light c = 3.0 x 108 m/s]
de-Broglie wavelengths  x and  y , 1) 1 x 1016 2) 5 x 1015
respectively. If x and y were moving in
3) 1.5 x 1016 4) 2 x 1016
opposite directions, then the de-Broglie
wavelength of P is
2019 12th April Shift - II
57. The stopping potential V0 (in volt) as a function
1) 2)
of frequency () for a sodium emitter, is shown
in the figure. The work function of sodium,
3) 4) from the data plotted in the figure will be
(Take Planck’s constant (h) = 6.63 x 10-34 J-s,
2019 9th April Shift - II electron charge, e = 1.6 x 10-19 C]
53. 50 W/m 2 energy density of sunlight is
normally incident on the surface of a solar
panel. Some part of incident energy (25%) is
reflected from the surface and the rest is
absorbed. The force exerted on 1m2 surface
area will be close to (c = 3 x 108 m/s)

1) 20 x 10-8 N 2) 35 x 10-8 N
3) 15 x 10-8 N 4) 10 x 10-8 N
1) 1.82 eV 2) 1.66 eV

3) 1.95 eV 4) 2.12 eV

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 315

2019 10th Jan. Shift - I 2019 12th Jan. Shift - I
58. In an electron microscope, the resolution that 62. A particle of A of mass ‘m’ and charge ‘q’ is
can be achieved is of the order of the accelerated by a potential difference of 50 V.
wavelength of electrons used. To resolve a
Another particle B of mass ‘4m’ and charge
width of 7.5 x 10-12 m, the minimum electron
‘q’ is accelerated by a potential difference of
energy required is close to
2500 V. The ratio of de-Broglie wavelengths
1) 500 keV 2) 1 keV
is close to
3) 100 keV 4) 25 keV

1) 4.47 2) 10.00
2019 10th Jan. Shift - II
59. A metal plate of area 1 x 10-4 m2 is illuminated 3) 0.07 4) 14.14
by a radiation of intensity 16 mW/m2. The work
function of the metal is 5eV. The energy of 2019 12th Jan. Shift - II
the incident photons is 10 eV and only 10% of
63. In a Frank-Hertz experiment an electron of
it produces photoelectrons. The number of
energy 5.6 eV passes through mercury vapour
emitted photoelectros per second and their
maximum energy respectively will be and emerges with an energy 0.7 eV.
(Take 1eV = 1.6 x 10-19 J) The minimum wavelength of photons emitted

1) 1011 and 5 eV 2) 1012 and 5eV by mercury atoms is close to

3) 1010 and 5 eV 4) 1014 and 10 eV 1) 250 nm 2) 2020 nm

3) 1700 nm 4) 220 nm
2019 11th Jan. Shift - I
60. If the de-Broglie wavelength of an electron is
2019 12th Jan. Shift - II
equal to 10 -3 times, the wavelength of a
photon of frequency 6 x 1014 Hz, then the speed 64. When a certain photosensitive surface is
of electron is equal to illuminated with monochromatic light of

(Take speed of light = 3 x 108 m/s, frequency , the stopping potential for the
Planck’s constant = 6.63 x 10-34 J-s and photocurrent is -V0/2. When the surface is
mass of electron = 9.1 x 10-31 kg) illuminated by monochromatic light of

1) 1.45 x 106 m/s 2) 1.8 x 106 ms

frequency /2, the stopping potential is -V0.
The threshold frequency for photoelectric
3) 1.1 x 106 m/s 4) 1.7 x 106 m/s
emission is

2019 11th Jan. Shift - II 1) 2)

61. In a photoelectric experiment, the wavelength
3) 4)
of the light incident on a metal is changed
from 300 n-m to 400 n-m. The decrease in the 2020 7th Jan. Shift - I
stopping potential is close to 65. A beam of electromagnetic radiation of
intensity 6.4 x 10-5 W cm-2 is comprised of
wavelength  = 310 nm. If falls normally on a
1) 0.5 V 2) 2.0 V
metal (work function  = 2eV) of surface area
3) 1.5 V 4) 1.0 V of 1 cm2. If one in 10 3 photons ejects an
electron, total number of electrons ejected in
1s is 10x. (hc = 1240 eV nm, 1eV = 1.6 x 10-19 J)
then x is _______.
CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 316
2020 7th Jan. Shift - II 2020 9th Jan. Shift - I
67. An electron (of mass m) and a photon have 70. Radiation with wavelength 6561 Å falls on a
the same energy E in the range of a few eV. metal surface to produce photoelectrons.
The ratio of the de-Broglie wavelength The electrons are made to enter a uniform
associated with the electron and the magnetic field of 3 x 10-4 T. If the radius of the
wavelength of the photon is (c = speed of largest circular path followed by the electrons
light in vacuum) is 10 mm, the work function of the metal is
close to
1) 2) c(2mE)1/2 1) 0.8 eV 2) 1.1 eV
3) 1.8 eV 4) 1.6 eV
3) 4)
2020 9th Jan. Shift - I
2020 8th Jan. Shift - I 71. A particle moving with kinetic energy E has
68. When photon of energy 4.0 eV strikes the de Broglie wavelength  . If energy  E is
surface of a metal A, the ejected added to its energy, the wavelength becomes
photoelectrons have maximum kinetic /2. Value of E is
energy TAeV and de-Broglie wavelength A. 1) 2E 2) 4E
The maximum kinetic energy of 3) 3E 4) E
photoelectrons liberated from another
metal B by photon of energy 4.50 eV is 2020 9th Jan. Shift - II
T = (T - 1.5)eV. If the de-Broglie wavelength 72. An electron of mass m and magnitude of
B A
of these photoelectrons B = 2A, then the charge |e| initially at rest gets accelerated by
work function of metal B is a constant electric field E. The rate of change
1) 1.5 eV 2) 4 eV of de-Broglie wavelength of this electron at
3) 3 eV 4) 2 eV time t ignoring relativistic effect is

1) 2)
2020 8th Jan. Shift - II
69. An electron (mass m) with initial velocity
is in an electric field
3) 4)
If  0 is initial de-Broglie wavelength of
electron, its de-Broglie wavelength at time t
is given by

2020 2nd Sept. Shift - I

1) 2)
72. When radiation of wavelength  is used to
illuminate a metallic surface, the stopping
potential is V. When the same surface is
3) 4)
illuminated with radiation of wavelength 3,
V
the stopping potential is . If the threshold
4
wavelength for the metallic surface is n then
value of n will be _______.

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2020 2nd Sept. Shift - II 2020 4th Sept. Shift - I
73. In a hydrogen atom the electron makes a 77. Choose the correct option relating wave-
transition from (n + 1)th level to the nth level. lengths of differnet parts of electromagnetic
If n>>l, the frequency of radiation emitted is wave spectrum :
proportional to :
1) x-rays < micro waves < radio waves < visible
1 1
1) 4 2) 3 2) visible > x-rays > radio waves > micro waves
n n
1 1 3) radio waves > micro waves > visible > x-rays
3) 4)
n2 n 4) visible < micro waves < radio waves < x-rays

74. A particle is moving 5 times as fast as an

electron. The ratio of the de-Broglie
78. Given figure shows few data points in a photo
wavelength of the particle to that of the
electric effect experiment for a certain metal.
electron is 1.878 × 10-4. The mass of the
The minimum energy for ejection of electron
particle is close to : from its surfface is :
1) 4.8 × 10-27 kg (Plancks constant h = 6.62 × 10–34 J.s)
-28
2) 1.2 × 10 kg
3) 9.1 × 10-31 kg
4) 9.7 × 10-28 kg

2020 3rd Sept. Shift - I

75. When the wavelength of radiation falling on
a metal is changed from 500 nm to 200 nm,
the maximum kinetic energy of the 1) 2.27 eV 2) 2.59 eV
photoelectrons becomes three times larger. 3) 1.93 eV 4) 2.10 eV
The work function of the metal is close to :
1) 0.61 eV 2) 0.52 eV m
79. Particle A of mass mA = moving along the
3) 0.81 eV 4) 1.02 eV 2
x-axis with velocity 0 collides elastically with
2020 3rd Sept. Shift - II m
another particle B at rest having mass mB = .
76. Two sources of light emit X-rays of wave- 3
length 1 nm and visible light of wavelength If both particles move along the x-axis after
500 nm, respectively. Both the sources emit the collision, the change  in de-Broglie
light of the same power 200 W. The ratio of wavelength of particle A, in terms of its
the number density of photons of X-rays to de-Broglie wavelength (0) before collision
the number densitty of photons of the visible is :
light of the given wavelengths is : 5
1)  2)  
1 2 
1) 2) 500
500 3
3)  4)  
1 2 
3) 250 4)
250

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2020 4th Sept. Shift - II 2020 6th Sept. Shift - I
80. In a photoelectric effect experiment, the 84. For the given input voltage waveform Vin(t),
graph of stopping potential V versus the output voltage waveform VD(t), across the
reciprocal of wavelength obtained is shown capacitor is correctly depicted by:
in the figure. As the intensity of incident
radiation is increased :

1) Slope of the straight line get more steep

2) Straight line shifts to left
3) Graph does not change
4) Straight line shifts to right

2020 5th Sept. Shift - I

81. A beam of electrons of energy E scatters from
a target having atomic spacing of 1Å. The
first maximum intensity occurs at   = 60°.
Then E (in eV) is ______.
(Planck constant h = 6.64 × 10-34 Js,
1eV = 1.6 × 10-19 J, electron mass
m = 9.1 × 10-31 kg)

2020 5th Sept. Shift - II

82. The correct match between the entries
incolumn I and column II are :
I II
Radiation Wavelength
(a) Microwave (i) 100m
(b) Gamma rays (ii) 10–15 m
(c) A.M. radio waves (iii) 10–10 m
(d) X-rays (iv) 10–3 m
1) (a) - (ii), (b) - (i), (c) - (iv), (d) - (iii)
2) (a) - (i), (b) - (iii), (c) - (iv), (d) - (ii)
3) (a) - (iii), (b) - (ii), (c) - (i), (d) - (iv)
4) (a) - (iv), (b) - (ii), (c) - (i), (d) - (iii)

83. The surface of a metal is illuminated

alternately with photons of energies E1 = 4eV
and E2 = 2.5 eV respectively. The ratio of
maximum speeds of the photoelectrons
emitted in the two cases is 2. The work
function of the metal in (eV) is ______.
CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 319
85. An electron, a doubly ionized helium ion
(He++) and a proton are having the same
kinetic energy. The relation between their
respective de-Broglie wavelengths e, He++
and P is:
1) e < P < He++ 2) e < He++ = P
3) e > He++ > P 4) e > P > He++

2020 6th Sept. Shift - II

86. Assuming the nitrogen molecule is moving
with r.m.s. velocity at 400 K, the de-Broglie
wavelength of nitrogen molecule is close to :
(Given :
nitrogen molecule weight :4.64 × 10-26 kg,
Boltzman constant :1.38 × 10-23 J/K,
Planck constant: 6.63 × 10-34 Js)
1) 0.34 Å 2) 0.24 Å
3) 0.20 Å 4) 0.44 Å

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 JEE (MAIN)
ATOMS & NUCLEI

2002 6. Which of the following atoms has the lowest

1. If No is the original mass of the substance of half- ionization potential?

14 133
life period t1/2 = 5 years, then the amount of (1) 7 N (2) 55 Cs
16
substance left- after 15 years is (3) 40
18 Ar (4) 8 O
(1) No/8 (2) No/16
(3) No/2 (4) No/4. 7. In the nuclear fusion reaction,
2
1H  31H  4
2 H  n given that the repulsive
2. If 13.6 eV energy is required to ionize the
potential energy between the two nuclei is ~ 7.7 X
hydrogen atom, then the energy required to
10-14 J, the temperature at which the gases must
remove an electron from n = 2 is
be heated to initiate the reaction is nearly
(1) 10.2 eV (2) 0 eV
[Boltzmann's constant k = 1.38 x 10-23 J/K]
(3) 3.4 eV (4) 6.8 eV
(1) 107 K (2) 105 K
(3) 103 K (4) 109 K.
3. At a specific instant emission of radioactive
compound is deflected in a magnetic field. The
8. Which of the following cannot be emitted by
compound can emit
radioactive substances during their decay?
(i) electrons (ii) protons
(1) protons
(iii) He2+ (iv) neutrons
(2) neutrinos
The emission at the instant can be
(3) helium nuclei
(1) I, II, III (2) i, ii, iii, iv
(4) electrons.
(3) IV (4) ii, iii.

9. A nucleus with Z = 92 emits the following in a

2003
sequence:
4. If the binding energy of the electron in a hydrogen
 -, -, , , , , -, -, , + , +, . The
atom is 13.6 eV, the energy required to remove
Z of the resulting nucleus is
the electron from the first excited state of Li++ is
(1) 76 (2) 78
(1) 30.6 eV (2) 13.6 eV
(3) 82 (4) 74.
(3) 3.4 eV (4) 122.4 eV

10. A radioactive sample at any instant has its

5. The wavelengths involved in the spectrum of
disintegration rate 5000 disintegrations per minute.
deuterium (2 D) are slightly different from that of
After 5 minutes, the rate is 1250 disintegrations
hydrogen spectrum, because
1 per minute. Then, the decay constant (per minute)
(1) size of the two nuclei are different
is
(2) nuclear forces are different in the two cases
(1) 0.4 In 2 (2) 0.2 In 2
(3) masses of the two nuclei are different
(3) 0.1 In 2 (4) 0.8 In 2.
(4) attraction between the electron and the
nucleus is different in the two cases.

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11. When U238 nucleus originally at rest, decays by 17. The diagram shows the energy levels for an electron
emitting an alpha particle having a speed u, the in certain atom. Which transition shown represents
recoil speed of the residual nucleus is the emission of a photon with the most energy?

4u 4u (1) I
(1) (2) - (2) II
238 234
(3) IlI
4u 4u
(3) (4) - (4) IV
234 238

12. Which of the following radiations has the least

wavelength?
(1) -rays (2) -rays 18. Starting with a sample of pure 66CU, 7/8 of it decay
(3) -rays (4) X-rays. into Zn in 15 minutes. The corresponding half-life
is
2004 (1) 5 minutes
13. An particle of energy 5 MeV is scattered (2) 7 minutes
0
through 180 by a fixed uranium nucleus. The (3) 10 minutes
distance of the closest approach is of the order (4) 14 minutes
of
(1) 1 Å (2) 10-10 cm
19. The intensity of gamma radiation from a given
(3) 10-12 cm (4) 10-15 cm
source is I. On passing through 36 mm of lead, it
is reduced to I/8. The thickness of lead which will
14. The binding energy per nucleon of deuteron ( 21H )
reduce the intensity to I/2 will be
and helium 'Ieus ( 42 He ) is 1.1 MeV and 7 MeV
(1) 18mm (2) 12 mm
respectively. If two deuteron nuclei react to form
(3) 6 mm (4) 9 mm
a single helium nucleus, then the energy released
is
27
(1) 13.9 MeV (2) 26.9 MeV 20. If radius of the 13 Al nucleus is estimated to be
125
(3) 23.6 MeV (4) 19.2 MeV 3.6 fermi then the radius of 52 Al nucleus be nearly
(1) 4 fermi (2) 5 fermi
15. A nucleus disintegrates into two nuclear parts (3) 6 fermi (4) 8 fermi
which have their velocities in the ratio 2 : 1. The
ratio of their nuclear sizes will be 2006
1/3 1/2 7
(1) 2 :1 (2) 1 : 3 21. If the binding energy per nucleon in 3 Li and 42 He
(3) 31/2 : 1 (4) 1 : 21/3 nuclei are 5.60 MeV and 7.06 MeV respectively,
then in the reaction
2005 7
p + 3 Li  2 42 He , energy of proton must be
16. A nuclear transformation is denoted by
7 (1) 39.2 MeV
X(n, ) 3 Li . Which of the following is the nucleus
(2) 28.24 MeV
of element X?
9 (3) 17.28 MeV
(1) 5 B (2) 11
4 Be (3)
12
6 C (4)
10
5 B
(4) 1.46 MeV.

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22. The 'rad' is the correct unit used to report the 27. The half-life period of a radio-active element X is
measurement of same as the mean life time of another radio-active
(1) the rate of decay of radioactive source element Y. Initially they have the same number of
(2) the ability of a beam of gamma ray photons atoms. Then
to produce ions in a target (1) X and Y decay at same rate always
(3) the energy delivered by radiation to target (2) X will decay faster than Y
(4) the biological effect of radiation. (3) Y will decay faster than X
(4) X and Y have same decay rate initially
7
23. When 3Li nuclei are bombarded by protons, and
the resultant nuclei are 4Be8, the emitted particles 28. In gamma ray emission from a nucleus
will be (1) only the proton number changes
(1) neutrons(2) alpha particles (2) both the neutron number and the proton
(3) beta particles (4) gamma photons. number change
(3) there is no change in the proton number and
24. The energy spectrum of -particles [number N(E) the neutron number
as a function of -energy E] emitted from a (4) only the neutron number changes
radioactive source
29. If Mo is the mass of an oxygen isotope 8O17, MP
(1) (2) and MN are the masses ofa proton and a neutron
respectively, the nuclear binding energy of the
isotope is
(3) (4) (1) (Mo - 17 MN) c2
(2) (Mo - 8 Mp) c2
(3) (Mo - 8 M; - 9 MN) c2
1 (4) Mo c2
25. An alpha nucleus of energy mv2 bombards a
2
heavy nuclear target of charge Ze. Then the 2008
distance of closest approach for the alpha Directions: Question 14 contains statement-1 and
nucleus with be proportional to statement-2. Of the four choices given, choose the
(1) 1/Ze (2) v2 one that best describes the two statements.
4
(3) 1/m (4) 1/v (a) Statement-1 is true, statement-2 is false.
(b) Statement-1 is false, statement-2 is true.
2007 (c) Statement-1 is true, statement-2 is true;
26. Which of the following transitions in hydrogen statement-2 is a correct explanation for
atoms emit photons of highest frequency ? statement-1.
(1) n = 1 to n = 2 (d) Statement-1 is true, statement-2 is true;
(2) n = 2 to n = 6 statement-2 is not a correct explanation for
(3) n = 6 to n = 2 statement-1
(4) n = 2 to n = 1

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 323

30. Statement-1: Energy is released when heavy 33.

nuclei undergo fission or light nuclei undergo

fusion.

Statement-2 : For heavy nuclei, binding energy

per nucleon increases with increasing Z while for

The above is a plot of binding energy per nucleon
light nuclei it decreases with increasing Z.
Eb, against the nuclear mass M; A, B, C, D, E, F
correspond to different nuclei. Consider four
31. Suppose an electron is attracted towards the reactions:
origin by a force k/r where k is a constant and r is (i) A + B  C +  (ii) C  A + B + 

the distance of the electron from the origin. By (iii) D + E  F +  (iv) F  D + E + 

applying Bohr model to this system, the radius where  is the energy released? In which reactions
is  positive?
of the nth orbital of the electron is found to be rn
(1) (i) and (iv) (2) (i) and (iii)
and the kinetic energy of the electron to be Tn.
(3) (ii) and (iv) (4) (ii) and (iii)
Then which of the following is true?

1 2010
(1) Tn  , rn  n 2
n 34. A radioactive nucleus (initial mass number A and
atomic number Z) emits 3-particles and 2
1 2 positrons. The ratio of number of neutrons to that
(2) Tn  2 , rn  n
n
of protons in the final nucleus will be

(3) Tn independent of n, rn n A Z 4 A Z 8

(1) (2)
Z 2 Z 4
1 AZ 4 A  Z  12
(4) Tn  , rn  n (3) (4)
n Z 8 Z 4

2009 Directions: Questions number 10-12 are based on

32. The transition from the state n = 4 to n = 3 in a the following paragraph.

A nucleus of mass M + m is at rest and decays
hydrogen like atom results in ultraviolet radiation.
M
Infrared radiation will be obtained in the transition into two daughter nuclei of equal mass each.
2
from Speed of light is c.
(1) 2  1

(2) 3  2 35. The speed of daughter nuclei is

(3) 4  2 m m
(1) c (2) c
(4) 5  4
M  m M  m

2m m
(3) c (4) c
M M

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 324

36. The binding energy per nucleon for the parent 41. A diatomic molecule is made of two masses m 1

nucleus is E1 and that for the daughter nuclei is and m2 which are separated by a distance r. If we

E2. Then calculate its rotational energy by applying Bohr's

(1) E1 = 2E2 (2) E2 = 2E1 rule of angular momentum quantization, its energy

(3) E1 > E2 (4) E2 > E1 will be given by (n is an integer)

n2h2 2n 2h 2
(1) (2)
2011 2(m1  m2 )r 2 ( m1  m 2 ) r 2

37. Energy required for the electron excitation in Li++ (m1  m2 )n2h2 ( m1  m2 ) 2 n 2 h 2
(3) (4)
from the first to the third Bohr orbit is 2m1m2r 2 2m12 m22 r 2
(1) 12.1 eV (2) 36.3 eV
(3) 108.8 eV (4) 122.4 eV 2013
42. In a hydrogen like atom electron makes transition
38. The half life of a radioactive substance is 20 from an energy Ievel with quantum number n to
minutes. The approximate time interval another with quantum number (n - 1). If n > > 1,

2 the frequency of radiation emitted is proportional

(t2 - t1) between the time t2 when of it has
3 to

decayed and time t, when

1
of it. had decayed 1 1 1 1
3 (1) (2) (3) (4)
n3 n n2 n3/2
is
(1) 7 min (2) 14 min
2014
(3) 20 min (4) 28 min
43. Hydrogen (1H1), Deuterium (1H2), singly ionised
Helium (2H4)+ and doubly ionised lithium (3Li6)++
2012
all have one electron around the nucleus. Consider
39. Hydrogen atom is excited from ground state to
an electron transition from n = 2 to n = 1. If the
another state with principal quantum number equal
wave lengths of emitted radiation are 1, 2, 3 and
to 4. Then the number of spectral lines in the
1, respectively then approximately which of the
emission spectra will be
following is correct?
(1) 3 (2) 5
(1) 1 = 2= 33 = 44 (2) 1 = 2= 23 = 4
(3) 6 (4) 2
(3) 1 = 2= 23 = 4 (4) 1 = 2= 43 = 94

40. Assume that a neutron breaks into a proton and 2016

an electron. The energy released during this 44. Half-lives of two radioactive elements

process is A and B are 20 minutes and 40 minutes,

respectively. Initially, the samples have equal
(Mass of of neutron = 1.6725 x 10-27 kg
number of nuclei. After 80 minutes, the ratio of
Mass of proton = 1.6725 x 10-27 kg decayed numbers of A and B nuclei
Mass of electron = 9 x 10 -31
kg) will be :

(1) 7.10 MeV (2) 6.30 MeV 1) 1 : 16 2) 4 : 1

3) 1 : 4 4) 5 : 4
(3) 5.4 MeV (4) 0.73 MeV
(5) *

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 325

2017 2019 8th April Shift - I
45. A radioactive nucleus A with a half life T, decays 49. Radiation coming from transitions n = 2 to
into a nucleus B. At t = 0, there is no nucleus B. n = 1 of hydrogen atoms fall on He+ ions in
At sometime t, the ratio of the number of B to that n = 1 and n = 2 states. The possible transition
of A is 0.3. Then, t is given by : of helium ions as they absorb energy from the
(1) t = T log (1.3) radiation is
T 1) n = 2  n = 3 2) n = 1  n = 4
(2) t = log
(1.3) 3) n = 2  n = 5 4) n = 2  n = 4
T log 2
(3) t =
2 log 1.3 2019 8th April Shift - II
T log 1.3 50. A nucleus A with a finite de-Broglie
(4) t =
log 2 wavelength A, undergoes spontaneous fission
into two nuclei B and C of equal mass. B flies
46. Some energy levels of a molecule are shown in in the same directions as that of A while C
the figure. The ratio of the wavelengths r = 1 / 1 flies in the opposite direction with a velocity
is given by : equal to half of that of B. The de-Broglie
wavelengths B and C of B and C respectively

1) 2)

3) 4)
3 1
1) r = (2) r =
4 3 2019 8th April Shift - II
4 2 51. The ratio of mass densities of nuclei of 40
Ca
(3) r = (4) r =
3 3 and 16
O is close to
1) 5 2) 2 3) 0.1 4) 1
2018
47. If the series limit frequency of the Lyman series
2019 9th April Shift - I
if  L, then the series limit frequency of the
52. Taking the wavelength of first Balmer line in
Pfund series is :
hydrogen spectrum (n = 3 to n = 2) as 660 nm,
(1) 16L (2) L/16
the wavelength of the 2nd Balmer line
(3) L/25 (4) 25L (n = 4 to n = 2) will be
1) 889.2 nm 2) 388.9 nm
2018 3) 642.7 nm 4) 488.9 nm
48. It is found that if a neutron suffers an elastic
collinear collision with deuterium at rest, fractional 2019 9th April Shift - II
loss of its energy is Pd ; while for its similar 53. A He + ion is in its first excited state. Its
collision with carbon nucleus at rest, fractional
ionisation energy is
loss of energy is Pc. The values of Pd and Pc are
1) 54.40 eV 2) 13.6 eV
respectively
3) 48.36 eV 4) 6.04 eV
1) (.89, .28) 2) (.28, .89)

3) (0 , 0) 4) (0 , 1)

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2019 10th April Shift - I 2019 12th April Shift - II
54. Two radioactive materials A and B have decay 58. The electron in a hydrogen atom first jumps
constants 10 and , respectively. If initially from the third excited state to the second
excited state and subsequently to the first
they have the same number of nuclei, then
excited state. The ratio of the respective
the ratio of the number of nuclei of A to that
wavelength 1/1 of the photons emitted in
of of B will be 1/e after a time
this process is
1) 20/7 2) 27/5 3) 7/5 4) 9/7
1) 2) 3) 4)
2019 12th April Shift - II
2019 10th April Shift - II 59. Consider an electron in a hydrogen atom,
55. In Li++, electron in first Bohr orbit is excited revolving in its second excited state
to a level by a radiation of wavelenth  . (having radius 4.65 Å ). The de-Broglie
wavelength of this electron is
When the ion gets de-excited to the ground
1) 3.5 Å 2) 6.6 Å
state in all possible ways (including
3) 12.9 Å 4) 9.7 Å
intermediate emission), a total of six spectral
lines are observed. What is the value of  ? 2019 12th April Shift - II
(Take h = 6.63 x 10-34 Js : c = 3 x 108 ms-1] 60. Half lives of two radioactive nuclei A and B
are 10 minutes ans 20 minutes, respectively.
1) 9.4 nm 2) 12.3 nm
If initially a sample has equal number of
3) 10.8 nm 4) 11.4 nm nuclei, then after 60 minutes, the ratio of
decayed numbers of nuclei A and B will be
2019 10th April Shift - II 1) 3 : 8 2) 1 : 8 3) 8 : 1 4) 9 : 8
56. Two radioactive substances A and B have
decay constants 5  and  respectively. 2019 9th Jan Shift - I
At t = 0, a sample as the same number of the 61. Surface of certain metal is first illuminated
two nuclei. The time taken for the ratio of the with light of wavelength 1 = 350 n-m and then
number of nuclei to become (1/e)2 will be by light wavelength 2 = 540 n-m. It is found
1) 2/ 2) 1/ that the maximum speed of the
3) 1/4 4) 1/ photoelectrons in the two cases differ by a
factor of 2. The work function of the metal
2019 12th April Shift - I (eV) is close to
57. An excited He+ ion emits two photons in (energy of photon =
succession with wavelengths 108.5 nm and
30.4 nm in making a transition to ground state. 1) 5.6 2) 2.5 3) 1.8 4) 1.4
The quantum number n corresponding to its
initial excited state is [for photon of 2019 9th Jan Shift - I
wavelength , energy 62. A sample of radioactive material A that has
an activity of 10 mCi (1 Ci = 3.7 x 1010 decays/s)
has twice the number of nuclei as another
sample of a different radioactive material B
1) n = 4 2) n = 5
which has an activity of 20 mCi. The correct
3) n = 7 4) n = 6 choices for half-lifes of A and B would, then
be respectively
1) 20 days and 10 days
2) 5 days and 10 days
3) 10 days and 40 days
4) 20 days and 5 days
CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 327
2019 9th Jan Shift - II 2019 11th Jan Shift - I
63. In given time t = 0, Activity of two radioactive 67. A hydrogen atom, initially in the ground state
substances A and B are equal. After time t, is excited by absorbing a photon of
the ratio of their activities decreases wavelength 980 Å. The radius of the atom in
-3t
according to e . If the half life of A is In 2, the the excited state in terms of Bohr radius a0
half-life of B will be will be (Take hc = 12500 eV - Å)
1) 4a0 2) 9a0
1) 4 ln 2 2) 3) 16a0 4) 25a0

3) 4) 2 ln 2 2019 11th Jan Shift - II

68. In a hydrogen like atom, when an electron
2019 9th Jan Shift - II jumps from the M-shell to the L-shell, the
64. The magnetic field associated with a light wavelength of emitted radiation is l. If an
wave is given at the origin by electron jumps from N-shell to the L-shell, the
7 7
B = B0 [sin (3.14 x 10 )ct + sin (6.28 x 10 )ct. wavelength of emitted will be
If this light falls on a silver plate having a work
function of 4.7 eV, what will be the maximum 1) 2) 3) 4)
kinetic energy of the photoelectrons ?
(Take c = 3 x 108 ms-1 and h = 6.6 x 10-34 J-s) 2019 12th Jan Shift - I
1) 7.72 eV 2) 6.82 eV 69. A particle of mass m moves in a circular orbit
3) 8.52 eV 4) 12.5 eV in a central potential field U(r) = ½kr2. If Bohr’s
quantization conditions are applied, radii of
2019 10th Jan Shift - I possible orbitals and energy levels vary with
65. Using a nuclear counter, the count rate of quantum number n as
emitted particles from a radioactive source is
1) 2)
measured. At t = 0, it was 1600 counts per
second and t = 8 s, it was 100 counts per
3) 4)
second. The count rate observed as counts
per second at t = 6 s is close to
2019 12th Jan Shift - II
1) 400 2) 200
70. In a radioactive decay chain, the initial
3) 150 4) 360
232
nucleus is Th . At the end, there are
90

2019 10th Jan Shift - I 6 -particles and 4  -particles which are

66. Consider the nuclear fission emitted. If the end nucleus is AZX, A and Z are
given by
Given that the binding energy / nucleon of 1) A = 202 ; Z = 80 2) A = 208 ; Z = 82
Ne20, He4 and C12 are respectively, 3) A = 200 ; Z = 81 4) A = 208 ; Z = 80
8.03 MeV, 7.07 MeV and 7.86 MeV, identify the
correct statement. 2020 7th Jan Shift - I
1) Energy of 3.6 MeV will be released 71. The time period of revolution of electron in
2) Energy of 12.4 Mev will be supplied its ground state orbit in a hydrogen atom is
3) 8.3 MeV energy will be released 1.6 x 10-16 s. The frequency of revolution of
4) Energy of 11.9 MeV has to be supplied. the electron in its first excited state (in s-1) is
1) 5.6 x 1012 2) 1.6 x 1014
3) 7.8 x 1014 4) 6.2 x 1015

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 328

2020 8th Jan Shift - I 2020 2nd Sept. Shift - I
72. The graph which depicts the results the 76. In a reactor, 2 kg of U235 fuel is fully used up
92
Rutherford gold foil experiment with in 30 days. The energy released per fission is
-particles is 200 MeV. Given that the Avogadro number,
 : Scattering angle N = 6.023 × 1026 per kilo mole and
Y : Number of scattered -particle detected 1 eV = 1.6 × 10-19 J. The power output of the
(Plots are schematic and not to scale) reactor is close to :
1) 125 MW 2) 60 MW
3) 35 MW 4) 54 MW
1) 2)

2020 3rd Sept. Shift - I

77. In a radioactive material, fraction of active
material remaining after time t is 9/16. The
3) 4) fraction that was remaining after t/2 is :
3 7
1) 2)
4 8
4 3
3) 4)
5 5
2020 8th Jan Shift - II
73. The first member of the Balmer series of
2020 3rd Sept. Shift - II
hydrogen atom has a wavelength of 6561 Å. 78. The radius of R of a nucleus of mass number
The wavelength of the second member of the A can be estimated by the formula
Balmer series (in nm) is ______ R = (1.3 × 10-15)A1/3 m. It follows that the mass
density of a nucleus is of the order of:

2020 9th Jan Shift - II (Mprot  Mneut  1.67 x 10-27 kg )

74. The energy required to ionise a hydrogen like
1) 1024 kg m–3 2) 103 kg m–3
ion in its ground state is 9 Rydbergs. What is
3) 1017 kg m–3 4) 1010 kg m–3
the wavelength of the radiation emitted when
the electron in this ion jumps from the second 79. Hydrogen ion and singly ionized helium atom
excited state to the ground state ? are accelerated, from rest, through the same
1) 11.4 nm 2) 8.6 nm potential difference. The ratio of final speeds
3) 35.8 nm 4) 24.2 nm of hydrogen and helium ions is close to:
1) 5 : 7 2) 1 : 2
3) 10 : 7 4) 2 : 1
2020 7th Jan Shift - II
75. The activity of a radioactive sample falls from
2020 4th Sept. Shift - I
700 s-1 to 500 s-1 in 30 minutes. Its half life is
80. In the line spectra of hydrogen atom,
close to difference between the largest and the
1) 62 min 2) 52 min shortest wavelengths of the Lyman series is
3) 72 min 4) 66 min 304 Å. The corresponding difference for the
Paschan series in Å is : ______.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 329

2020 4th Sept. Shift - II 2020 6th Sept. Shift - I
81. Find the bindng energy per nucleon for 84. You are given that Mass of 73 Li = 7.0160 u,
120
50 Sn . Mass of proton mP = 1.00783 U, mass Mass of
4
He = 4.0026 u and
2
of neutron mn = 1.00867 U and mass of tin 1
Mass of H = 1.0079 u.
1
nucleus mSn = 119.902199 U.
4
(take 1U = 931 MeV) When 20 g of 73 Li is converted into 2 He by
1) 8.5 MeV 2) 7.5 MeV proton capture, the energy liberated,
3) 8.0 MeV 4) 9.0 MeV (in kWh), is: [Mass of nudeon = 1 GeV/c2]
1) 8 × 106 2) 1.33 × 106
2020 5th Sept. Shift - I 3) 6.82 × 105 4) 4.5 × 105
82. Three different processes that can occur in
an ideal monoatomic gas are shown in the P 2020 6th Sept. Shift - II
vs V diagram. The paths are labelled as 85. Given the masses of various atomic particles
A  B, A  C and A  D. The change in mp = 1.0072u, mn = 1.0087u, me = 0.000548u,
internal energies during these process are mv = 0, m d = 2.0141u, where p  proton,
taken as EAB, EAC and EAD and the workdone n  neutron, e  electron, v  antineutrino
as WAB, WAC and WAD. The correct relation and d  deuteron. Which of the following
between these parameters are : process is allowed by momentum and energy
conservation ?
1) n + p  d + 
2) e+ + e- 
3) n + n  deuterium atom
(electron bound to the nucleus)
4) p  n + e+ + v

1) EAB= EAC = EAD, W AB > 0, W AC = 0, W AD > 0

2) EAB< EAC < EAD,, W AB > 0, W AC > W AD

3) EAB = EAC < EAD, W AB > 0, W AC = 0, W AD < 0

4) EAB > EAC > EAD, W AB < W AC< W AD

2020 5th Sept. Shift - II

83. A radioactive nucleus decays by two different
processes. The half life for the first process is
10 s and that for the second is 100s. the
effective half life of the nucleus is close to:
1) 9 sec 2) 55 sec
3) 6 sec 4) 12 sec

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 330

 NEET
Dual Nature of Matter and Radiation
2000 2002
1. By photoelectric effect, Einstein proved 6. The value of Planck’s constant is
1) 6.63 x 10-34 J/sec.
1
1) E = h 2) K. E. = mv2 2) 6.63 x 10-34 kg - m2 J/sec.
2
3) 6.63 x 10-34 kg - m2
2
- Rhc 4) 6.63 x 10-34 J/sec.
3) E = mc2 4) E =
2
n

7. If particles are moving with same velocity,

2. Who evaluated the mass of electron
then which has maximum de Broglie
indirectly with help of charge wavelength ?
1) Thomson 2) Millikan 1) proton 2)  - particle
3) Rutherford 4) Newton. 3) neutron 4)  - particle.

2001
8. When ultraviolet rays incident on metal plate
3. Which one among the following shows particle
then photoelectric effect does not occur, it
nature of light ?
occurs by incidence of
1) photo electric effect
1) infrared rays 2) X- rays
2) interference
3) radio wave 4) micro wave.
3) refraction
4) polarization.

9. Which of the following is not the property

of cathode rays ?
 
4. In Thomson m,ass spectrograph E  B 1) It produces heating effect
then the velocity of electron beam will be 2) It does not deflect in electric field

 3) It casts shadow
|E|   4) It produces fluorescence.
1)  2) E x B
|B|
 
|B| E2 2003
3)  4) 
10. A photoelectric cell is illuminated by a
|E| B2
point source of light 1 m away. When the
source is shifted to 2 m then
1) each emitted electron carries one quarter
5. A photo - cell is illuminated by a source of of the initial energy
light, which is placed at a distance d from 2) number of electrons emitted is half the initial
the cell. If the distance become d/2 then number
number of electrons emitted per second 3) each emitted electron carries half the initial
will be energy
1) remain same 2) four times 4) number of electrons emitted is a quarter of
3) two times 4) one - fourth.
the initial number
CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 331
2003 14. A photosensitive metallic surface has work
11. J.J Thomson’s cathode - ray tube function, h0. If photons of energy 2h0
experiment demonstrated that fall on this surface, the electrons come out
1) cathode rays are streams of negatively with a maximum velocity of 4 x 106 m/s.
charged ions When the photon energy is increased to
2) all the mass of an atom is essentially in the 5 h  0, then maximum velocity of
nucleus photoelectrons will be
3) the e/m of electrons is much greater than 1) 2 x 107 m/s 2) 2 x 106 m/s
the e/m of protons 3) 8 x 106 m/s 4) 8 x 105 m/s
4) the e/m ratio of the cathode - ray particles
changes when a different gas is placed in
the discharge tube 2006
15. A photocell employs photoelectric effect
2004
to convert
12. According to Einstein’s photoelectric
1) change in the frequency of light into a
equation the graph between the kinetic change in the electric current
energy of photoelectrons ejected and the 2) change in the frequency of light into a
frequency of incident radiation is change
1) 2) 3) change in the intensity of illumination into a
 
change in photoelectric current
Kinetic energy
Kinetic energy

4) change in the intensity of illumination into a

change in the work function of the
photocathode.
 
Frequency Frequency

16. When photons of energy h fall on an

aluminium plate ( of work function E0),
3)  4) 
photoelectrons of maximum kinetic energy
Kinetic energy
Kinetic energy

K are ejected. If the frequency of radiation

is doubled, the maximum kinetic energy
of the ejected photoelectrons will be

  1) K + h 2) K + E0
Frequency Frequency 3) 2K 4) K.

2005 17. In a discharge tube ionization of enclosed

13. The work functions for metals A, B and C are gas is produced due to collisions between
respectively 1.92 eV and 5 eV. According 1) neutral gas atoms/ molecules
to Einstein’s equation the metals which will 2) positive ions and neutral atoms / molecules
emit photoelectrons for a radiation of 3) negative electrons and neutral atoms /
wavelength 4100 Å is/ are
molecules
1) A only 2) A and B only
4) photons and neutral atoms / molecules.,
3) all the three metals 4) none.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 332

18. The momentum of a photon of energy 23. A particle of mass 1 mg has the same
1 Me V in kg m/s will be wavelength as an electron moving with a
-22 6
1) 5 x 10 2) 0.33 x 10 velocity of 3 x 106 ms-1 The velocity of
3) 7 x 10-24 4) 10-22 the particle is
(mass of electron = 9.1 x 10-31 kg)
1) 3 x 10-31 ms-1 2) 2.7 x 10-21 ms-1
2007
3) 2.7 x 10-18 ms-1 4) 9 x 10-2 ms-1
19. A beam of electron passes undeflected
through mutually perpendicular electric
and magnetic fields. If the electric field is 24. In the phenomenon of electric discharge
switched off, and the same magnetic field through gases at low pressure, the
is maintained, the electrons move coloured glow in the tube appears as a
1) in a circular orbit result of
2) along a parabolic path
1) collisions between the charged particles
3) along a straight line
emitted from the cathode and the atoms of
4) in an elliptical orbit.
the gas
2) collision between different electrons of the
14
20. Monochromatic light of frequency 6.0 x 10 Hz atoms of the gas
is produced by a laser. The power emitted is 3) excitation of electrons in the atoms
2 x 10-3 W. The number of photons emitted,
4) collision between the atoms of the gas
on the average, by the source per second is
2009
1) 5 x 1016 2) 5 x 1017
3) 5 x 1014 4) 5 x 1015. 25. The number of photo electrons emitted for
light of a f requency ( higher than the
threshold frequency0) is proportional to
21. A 5 watt source emits monochromatic light of 1) threshold frequency ( 0 )
wavelength 5000 Å. When placed 0.5 m ways,
2) intensity of light
it liberates photoelectrons from a
3) frequency of light (  )
photosensitive metallic surface. When the
source is moved to a distance of 1.0 m,the 4)  - 0

number of photoelectrons liberated will be

reduced by a factor of 26. The figure shows a plot of photo current
1) 8 2) 16 versus anode potential for a photo
3) 2 4) 4
sensitive surface for three different
radiations. Which one of the following is a
2008
correct statement ?
22. The work function of a surface of a
photosensitive material is 6.2 eV. The
photo current
wavelength of the incident radiation for which
the stopping potential is 5 V lies in the
1) infrared region 2) X - ray region
3) Ultraviolet region 4) Visible region
retarding potential anode potential

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 333

 1) Curves (a) and (b) represent incident 30. The potential difference that must be
radiations of same frequency but of different applied to stop the fastest photoelectrons
intensities. emitted by a nickel surface, having work
2) Curves (b) and (c) represent incident function 5.01 eV, when ultraviolet light of
radiations of different frequencies and 200 nm falls on it, must be
different intensities. 1) 2.4 V 2) -1.2 V
3) Curves (b) and (c) represent incident
3) -2.4 V 4) 1.2 V
radiations of same frequency having same
intensity
2010
4) Curves (a) and (b) represent incident
31. When monochromatic radiation of intensity
radiations of different frequencies and
I falls on a metal surface, the number of
different intensities.
photoelectrons and their maximum kinetic
energy are N and T respectively. If the
27. Monochromatic light of wavelength 667 nm
intensity of radiation is 2I, the number of
is produced by a helium neon laser. The
power emitted is 9 mW. The number of emitted electrons and their maximum kinetic

photons arriving per sec. on the average energy are respectively

at a target irradiated by this beam is 1) N and 2T 2) 2N and T

1) 3 x 1016 2) 9 x 1015 3) 2N and 2T 4) N and T

3) 3 x 1019 4) 9 x 1017
2010 32. The electron in the hydrogen atom jumps from
28. A beam of cathode rays is subjected to excited state ( n = 3) to its ground state
crossed electric (E) and magnetic fields (B). ( n = 1) and the photons thus emitted irradiate
The fields are adjusted such that the beam a photosensitive material. If the work function
is not deflected. The specific charge of the of the material is 5.1 eV, the stopping potentials
cathode rays is given by
estimated to be (the energy of the electron in

2 2 nth state
1) B 2) 2VB
2VE2 E2
2
E2 En = - 13.6 eV)
3) 2VE 4) n2
B2 2VB2
1) 5.1 V 2) 12.1 V
(Where V is the potential difference
3) 17. 2 V 4) 7 V
between cathode and anode)

29. A source S1 is producing 1015 photons per 2011

second of wavelength 5000 Å . Another 33. Photoelectric emission occurs only when the

source S2 is producing 1.02x 1015 photons incident light has more than a certain minimum

per second of wavelenght 5100 Å. Then, 1) power 2) wavelength

( power of S2) (power of S1) is equal to 3) intensity 4) frequency
1) 1.00 2) 1.02 3) 1.04 4) 0.98
CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 334
34. In the Davission and Germer experiment, t h e 2011
velocity of electrons emitted from the electron 38. The threhold frequency for a photosensitive
gun can be increased by metal is 3.3 x 1014 Hz. If light of frequency
1) increasing the potential difference between 8.2 x 1014 Hz is incident on this metal, the cut
the anode and filament off voltage for the photoelectron emission is
2) increasing the filament current nearly
3) decreasing the filament current 1) 1 V 2) 2 V 3) 3 V 4) 5 V
4) decreasing the potential difference between 2012
the anode and filament 39. A 200 W sodium street lamp emits yellow
light of wavelength 0.6 m. Assuming it to
35. Light of two different frequencies whose photons be 25% efficient in converting electrical
have energies 1 eV and 2.5 eV respectively energy to light, the number of photons of
illuminate a metallic surface whose work yellow light it emits per second is
function is 0.5 eV successively. Ratio of 1) 1.5 x 1020 2) 6 x 1018
maximum speeds of emitted electrons will 3) 62 x 1020 4) 3 x 1019
be
1) 1 : 4 2) 1 : 2 40. Monochromatic radiation emitted when
3) 1 : 1 4) 1 : 5 electron on hydrogen atom jumps from first
excited to the ground state irradiates a
36. Electrons used in an electron microscope are photosensitive material. The stopping
accelerated by a voltage of 25 kV. If the voltage potential is measured to be 3.57 V. The
is increased to 1000 kV then the de- Broglie threshold frequency of the material is
wavelength associated with the electrons would 1) 4 x 1015 Hz 2) 5 x 1015 Hz
1) increase by 2 times 3) 1.6 x 1015 Hz 4) 2.5 x 1015 Hz
2) decrease by 2 times
3) decrease by 4 times 41. An  - particle moves in a circular path of
4) increase by 4 times radius 0.83 cm in the presence of a
magnetic field of 0.25 W b/ m 2 . The
37. In photoelectric emission process from a metal de- Broglie wavelength associated with the
of work function 1.8 eV, the kinetic energy of particle will be
most energetic electrons is 0.5 eV. The 1) 1 Å 2) 0.1 Å
corresponding stopping potential is 3) 10 Å 4) 0.01Å
1) 1.8 V
2) 1.3 V 42. Two radiations of photons energies 1eV and

3) 0.5 V 2.5eV, successively illuminate a photoensitive

4) 2.3 V metallic surface of work function 0.5 eV. The

ratio of the maximum speeds of the emitted
electrons is
1) 1 : 4 2) 1 : 2
3) 1 : 1 4) 1 : 5

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 335

 47. If the kinetic energy of the particle is
2012
increased to 16 times its previous value, the per-
43. If the momentum of an electron is changed by
centage change in the de-Broglie
P, then the de Broglie wavelength associated
wavelength of the particle is :
with it changes by 0.5%. The initial momentum 1) 25 2) 75
of electron will be 3) 60 4) 50
1) 200 P 2) 400 P
48. Hydrogen atom in ground state is excited by a
P
3) 4) 100 P monochromatic radiation of  = 975 Å . Number
200
of spectral lines in the following spectrum emit-
ted will be
2013
1) 3 2) 2
44. The wavelength e of an electron and p of a
3) 6 4) 10
photon of same energy E are related by

1 2015
1) p  e 2) p 
e 49. Which of the following figures represent the varia-
tion of particle momentum and the
3) p  e2 4) p  e associated de-Broglie wavelength ?

1) 2)
45. For photoelectric emission from certain metal

the cutoff frequency is v. If radiation of frequency

2v impinges on the metal plate, the maximum

possible velocity of the emitted electron will be

(m is theelectron mass) 3) 4)

1) 2hv 2) 2 hv
 m  m 50. Consider 3rd orbit of He + (Helium), using
non-relativistic approach, the speed of
electron in this orbit will be [given
hv hv 9
K = 9 x 10 constant, Z = 2 and h (Planck’s Con-
3)  (2m) 4)  m
stant) = 6.6 x 10-34 Js]
1) 0.73 x 106 m /s 2) 3.0 x 108 m/s
2014 3) 2.92 x 106 m/s 4) 1.46 x 106 m/s
46. When the energy of the incident radiation
51. A certain metallic surface is illuminated with mono-
is increased by 20%, the kinetic energy of
chromatic light of wavelength . The stopping po-
the photoelectrons emitted from a metal tential for photo-electric current for this light is
surface increased from 0.5 eV to 0.8 eV. 3V0. If the same surface is illuminated with light
of wavelength 2, the stopping potential is V0.
The work function of the metal is :
The threshold wavelength for this surface for pho-
1) 0.65 eV 2) 1.0 eV toelectric effect is :
3) 1.3 eV 4) 1.5 eV 1) /4 2) /6
3) 6 4) 4

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 336

RE TEST 2015 2017
52. In the spectrum of hydrogen, the ratio of the long- 57. The de-Broglie wavelength of a neutron in thermal
est wavelength in the Lyman series to the long- equilibrium with heavy water at a temperature T
est wavelength in the Balmer (Kelvin) and mass m, is :
series is :
2h 2h
1) 5/27 2) 4/9 1) 2)
3mkT mkT
3) 9/4 4) 27/5
h h
3) 4)
53. Light of wavelength 500 nm is incident on a metal mkT 3mkT
with work function 2.28 eV. The
de Broglie wavelength of the emitted 58. The ratio of wavelengths of the last line of Balmer
electron is : series and the last line of Lyman series is :
1)  2.8 x 10-12 m 2) < 2.8 x 10-10 m 1) 4 2) 0.5 3) 2 4) 1
3) < 2.8 x 10 m -9
4)  2.8 x 10 -9
m

2018
2016
59. An electron of mass m with an initial velocity
54. Given the value of Rydberg constant is 
7 –1
10 m , the wave number of the last line of the V  V0iˆ(V0  0) enters an electric field

Balmer series in hydrogen spectrum will be :- E   E0iˆ( E0  cons tan t  0) at t = 0. If 0 is
1) 0.025 × 104 m–1
its de-Broglie wavelength initially, then its
2) 0.5 × 107 m–1
de-Broglie wavelength at time t is
3) 0.25 × 107 m–1
4) 2.5 × 107 m–1  eE 
0 1  mV t 
0
1)  0t 2)
 0 
55. When an -particle of mass 'm' moving with ve- 0
locity 'v' bombards on a heavy nucleus of charge  eE 
3) 1  0 t  4) 0
'Ze', its distance of closest approach from the  mV0 

nucleus depends on m as : 60. For a radioactive material, half-life is 10 minutes.

1 1 If initially there are 600 number of nuclei, the

1) 2)
m m time taken (in minutes) for the disintegration of
1 450 nuclie is
3) 4) m
m2 1) 30 2) 10 3) 20 4) 15

2016 NEET - II 61. When the light of frequency 20 (where  0 is

56. If an electron in a hydrogen atom jumps from the
threshold frequency) is incident on a metal plate,
3rd orbit to the 2nd orbit, it emits a
the maximum velocity of electrons emitted is v1.
photon of wavelength . When it jumps from the
When the frequency of the incident radiation is
4th orbit to the 3rd orbit, the corresponding wave-
increased to 5  0 , the maximum velocity of
length of the photon will be
electrons emitted from the same plate is v2.
20 20
1)  7
 2) 13  The ratio of v1 to v2 is

16 9 1) 4 : 1 2) 1 : 4
3) 25
 4)  16 
3) 1 : 2 4) 2 : 1

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 337

62. The ratio of kinetic energy to the total energy of an
electron in a Bohr orbit of the hydrogen atom is
1) 2 : -1 2) 1 : -1
3) 1 : 1 4) 1 : -2

NEET - 2019
63. An electron is accelerated through a potential
difference of 10,000 V. Its de Broglie wavelength
is, (nearly) : (me = 9 × 10-31 kg)
1) 12.2 × 10-13 m 2) 12.2 × 10-12 m
3) 12.2 × 10-14 m 4) 12.2 nm

NEET - 2020
64. Light with an average flux of 20 W/cm 2 falls on a
non-reflecting surface at normal incidence having
surface area 20 cm2. The energy received by the
surface during time span of 1 minute is :
1) 48 x 103 J 2) 10 x 103 J
3) 12 x 103 J 4) 24 x 103 J

65. An electron is accelerated from rest through a

potential difference of V volt. If the de Broglie
wavelength of the electron is 1.227 x 10-2 nm, the
potential difference is :
1) 104 V 2) 10 V
3) 102 V 4) 103 V

66. Light of frequency 1.5 times the threshold frequency

is incident on a photosensitive material. What will
be the photoelectric current if the frequency is
halved and intensity is doubled ?
1) zero 2) doubled
3) four times 4) one-fourth

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 338

 NEET
Atoms and Nulei

2000 2001
1. Maximum frequency of emission is 6. Which rays contain ( positive) charged
obtained for the transition particles?
1) n = 2 to n = 1 2) n = 6 to n = 2 1) - rays 2) - rays
3) n = 1 to n = 2 4) n = 2 to n = 6 3) - rays 4) X- rays

2000
2. The relation between  and T1/2 as 7. X (n, ) 37 Li, then X will be
(T1/2  half life)
1) 10
5
B 2) 9 B
5
ln2
1) T1/2 =
 3) 11Be 4) 4He.
4 2
2) T1/2 ln2 = 

1 8. Half life of a radioactive element is 12.5

3) T1/2 =

hour and its quantity is 256 g. After how
4) ( + T1/2) = ln2 much time its quantity will remain 1 g
1) 50 hrs 2) 100 hrs
3. Nuclear fission is best explained by 3) 150 hrs 4) 200 hrs
1) liquid droplet theory
2) Yukawa  - meson theory
3) independent particle model of the nucleus 9. The interplanar distance in a crystal is
4) proton - proton cycle. 2.8 x 10-8m The value of maximum
wavelength which can be diffracted
4. The life span of atomic hydrogen is 1) 2.8 x 10-8 m
1) fraction of one second 2) 5.6 x 10-8 m
2) one year 3) 1.4 x 10-8 m
3) one hour 4) 7.6 x 10-8 m
4) one day.

5. When an electron does transition from 10. The energy of hydrogen atom in nth orbit
n = 4 to n = 2, then emitted line spectrum is En then the energy in nth orbit of singly
will be ionised helium atom will be
1) first line of Lyman series 1) 4 En
2) second line of Balmer series 2) En /4
3) first line of Paschen series 3) 2 En
4) second line of Paschen series. 4) En / 2.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 339

11. Mn and Mp represent the mass of neutron 2003
and proton respectively. An element 16. An electron is moving round the nucleus
having mass M has N neutrons and Z of a hydrogen atom in a circular orbit of

protons, then the correct relation will be
radius r. The Coulomb force F between
1) M < { N Mn + Z Mp}
the two is
2) M > { N Mn + Z Mp} e2 e2 ^
1) K 2 ^r 2) -K r
3) M = { N . Mn + Z . Mp} r r3
4) M = N { Mn + Mp}
. .
. . e2  e2 
12. Energy released in nuclear fission is due 3) K 3 r 4) -K r
r r3
to
1
1) some mass is converted into energy where K =
40
2) total binding energy of fragments is more
than the binding energy of parental element 17. Solar energy is mainly caused due to
3) total binding energy of fragments is less 1) burning of hydrogen in the oxygen
than the binding energy of parental element
2) fission of uranium present in the Sun
4) total binding energy of fragments is equal
3) fusion of protons during synthesis of heavier
to than the binding energy of parental
elements
element.
4) gravitional contraction

2002
13. Which of the following are suitable for the 18. The volume occupied by an atom is
fusion process ? greater than the volume of the nucleus
1) light nuclei by a factor of about
2) heavy nuclei 1) 101 2) 105
3) element lying in the middle of the periodic 3) 1010 4)1015
table
4) middle elements, which are lying on binding
19. A sample of radioactive elements has a
energy curve.
mass of 10 g at an instant t = 0. The
approximate mass of this element in the
14. A sample of radioactive element containing
sample after two mean lives is
4 x 1016 active nuclei. Half life of element
is 10 days, then number of decayed nuclei 1) 1.35 g 2) 2.50 g

after 30 days 3) 3.70 g 4) 6.30 g

16 16
1) 0.5 x 10 2) 2 x 10
3) 3.5 x 1016 4) 1 x 1016 20. In which of the following systems will the
radius of the first orbit ( n = 1) be
15. A deutron is bombarded on 8O16 nucleus minimum?
then  - particle is emitted. The product 1) doubly ionized lithium
nucleus is 2) singly ionized helium
13 10 3) deuterium atom
1) 7 N 2) 5 B
3) 4 Be 9 4) 7 N 14 4) hydrogen atom

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 340

21. The mass of proton is 1.0073 u and that of 27. The half life of radium is about 1600 years.
neutron is 1.0087 u (u = atomic mass unit) Of 100 g of radium existing now, 25 g will
4 remain unchanged after
The binding energy of He is
1) 0.0305 J 2) 0.0305 erg 1) 4800 years 2) 6400 years
3) 28.4 MeV 4) 0.061 u 3) 2400 years 4) 3200 years
Given helium nucleus mass  4.0015u.
28. Mp denotes the mass of a proton and M n
22. The mass number of a nucleus is that of a neutron. A given nucleus, of
1) always less than its atomic number binding energy B, contains Z protons and
2) always more than its atomic number N neutrons. The mass M (N, Z of the
3) sometimes equal to its atomic number nucleus is given by (where c is the velocity
4) sometimes less than and sometimes more of light)
than its atomic number 1) M (N, Z) = NMn + ZMp - Bc2
2) M (N, Z) = NMn + ZMp + Bc2
23. A nucleus reaction given by 3) M (N, Z) = NMn + ZMp - B/c2

Z
XA  Z + 1 YA + -1e0 + 2 represents 4) M (N, Z) = NMn + ZMp + B/c2
1)  - decay 2)  - decay
3) fusion 4) fission 29. Energy E of a hydrogen atom with principal

2004 -13.6
quantum number n is given by E = eV
24. A nucleus represented by the symbol AX n2
Z
has
The energy of a photon ejected when the
1) Z neutrons and A - Z protons
electron jumps from n = 3 state to n = 2
2) Z protons and A - Zneutrons
state of hydrogen is approximately
3) Z protons and A neutrons
1) 1.5 eV 2) 0.85 eV
4) A protons and Z - A neutrons
3) 3.4 eV 4) 1.9 eV

25. If nuclear fusion process the masses of

2005
the fusing nuclei be m1 and m2 and the
30. In the reaction 2 H + 3 H  4He + 1n, if the
mass of the resultant nucleus be m3, then
binding energies of 2H, 3H and 4He are
1) m3 = m1 + m2 2) m3 = |m1 - m2|
respectively a, 1b and1c (in MeV),
2 then
0 the
3) m3 < (m1 + m2) 4) m3 >(m1 + m2)
energy (inMeV) released in this reaction is
1 1 2
1) a + b + c 2) a + b -c
26. The Bohr model of atoms
3) c - a - b 4) c + a - b
1) Assumes that the angular momentum of
electrons is quantized.
31. The total energy of an electron in the first
2) Uses Einstein’s photoelectric equation.
excited state of hydrogen atom is about
3) Predicts continous emission spectra for
- 3.4 eV. Its kinetic energy in this state is
atoms.
1) 3.4 eV 2) 6.8 eV
4) Predicts the same emission spectra for all
3) -3.4 eV 4) - 6.8 eV
types of atoms.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 341

32. Which one of the following pairs of nuclei 2006
are isotones ? 36. Ionization potential of hydrogen atom is
13.6 eV. Hydrogen atoms in the ground
1) 34Se74, 31Ga71 2) 38Sr84, 38Sr86
state are excited by monochromatic raditi-
3) 42Mo92, 40Zr92 4) 20Ca40, 16S32 -on of photon energy 12.1 eV. According
to Bohr’s theory, the spectral lines emitted
by hydrogen will be
33. In any fission process the ratio
1) one 2) two
mass of fission products 3) three 4) four
is
mass of parent nucleus
37. In a radioactive material the activity at time
1) equal to 1
t1 is R1 and at a later time t2, it is R2. If the
2) greater than 1
decay constant of the material is, then
3) less than 1
1) R1 = R2
4) depends on the mass of the parent nucleus
2) R1 = R2e -( t1 - t2)
3) R1 = R2e ( t1 - t2)
4) R1 = R2( t2 / t1)
34. Energy levels A, B and C of a certain atom
corresponding to increasing values of
38. The binding energy of deuteron is 2.2 MeV
energy i.e. EA < EB < EC. If 1,2 and 3
and that of 42He is 28 MeV. If two deuterons
are wavelengths of radiations correson-
are fused to form one 4He then the energy
4
-ding to transitions C to B, B to A and C to
released is
A respectively, which of the following
1) 30.2 MeV2 2) 25.8 MeV
relations is correct ?
3) 23.6 MeV 4) 19.2 MeV
1 2
1) 3 = 1 + 2 2) 3
1 + 2 39. The radius of germanium (Ge) nuclide is

3) 1 + 2 + 3 = 0 4) 32 = 12 +22 measured to be twice the radius of 9 Be.

The number of nucleons in Ge are

35. Fission of nuclei is possible because the 1) 72 2) 73

binding energy per nucleon in them 3) 74 4) 75.

1) increases with mass number at low mass

numbers 2007

2) decreases with mass number at low mass 40. Two radioactive substance A and B have

numbers decay constants 5 and  respectively.

3) increases with mass number at high mass At t = 0 they have the same number of

numbers nuclei. The ratio of number of nuclei of A

4) decreases with mass number at high mass to those of B will be (1/e)2 after a time

numbers 1) 4  2) 2 
3) 1/2  4) 1/4 

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 342

41. In a radioactive decay process, the 45. The total energy of electron in the ground
negatively charged emitted  - particles state of hydrogen atom is -13.6 eV. The
are kinetic energy of an electron in the first
1) the electrons produced as a result of the excited state is
decay of neutrons inside the nucleus 1) 6.8 eV 2) 13.6 eV
2) the electrons produced as a result of 4) 1.7 eV 4) 3.4 eV.
collisions between atoms
3) the electrons orbiting around the nucleus 46. If M(A : Z), Mp and Mn denote the masses
4) the electrons present inside the nucleus. of the nucleus A X, proton and neutron res-
-pectively in units of u (: u = 931.5 MeV/c2)
42. In a mass spectrometer used for Z
and BE represents its bonding energy in
measuring the masses of ions, the ions are MeV, then
initially accelerated by an electric 1) M ( A ,Z) = ZMp+ (A - Z ) Mn - BE
potential V and then made to describe 2) M ( A ,Z) = ZMp+ (A - Z ) Mn+ BE/c2
semicircular paths of radius R using a 3) M ( A ,Z) = ZMp+ (A - Z ) Mn- BE/c2
magnetic field B. If V and B are kept 4) M ( A ,Z) = ZMp+ (A - Z ) Mn+ BE
constant, the ratio

charge on the ion 47. Two nuclei have their mass numbers in the
mass of the ion will be proportional to ratio of 1 : 3. The ratio of their nuclear
densities would be
1) 1/R2 2) R2
1) (3)1/3 : 1 2) 1 : 1
3) R 4) 1/R
3) 1 : 3 4) 3 : 1

43. A nucleus AZX has mass represented by M

48. The ground state energy of hydrogen atom
(A, Z). If Mp and Mn denote the mass of
is -13.6 eV. When its electron is in the first
proton and neutron respectively and B.E.
excited state, its excitation energy is
the binding energy in MeV, then
1) 10.2 eV 2) 0
2
1) B.E. = [ZMp + ( A - Z) Mn - M(A, Z ) c 3) 3.4 eV 4) 6.8 eV
2
2) B.E. = [ZMp + AMn - M(A, Z ) c
3) B.E. = M ( A ,Z) - ZMp-(A, Z ) Mn 49. Two radioactive materials X1 and X2 have
2
4) B.E. = [M ( A, Z) - ZMp -(A - Z ) Mn ]c decay constants 5 and respectively. If
initially they have the same number of
27
44. If the nucleus 13 Al has a nuclear radius of nuclei, then the ratio of the number of
about 3.6 fm, then 125 Te would have its nuclei of X1 to that X2 will be 1/e after a
32
radius approximately as time
1) 9.6 fm 2) 12.0 1) 1/4 2) e/ 

3) 4.8 fm 4) 6.0 fm.

1
3)  4) 
2

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 343

2008
55. The activity of a radioactive sample is
50. In the nuclear decay given below
A
X A
Y A-4
B*  A - 4 B, measured as N0 counts per minute at t = 0
 Z +1
Z Z-1 Z-1
and N0/e counts per minutes at t = 5
the particles emitted in the sequence are
minutes. The time ( in minutes) at which
1)  2) 
3)  4)  the activity reduces to half its value is

1) loge 2 2) 5
51. The number of beta particles emitted by
5 loge2
a radioactive substance is twice the
number of alpha particles emitted by 3) 5log102 4) 5loge2
it. The resulting daughter is an
1) isomer of parent 2) isotone of parent
3) isotope of parent 4) isobar of parent
56. The energy of a hydrogen atom in the
ground state is -13.6 eV. The energy of a
52. In a Rutherford scattering experiment
He+ ion in the first excited state will be
when a projectile of charge z1 and mass
M1 approaches a target nucleus of charge 1) - 13.6 eV 2) -27.2 eV

z2 and mass M 2, the distance of closest 3) -54.4 eV 4) -6.8 eV

approach is r0. The energy of the projectile
is
1) directly proportional to z1z2 1
57. An alpha nucleus of energy mv2
2) inversely proportional to z1 2
3) directly proportional to mass M1 bombards a heavy nuclear target of charge
4) directly proportional to M1X M2 Ze. Then thedistance of closet approach

53. The ionization energy of the electron in the for the alpha nucleus will be proportional

hydrogen atom in its ground state is to

13.6 eV . The atoms are excited to higher
energy levels to emit radiations of 6 1
1) 2) 2
wavelengths . Maximum wavelength of Ze
emitted radiation corresponds to the 1
1
3) 4)
transition between m 4
1) n = 3 to n = 1 states
2) n = 2 to n = 1 states 2010
3) n = 4 to n = 3 states 58. The decay constant of a radio isotope is
4) n = 3 to n = 2states . If A1 and A2 are its activities at times t1
2009 and t2 respectively, the number of nuclei
54. The mass of a 73Li nucleus is 0.042 u less which have decayed during the time
than the sum of the masses of all its (t1 - t2)
nucleons. The binding energy per nucleon
of 37Li nucleus is nearly
1) A1t1 - A2t2 2) A1 - A2
1) 46 MeV 2) 5.6 MeV
3) ( A1 - A2) / 4)  ( A1- A2)
3) 3.9 MeV 4) 23 MeV
CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 344
 2011
2010
63. A radioactive nucleus of mass M emits a
59. The binding energy per nucleon in
photon of frequency  and the nucleus
deuterium and helium nuclei are 1.1 MeV
recoils. The recoil energy will be
and 7.0 MeV, respectively. When two
1) Mc2 - h 2) h22 / 2Mc2
deuterium nuclei fuse to form a helium
3) zero 4) h
nucleus the energy released in the fusion
is
1) 23.6 MeV 2) 2.2 MeV
64. A nucleus X emits one  particle and
3) 28.0 MeV 4) 30.2 MeV
two  - particles. The resulting nucleus is

2011
1) m - 6 Z 2) m - 6 Z
60. The wavelength of the first line of Lyman
series for hydrogen atom is equal to that
3) m - 4 X 4) m - 4 Y
of the second line of Balmer series for a
hydrogen like ion. The atomic number Z
of hydrogen like ion is
65. Fusion
n - 4 reaction takes place at
n high
1) 3 2) 4
temperature because
3) 1 4) 2
1) nuclei break up at high temperature
2) atoms
n get ionised at highntemperature
-2

3) kinetic energy is high enough to overcome

61. The half life of a radioactive isotope X is
the coulomb repulsion between nuclei
50 years. It decays to another element Y
4) molecules break up at high temperature
which is stable. The two elements X and Y
were found to be in the ratio of 1 : 15 in a
sample of a given rock. The age of the rock
66. An electron in the hydrogen atom jumps
was estimated to be
from excited state n to the ground state.
1) 150 years 2) 200 years
The wavelength so emitted illuminates a
3) 250 years 4) 100 years
photosensitive material having work
function 2.75 eV, if the stopping potential
of the photoelectron is 10 V, then the value
62. The power obtained in a reactor using U235
of n is
disintegration is 1000 kW. The mass decay
1) 2 2) 3
of U235 per hour is
3) 4 4) 5
1) 10 microgram
2) 20 microgram
3) 40 microgram
4) 1 microgram

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 345

2011
67. Two radioactive nuclei P and Q in a given 71. A mixture consists of two radioactive

sample decay into a stable nucleus R. At materials A1 and A2 with half lives of 20s

time t =0, number of P species are 4 N0 and and 10s respectively. Initially the mixture

that of Q are N0. Half - life of P ( for conve- has 40 g of A1 and 160 g of A2. The amount

-rsion to R ) is 1 minute where as that of of the two in the mixture will become equal

Q is 2 minutes. Initially there are no nuclei after

of R present in the sample. When number 1) 60s 2) 80s

of nuclei of P and Q are equal, the number 3) 20s 4) 40s

of nuclei of R present in the sample would

be
72. An electron of a stationary hydrogen atom

1) 2N0 2) 3N0 passes from the fifth energy level to the

ground level. The velocity that the atom
9N0 5N0
3) 4) acquired as a result of photon emission
2 2
will be

24hR 25hR
68. Out of the following which one is not 1) 2)
25m 24m
possible energy for a photon to be emitted
by hydrogen atom according to Bohr’s
25m 24m
atomic model? 3) 4)
24hR 25hR
1) 0.65 eV 2) 1.9 eV
3) 11.1 eV 4) 13.6 eV (m is the mass of the electron, R, Rydberg
constant and h Planck’s constant)

2012
69. Electron, in hydrogen atom first jumps from
third excited state to second excited state 73. The transition from the state n = 3 to n = 1

and then from second excited to the first in a hydrogen like atom results in ultravio-

excited state. The ratio of the wavelength -let radiation. Infrared radiation will be

1 : 2 emitted in the two cases is obtained in the transition from

1) 2  1 2) 3  2
7 27 3) 4  2 4) 4  3
1) 2)
5 20

3) 27 4) 20
5 7
74. The half life of a radioactive nucleus is 50

days. The time interval (t2 - t1) between

27
70. If the nuclear radius of Al is 3.6 fermi, the time t2 when of it has decayed and
64
the approximate nuclear radius of Cu in
the time t1 when of it had decayed is
fermi is 1) 30 days 2) 50 days
1) 2.4 2) 1.2 3) 4.8 4) 3.6 3) 60 days 4) 15 days
CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 346
2013
2015
75. Ratio of longest wave length corresponding 27
80. If radius of the Al nucleus is taken to be
13
125
to Lyman and Balmer series in hydrogen
RAl, then the radius of 53
Te nucleus is nearly :
spectrum is
1) 3/5 RAl 2) (13/53)1/3 RAl
1) 7/29 2) 9/31
3) (53/13)1/3 RAl 4) 5/3 RAl
2) 5/27 4) 3/23

76. A certain mass of Hydrogen is changed to 81. A nucleus of uranium decays at rest into
Helium by the process of fusion. The mass nuclei of thorium and helium. Then :
defect in fusion reaction is 0.02866 u. 1) The helium nucleus has less kinetic energy
The energy liberated per u is than the thorium nucleus
(given 1 u = 931 MeV) 2) The helium has more kinetic energy than the
1) 6.675 MeV 2) 13.35 MeV thorium nucleus
3) 2.67 MeV 4) 26.7 MeV 3) The helium nucleus has less momentum than
the thorium nucleus
77. The half life of a radioactive isotope ‘X’; is 4) The helium nucleus has more momentum than
20 years. It decays to another element ‘Y’ the thorium nucleus.
which is stable. The two elements ‘X’ and ‘Y’
were found to be in the ratio 1:7 in a sample 2016 NEET - II
of a given rock. The age of the rock is esti- 82. The half-life of a radioactive substance is 30
mated to be minutes. The time (in minutes) taken
1) 80 years 2) 100 years between 40% decay and 85% decay of the
3) 40 years 4) 60 years same radioactive substance is
1) 45 2) 60 3) 15 4) 30
2014
7
78. The Binding energy per nucleon of Li and
3 2017
4
2
He nuclei are 5.60 MeV and 7.06 MeV,
83. Radioactive material' A' has decay constant
respectively. In the nuclear reaction
'8 A' and material 'B' has decay constant 'A'.
7
Li + 1
H  He + Q, the value of energy Q
3 1 Initially they have same number of nuclei.
released is :
After what time, the ratio of number of nuclei
1) 19.6 MeV 2) -2.4 MeV
1
3) 8.4 MeV 4) 17.3 MeV of material 'B' to that ‘A’ will be
e
1 1 1 1
9 1) 2) 3) 4)
79. A radio isotope ‘X’ with a half life 1.4 x 10 8 9  7
years decays to ‘Y’ which is stable. A sample
2019
of the rock from a cave was found to contain
84. The total energy of an electron in an atom in
‘X’ and ‘Y’ in the ratio 1:7. The age of the
an orbit is -3.4 eV. Its kinetic and potential
rock is : energies are respectively :
2
1) 1.96 x 109 years 2) 3.92 x 109 years 1) -3.4 eV, -3.4 eV 2) -3.4 eV, -6.8 eV
3
3) 3.4 eV, -6.8 eV 4) 3.4 eV, 3.4 eV
1
3) 4.20 x 109 years 4) 8.40 x 109 years
3

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 347

85. -particle consists of :
1) 2 protons and 2 neutrons only
2) 2 electrons, 2 protons and 2 neutrons
3) 2 electrons and 4 protons only
4) 2 protons only

2020
86. For which one of the following, Bohr model
in not valid ?
1) Singly ionised neon atom (Ne+)
2) Hydrogen atom
3) Singly ionised helium atom (He+)
4) Deuteron atom

235
87. When a uranium isotope U is bombarded
92

89
with a neutron, it generates 36 Kr , three
neutrons and :
103 144
1) 36 Kr 2) 56 Ba

91 101
3) 40 Zr 4) 36 Kr

88. The energy required to break one bond in

DNA is 10-20 J. This value in eV is nearly :
1) 0.006 2) 6
3) 0.6 4) 0.06

89. The energy equivalent of 0.5 g of a

substance is :
1) 0.5 x 1013 J 2) 4.5 x 1016 J
3) 4.5 x 1013 J 4) 1.5 x 1013 J

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 348

 SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS
Introduction: The landmark discovery of an electron in physics has led to a great
technological advances. As an electron is a light particle carrying negative charge,
can be made to attain high speed. In fact, an electron can be made to acquire speed
nearing the speed of light in free space. And, due to the application of electric and
magnetic fields, its direction can be easily changed as desired. Any device whose
action is based on the controlled flow of electrons through it is called an electronic
device. The branch of physics which deals with the study of the electronic devices is
called electronics. The electronic devices are the basic building blocks of all the
electronic circuits. The electronic devices are of two types: Vacuum tubes and Solid
state electronic devices. The vacuum tubes include diodes, triodes and pentodes.
On the other hand, semiconductors are the basic materials used in the present solid
electronic devices such as junction diode, transistor and integrated circuits(IC).The
semiconductor devices have replaced thermionic devices or vacuum tubes. In
vacuum tubes, the mobile electrons were obtained from a heated cathode and were
made to flow in an evacuated space. But the supply and flow of charges in the
semiconductor devices are within the solid itself. Moreover no external heating or
large evacuated space is required by the semiconductor devices. The Cathode Ray
Tube (CRT) used in television and computer monitors which work on the principle of
vacuum tubes are being replaced by Liquid Crystal Display(LCD) monitors. The
advantages of semiconductor devices over vacuum tubes are: low space requirement
(small in size), low power consumption, low operating voltages, high reliability and
long life. The semiconductor junctions led to the discovery of integrated circuits which
have revolutionized the electronic industry.

In this unit, the concept of semiconductor physics, the semiconductor diodes and
junction transistors are discussed in depth.

Classification of solids: On the basis of electrical conductivity or resistivity, the

solids are classified into Metals, Semiconductors and Insulators.

Metals: The solids having high conductivity or low resistivity are called metals. The
conductivity of metals lies in between 102 Sm-1 to 108Sm-1 and resistivity in between
10-2 m to 10-8 m .

Note:
1. The metals are good conductors of heat and electricity.
2. Due to the presence of a large number of free electrons, the metals possess high
electrical conductivity.
3. The examples of metals are: copper, aluminum and silver.

Insulators: The solids having low conductivity or high resistivity are called insulators.
The conductivity of insulators lies in between10-11Sm-1 to10-19Sm-1 and resistivity in
between 1011 m to 1019 m .

Note:
1. The insulators are bad conductors of heat and electricity.
2. Due to the absence of free electrons, the insulators possess low electrical
conductivity.
3. The examples of insulators are: plastic, rubber and glass.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P. U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 349

Semiconductors: The solids having conductivity and resistivity intermediate to
metals and insulators are called semiconductors. The conductivity of semiconductors
lies in between 105 Sm-1 to 10-6Sm-1 and resistivity in between 10-5 m to 106 m .
Note:
1. The semiconductors are neither metals nor insulators.
2. Due to the presence of very few free electrons at room temperature, the
semiconductors have electrical conductivity in between metals and insulators. For
all practical purposes, the semiconductors at room temperature can considered
as insulators.
3. The semiconductors have negative temperature co-efficient of resistance.
4. The semiconductors are tetravalent.
5. The examples of semiconductors are: germanium, silicon and carbon.

Energy bands in solids: In a single isolated atom, the electrons in any orbit possess
definite energy. When a large number of atoms are brought closer to one another,
then they begin to influence each other. As a result , the energy levels of each atom
are disturbed slightly and each energy level splits into a large number of levels. In
other words, each energy level of a single atom is broadened forming a group of
closely packed energy levels known as energy band.

Energy band: The group of closely spaced energy levels is called energy band.

Valence band: The energy band which includes the energy levels of valence
electrons is called valence band.

Conduction band: The energy band which includes the energy levels of free
electrons is called conduction band or the energy band above the valence band is
called conduction band.

Forbidden energy gap(Eg):The gap between the top of the valence band and
bottom of the conduction band is called forbidden energy gap.

The electron of a solid does not have allowed energy state in the forbidden energy
gap. Therefore, the electron does not stay in this gap. If the forbidden energy gap is
more, then the valence electrons are tightly bound to the nucleus. An external energy
equal to the forbidden energy gap should be supplied, to push an electron from the
valence band to the conduction band.

Note: The forbidden energy gap (Eg) may be zero, small or large. It is expressed in
electron volt (eV). For metals: Eg=0, for insulators: Eg>3eV and for semiconductors:
Eg<3eV.

Energy band description of metals :.In metal, either the conduction band is
partially filled and valence band is partially empty or the conduction band and the
valence band overlap each other so that forbidden energy gap becomes zero(Eg=0).
When there is overlapping, the electrons from the valence band can easily move into
the conduction band. This leads to availability of a large number of electrons for
electrical conduction. Therefore, a small potential difference across a metal
constitutes a large electric current. These materials possess high electric and thermal
conductivities. Thus, the electrical behavior of metals can be explained on the basis
of band theory of solids. The following figures show the energy band description of
metals.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P. U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 350

Energy band description of insulators : In insulator, the valence electrons are
tightly bound to the nucleus. Therefore, a
large amount of energy is required to push
electrons from valence band to the
conduction band. It is for this reason, the
electrical conductivity of insulators is
extremely small. Hence in insulators, the
tightly bound valence electrons are present
and free electrons are absent. Therefore,
the valence band is completely filled and the
conduction band is empty with a large forbidden energy gap of Eg>3eV. Therefore, a
very high electric field is required to push the valence electrons to the conduction
band. It is due to this reason, the electrical conductivity of such materials is very low
and electrical resistivity is extremely large. This is the case of insulators. Thus, the
electrical behavior of insulators can be explained on the basis of band theory of
solids. The following figure shows the energy band description of insulators.

Energy band description of semiconductors:

As the electrical conductivity of semiconductors
lies in between that of metals and insulators. ,
the valence band is almost filled and the
conduction band almost empty with a small
forbidden energy gap of Eg<3eV.Because of the
small forbidden energy gap, at room
temperature some electrons from the valence
band can acquire enough energy to cross the energy gap and enter into the
conduction band. It is due to this reason, the electrical conductivity of such materials
is not as high as that of metals. This is the case of semiconductors. Thus, the
electrical behavior of semiconductors can be explained on the basis of band theory of
solids. The following figure shows the energy band description of semiconductors.

Doping: The process of addition of a proper impurity to a pure semiconductor to

increase its conductivity is called doping.

Types of semiconductors: Intrinsic and Extrinsic semiconductors.

Intrinsic semiconductor: A semiconductor in its purest form is called intrinsic

semiconductor.
Examples: Germanium and silicon.

Effect of temperature on the conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor: The

behaviour of semiconductor changes remarkably with change in its temperature.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P. U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 351

At absolute zero: At absolute zero, the inner orbit electrons are bound whereas the
valence electrons are engaged in the formation of covalent bonds. The covalent
bonds are very strong at this temperature and there are no free electrons available
for conduction. Hence, the semiconductor behaves as a perfect insulator at absolute
zero temperature.

Above absolute zero: When the temperature is increased, some of the covalent
bonds break due to the thermal energy supplied. As a result, the valence electrons
engaged in the formation of covalent bonds are made free. As the temperature
increases, some valence electrons gain sufficient energy to enter into the conduction
band and thus they become free electrons. These free electrons constitute an electric
current, when an electric field is applied across the semiconductor. Hence, the
semiconductor behaves as a conductor above absolute zero temperature.

Note:
1. A hole is created in the valence band, when a valence electron enters into the
conduction band.
2. The number of free electrons in the conduction band is equal to number of holes
in the valence band.

Carrier concentration in an intrinsic semiconductor: In an intrinsic

semiconductor, number of free electrons is equal to number of holes. Therefore,
electron density(ne) and hole density (nh) are equal.

ne=nh=ni and nenh=ni2 Where: ni= intrinsic carrier concentration.

Electrical conduction in an
intrinsic semiconductor: When an
electric field is applied across the A B
block of an intrinsic semiconductor, = Free electron
then the free electrons in the = hole
conduction band and the holes in + –
valence band move in opposite
V
directions. The holes moving in the
direction of the applied field
constitute hole current whereas the
free electrons moving in the opposite
direction of the field produce electron
current.
Thus, under the influence of the electric field, the current conduction through an
intrinsic semiconductor takes place both by free electrons and holes. Therefore, the
total current(I) is the sum of electron current(Ie) and the hole current (Ih).

I=Ie+Ih

It may be noted here that in addition to the process of generation of free electrons
and holes, a simultaneous process of recombination of free electrons and holes
takes place. The recombination occurs due to the collision between an electron and a
hole. Therefore, the rate of generation is equal to the rate of recombination of charge
carriers in equilibrium.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P. U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 352

Energy band description of an intrinsic semiconductor:
At absolute zero: In intrinsic semiconductor at
absolute temperature, the conduction band is
empty and the valence band is filled with
valence electrons as shown in the following
figure.

Above absolute zero: In intrinsic semiconductor

above absolute temperature, the conduction band is
partially filled with free electrons and the valence
band is partially filled with holes (equal to number
free electrons in the conduction band) and
valence electrons as shown in the following figure.

Extrinsic semiconductors: The impurity added semiconductors are called extrinsic

(impurity or doped) semiconductors.
At room temperature, the conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor is very low and
limited. Due to it, important electronic devices cannot be developed using these
semiconductors. Hence, the conductivity of this pure semiconductor must be
increased. This can be achieved by adding a suitable impurity to an intrinsic
semiconductor. When a small amount (parts per million=ppm) of a proper impurity is
added to a pure semiconductor, then its conductivity increases remarkably. Such
impurity added semiconductors are known as extrinsic semiconductors or impurity
semiconductors or doped semiconductors. The deliberate addition of a desirable
impurity to an intrinsic semiconductor to enhance its conductivity is called doping
and the impurity atoms are called dopants. The dopants should not distort the
original semiconductor atom sites in the crystal. To attain this, the sizes of the
dopants and that of semiconductor atoms should be nearly the same. There are two
types of dopants used in doping the tetravalent semiconductors (Germanium-Ge and
silicon-Si).

Pentavalent dopants: Arsenic(As), Antimony(Sb) and Phosphorous(P) &Trivalent

dopants: Indium(In), Boron(B) and Aluminum (Al).

The addition of pentavalent impurity to a pure semiconductor produces n type

semiconductor and the addition of trivalent impurity produces p type
semiconductor. Therefore, the extrinsic semiconductors are of two types: n-type &
p-type.
n type semiconductor: When a pentavalent Ge
impurity is added to a semiconductor, the
resultant semiconductor is called n-type
semiconductor. When a pentavalent impurity
is added to the tetravalent semiconductor, Ge As Ge
four electrons of impurity and four electrons
of semiconductor atoms form co-valent Free eletron

bonds. The fifth electron of the impurity does

not find place in the co-valent bond. This Ge
electron is called free electron. The charge
on the free electron is negative and the resultant semiconductor is called n-type
semiconductor. Hence the addition of pentavalent impurity provides a large
number of free electrons.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P. U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 353

At room temperature, some of the co-valent bonds between the impurity and the
semiconductor are broken. As a result some holes are created in the covalent bonds.
These holes are produced due to thermal energy. Therefore they are known as
thermally generated charge carriers. As the addition of pentavalent impurity to a
semiconductor provides a large number of free electrons, the free electrons are
majority charge carriers inn-type semiconductor. Since the thermally generated
charge carriers are less in number, therefore holes are minority charge carriers in n-
type semiconductor.

Energy band description of n-type

Conduction band
semiconductor: When pentavalent = hole electron
(donor) impurities are added to the
semiconductor, its four valence 0.045eV
electrons participate in the formation of Donor energy level

covalent bonds with the neighboring

semiconductor and the fifth extra
= hole
electron is left. This extra electron is
very weakly attached by the donor
impurity. A very small energy is required to free this electron from the donor impurity.
When this electron is made free, then it occupies the lowest energy level in the
conduction band and this extra energy level created due to the pentavalent impurity
atom is called donor energy level. The energy difference between the donor energy
level and the bottom of the conduction band is very small. For germanium, the donor
energy level lies at 0.01eV and for silicon, it lies at 0.045eV below the bottom of the
conduction band. As a result, the donor energy level lies just below the conduction
band as shown in the following figure. The electrons sitting at the donor energy level
acquire sufficient thermal energy even at room temperature and are pushed into the
conduction band. In this way, the addition of pentavalent impurity to a pure
semiconductor increases the number of free electrons in the conduction band. These
free electrons in the conduction band are responsible for the conduction of current in
the n-type semiconductor and thereby the conduction band becomes an electron
conducting band. Hence, the conductivity of n-type semiconductor increases
remarkably. In n-type semiconductor, the conduction band has more free electrons
than holes in the valence band. Thus, in n-type semiconductor, free electrons are
majority charge carriers and holes are minority charge carriers. Therefore, the
conduction band is completely filled with free electrons and valence band is partially
filled with holes with a small forbidden energy gap between them.

In an extrinsic semiconductor doped with pentavalent impurity, free electrons become

majority charge carriers and holes the minority charge carriers. Thus for n-type
semiconductors: ne  nh .

Note: When the fifth electron of the pentavalent impurity is transferred to the
conduction band, the impurity atom becomes an immobile positive ion. For each
pentavalent impurity atom, there is a free electron in the conduction band but there is
no corresponding hole in the valence band. Hence the pentavalent impurity atom is
called donor impurity and n-type semiconductor formed due to addition of
pentavalent impurity, is called donor type semiconductor.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P. U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 354

p-type semiconductor: When a trivalent
Ge
impurity is added to a semiconductor, the
resultant semiconductor is called p-type
semiconductor. When a small amount of
trivalent impurity is added to a
semiconductor, three electrons of Ge Ga Ge

impurity and the three electrons of

Missing electron (hole)
semiconductor atoms form three covalent
bonds .The fourth covalent bond between
the impurity and the semiconductor is Ge

incomplete due to deficiency of electron.

The electron in this bond is said to be missed. And this missing electron is called
hole. The charge on the hole is positive and the resultant semiconductor is called p-
type semiconductor. Since the addition of trivalent impurity to a semiconductor
provides a large number of holes, the holes are majority charge carriers in p-type
semiconductor. At room temperature, some of the co-valent bonds between the
semiconductor and the impurity are broken. As a result, some electrons are made
free. Since these free electrons produced due to thermal energy are less in number,
therefore free electrons are minority charge carriers in p-type semiconductor.

Energy band description of p-type

= Free electron Conduction band
semiconductor: When trivalent (acceptor)
impurities are added to the semiconductor,
its three valence electrons participate in
Acceptor energy level
the formation of covalent bonds with the 0.04eV
neighboring semiconductor atoms and one
= hole Valence bond
vacancy is created due to deficiency of an
electron in the fourth bond. The hole
created by each acceptor impurity can be easily filled by an electron of covalent
bond. A very small energy is required by an electron of the valence band to move into
this hole. The energy level corresponding to holes in p-type semiconductor lies just
above the top of the valence band. This energy level is known as acceptor energy
level. The energy difference between the acceptor energy level and the highest
energy level of valence band is very small.
For germanium, the acceptor energy level lies at 0.01eV and for silicon, it lies at
0.045eVabove the top of the valence band. As a result, the acceptor energy level lies
just above the valence band as shown in the following figure. The electrons in the
valence band acquire sufficient thermal energy even at room temperature and are
pushed into the acceptor energy level. This creates a large number of holes in the
valence band.
Alternately, due to the supply of small thermal energy at room temperature, the
holes from the acceptor energy level fall down into the valence band. In other
words, the electrons rise up and the holes fall down, when they acquire
external energy. In this way, the addition of trivalent impurity to a pure
semiconductor increases the number of holes in the valence band. These holes in
the valence band are responsible for the conduction of current in the p-type
semiconductor and thereby the valence band becomes a hole conducting band.
Hence, the conductivity of p-type semiconductor increases remarkably. In p-type
semiconductor, the valence band has more holes than free electrons in the
conduction band. Thus, in p-type semiconductor, holes are majority charge carriers
and free electrons are minority charge carriers. Therefore, valence band is
completely filled with holes and the conduction band is partially filled with free
electrons with a small forbidden energy gap between them.
CHETAN & SACHETAN P. U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 355
In an extrinsic semiconductor doped with trivalent impurity, holes become majority
charge carriers and electrons the minority charge carriers. Thus for p-type
semiconductors: nh  ne .

Note: When the trivalent impurity atom accepts an electron from the neighborhood,
the impurity atom becomes an immobile negative ion. For each trivalent impurity,
there is a hole in the valence band but there is no corresponding free electron in the
conduction band. Hence, the trivalent impurity atom is called acceptor impurity and p-
type semiconductor formed due to the addition of trivalent impurity, is called
acceptor type semiconductor.

Note:
1. The electron concentration and the hole concentration in an extrinsic
semiconductor in thermal equilibrium is given by:
ne nh  ni2
Where:
ne electron density( number of electrons per unit volume).
nh  hole density( number of holes per unit volume).
ni  intrinsic carrier concentration.

2. The electrical conductivity of semiconductor is given by:

  ene e  nh h 

Where:
e  magnitude of charge.
e  electron mobility.
h  hole mobility.

Distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductor.

Intrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor

1. It is a semiconductor in pure form. 1. It is a semiconductor doped with
an impurity.
2. Electron density and hole density 2. Electron density and hole density
are equal are not equal.
3. The electrical conductivity is low 3. The electrical conductivity is high.
4. The conductivity depends on 4. The conductivity depends on
temperature. temperature & amount of impurity
5. The conductivity is due to both 5. The conductivity is due to majority
electrons and holes. charge carriers.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P. U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 356

Distinction between n-type & p-type semiconductor:

n-type Semiconductor p-type Semiconductor

1. It is formed when a pentavalent 1. It is formed when a trivalent impurity is
impurity is added to an intrinsic added to an intrinsic semiconductor.
semiconductor.
2. Free electrons are majority charge 2. Holes are majority charge carriers and
carriers and holes are minority free electrons are minority charge
charge carriers. carriers.
3. The electrical conductivity is mainly 3. The electrical conductivity is mainly
due to free electrons. due to holes.
4. The conduction band is filled with 4. The conduction band is partially filled
free electrons and valence band is with free electrons and valence band is
partially filled with holes. filled with holes.
5. Donor energy level is below the 5. Accepter energy level is above the
conduction band. valence band.
6. It is called donor type semiconductor 6. It is called acceptor type
semiconductor

Formation of p-n junction: When a p-type semiconductor is suitably joined to a

n-type semiconductor, the P
_ + N
= Free electron
contact surface between _ +
_ _ _ _ + + + +
them is called p-n junction.
_ +
_ _ _ _ + + + +
+
During the formation of a p-n
_ Depletion layer
junction, the two important
processes that take place are
diffusion and drift. V0= Barrier potential

1. The n-type semiconductor has a higher concentration of free electrons and p-type
semiconductor has greater concentration of holes. At the junction, there is a
tendency for the free electrons to diffuse over to the p-side and holes to the n-
side. This process is called diffusion.
2. As the free electrons move across the junction from n-type to p-type, they leave
behind positive donor ions on n-side. These positive donor ions are immobile as
they are bonded to the surrounding atoms. As the electrons continue to diffuse
from n type to p type, a layer of positive charge (positive space- charge region)
on the n-side of the junction is developed.
3. As the holes move across the junction from p-type to n-type, they leave behind
negative acceptor ions on p-side. These negative acceptor ions are immobile as
they are bonded to the surrounding atoms. As the holes continue to diffuse from p
type to n type, a layer of negative charge(negative space- charge region) on
the p-side of the junction is developed.
4. The space charge region on either side of the junction where the immobile ions
are present and in which the majority charge carriers are depleted is known as
depletion region (layer).
5. The thickness of the depletion region is of the order of one tenth of a
micrometer.
CHETAN & SACHETAN P. U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 357
6. Due to the development of positive space charge region on the n-side of junction
and negative space charge region on the p-side of junction, an electric field is
developed across the junction which acts as a barrier for the further flow of
majority charge carriers.
7. It is because a positive charge on n-side repels holes to cross from p-type to n-
type and a negative on p-side repels free electrons to enter from n-type to p-type.
8. Thus, a barrier is set-up against the movement of majority charge carriers due to
the potential difference as shown in the following figure. This potential difference
is called barrier potential or contact potential or junction potential (V 0). For
germanium, the barrier potential is 0.3V, for silicon it is 0.7V.The value of potential
barrier depends on doping density and temperature.
9. Due to this electric field, an electron on the p-
side of the junction moves to p-side and a hole
on n-side of the junction moves to p-side. The
motion of these charge carriers due to the
electric field is called drift. Thus a drift current
flows in the opposite direction of diffusion
current as shown in the figure.

10. The drift current is small and the diffusion current is large in the beginning. As the
diffusion process continues, the drift current increases. And diffusion current
decreases. This process continues until the drift current and diffusion current
become equal. When this stage is attained, the movement of majority charge
carriers stops and the p-n junction is formed. The p-n junction is said to be in
equilibrium state and there is no current across the junction. At this stage, the
potential barrier across the junction becomes maximum. It means that the barrier
potential prevents the diffusion of majority charge carriers across the junction.
11. Outside the depletion layer, the material is neutral.
P N
Forward biasing: When p-type is
connected to positive terminal of
battery and n-type to negative
terminal, the p-n junction is said to
be forward biased. The forward + –
potential across the junction
establishes an electric field which
acts against the field due to
potential barrier. Because, there is a force of repulsion between the terminals of
external battery and the holes and electrons. Due to this, the holes and electrons are
forced to move towards the junction. This decreases the width of the depletion layer
as well as height of the potential barrier. If the applied voltage is equal to or greater
than the barrier voltage, then the height of the barrier is reduced to zero. And the
diffusion of charge carriers takes place. This gives rise to current. The current is
called forward current. The applied voltage is called forward voltage. Thus, when
the p-n junction gets forward biased, current flows through the circuit and a low
resistance path is established for the flow of current.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P. U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 358

Reverse biasing: When p-type semiconductor is connected to negative terminal and
n-type semiconductor is connected P – Vo + N
to positive terminal of battery, the
pn junction is said to be reverse
biased. The reverse potential
across the junction establishes an
electric field in the same direction of +
–
the field due to potential barrier.
Because, there is a force of
Height of the
attraction between the terminals of
battery and holes and electrons, potential barrier
due to this, the electric field which opposes the diffusion of charge carriers becomes
very strong. This increases the width of the depletion layer as well as height of the
potential barrier. And no current flows in the circuit. The applied voltage is called
reverse voltage. Thus, when p-n junction gets reverse biased no current flows
through the circuit and a high resistance path is established for the flow of current.

Reverse saturation current and breakdown voltage: When the diode gets reverse
biased, there is no flow of current across the junction due to majority charge carriers.
However, a very small current of the order of micro ampere flows in the opposite
direction. This current is called reverse current or leakage current. The reverse
current is due to undesirable minority charge carriers in both the regions(free
electrons in p-type semiconductor and holes n-type semiconductor).For these
minority charge carriers, the applied reverse voltage acts as forward voltage. Thus, a
current of small magnitude due to minority charge carriers flows in the opposite
direction of conventional current due to the majority charge carriers. If the reverse
voltage across the junction is gradually increased, the reverse current also increases.
For a particular reverse voltage, there is sudden rise in the reverse current. This
extremely high reverse voltage at which the breakdown of the junction occurs and
there is an abrupt rise in the reverse current is called breakdown voltage.

At the breakdown voltage, a large amount of covalent bonds in p and n-regions are
broken. Due to this, large number of electron –hole pairs are produced. These
electron-hole pairs diffuse into the junction and lead to a sharp increase in the
reverse current. As a result of this abrupt rise in the reverse current, the p-n junction
gets damaged because of overheating. Therefore, the normal p-n junction diodes are
never used beyond the reverse saturation current region, otherwise they get burnt out
due to flow of large reverse currents.

V-I(volt-ampere) characteristics of a p-n

junction diode: The V-I characteristics is a graph
of voltage applied across the p-n junction and the
current flowing through the junction. There are
two types of V-I characteristics of a p-n junction
diode: Forward characteristics and Reverse
characteristics.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P. U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 359

The circuit arrangement to study the V-I
characteristics of a diode is shown in the following
figure.

A battery is connected to a diode through

a rheostat to change the applied voltage
across the diode. For different values of
voltages,, the value of current is noted. A
milli-ammeter mA is used for measuring
current in forward bias, as the expected
current is large. While a micrometer A is
used for measuring current in reverse
bias, as the current is very small. A graph
between V and I is plotted.

From the graph it is clear that, when the diode gets forward biased, the current
through it increases very slowly till the voltage across the diode crosses a certain
value. After the characteristic voltage, the current increases significantly even for a
small increase in bias voltage. This forward voltage is called the threshold voltage
or cut-in voltage or knee voltage. The cut–in voltage for germanium diode is 0.2V
and it is 0.7V for silicon diode. It can be concluded from the graph that when the
diode gets reverse biased, the current is very small and almost remains constant with
change in bias voltage. The general purpose diode is not used beyond the reverse
saturation current region.
Dynamic and Static resistance of a p-n junction diode: The diode cannot behave
as a perfect conductor when forward biased. It always offers some resistance. The
resistance offered by a p-n junction diode under forward bias is called forward
resistance. The diode has two forward resistances: Dynamic resistance and Static
resistance.

Dynamic resistance (ac resistance): The dynamic resistance of a diode rd  is

defined as the ratio of small change in voltage V to the small change in current I .
V
rd 
I
Static resistance (dc resistance): The static resistance of a diode rs  is defined as
the ratio of dc voltage across the diode V to the direct current flowing through it I  .
V
rs 
I
Note: The current through a p-n junction diode does not change linearly with the
applied voltage and the diode does not obey ohm’s law. Therefore, p-n junction diode
is a non-ohmic device.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P. U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 360

Distinction between forward bias and reverse bias:

Forward bias Reverse bias

1. In forward bias, p-type 1. In reverse bias, p-type semiconductor
semiconductor is connected to is connected to negative of the battery
positive of the battery and n-type is and n-type is connected to positive of
connected to negative of the the battery.
battery.
2. Current is due to majority charge 2. Current is due to minority charge
carriers. carriers.
3. Thickness of the depletion layer 3. Thickness of the depletion layer
decreases with increase in bias increases with increase in bias voltage.
voltage.
4. Diode offers low resistance to the 4. Diode offers high resistance to the flow
flow of current. of current.

pn junction diode(semiconductor diode):A

semiconductor diode is basically p-n junction
with metallic contacts provided at the ends of
for the application of an external voltage.

Symbol for pn junction diode(semiconductor diode):A p-n junction diode is

symbolically represented as shown in following figure.

The direction of the arrow indicates the direction of the conventional current when the
diode is forward biased.

Ideal diode: The diode is said to be ideal, if it conducts when forward biased and
does not conduct when reverse biased. The ideal diode acts as short circuit when
biased and open circuit when reverse biased.

Rectification: The p-n junction diode allows the flow of current through it only in one
direction, when forward biased and does not allow the current through it, when
reverse biased. It is due to the fact that the forward bias resistance is low as
compared to the reverse bias resistance. This unidirectional characteristic property of
the diode is used to achieve rectification.

The process of conversion of ac voltage into dc voltage is called rectification

and the device used to achieve rectification is called rectifier.

Working of pn junction diode as a half wave rectifier: AC voltage to be converted

into dc is given to the primary of the transformer T and across the secondary, a
series combination of a diode D and a load resistance is placed. During positive half
of ac, the diode becomes forward biased and during negative half the diode gets
reverse biased. Therefore only positive half of AC voltage is converted into dc
voltage. The diode used in this manner is called half wave rectifier The input and
output wave forms are shown below.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P. U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 361

 D
T

AC P S RL

Working of p-n junction diode as a full wave rectifier:

T D1

S
RL
AC P D
C
Output

D2

The AC voltage to be converted into dc is applied across the primary P. Between the
points C and D, a load resistance is placed. The point C on the secondary is called
centre tapped point. The diodes D1 and D2 are connected as shown in the circuit
diagram. During positive half of ac, D1 becomes forward biased and D2 gets reverse
biased. Therefore, positive half of ac is converted into dc by D1 .During negative half
of ac, D2 becomes forward biased and D1 becomes reverse biased. Therefore,
negative half of ac is converted into dc by D2.Thus, there is a full wave
rectification.
Zener diode: A properly doped diode which has a sharp break down voltage is called zener diode.
When the reverse voltage across the diode is increased, a critical voltage called break down voltage is
reached. At the break down voltage, there is a sudden rise in the reverse current. The satisfactory
explanation for the break down of the junction was first given by Zener. Therefore the break down
voltage is called zener voltage and the sudden rise in the reverse current is called zener current. The
break down voltage depends on the amount of doping. A heavily doped diode, has lower break down
voltage and a lightly doped diode has a higher break down voltage.

Symbol of Zener diode

Note:
1. A zener diode is always reverse biased.
2. A zener diode can be used as a voltage regulator.

V-I Characteristics of Zener diode:

CHETAN & SACHETAN P. U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 362

Zener diode as a voltage regulator:

The unregulated dc voltage VL is applied to the Zener diode through a series resistance Rs such
that the Zener diode is reverse biased. If the input voltage increases, the current through R s and Zener
diode increases. This increases the voltage drop
across Rs without any change in the voltage across
the Zener diode. Similarly, if the input voltage
decreases, the current through Rs and Zener diode
decreases. This decreases the voltage drop across
Rs without any change in the voltage across the
Zener diode. Thus, whether the input voltage
increases or decreases, the voltage across the Zener
diode VZ ( and the load resistor RL) remains constant.
In this way, the Zener diode acts as a voltage
regulator.
Solar cell: A solar cell is a p-n junction which
produces emf when solar radiation falls on the p-n junction.It works on the principle of photovoltaic
effect which states that photoelectric emission can create a potential difference.The pn junction of the
solar cell consists of a large junction with no biasing. The p-layer of the cell is made thin so that the
incident photon penetrates to reach the junction. When the photons of energy greater than the
forbidden gap are made incident on the junction, electron-hole pairs are produced. These pairs move
in the opposite directions due to the barrier field. These are collected at the two sides of the junction.
Due to this, p-side becomes positive and n-side becomes negative. As a result, photo voltage is
created which gives rise to current when an external load is connected as shown in the figure.

I-V Characteristics of a solar cell:

The I-V Characteristics of a solar cell is drawn

in the fourth quadrant of the coordinate axes,
as the cell does not draw the current but
supplies the same to the load.

Criteria for the selection of a material for solar cell fabrication:

1. band gap of 1eV-1.8eV.
2. high optical absorption.
3. electrical conductivity.
4. availability of the raw material.
5. cost.

Note: Sun light is not always required for a solar cell.

Uses of solar cells:

1. Solar cells are used in satellites and space vehicles to recharge their batteries.
2. They are used as power supply to calculators.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P. U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 363

Light Emitting Diode (LED):A forward biased pn junction
diode that emits light is called light emitting diode.LED
works on the principle that energy is emitted due the
recombination of an electron and a hole. When a diode RL

gets forward biased, recombination of electrons and holes

takes at the junction. Due to the recombination of + –

electrons and holes, the electrons from the higher energy

level[ conduction band] fall into the lower energy level [valence band]. As a result, the
difference in energy equal to the forbidden energy gap between the conduction and
valence band is emitted.
Symbol of LED:

I-V Characteristics of LED:

Advantages of LEDs over conventional lamps:
1. Low operational voltage and less
IF(mA)

power
2. Fast action and no warm up time
required it is nearly monochromatic
3. Long life and ruggedness VR(V)
O
VF(V)

4. Fast ON-OFF switching capability.

IR( A)

Applications of LED: The LEDs are used:

: in remote controls, burglar alarm systems and optical communication.

: display devices such as watches and calculators.
: CD player.
: flash light and back light for LCD screen.

Photodiode: A photodiode is a p-n junction diode fabricated with a transparent

window to allow light to fall on the diode. The photodiode works in reverse biasing. A
photo diode works on the principle that when a reverse biased p-n junction is
illuminated with light of energy greater than the forbidden gap of the semiconductor,
electron and hole pairs are produced in the depletion layer due to the absorption of
photons. Due to the electric field of the junction, the electrons and holes are
separated before they combine. The direction of the field is such that electrons reach
n-side and holes reach p-side. Thus,
electrons are collected on n-side and holes
are collected on p-side. This gives rise to an
emf (voltage).When an external load is
connected, then an electric current flows due
to minority charge carriers. It has been found
experimentally that the magnitude of the
photocurrent depends on the intensity of
incident light.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P. U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 364

I-V Characteristics of a photodiode for different illumination intensity:

Applications of photodiode: The photo-diodes are used:

1. to detect optical signals, as it is easier to observe change in current with
the change in intensity.
2. to measure intensity of light.
3. in switching circuits.
4. in optical communication.
5. in light meter in camera.

Digital signal: A signal which can take only two discrete values of voltages is
called a digital signal.

The two values of voltages are represented as 0 and 1. The digit 0 represents low
voltage and the digit 1 represents high voltage. These digits do not represent
numbers.

Note:
1. The digit 0 represents FALSE or OFF or LOW state.
2. The digit 1 represents TRUE or On or HIGH state.

Digital circuit: An electronic circuit used to process the digital signals is called
digital circuit.

Digital electronics: The branch of electronics which deals with the study of digital
circuits is known as digital electronics.

Logic gate: A digital circuit which obeys logic relationship between the input and
output voltages is called logic gate.

Truth table: A list of outputs of a logic gate for different possible input combination
is called truth table.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P. U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 365

Boolean expression: An expression connecting inputs with operation sign in
between them on LHS and output on RHS is called Boolean expression.

Fundamental logic gates: There are three fundamental logic gates. OR gate,
AND gate and NOT gate.

I.OR gate: A two input logic gate whose output is high if any one of the input is
high is called OR gate.

Circuit symbol:
A
Y
B

Where: A and B = inputs, Y = output

Boolean equation for OR gate: A + B = Y ( either A or B equals to Y )

Truth table for OR gate:

A B Y
0 0 0
1 0 1
0 1 1
1 1 1

Working of OR gate :
When the switches S1 and S2 are opened, no current flows through the circuit and the
bulb does not glow. If either S1 or S2 or both closed, the current flows through the
circuit and the bulb glows.
S1=A

S2=B Y
+ –

II. AND gate: A two input logic gate whose output is high if both the inputs are high
is called AND gate.

Circuit symbol of AND gate:

A
Y
B

CHETAN & SACHETAN P. U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 366

Boolean equation for AND gate: A . B = Y (A and B equal to Y)
Truth table for AND gate:

A B Y
0 0 0
1 0 0
0 1 0
1 1 1

Working of NOT gate :

Y
When the switch S is closed, the circuit becomes
short circuited and no current flows. Hence bulb does
not glow. If the switch S is opened, current flows and
the bulb glows.
S= A

IV.NAND gate: A two input logic gate whose output + –

is high when any one of the input is low is called
V
NAND gate.

Logic symbol of NAND gate:

A Y
B

Boolean expression for NAND gate: A  B  Y

Truth table for NAND gate:

A B Y
0 0 1
1 0 1
0 1 1
1 1 0

V. NOR gate: A two input logic gate whose output is high when both the inputs are
low is called NOR gate.
Circuit symbol of NOR gate:
A
Y = Y
B

Boolean equation for NOR gate: A+B = Y

CHETAN & SACHETAN P. U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 367

Truth table for NOR gate:
A B Y
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0

VI.XOR gate [ Exclusive OR gate]: A two input logic gate whose output is high if its
inputs are dissimilar or a two input logic gate whose output is low if both inputs are
either low or high is called XOR gate.

Circuit symbol of XOR gate.

Boolean expression for XOR gate: A  B  B  A  Y

Truth table for XOR gate:
A B Y
0 0 0
1 0 1
0 1 1
1 1 0

CHETAN & SACHETAN P. U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 368

 QUESTIONS FROM PREVIOUS YEARS EXAMINATION
MARCH - 2014
1. Give the bandwidth of TV signal for transmission. 1M
2. Why there is need for modulation. 2M
3. Write the truth table of logic OR gate. 1M
4. How is a zener diode as voltage regulator? . 3M
5. Explain the formation of energy bands in solids. On the basis of energy bands
distinguish between a metal, semiconductor and an insulator. 5M
5. Mention any one application of Light Emitting Diode (LED). 1M

JULY – 2014 (Supplementary)

6. Give an expression for range of an antenna in terms of its height from ground.
7. Write the circuit symbol of AND gate. 1M
8. Give any three differences between n-type and p-type semiconductors. 3M
9. Explain the working of p-n junction diode as a full wave rectifier with circuit diagram. Give
input and output wave forms. 5M
10. What is Amplification ? 1M

MARCH – 2015
11. What is attenuation in communication system? 1M
12. Draw the block diagram of generalized communication system. 2M
13. What is photo diode? Mention its one use. 2M
14. Distinguish between conductor and semiconductor on the basis of band theory of solids.
3M
15. With a neat circuit diagram, explain the working of npn transistor in CE mode as an amplifier.
5M
JULY – 2015 (Supplementary)
16. What is modulation? 1M
17. Draw the block diagram of AM receiver. 2M
18. Inputs of NAND gates are: A=1, B=0. What is the output ? 1M
19. What are intrinsic semiconductors? Name the element used as a dopant to obtain
p-type semiconductor. 2M
20. Define input resistance, output resistance and current amplification factor a transistor.
3M
21. What is rectification? With relevant circuit diagram and wave forms, explain the
working of pn junction diode as a full wave rectifier. 5M

MARCH – 2016
22. Mention the types of transmission media. 3M
23. Draw the circuit symbol of p-n-p transistor. 1M
24. Write the logic symbol and truth table of NAND gate. 2M
25. What is an amplifier ? Draw the simple circuit of transistor amplifier in CE mode. 3M
26. What is rectification ? With relevant circuit diagram and waveforms explain the working of
P-N junction diode as a full-wave rectifier. 5M

JULY– 2016 (Supplementary)

27. Why sky wave propagation is not possible for waves having frequency
more than 30 MHz? 1M
28. Draw the block diagram of a AM receiver. 2M
29. Define current amplification factor in a common emitter mode of transistor. 1M
30. Write a truth table of NAND gate. 1M
31. Write three differences between n-type and p-type semiconductors. 3M
32. With the help of circuit diagram, explain the working of npn transistor as a common emitter
amplifier. 5M

CHETAN & SACHETAN P. U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 369

MARCH – 2017
33. What is transducer in communication system ? 1M
34. Draw the block diagram of a AM receiver. 2M
35. What is NAND gate? Give its logic Symbol. 2M
36. Give any three differences between n-type and p-type semiconductors. 3M
37. What is rectification? With relevant circuit diagram and waveforms explain the
working of p-n junction diode as a full wave rectifier. 5M

March – 2018
38. What is ‘depletion region’ in the semiconductor diode ? 1M
39.

What is the output of this combination ? 1M

40. Write any three distinctions between the p-type and n-type semiconductor ? 3M
41. Draw the black diagram of generalised communication system. 3M
42. What is rectifier ? With suitable circuit describe the action of a full wave rectifier by drawing
input and output waveforms. 5M

March – 2019
43. Distinguish between the n-type and p-type semiconductor ? 2M
44. Explain ‘Conduction band’ ‘Valance band’ and ‘Energy gap’, in semiconductor. 3M
45. Explain the working of a n-p-n transistor in CE mode as an amplifier. 5M
46. What is modulation ? Write the block diagram of the receiver. 3M

June – 2019
47. Give the two differences between collector region and emitter region of a Transistor.
2M
48. What is NAND gate ? Write its logic symbol and truth table. 3M
49. What is rectification ? Describe with a circuit diagram the working of a p – n junction
diode as half wave rectifier with input and output waveforms. 5M

March – 2020
50. Draw the logic symbol of NOR gate. 1M
51. Give three differences between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors. 3M
52. What is rectification ? Explain the working of a p-n junction diode as a half wave
rectifier. Draw the input and output wave forms. 5M

July – 2020
53. Which logic gate is used as inverter ? 1M
54. What are optoelectronic devices ? Name any two optoelectronic devices. 3M
55. What is Zener diode ? Explain the action of Zener diode as a voltage regulator with relevant
circuit diagram. 5M

CHETAN & SACHETAN P. U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 370

 ONE MARK QUESTIONS WITH ANSWERS
Q. What is an energy band in a solid ?
Ans: A very large number of energy levels lying closely within a small energy range of a solid
form an energy band.

Q. What is a valence band ?

Ans: The highest energy band filled with valence electrons is called a valence band.

Q. What is a conduction band ?

Ans: The lowest unfilled allowed energy band next to valence band is called a conduction
band. Current conduction is due to the electrons in this band.

Q. Define forbidden energy gap in solids.

Ans: The energy gap between the valence band and the conduction band in which no allowed
energy levels can exist is called forbidden energy gap.

Q. What is Fermi energy level?

Ans: The highest energy level filled with electrons in the conduction band at absolute zero is
called Fermi level and the energy corresponding to the Fermi level is called Fermi
energy.

Q. How much is the energy gap in a conductor?

Ans: Zero.

Q. What is the order of energy gap in a semiconductor?

Ans: 1 eV.

Q. What is the order of energy gap in an insulator?

Ans: 6 eV for an insulator like diamond.

Q. Name the charge carriers in the following at room temperature:

Ans: (i) Conductor (ii) Intrinsic semiconductor (iii) Insulator.
(i) Electrons (ii) Electrons and holes (iil) None.

Q. What is the conductivity of a semiconductor at absolute zero ?

Ans: Zero.
There is a large forbidden band of 6 eV in diamond. It is difficult to excite the
electrons from valence band to the conduction band. Due to the absence of free
charge carriers, diamond behaves as an insulator.
(i) The width of the forbidden band (ii) Intrinsic charge carrier concentration.

Q. How does the conductivity of a semiconductor change with the rise in its
temperature?
Ans: The conductivity of a semiconductor increases exponentially with temperature.

Q. Why does the conductivity of a semiconductor increase with rise of temperature?

Ans: When a semiconductor is heated, more and more electrons jump across the forbidden
gap from valence band to conduction band where these are free to conduct electricity.
Hence the conductivity increases with the increase in temperature.

Q. Why does a semiconductor get damaged when a heavy current flows through it?
Ans: When a heavy current flows, the semiconductor gets heated up. Many covalent bonds
break liberating a large number of free electrons. The semiconductor loses its property of
controlled conduction. It becomes an ordinary conductor.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P. U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 371

Q. How does the conductivity of a semiconductor change with the rise in its
temperature?
Ans: The pure semiconductors in which the electrical conductivity is totally governed by the
electrons thermally excited from the valence band to the conduction band and in which
no impurity atoms are added to increase their conductivity are called intrinsic
semiconductors. The electrical conductivity of pure semiconductors is called intrinsic
conductivity.

Q. Give the ratio of the number of holes and number of conduction electrons, in an
intrinsic semiconductor.
Ans: In an intrinsic semiconductor,
nh = ne = ni, therefore, nh: ne = 1 : 1.

Q. Why it is difficult to make intrinsic semiconductors?

An intrinsic semiconductor has to be extremely pure with a purity level of 99.9999%. It is
very difficult to get this much purity.

Q. The conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor is very low. Why ?

Ans: An intrinsic semiconductor has a very small concentration of free electrons and
holes (0::1016 m-3), so it has a low conductivity .

Q. What is doping in semiconductor? Why is it done?

Ans: Doping is the process of addition of small amounts of certain specific impurity atoms
having valence different from that of host atoms to a pure semiconductor. Doping is done
to increase the number of mobile electrons/holes and hence to increase the conductivity
of a semiconductor.

Q. What is an extrinsic or a doped semiconductor?

Ans: A semiconductor doped with. -suitable impurity atoms so as to increase its conductivity is
called an extrinsic semiconductor.

Q. What is an n-type semiconductor?

Ans: A tetravalent semiconductor of Si or Ge doped with pentavalent impurity atoms of
As, Sb or P is called an n-type semi- conductor.

Q. What is a p-type semiconductor?

Ans: A tetravalent semiconductor of Si or Ge doped with trivalent impurity atoms of B,
AI or In is called a p-type semiconductor.

Q. Doping silicon with indium leads to which type of semiconductor?

Ans: p-type semiconductor.

Q. What elements other than indium and gallium can be used to form a p-type
semiconductor?
Ans: Boron (B) or aluminum (AI).

Q. What type of charge carriers are there in a p-type semiconductor?

Ans: Holes as majority charge carriers and electrons as minority charge carriers.

Q. Name anyone element, other than 'As' and 'Sb', which can be used as impurity
with germanium to form n-type semiconductor.
Ans: Phosphorous (P).
CHETAN & SACHETAN P. U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 372
Q. Is the ratio of number of holes and number of electrons in an n-type extrinsic
semiconductor more than, less than or equal to 1 ?
Ans: Less than 1.

Q. What type of charge carriers are there in an "-type semiconductor?

Ans: Electrons as majority charge carriers and holes as minority charge carriers.

Q. What type of impurity is added to obtain n-type semiconductor?

Ans: Pentavalent atoms of Sb, As or P.

Q. What are donor impurity atoms?

Ans: The pentavalent impurity atoms like As, P and Sb are called donor impurity atoms.

Q. What are acceptor impurity atoms?

Ans: The trivalent impurity atoms like B, AI, Ga and In are called acceptor impurity
atoms.

Q. The forbidden energy gaps in insulators, semiconductors and conductors are EG1,
EG2 and EG3 respectively. Arrange them in ascending order.
Ans: EG3 < EGz < EG1·

Q. Name one impurity each, which when added to pure Si, produces (i) n-type and (ii)
p-type semiconductor.
Ans: (i) As (ii) In.

Q. How does the energy gap of an intrinsic semiconductor vary, when doped with a
trivalent impurity?
Ans: The energy gap in the semiconductor decreases due to the creation of acceptor
energy level just above the top of the valence band.

Q. What are the majority charge carriers in a p-type semiconductor?

Ans: Holes.

Q. How does the energy gap in an intrinsic semiconductor vary, when doped with a
pentavalent impurity?
Ans: The energy gap decreases when a semiconductor is doped with a| pentavalent
impurity due to the creation of a donor energy level just below the bottom of the
conduction band.

Q. How does the forbidden energy gap of an intrinsic semiconductor vary with
increase in temperature?
Ans: The forbidden energy gap does not change with temperature.

Q. Why is p-type semiconductor so called ?

Ans: Because it has holes, the positive charge carriers, as the majority charge carriers.

Q. Why is n-type semiconductor so called?

Ans: Because it has electrons, the negative charge carriers, as the majority
charge carriers.

Q. What is a hole? Which type of doping creates a hole?

Ans: A hole is a vacant state in the covalent bond of a semiconductor from which an
electron has been removed. When semiconductor is doped with trivalent impurity
atoms of B, Al or In ; holes are created.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P. U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 373

Q. Why is germanium preferred over silicon for making-semiconductor devices?
Ans: This is because the energy gap for Ge(Eg =07 eV) is smaller than the energy
gap for Si (Eg = 1.1 eV).

Q. Why is the conductivity of '1-type semiconductor greater than that of the

p-type semi- conductor even when both of these have same level of doping?
Ans: This is because under a given electric field, free electrons have higher
mobility than holes.

Q. Is the ionisation energy of an isolated free atom different from the ionisation
energy E , for the atoms in a crystalline lattice ?
Ans: Yes, the ionisation: energy of an isolated atom is different from its value in
crystalline lattice. This is because in the periodic crystal lattice, each bound
electron is influenced by many neighboring atoms.

Q. Define mobility of a charge carrier. Give its unit.

Ans: The drift velocity acquired by a charge carrier (electron or hole) in a unit electric field
is called electrical mobility.
v
Ans: It is given by  =-
E
The SI unit of  is m2 V-I S-1

Q. Which has a higher mobility--electron or hole?

Ans: An electron has a higher mobility than a hole in a semiconductor.

Q. Is Ohm's law obeyed by semiconductors?

Ans: In semiconductors, Ohm's law is obeyed only for low electric fields (E < 106
Vm -1 ~ Above this field, the current becomes independent of the applied voltage.

Q. What is a junction diode? Give its pictorial symbol.

Ans: A junction diode or a p-n junction is a single crystal of Ge or Si doped in such a
manner that one half portion of it is p-type semiconductor and other half portion is
n-type semiconductor. Its circuit symbol is shown in figure.

Q. Can we take one slab of p-type semiconductor and physically join it to another n-
type semiconductor to get P-11 junction ?
Ans: No. Any slab, howsoever flat, will have roughness much larger than the inter-
atomic crystal spacing (- 2 A to 3 A) and hence continuous contact at the atomic
level will not be possible. The junction will behave as a discontinuity for the flowing
charge carriers.

Q. What is depletion region in a p-n junction?

Ans: It is a thin region around the junction of p - and n-sections which is devoid of
free electrons and holes and has immobile ions only.

Q. Which process causes depletion region in a p-n junction?

Ans: The diffusion of electrons and holes across the p-n junction causes the depletion
region.

Q. Give the order of the thickness of depletion layer in a p-n junction.

Ans: 1 urn (;;:: 10-6 m),

CHETAN & SACHETAN P. U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 374

Q. Which type of biasing results in very high resistance of a 1'-n junction diode? Draw
a dia- gram showing this bias.
Ans: Reverse biasing results in very high resistance of p-n junction diode. Figure shows
a reverse biased p-n junction diode. p-n

Q. What happens to the width of depletion layer of a p-n junction when it is (i) forward
biased, (ii) reverse biased?
Ans: (i) Width of depletion layer decreases when p-n junction is forward biased.
(ii) Width of depletion layer increases when p-n junction is reverse biased. .

Q. How does the thickness of the depletion layer in a p-rt diode vary with increase in
reverse bias ?
Ans: The thickness of the depletion layer in a p-n diode increases with the increase in
reverse bias.

Q. How does the width of the depletion region of a p-n junction vary, if the reverse
bias applied to it decreases?
Ans: If the reverse bias decreases, the width of depletion region of the p-n junction
decreases.

Q. Give an approximate value for the potential barrier of a silicon type junction diode.
Ans: 0.7 V.

Q. Under what condition does a p-n junction work as an open switch ?

Ans: When the p-n junction is reverse biased.

Q. What is an ideal junction diode?

Ans: A junction diode which conducts when forward biased and does not conduct when
reverse biased is called an ideal junction diode. It offers zero resistance in forward
biasing and infinite resistance in reverse biasing.

Q. In figure is the diode D forward or reverse biased?

Ans: The diode D is reverse biased because its p-side is at lower potential.

Q. What is a Zener diode?

A junction diode specially designed to operate only in the reverse breakdown
region continuously (without getting damaged) is called a Zener diode.

Q. Zener diodes have higher dopant densities as compared to ordinary p-n junction
diodes. How does it affect the
(i) Width of the depletion layer?
(ii) Junction field ?
Ans: (i) Width of the depletion layer is small. (ii) Junction field is high.

Q. State the function of a Zener diode in a circuit.

Ans: A Zener diode can be used as a voltage regulator.

Q. What are photodiodes ?

Ans: A photodiode is a specially designed p-n junction diode fabricated with a trans-
parent window to allow light to fall on its junction.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P. U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 375

Q. State the reason, why a photodiode is usually operated at a reverse bias.
Ans: Due to photo-effects, the fractional increase in minority charge carriers is more than
the fractional increase in majority charge carriers, hence the fractional change on
minority carrier dominated reverse bias current is more easily measurable.

Q. What are light emitting diodes?

Ans: A light emitting diode is a heavily- doped forward biased p-n junction which
spontaneously converts the biasing electrical energy into optical energy, like infrared
and visible light.

Q. State the factor, which controls: (i) wavelength of light, and (ii) intensity of light
emitted by an LED.
Ans: (i) The wavelength of light depends on the nature of the semiconductor used in LED.
(ii) Intensity of light depends on the forward bias applied to LED which is
controlled by a series resistor R.

Q. What is a solar cell?

Ans: It is junction diode which converts solar energy into electrical energy and is based
on photovoltaic effect.

Q. What is the full form of transistor?

Ans: The word transistor is short form 'of transference of signal across a resistor.

Q. In an n-p-n transistor, what are the current carriers inside and outside the
transistor circuit?
Ans: Electrons are current carriers through the n-p-n transistor and in the external circuit.

Q. In a p-n-p transistor, what are the current carriers inside and outside the
transistor circuit?
Ans: Holes are the current carriers through the P-I1-P transistor but in the external circuit
current is carried by electrons.

Q. Is transistor a current controlled or temperature controlled device?

Ans: Transistor is a current controlled device.

Q. What kinds of biasing are required to the collector and base of a transistor in a
common emitter amplifier?
Ans: The base emitter junction is forward biased while the collector-emitter junction is
reverse biased.

Q. What is the relation between emitter current IE' base current I a' and collector
current Ie at any instant in a properly biased common emitter transistor
circuit? Which one of the three has smallest magnitude?
Ans: IE = 18 + Ie- The base current I8 has the smallest magnitude.

Q. In the normal operation of a transistor, what is the order of magnitude of

currents IE' Ie and fa?
Ans: IE and Ie are of the order of mA and I8 is of the order of ~A.

Q. Define voltage gain of an amplifier.

Ans: The voltage gain of an amplifier is the ratio of the change in the output voltage (6V:,) to
the corresponding change in the input voltage (6Vj).

CHETAN & SACHETAN P. U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 376

Q. Define the transconductance of a transistor. On what factors does it depend?
Ans: Transconductance of a transistor is defined as the ratio of the small change in the
collector current (Me) to the small change in the base-emitter voltage (6 V8E).

It depends on the geometry, doping levels and biasing of the transistor.

Q. Define current gain for a transistor.

Or
Define current amplification factor in a common emitter mode of transistor.
Ans: The a.c. current gain of CE transistor amplifier is defined as the ratio of the small
change in the collector current (IC) to the small change in the base current (VBE) when the
collector-emitter voltage is kept constant.
It is given by
I   I C 
ac or Ai C  ac or Ai   
IB V tant
CEcons
 I B V
CE constan t

Q. Can two p-n junction diodes placed back to back work as a p-n-p transistor?
Ans: No. In that case the n-region forming the base will become quite thick and most
of the majority charge carriers rushing from emitter to collector will get
neutralised. The transistor will not work.

Q. Why is the base region of a transistor made very thin and lightly doped?
Ans: A thin and lightly doped base region contains a smaller number of majority
charge carriers. This reduces the recombination rate of electrons and holes at
the base-emitter junction. Most of the majority charge carriers coming from
emitter into base immediately get collected by the collector. This reduces base
current and increases both collector current and current gain of the transistor.

Q. If the base region of a transistor is made large, as compared to a usual

transistor, how does it affect (i) the collector current, and (ii) current gain of
this transistor?
Ans: If the base region is made large, most of the charge carriers coming from the
emitter would get neutralised in the base by the electron-hole recombination
process and this will (i) reduce collector current and hence (ii) reduce current
gain.

Q. In a transistor, doping level in base is increased slightly. How will it affect (i)
collector current and (ii) base current?
Ans: (i) Collector current decreases. (ii) Base current increases.

Q. In the working of a transistor, the emitter-base [EB] junction is forward biased

while collector-base [CB] junction is reverse biased. Why?
Ans: Only forward biased emitter-base junction can send the majority charge carriers
from emitter to base and only reverse biased collector can collect these majority
charge carriers from the base region. If the emitter is reverse biased, no charge
carriers will flow towards the collector and hence no current will flow through the
transistor.

Q. Can we interchange emitter and collector of a transistor?

Ans: No, we cannot interchange emitter and collector due to two reasons:
(i) The doping level of emitter is higher than that of collector.
(ii) The contact area of emitter-collector junction is larger than that of emitter-
base junction.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P. U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 377

Q. A transistor is a current operated device. Comment.
Ans: In a transistor, the collector current is controlled by the base current which is a part of
emitter current. The changes in the emitter current are proportional to the changes in
the base current and not to the input (base) voltage. Thus a transistor is a current
operated device.

Q. What is relation between power gain, current gain and resistance gain of a
transistor amplifier?
Ans: Power gain == ( Current gain )2 x Resistance gain.

Q. What is relation between power gain, voltage gain and current gain of a
transistor amplifier?
Ans: Power gain == Voltage gain x Current gain.

Q. What is relation between voltage gain and transconductance of a transistor

amplifier?
Ans: Voltage gain == Trans-conductance x Output resistance

Q. A transistor is being used as a c0~mon emitter amplifier. What is the value of

phase difference, if any, between the collector-emitter voltage and input
signal?
Ans: 1800 or 1t radian.

Q. How does the collector current change in a junction transistor, if the base
region has larger width ?
Ans: The collector current becomes smaller because of the increase in the rate of
recombination of electrons and holes as they move across the emitter base
junction.

Q. Write the relation between current gains and .


Ans:  
1

Q. Calculate the current gain  of a transistor, if the current gain  =0.98.

 0.98
Ans:   =  49
1   1  0.98

Q. For a transistor the value of  is 100, what is the value of  ?

b 100
Ans: a  =  0.99
1  b 1  100

Q. By increasing the load resistance, can we increase the voltage gain (Au = - gill
RL) of an amplifier indefinitely?
Or
Explain the effect of increasing load resistance R, on the voltage gain of a
transistor amplifier.
Ans: Initially, the voltage gain ( A   g m RL ) increases with the increase in load
resistance RL.
But the gain of an amplifier cannot be increased indefinitely by increasing RL.
We know that
VCE == V CC - I CR L'
Ans: If we increase RL VCE decreases and if VCE becomes less than VBE, both the
junctions get forward biased and saturation starts.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P. U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 378

Q. Why is a common emitter amplifier preferred over a common base amplifier? .
Ans: Because the current gain of common emitter amplifier is more than that of a
common base amplifier.

Q. When is a common base amplifier preferred over a common emitter amplifier?

Ans: When voltage amplification of the given signal is required without any phase
change of signal voltage, common base transistor is preferred over common
emitter amplifier.

Q. What happens in a transistor when both the emitter and collector are reverse
biased? What is this condition known as ?
Ans: When both the emitter and collector are reverse biased, no current flows
through the transistor as there is no conduction due to majority charge carriers
across the emitter-base or collector-base junction. This condition is known as
cut-off state.

Q. Under what condition a transistor works as an open switch?

Ans: A transistor works as an open switch in the cut-off state i.e., when both the
emitter and collector are reverse biased.

Q. What happens in a transistor when both the emitter and collector are forward
biased? How will the collector current change if the emitter voltage is slightly
increased ?
Ans: The transistor will be in the saturation state and it will not function as an
amplifier. When the emitter voltage is slightly 'increased, the collector current
does not change.

Q. Why a transistor cannot be used as a rectifier ?

Ans: To use a transistor as a rectifier, either its emitter-base portion or collector base
portion has to be used. As base is thin and . lightly doped, either of the two portions will
not work as a p-n junction. So a transistor cannot be used as a rectifier.

Q. In a transistor, the forward bias is always smaller than the reverse bias. Why?
Ans: If we apply a large forward biasing across the emitter, the majority charge carriers
would move from emitter to collector through the base with a high velocity. This
would produce excessive heating which would damage the transistor.

Q. How would you test in a simple way whether the transistor is spoiled or in working
order?
Ans: For a transistor in working order, the forward biased emitter-base junction has a
low resistance while the reverse biased base-collector junction has a high resistance.
In a spoiled transistor, the resistance is low (or the path is conducting) in both
situations.

Q. If the emitter and the base of a transistor have same doping concentration, how
will the base current and collector current be affected?
Ans: When the base has same doping concentration as the emitter, the rate of
recombination of electrons and holes increases as the majority charge carriers
flow across the emitter-base junction. Consequently, the base current increases
and collector current decreases.

Q. Which one of the transistors p-n-p and n-p-n is more useful and why?
Ans: n-p-n transistor is more useful than p-n-p transistor. In n-p-n transistor, electrons are
the main charge carriers while in p-n-p transistor, holes are the main charge
carriers. But electrons have higher mobility than holes. So n-p-n transistors are more
commonly used than p-tl-p transistors.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P. U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 379

Q. Why is the area of the base-collector junction is made larger than the area of the.
emitter base junction in a transistor ?
Ans: When a transistor works, most of the heat is produced at the base-collector junction.
The area of this junction is made large so as to dissipate this heat.

Q. What is an oscillator?
Ans: An oscillator is an electronic device that produces electric oscillations of constant
frequency and amplitude.

Q. What is feedback?
Ans: When a part of the output signal is supplied back to the input signal, the process is
known as feedback.

Q. What is positive feedback?

Ans: If feedback signal is in phase with the input signal, it is called positive feedback.

Q. What is the type of feedback required in an oscillator?

Ans: Positive feedback.

Q. State two disadvantages of semiconductor devices.

Ans: (i) Semiconductor devices are very sensitive to the changes of temperature
whereas the vacuum tubes are less sensitive. (ii) Semiconductor devices cannot
handle as much power as vacuum tubes.

Q. What is analog signal?

Ans: A signal in the form of continuous time- varying current or voltage is called continuous
or analog signal.

Q. What is a digital signal?

Ans: A signal in which current or voltage can take only two discrete values is called a
digital signal. Such signals are in the form of pulses of equal level.

Q. What is a logic gate?

Ans: A digital circuit that is designed for performing a particular logical operation is
called a logic gate.

Q. Why is a logic gate so called?

Ans: This is because a logic gate follows a certain logical relationship between input and
output voltages.

Q. What is an OR gate? Give Boolean expression for it.

Ans: An OR gate is logic gate having two or more inputs but only one output and which
gives high output if any or all of the inputs are high. OR gate is described by the
Boolean expression
A+ B=Y
which is read as A or B equals Y

Q. What is an AND gate? Give. its Boolean expression.

Ans: An AND gate is a logic gate having two or more inputs but only one output and
which gives high output if all the inputs are high. AND gate is described by the Boolean
expression,
AB=Y
which is read as A and B equals Y.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P. U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 380

Q. What is a NOT gate? Give Boolean expression for it.
Ans: A NOT gate is a one input and one output logic gate which gives high output if the
input is low and vice versa. A NOT gate is described by the Boolean expression,
A=Y
which is read as not A equals Y.

Q. In the circuits shown in Fig. 4.95, a switch which is open represents the logic state
0 and the switch which is closed represents the logic state 1. The lamp L is lit
when output is logic state 1. What types of gate are represented by -the circuits in
(a) and (b) ?
Ans: (i) The circuit figure (a) represents an AND gate because the lamp L will glow
only when both the switches A AND B are closed.
(ii) The circuit figure (b) represents an OR gate because the lamp L will glow
when switch A or switch B or both switches are closed.

Q. Why is a NOT gate known as an inverter?

Ans: A NOT gate always inverts the input. If input is low (0), the output is high (1) and
vice versa. Hence a NOT gate is known as an inverter.

Q. How is a NOT gate different from AND or OR gate? Can it be made from junction
diodes?
Ans: AND and OR gates can have two or more inputs while a NOT gate has only one
input. A NOT gate cannot be made from junction diodes. It is realised by using a
transistor.

Q. Write the truth table for the combination of gates shown in figure.
A
B

Ans: The first gate is AND gate and the second is a NOT gate. The truth table of the
combination is as follows:

A B Y” = A.B Y = A.B
0 0 0 1
0 1 0 1
1 0 0 1
1 1 1 0
Q. An unknown input (A) and the input (B) shown here, are used as the two inputs in a
NAND gate. The output Y, has the form shown in Figure. Identify the intervals over
which the input' A' must be 'low'.
Ans: In intervals 0 to t, and t3 to t4, the input A may be low.

Q. Why are the NAND and NOR gates known as digital building blocks or
universal gates?
Ans: The repeated use of NAND or NOR gates alone can give all other gates like OR,
AND and NOT gates. In digital circuits the NAND or NOR gates serve as building
blocks and hence they are named so.

Q. What gate is equivalent to a NAND gate having both its inputs A and B connected
together?
Ans: It is equivalent to a NOT gate.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P. U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 381

 SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
SYNOPSIS

Energy band: The range of energies possessed by electrons in a solid is called energy
band.

Valence band: The range of energies possessed by valence electrons in a solid is

called valence band.

Conduction band: The range of energies possessed by free electrons in a solid is

called conduction band.

Forbidden energy gap(Eg): The gap between the top of the valence band and bottom of
the conduction band is called forbidden energy gap.

Note: For metals: Eg=0, for insulators: Eg>3eV & for semiconductors: Eg<3eV.

Energy band description of metals : The solids which are good conductors of heat
and electricity are called metals. In metals, the conduction band is completely empty and
the valence band is completely filled with no forbidden energy gap between them.

Doping: The process of addition of a proper impurity to a pure semiconductor to

increase its conductivity is called doping.

Types of semiconductors: Intrinsic and Extrinsic semiconductors.

Intrinsic semiconductor: The semiconductor in its purest form is called intrinsic

semiconductor.

Extrinsic semiconductors: The impurity added semiconductors are called extrinsic

(doped) semiconductors.
Extrinsic semiconductors are of two types: n-type& p-type.

Current conduction in an intrinsic semiconductor: The current (I) in an intrinsic

semiconductor is equal to sum of electron current(Ie) and hole( conventional) current(Ih).
I=Ie+Ih

Carrier concentration in an intrinsic semiconductor: In an intrinsic semiconductor,

number of free electrons is equal to number of holes. Therefore, electron density(n e) and
hole density (nh) are equal.
ne=nh=ni

Where: ni= intrinsic carrier concentration.

For doped semiconductors: ne nh  ni2
For n-type semiconductor: ne  nh
For p-type semiconductor: nh  ne

Electrical conductivity of semiconductor:

  ene  e  nh  h 

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 382

Distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductor.
Intrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor
1. It is a semiconductor in pure form. 1. It is a semiconductor doped with
an impurity.
2. Electron density and hole density 2. Electron density and hole density
are equal are not equal.
3. The electrical conductivity is low 3. The electrical conductivity is high.
4. The conductivity depends on 4. The conductivity depends on
temperature. temperature & amount of impurity
5. The conductivity is due to both 5. The conductivity is due to majority
electrons and holes. charge carriers.

Distinction between n-type & p-type semiconductor:

n-type Semiconductor p-type Semiconductor
1. It is formed when a pentavalent 1. It is formed when a trivalent impurity is
impurity is added to an intrinsic added to an intrinsic semiconductor.
semiconductor.
2. Free electrons are majority charge 2. Holes are majority charge carriers and
carriers and holes are minority free electrons are minority charge
charge carriers. carriers.
3. The electrical conductivity is mainly 3. The electrical conductivity is mainly
due to free electrons. due to holes.
4. The conduction band is filled with 4. The conduction band is partially filled
free electrons and valence band is with free electrons and valence band is
partially filled with holes. filled with holes.
5. Donor energy level is below the 5. Accepter energy level is above the
conduction band. valence band.
6. It is called donor type semiconductor 6. It is called acceptor type
semiconductor

Distinction between forward bias and reverse bias:

Forward bias Reverse bias
1. In forward bias, p-type 1. In reverse bias, p-type
semiconductor is connected to semiconductor is connected to
positive of the battery and n-type is negative of the battery and n-type
connected to negative of the is connected to positive of the
battery. battery.
2. Current is due to majority charge 2. Current is due to minority charge
carriers. carriers.
3. Thickness of the depletion layer 3. Thickness of the depletion layer
decreases with increase in bias increases with increase in bias
voltage. voltage.
4. Diode offers low resistance to the 4. Diode offers high resistance to the
flow of current. flow of current.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 383

I-V characteristics for both forward bias and reverse bias of semiconductor diode:

pn junction diode(semiconductor diode):A junction which consists of a p-type

semiconductor on one side and n-type semiconductor at other side of a single crystal of
silicon or germanium is called pn junction diode.

Ideal diode: The diode is said to be ideal, if it conducts when forward biased and does
not conduct when reverse biased. The ideal diode acts as short circuit when biased
and open circuit when reverse biased.

Static and dynamic resistance of a diode: No diode can act as an ideal diode. The
diode cannot behave as a perfect conductor when forward biased. It always offers some
resistance.

a.Dynamic resistance of diode:It is defined as the ratio of small change in voltage V 
to the small change in current I  .
V
rd 
I

b.Static resistance of diode: It is defined as the ratio of voltage across the diode V  to
the current flowing it I  .
V
rs 
I

Note:
1.A zener diode is always reverse biased.
2.A zener diode can be used as a voltage regulator.

Applications of LED:
: display devices such as watches and calculators.
: remote control.
: burglar alarm.
: CD player.
: flash light and back light for LCD screen.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 384

Photodiode: A reverse biased pn junction diode made from light sensitive
semiconductor is called photo diode. The photodiode works in reverse biasing. A photo
diode works on the principle that when a reverse biased pn junction is illuminated with
light of particular frequency, electron and hole pairs are produced in the depletion layer
and current flows due to minority charge carriers. If the applied voltage is less than the
break down voltage, a small current flows in the absence of light. This current is called
dark current. When light of certain frequency is incident on the diode, more electron –
hole pairs are created due to which additional current flows across the junction. If the
intensity of light increases, the strength of current increases.

Applications of photodiode:
: to detect visible and invisible radiations.
: to measure intensity of light.
: in switching circuits.
: in optical communication.
: in light meter in camera.

Rectification: The process of conversion of ac voltage into dc voltage is called

rectification and the device used to achieve rectification is called rectifier.

Transistor: When a third doped element is added to a diode, the resultant device is
called transistor. Transistors are of two types :npn and pnp transistor.

npn transistor: When n-type semiconductor is added to diode, the resultant transistor is
called npn transistor. Here two segments of n-type semiconductor (emitter and
collector) are separated by a segment of p-type semiconductor (base)

pnp transistor : When a p-type semiconductor is added to diode, the resultant transistor
is called pnp transistor. Here two segments of p-type semiconductor (emitter and
collector) are separated by a segment of n-type semiconductor (base)

Circuit symbol of npn transistor:

E C

The arrow mark indicates the direction of hole current (conventional current).
Circuit symbol of pnp transistor:
E C

The arrow mark indicates the direction of hole (conventional) current.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 385

Distinction between npn transistor and pnp transistor.
npn transistor pnp transistor
1. In npn transistor, both emitter and 1. In pnp transistor, both emitter and
collector are of n-type collector are of p-type
semiconductor and base is of p- semiconductor and base is of n-
type semiconductor. type semiconductor.
2. Conventional current flows from 2. Conventional current flows from
collector to the emitter through the emitter to the collector through the
base. base.
3. Conductivity is mainly due to 3. Conductivity is mainly due to
electrons. holes.
Transistor configurations:
1.Common-Base (CB)configuration.
2.Common-Emitter(CE)configuration
3.Common-Collector(CC)configuration
Transistor characteristics:
a.Input characteristics: The graph between the input voltage and input current at
constant output voltage is called input characteristics of the transistor.
b.Output characteristics: The graph between the output voltage and output current at
constant input current is called output characteristics of the transistor.
c.Transfer characteristics: The graph between the input current and output current at
constant output voltage is called transfer characteristics of the transistor.

FOR COMMON-EMITTER CONFIGURATION:

i. Input resistance: It is defined as the ratio of change in base–emitter voltage V BE  to
the change in base current I B  at constant collector-emitter voltage VCE  .

 V 
ri   BE 
 I B VCE

ii. Output resistance: It is defined as the ratio of change in collector –emitter

voltage VCE  to the change in collector current I C  at constant base current I B  .

 V 
rO   CE 
 I C  IB

iii. Current amplification factor of a transistor: It is defined as the ratio of the change
in collector current I C  to the change in base current I B  at constant collector-emitter
voltage VCE  , when the transistor is in active state.

 I 
 ac   C 
 I B  V CE

The value of  ranges from 20 to 500.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 386

iv. Voltage gain:It is defined as the ratio of the change in collector-emitter voltage
VCE  to the change in base-emitter voltage V BE 
 V 
AV   CE 
 V BE 
Note:
 V  I C  rO r
AV   CE     ac  O  Voltgae gain  Current gain  Re sis tan ce gain
 V BE  I B  ri ri

Relation between  and  :



1 

Note: Since  >  , CE configuration is always preferred over CB configuration.

Note:
1.In CB transistor as an amplifier, the weak input signal and the output signal are in
phase.
2.In CE transistor as an amplifier, the weak input signal and the output signal are out of
phase . This is called phase reversal.

Integrated circuit(IC):The fabrication of an entire circuit consisting of passive elements

(like resistor and capacitor) and active elements (like diode and transistor) on a small
single block(chip) of a semiconductor is known as integrated circuit(IC).

The most widely technology in the fabrication of IC is the Monolithic Integrated Circuit.

I. OR gate: A two input logic gate whose output is high if any one of the input is high is
called OR gate.

Circuit symbol:

A
Y Where: A and B = inputs, Y = output
B

Boolean equation for OR gate: A + B = Y( either A or B equals to Y )

Truth table for OR gate:

A B Y
0 0 0
1 0 1
0 1 1
1 1 1

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 387

II. AND gate: A two input logic gate whose output is high if both the inputs are high is
called AND gate.
Circuit symbol of AND gate:
A
Y
B

Boolean equation for AND gate: A . B = Y (A and B equal to Y)

Truth table for AND gate:

A B Y
0 0 0
1 0 0
0 1 0
1 1 1

III.NOT gate: A one input logic gate whose output is always complement of the input is
called NOT gate.
Circuit symbol of NOT gate:

A Y

Boolean equation for NOT gate: A = Y (inverse of A equals Y)

Truth table for NOT gate:

A Y

0 1

1 0

IV.NAND gate: A two input logic gate whose output is high when any one of the input
is low is called NAND gate.

Circuit symbol of NAND gate:

A Y
B

Boolean expression for NAND gate: A . B = Y

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 388

Truth table for NAND gate:

A B Y
0 0 1
1 0 1
0 1 1
1 1 0

V. NOR gate: A two input logic gate whose output is high when both the inputs are low
is
called NOR gate.

Circuit symbol of NOR gate:

A
Y = Y
B

Boolean equation for NOR gate: A+B = Y

Truth table for NOR gate:

A B Y
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0

VI.XOR gate [ Exclusive OR gate]:A two input logic gate whose output is high if its
inputs are dissimilar or a two input logic gate whose output is low if both inputs are
either low or high is called XOR gate.

Circuit symbol of XOR gate.

Boolean expression for XOR gate: A  B  B  A  Y

Truth table for XOR gate:

A B Y
0 0 0
1 0 1
0 1 1
1 1 0

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 389

Signal(message signal or information signal or base band signal):The information
(Speech or music or picture or computer data) converted into an electrical form suitable
for transmission is called a message signal.

Analog signal: A continuously voltage or current varying signal is called an analog

signal.

Digital signal: A signal which can take only two discrete values of voltages
( 0(low)& 1(high) ) is called a digital signal.

Audio signal: The electrical signal corresponding to the sound signal of the frequency
range 20Hz-20kHz is called an audio signal.

Music: The desired signal is called music.

Noise: The undesired signal is called noise.
BCD: BCD stands for Binary Coded Decimal. It is a coding scheme useful for digital
communication. In BCD, a digit is represented by four binary digits (0 or 1)

ASCII: ASCII stands for American Standard Code for Information Interchange. It is a
universally popular digital code to represent numbers, letters and certain characters.

Communication: The act of transmission of information is called communication.

Communication system: A setup used to achieve communication is called a

communication system.

Analog communication system: It is a communication system which makes use of

analog signal.

Example of analog communication system::TV or Radio network.

Digital communication system: It is a communication system which makes use of

digital signal.

Accurate communication: The communication is said to be accurate, if the received

signal is the exact replica of the sent signal.

Note: For accurate communication, the signal to noise ratio should be as high as
possible.

Fast communication: The communication is said to be fast, if two or more than two
messages are sent simultaneously over the same channel.

Electromagnetic waves: Electromagnetic waves are sinusoidal oscillations with time

varying electric and magnetic fields perpendicular to each other and perpendicular to
the direction of propagation. They are also known as radio waves.

Radio communication: The radiation of radio waves by the transmitter, the propagation
of these waves through space and their reception by the receiver is called radio
communication system.

Wireless radio communication: It is the communication of radio signal which does not
employ any wire between the transmitting station and the receiving station.
CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 390
Scientists who invented the telegraph: Samuel F.B, Morse and Sir Charles
Whetstone.

Scientists who invented the telephone: Alexander Graham Bell and Antonio Meucci.

Indian scientist who demonstrated wireless telegraphy(Model paper):J.C.Bose.

Scientist who demonstrated Television broadcast: John Logi Baird.

Scientist who transmitted the first radio FAX across the continent: Alexander Bain.

Scientist through whom the first internet came into existence: J.C.R. Lickider.

The laboratory that developed the fiber optics: Bell laboratories.

Scientist who invented World Wide Web(WWW):Tim Berners-Lee.

FAX: A device which scans the contents of a document to create electronic signals is
called FAX.

An example of digital communication system: FAX or e-mail or mobile.

Three essential elements of communication system: Transmitter, Channel and

receiver.

Channel: A medium (wireless or in the form of wires) which connects the transmitter
and the receiver is called a channel.

Transmitter: A system used to process the incoming message signal suitable for
transmission through a channel and its subsequent reception is called transmitter.

Receiver: A system used to extract the message signal transmitted through a channel is
called receiver.

Attenuation: The loss of strength of a signal while propagating through a medium is

known as attenuation.

Amplification: The process of conversion of an weak electrical signal into strong signal
is called amplification.

Amplifier: A device used to achieve is called an amplifier.

Transducer: A device which converts one form of energy into another is called
transducer.

Transponder: It is a device fitted on the communication satellite which receives the

signals and retransmits it after amplification.

Oscillator: An electronic device which produces sinusoidal wave of desired frequency is

called an oscillator.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 391

Microphone: A device which converts electrical energy into sound energy is called
microphone.

Repeater: It is a combination of a receiver and a transmitter.

Function of a repeater: A repeater picks up the signal from the transmitter, amplifies it
and then transmits it to the receiver. A repeater is used to extend the range of a
communication system.

Antenna: A device used to radiate radio signals into space for transmission over long
distance is called antenna.

Transmitting antenna: An antenna used to transmit radio signal into space is called
transmitting antenna.

Receiving antenna: An antenna used to receive radio signal from the space is called
receiving antenna.

Carrier wave: A sinusoidal wave of high frequency is called a carrier wave.

Range: It is the largest distance between a source and a destination up to which the
signal is received with sufficient strength.

Bandwidth: The frequency range over which an equipment operates or the portion of
the spectrum occupied by the signal is termed as bandwidth.

Bandwidth of speech signal for transmission:2800Hz.

Bandwidth of music for transmission:20kHz.

Bandwidth of video signal for transmission:4.2MHz.

Bandwidth of TV signal for transmission:6MHz.

Bandwidth of wire medium:750MHz

Bandwidth of AM broadcast (free space):1060kHz (540-1600kHz).

Bandwidth of FM broadcast (free space):20MHz (88-108MHz).

Band width of television (free space):

VHF: 18MHz (54-72MHz)

TV:12MHz(76-88MHz)
UHF: 42MHz(174-216MHz)
TV:470MHz(420-890MHz).

Band width of cellular Mobile Radio (free space):

Mobile to base station: 5MHZ ( 896-901MHz)
Base station to mobile:95MHz ( 840-935MHz)

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 392

Band width of satellite communication(free space).
Uplink: 0.5GHz (5.925-6.425GHz)
Downlink: 0.5GHz ( 3.7-4.2GHz)

Modulation: The process of superimposition of a low frequency (weak)message signal

on a high frequency carrier wave by changing some characteristic of a carrier
wave(amplitude or frequency or phase) in accordance with the message signal is
called modulation.

Modulated wave: The resultant wave obtained due to the superimposition of low
frequency message signal on a high frequency carrier wave is called modulated wave.

Demodulation: The process of retrieval of information from the carrier wave at the
receiver is called demodulation.

Types of modulation: Amplitude Modulation(AM), Frequency Modulation(FM) and

Phase Modulation(PM).

Amplitude modulation: The process of changing the amplitude of high frequency

carrier wave in accordance with the intensity of the low frequency message signal is
called amplitude modulation.

Frequency modulation: The process of changing the frequency of high frequency

carrier wave in accordance with the intensity of the low frequency message signal is
called frequency modulation.

Type of modulation which makes use of carrier waves of frequencies between

8MHZ-200MHz.
Frequency modulation.

Frequency modulation preferred over amplitude modulation for transmission of

music: Frequency modulation is virtually free from noise where as amplitude modulation
basically suffers from noise problem.

Phase modulation: The process of changing the phase of high frequency carrier wave
in accordance with the intensity of the low frequency message signal is called phase
modulation.
Type of modulation required for TV broadcast: As a TV signal contains both voice
and picture, frequency modulation (FM) is used for sound signal and amplitude
modulation (AM) for picture signal. Therefore, both AM and FM are used.

Type of modulation required for radio broadcast: Amplitude modulation (AM).

Need for modulation: The process of modulation enables the transmission to occur at
high frequency for the effective radiation of electrical energy.

Modulation index: Modulation index (  ) is defined as the ratio of amplitude of

message signal(Am) to the amplitude of the carrier wave(Ac).
A
 m
Ac
Significance of modulation index: The modulation index determines the strength and
quality of the transmitted signal.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 393

Upper band frequency: The sum of carrier wave frequency and the frequency of
message signal is called upper band frequency.

Lower band frequency: The difference between the frequency of carrier wave and the
frequency of message signal is called lower band frequency.

Ground wave propagation: The mode of propagation in which radiowaves travel from
one to another point along the surface of the earth is called ground wave propagation.

Note: Ground wave propagation is not made with high frequency, the electromagnetic
waves of frequency above 1500 kHz are greatly absorbed by the ground.

Sky wave propagation: The mode of propagation in which radio waves emitted by the
transmitter antenna reach the receiving antenna after reflection from the ionosphere of
the earth’s atmosphere is called sky wave propagation.

Use of sky wave propagation: The mode of sky wave propagation is used by short
wave broadcast services.

Space wave propagation: The mode of propagation in which radio waves travel along a
straight line from the transmitter antenna to the receiving antenna is called space wave
propagation.

Use of space wave mode of propagation: This mode of space propagation is used for
satellite communication as well as line of sight communication.

Maximum distance up to which this TV transmission can be received:

dT  2RhT
Where: hT=height of the transmitting antenna & R=radius of the earth.

Signal to Noise ratio(S/N): It is defined as the ratio of signal power to noise power.

S Signal Power

N Noise power

Note: The signal to noise ratio should be as high as possible for the process of
transmission.

Note: The rate of communication can be increased by increasing signal to noise ratio
and increasing the channel band width.

Two basic modes of communication:

Point to point communication mode: In this mode , communication takes place over a
link between a single transmitter and a receiver.
Example: Telephony.
ii. Broadcast communication mode: In this mode, there are a large number of
receivers corresponding to a single transmitter.
Example: Radio and TV.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 394

Need for modulation:
i. To reduce the size of the antenna.
ii. To increase the power radiated by antenna.
iii. To avoid mixing up of signals from different transmitters.
iv.To transmit low frequency signals over large distances.

Modulation: In the process of modulation, some characteristic of the transmitted carrier

wave is varied in accordance with the modulating signal.

Types of modulation:
i.Amplitude Modulation(AM)
ii.Frequency Modulation(FM) and
iii.Phase Modulation(PM).

Frequency spectrum of amplitude modulated wave: A graph of amplitude of the

wave against frequency is called frequency spectrum.

Band Width(BW) : The total

frequency range occupied by the
modulated wave starting from lower
side band frequency to upper side
band frequency is called band
width.

Band Width = Upper Side Band Frequency – Lower Side Band Frequency
BW   f C  f m    f C  f m 
BW  2 f m
Therefore, the bandwidth required for the amplitude modulation channel is twice the
highest frequency of modulating signal.

Modulation index or modulation factor or degree of modulation: The extent to which

the amplitude of the carrier wave is varied by the modulating signal is called modulation
index.

Modulation index (  ) is defined as the ratio of the amplitude of the modulating signal
( Am ) to the amplitude of the carrier signal ( AC ).
Am

AC

Vmax  Vmin
 where Vmin and Vmax represent the minimum and maximum values of
Vmax  Vmin
amplitude of modulated carrier voltage.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 395

 CET

Semiconductor Electronics & KCET

Communication System

2000 7) The electrical circuit used to get smooth DC

1) The relation between  and  parameters of a output from a rectifier circuit is called -
transistor is given by 1) Logic gates 2) Amplifier
3) Filter 4) Oscillator
1 - 1+ 
1)  = 2)  =
 
 2003
  8) In the case of constants  and  of a transistor
3)  = 4)  =
1 -  1 + 1) = 1 2) > 1 < 1
3)  4) < 1 > 1

2) The impurity atom that should be added to

2004
Germanium to make it n - type is
9) The emitter base junction of a transistor is
1) Arsenic 2) Iodine
...................... biased while the collector-base
3) Aluminium 4) Indium
junction is .................. biased.
1) reverse, forward
3) If the forward voltage in a diode is increased, the
2) reverse. reverse
width of the depletion region.
3) forward, forward
1) Increases 2) decreases
4) forward, reverse
3) does not change 4) fluctuates
10) In a forward biased p-n junction diode, the
2001 potential barrier in the depletion region is of the
4) In a n-p-n transistor circuit, the collector current form .................
1) V 2) V
is 10mA. If 90% of the electrons emitted reach
the collector, the emitter current(IE) and base
current (IB) are given by
1) IE =11mA; IB=1mA p n p n
2) IE =1mA; IB= 11mA
3) IE= 9mA ; IB= -1mA 3) V 4) V
4) IE = -1mA; IB= 9mA

2002
5) If l1,l2,l3 are the lengths of the emitter, base and p n p n
collector of a transistor then 2005
11) Identify the property which is not characteristic for
1) l1 = l2 = l3 2) l3 < l2 > l1
a semi-conductor.......
3) l3 < l1 < l2 4) l3 > l1> l2 1) The semiconductor is electrically neutral.
2) The charge carriers are electrons and holes in
6) When the conductivity of a semicondutor is only the valance band at higher temperatures
due to breaking of covalent bonds, the semicon- 3) At higher temperatures two types of charge
ductor is called. carriers will cause conductivity.
1) extrinsic 2) Instrinisic 4) At a very low temperatures it behaves like an
3) n-type 4) p- type insulator.
CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 396
 CET
12) If the forward voltage in a diode is increased, the 2008
width of the depletion region..... 18) In an unbiased p-n junction
1) No change 2) Fluctuates 1) potential at p is +ve and that at n is -ve
3) Decreases 4) Increases 2) potential at p is equal to that at n
3) potential at p is less than at n
2006 4) potential at p is more than that at n.
13) In a transistor the collector current is always less
19) To get an output y = 1 from the circuit shown,
than the emitter current because,
the inputs A, B and C must be respectively
1) collector being reverse biased, attracts less
electrons A
2) collector side is forward-biased and emitter B Y
side is reverse-biased
C
3) collector side is reverse-biased and the
1) 1, 1, 0 2) 1, 0, 1
emitter side is forward - biased.
4) a few ,electrons are lost in the base and only 3) 1, 0, 0 4) 0, 1, 0

remaining ones reach the collector.

2009
14) To a germanium crystal equal number of aluminium 20) In a common emitter amplifier the input signal is
and indium atoms are added. Then, applied across
1) it becomes a p-type semiconductor 1) base - emitter 2) anywhere
2) it becomes an insulator 3) emitter - collector 4) collector - base

3) it remains an intrinsic semiconductor

21) The colloidal solution in which both the dispersed
4) it becomes a n-type semiconductor
phase and dispersion medium are liquids called
1) liquid crystals 2) emulsions
2007
3) gels 4) foams
15) Minority carriers in a p-type semiconductor are
1) Holes 2) Free electrons
22) In the following combination of logic gates, the
3) Both holes and free electrons
outputs of A,B and C are respectively
4) Neither holes nor free electrons

16) In a reverse biased diode when the applied voltage

changes by 1V, the current found to change by
0.5μA. The reverse bias resistance of the diode is
1) 2Ω 2) 200 Ω
3) 2 x 10 Ω
6
4) 2x105 Ω

1) 1, 0 , 1 2) 0, 1, 1
17) The truth table given below is for
3) 0, 1, 0 4) 1, 1, 0
A B Y
0 0 1 2010
0 1 1 23) The forbidden energy gap in Ge is 0.72 eV. Given,
1 0 1 hc = 12400 eV - Å. The maximum wavelength
of radiation that will generate an electron hole pair
1 1 0
is ______
( A and B are the inputs, Y is the output)
1) 172220 Å 2) 172.2 Å
1) NAND 2) XOR 3) AND 4) NOR
3) 17222 Å 4) 1722 Å
CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 397
 CET
24) Pick out the statement which is NOT correct. 27) In the case of forward biasing of a p-n junction
1) At a low temperature, the resistance of a diode, which one of the following figures correctly
semiconductor is very high. depicts the direction of conventional current
2) Movement of holes is restricted to the valence (indicated by an arrow mark)?
band only.
p -+ n p -+ n
3) Width of the depletion region increases as the -+ -+
-+ -+
forward bias voltage increases in case of a 1) 2)
N-P junction diode.
4) In a forward bias condition, the diode heavily
p -+ n p -+ n
conducts. -+ -+
-+ -+
3) 4)

25) Identity the logic operation performed by the 28) The output of given logic circuit is ........
circuit given here.

1) OR 2) NOR
3) NOT 4) NAND
1) A . (B + C) 2) A .(B . C)
3) (A + B) . (A + C) 4) A + B + C
2011
26) An n-p-n transistor can be considered to be
equivalent to two diodes, connected. Which of the
CET - 2012
following figures is the CORRECT ONE ? 29) For a transistor,  = 100. The value of  is
1) 1.01 2) 0.99
1) E C 3) 100 4) 0.01

B 30) The following truth tables with A and B as inputs

is for _______gate.

2) E C A B Output
1 0 1
B 1 1 0
0 1 1
0 0 0
3) E C
1) AND 2) OR
B 3) XOR 4) NOR

31) The most stable particles in the Baryon group is

1) neutron 2) proton
4) E C 3) lamda particle 4) sigma particles

B 59) Milk is example for

1) inelastic gel 2) foam
3) elastic gel 4) emulsion

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 398

 CET
2013 38) In n type semiconductor, electrons are
32) In which of the following statements, the majority charge carriers but it does not show any
obtained impure semiconductor is of p-type ? negative charge. The reason is
1) Germanium is doped with bismuth 1) atom is electrically neutral
2) Silicon is doped with antimony 2) mobility of electrons is extremely small
3) Germanium is doped with gallium 3) electrons neutralise with holes
4) Silicon is dopped with phosphorus 4) electrons are stationary

33) The width of the delpletion region in a p-n junction 39) A tuned amplifier circuit is used to generate a
diode is carrier frequency of 2 MHz for the
1) increased by reverse bias amplitude modulation. The value of LC is
2) increased by forward bias
1 1
3) decreased by reverse bias 1) 2)
4 x 106 3 x 106
4) independent of the bias voltage

1 1
34) The output of an OR gate is connected to both the 3) 4)
2 x 106 2 x 106
inputs of a NAND gate. The combination will serve as
2015
1) AND gate 2) NOT gate
40) The circuit has two oppositely ideal diodes in par-
3) NAND gate 4) NOR gate
allel. What is the current flowing in the circuit ?

35) When the transistor is used as an amplifier

1) Emitter base junction must be reverse biased,
Collector-base junction must be forward
2) Emitter base junction must be forward biased,
Collector-base junction must be forward biased 1) 2.0 A 2) 1.33 A
3) Emitter-biase junction must be reverse biased 3) 1.71 A 4) 2.31 A
Collector-base junction must be reverse biased
4) Emitter-base junction must be forward biased, 41) Amplitude modulation has
Collector-base junction must be reverse biased 1) one carrier
2) one carrier with high frequency
2014 3) one carrier with two side band frequencies

36) For the given digital circuit, write the truth table 4) one carrier with infinite frequencies

and identify the logic gate it represents :

42) An LED is constructed from a pn junction based
on a certain semi-conducting material whose
energy gap is 1.9 eV. Then the wavelength of the
emitted light is
1) 1.6 x 10-8 m 2) 9.1 x 10-5m
1) AND-Gate 2) NAND-Gate
3) 2.9 x 10-9 m 4) 6.5 x 10-7 m
3) NOR-Gate 4) OR-Gate

43) The waves used for line-of-sight (LOS)

37) If a-current gain of transistor is 0.98. What is the communication is
value of  -current gain of the transistor ? 1) space waves 2) sky waves
1) 5 2) 4.9 3) 49 4) 0.49 3) ground waves 4) sound waves

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 399

 CET
44) The input characteristics of a transistor in CE mode 49) The process of super imposing message
signal on high frequency carrier wave is called
is the graph obtained by plotting
(1) Modulation
1) IB against VCE at constant VBE (2) Transmission

2) IB against IC at constant VBE (3) Demodulation

(4) Amplification
3) IB against VBE at constant VCE

4) IB against IC at constant VCE. 2017

50) The energy gap in case of which of the following is
less than 3 eV?
45) The given truth table is for
1) Iron 2) Germanium
Input Output
3) Copper 4) Aluminium
A B Y
0 0 1
51) A basic communication system consists of
0 1 1
1) Transmitter 2) Information source
1 0 1
3) Channel 4) Receiver
1 1 0

52) The output of a step down transformer is

1) OR gate 2) NOR gate
measured to be 48 V when connected to a 12 w
3) AND gate 4) NAND gate
bulb. The value of peak current is

2016 1 1
(1)
2 2
A (2)
4
A
46) Constant DC voltage is required from a
1
variable AC voltage. Which of the following is cor- (3) 2A (4) 2 A
rect order of operation ?
(1) Filter, regulator, rectifier
53) Which of the following semi-conducting devices
(2) Rectifier, filter, regulator
is used as voltage regulator?
(3) Rectifier, regulator, filter
(1) Photo diode (2) LASER diode
(4) Regulator, filter, rectifier
(3) Zener diode (4) Solar cell

47) In a transistor, the collector current varies by 0.49

54) Which of the following logic gates is considered
mA and emitter current varies by 0.50 mA. Cur-
as 'universal' ?
rent gain b measured is
(1)
(1) 100 (2) 99
(3) 150 (4) 49
(2)

48) Identify the logic operation carried out by the fol-

lowing circuit. (3)

(4)

55) In the the three parts of a transistor, 'Emitter' is of

(1) moderate size and heavily doped
(1) AND (2) NAND (2) thin size and heavily doped
(3) NOR (4) OR (3) large size and moderately doped
(4) large size and lightly doped

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 CET
2018 61. For a transistor amplifier, the voltage gain
56. In a CE amplifier, the input ac signal to be 1) Is high at high and low frequencies and
amplified is applied across constant in the middle frequency range
1) Forward biased emitter-base junction 2) Constant at high frequencies and low at low
2) Reverse biased collector-base junction frequencies
3) Reverse biased emitter-base junction 3) Remains constant for all frequencies
4) Forward biased collector-base junction 4) Is low at high and low frequencies and
constant at mid frequencies
57. If A =1 and B = 0 then in terms of Boolean algebra,
A+B= 62. In the following circuit, what are P and Q ?
1) B 2) B
1) P = 1, Q = 0
3) A 4) A
2) P = 1, Q = 1
3) P = 0, Q = 0
58. The density of an electron-hole pair in a pure
4) P = 0, Q = 1
germanium is 3 x 1016m-3 at room temperature.
On doping with aluminium, the hole density
63. An antenna uses electromagnetic waves of
increases to 4.5 x 1022 m -3. Now the electron
frequency 5MHz. For proper working, the size of
density (in m-3) in doped germanium will be
the antenna should be
1) 1 x 1010 2) 2 x 1010
1) 300m 2) 3km
3) 0.5 x 1010 4) 4 x 1010
3) 15m 4) 15km

59. The dc common emitter current gain of a npn

64. An electromagnetic wave is travelling in
transistor is 50. The potential difference applied
x-direction with electric field vector given by
across the collector and emitter of a transistor used
. The correct expression for
in CE configuration is VCE = 2V. If the collector
magnetic field vector is
resistance RC= 4k, the base current (IB) and
the collector current (IC) are 1)

1) IB = 10µA, IC=0.5mA
2)
2) IB = 0.5µA, IC=10mA

3) IB = 5µA, IC= 1mA 3)

4) IB = 1µA, IC = 0.5mA
4)
KCET - 2019
60. The conductivity of semiconductor increases with
increase in temperature because KCET - 2020
1) Relaxation time increases 65. A positive hole in a semiconductor is
2) Number density of current carriers increases, 1) An anti-particle of electron
relaxation time decreases but effect of 2) A vacancy created when an electron leaves
decrease in relaxation time is much less than a covalent bond
in number density 3) Absence of free electrons
3) Number density of charge carriers increases 4) An artificially created particle
4) Both number density of charge carriers and
relaxation time increase

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 CET
66. A 220 V A.C supply is connected between points
A and B as shown in figure what will be the
potential difference V across the capacitor ?

1) 220 V 2) 110 V
3) 0 4) 220 2 V

67. In the following circuit what are P and Q:

1) P = 1, Q = 0 2) P = 0, Q = 1
3) P = 0, Q = 0 4) P = 1, Q = 1

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 402

 JEE (MAIN)

2002 2003
6. In the middle of the depletion layer of a reverse-
1. Formation of covalent bonds in compounds
biased p-n junction, the
exhibits
(1) electric field is zero
(1) wave nature of electron
(2) potential is maximum
(2) particle nature of electron (3) electric field is maximum
(3) both wave and particle nature of electron (4) potential is zero.

(4) none of these.

7. The difference in the variation of resistance with
temperature in a metal and a semiconductor arises
2. The part of a transistor which is most heavily doped
essentially due to the difference in the
to produce large number of majority carriers is (1) crystal structure
(1) emitter (2) variation of the number of charge carriers
(2) base temperature

(3) collector (3) type of bonding

(4) variation of scattering mechanism with
(4) can be any of the above three.
temperature

3. The energy band gap is maximum in 8. A strip of copper and another germanium are
(1) metals cooled from room temperature to 80 K. The
(2) superconductors resistance of
(1) each of these decrease
(3) insulators
(2) copper strip increases and that of germanium
(4) semiconductors.
decreases
(3) copper strip decreases and that of germanium
4. By increasing the temperature, the specific increases
resistance of a conductor and a semiconductor (4) each of these increases.

(1) increases for both

2004
(2) decreases for both
9. When p-n junction diode is forward biased, then
(3) increases, decrease
(1) the depletion region is reduced and barrier
(4) decreases, increases. height is increased
(2) the depletion region is widened and barrier
5. At absolute zero, Si acts as height is reduced.

(1) non-metal (3) both the depletion region and barrier height
are reduced
(2) metal
(4) both the depletion region and barrier height
(3) insulator
are increased
(4) none of these.

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10. The manifestation of band structure in solids is 16. The electrical conductivity ofa semiconductor
due to increases when electromagnetic radiation of
(1) Heisenberg's uncertainty principle wavelength shorter than 2480 nm is incident on
(2) Pauli's exclusion principle it. The band gap in (eV) for the semiconductor is
(3) Bohr's correspondence principle (1) 0.5 eV (2) 0.7 eV
(4) Boltzmann's law (3) 1.1 eV (4) 2.5 eV

11. A piece of copper and another of germanium are 2006

cooled from room temperature to 77 K, the 17. The circuit has two oppositely connect ideal diodes
resistance of in parallel. What is the current following in the
(1) each of them increases circuit?
(2) each of them decreases (1) 1.33 A
(3) copper decreases and germanium increases (2) 1.71 A
(4) copper increases and germanium decreases. (3) 2.00 A
(4) 2.31 A
12. For a transistor amplifier in common emitter
configuration for load impedance of 1 k 
(hfe = 50 and hoe = 25) the current gain is 18. In the following, which one of the diodes is reverse
(1) -5.2 (2) -15.7 biased?
(3) - 24.8 (4) - 48.78.
(1) (2)
13. When npn transistor is used as an amplifier
(1) electrons move from base to collector
(2) holes move from emitter to base (3) (4)
(3) electrons move from collector to base
(4) holes move from ba e to emitter.
19. If the lattice constant of this semiconductor is
2005 decreased, then which of the following is correct?
14. In a full wave rectifier circuit operating from 50 Hz Conduction band width Band gap Valence band

mains frequency, the fundamental frequency in width

the ripple would be

(1) 100 Hz (2) 70.7 Hz
(3) 50 Hz (4) 25 Hz

15. In a common base amplifier, the phase difference (1) all Ec, Eg, Ev decrease
between the input signal voltage and output (2) all Ec, Eg, Ev increase
voltage is (3) Ec and Ev, increase, but Eg decreases
(1) 0 (2) /2 (4) Ec and Ev, decrease, but Eg increases.
(3) /4 (4) 

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20. In common base mode of a transistor, the 24. If in a p - n junction diode, a square input signal of

collector current is 5.488 mA for an emitter current 10 V is applied as shown

of 5.60 mA. The value of the base current

amplification factor () will be
(1) 48 (2) 49
(3) 50 (4) 51
Then the output signal across RL will be

21. In the ratio of the concentration of electrons that

(1) (2)
of holes in a semiconductor is 7/5 and the ratio
of currents is 7/4 then what is the ratio of their (3) (4)
drift velocities?
(1) 4/7 (2) 5/8
(3) 4/5 (4) 5/4 2008
25. In the circuit below, A and B represent two inputs

22. A solid which is transparent to visible light and and C represents the output.The circuit represents

whose conductivity increases with temperature

is formed by
(1) metallic binding
(2) ionic binding
(3) covalent binding
(1) OR gate (2) NOR gate
(4) van der Waals binding (3) AND gate (4) NAND gate.

2007 26. A working transistor with its three legs marked P,

23. Carbon, silicon and germanium have four valence Q and R is tested using a multimeter. No
electrons each. At room terriperature which one conduction is found between Pand Q. By

of the following statements is most appropriate? connecting the common (negative) terminal of the

(1) The number of free electrons for conduction multimeter to R and the other (positive) terminal to
P or Q, some resistance is seen on the multimeter.
is significant only in Si and Ge but small
Which of the following is true for the transistor?
in C.
(1) It is an npn transistor with R as collector.
(2) The number offree conduction electrons is
(2) It is an npn transistor with R as base.
significant in C but small in Si and Ge.
(3) It is a pnp transistor with R as collector.
(3) The number of free conduction electrons is
(4) It is a pnp transistor with R as emitter.
negligibly small in all the three.
(4) The number of free electrons for conduction
is significant in all the three.

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2009 2010
27. The logic circuit shown below has the input 29. The combination of gates shown below yields
waveforms ‘A’ and 'B' as shown. Pick out the
correct output waveform.

(1) NAND gate (2) OR gate

(3) NOT gate (4) XOR gate

2012
30. Truth table for system of four NAND gates as
output is
shown in figure is
(1)

(2)

(3) (1) (2)

(4)

(3) (4)
28. A p-n junction (D) shown in the figure can act as
a rectifier.

2013

An altemating current source (V) is connected in 31. The I- V characteristic of an LED is

the circuit. The eurrent (I) in the resistor (R) can
be shown by
(1) (1) (2)

(2)

(3) (4)

(3)

(4)

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32. A diode detector is used to detect an amplitude 36. A red LED emits light at 0.1 watt uniformly around
modulated wave of 60% modulation by using a it. The amplitude of the electric field of the light at a
condenser of capacity 250 pico farad in parallel distance of 1m from the diode is :
with a load resistance 100 kilo ohm. Find the 1) 1.73 V/m 2) 2.45 V/m
maximum modulated frequency which could be 3) 5.48 V/m 4) 7.75 V/m
detected by it.
(1) 5.31 kHz (2) 10.62 MHz
(3) 10.62 kHz (4) 5.31 MHz 2016
37. If a, b, c, d are inputs to a gate and x is its output,
2014 then, as per the following time graph, the gate is :
33. The current voltage relation of diode is given by 1) NOT
I= (e1000 V/T - 1) mA, where the applied voltage 2) AND
Vis in volts and the temperature T is in degree 3) OR
Kelvin. If a student makes an error measuring ± 4) NAND
0.01 V while measuring the current of 5 mA at
300 K, what will be the error in the value of current
in mA?
(1) 0.05 mA (2) 0.2 mA 38. Choose the correct statement :
(3) 0.02 mA (4) 0.5 mA 1) In amplitude modulation the amplitude of the
high frequency carrier wave is made to vary in
34. The forward bia ed diode connection is proportion to the amplitude of the audio signal.
2) In amplitude modulation the frequency of the
(1)
high frequency carrier wave is made to vary in
proportion to the amplitude of the audio signal.
(2)
3) In frequency modulation the amplitude of the
high frequency carrier wave is made to vary in
(3)
proportion to the amplitude of the audio signal.
4) In frequency modulation the amplitude of the
(4)
high frequency carrier wave is made to vary in
proportion to the frequency of the audio signal.

2015
39. For a common emitter configuration, if  and  have
35. A signal of 5kHz frequency is amplitude modulated
their usual meanings, the incorrect
on a carrier wave of frequency 2MHz. The
relationship between  and  is :
frequencies of the resultant signal is/are :
1) 2 MHz only 1 1 
1) = +1 2) =
2) 2005 kHz, and 1995 kHz   1-
3) 2005 kHz, 2000 kHz and 1995 kHz
4) 2000 kHz and 1995 kHz   
3)  = 4)  =
1+ 1 + 

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40. Identify the semiconductor devices whose 2018
characteristics are given below, in the order (a), 43. The reading of the ammeter for a silicon diode in

(b), (c), (d) : the given circuit is

1) 15mA
2) 11.5mA
3) 13.5mA
4) 0

44. A telephonic communication service is working at

carrier frequency of 10GHz. Only 10% of it is
utilized for transmission. How many telephonic
channels can be transmitted simultaneously if
each channel requires a bandwidth of 5kHz?
1) 2 x 104 2) 2 x 105
1) Simple diode, Zener diode, Solar cell,
3) 2 x 106 4) 2 x 103
Light dependent resistance.
2) Zener diode, Simple diode, Light dependent 2019 8th April Shift - I
resistance, Solar cell. 45. The reverse breakdown voltage of a Zener
diode is 5.6 V in the given circuit.
3) Solar cell, Light dependent resistance,
Zener diode, Simple diode.
4) Zener diode, Solar cell, Simple diode,
Light dependent resistance.
The current Iz through the Zener is

2017 1) 10 mA 2) 17 mA
3) 15 mA 4) 7 mA
41. In amplitude modulation, sinusoidal carrier
frequency used is denoted by c and the signal
2019 8th April Shift - II
frequency is denoted by m. The bandwidth (m) 46. A common emitter amplifier circuit, built using
of the signal is such that m << c . Which of an n-p-n transistor is shown in the figure.
the following frequencies is not contained in the Its DC current gain is 250, RC = 1 k and

modulated wave? V CC = 10 V. What is the minimum base

current for VCE to reach saturation ?
(1) m + c (2) c - m
(3) m (4) c

42. In a common emitter amplifier circuit using an n-

p-n transistor, the phase difference between the
input and the output voltages will be :
1) 40 A 2) 10 A
(1) 135° (2) 180°
3) 100 A 4) 7A
(3) 45° (4) 90°

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2019 9th April Shift - I 2019 10th April Shift - II
47. An n-p-n transistor is used in common emitter 51. The figure represents a voltage regulator
configuration as an amplifier with 1 k load circuit using a Zener diode. The breakdown
resistance. Signal voltage of 10mV is applied voltage of the Zener diode is 6V and the load
across the base-emitter. This produces a 3mA resistance is RL = 4k. The series resistance
change in the collector current and 15A of the circuit is Ri = 1 k. If the battery voltage
change in the base current of the amplifier. V B varies from 8V to 16V, what are the
The input resistance and voltage gain are minimum and maximum values of the current
1) 0.67 k, 200 2) 0.33 k, 1.5 through Zener diode ?
3) 0.67 k, 300 4) 0.33 k, 300

2019 9th April Shift - II

48. The logic gate equivalent to the given logic
circuit is

1) 1.5 mA, 8.45 mA 2) 1mA, 8.5 mA

3) 0.5 mA, 8.5 mA 4) 0.5 mA, 6 mA

1) NOR 2) NAND
3) OR 4) AND 2019 12th April Shift - I
52. The truth table for the circuit given in the
2019 9th April Shift - II figure is
49. Four point charges -q, +q, +q and -q are placed
on Y-axis at y = -2d, y = -d, y = +d and y = +2d,
respectively. The magnitude of the electric
field E at a point on the X-axis at x = D, with
D>>d, will be behave as

1) 2) 1) 2)

3) 4)

2019 10th April Shift - I

50. An n-p-n transistor operates as a common
emitter amplifier, with a power gain of 60 dB. 3) 4)

The input circuit resistance is 100  and the

output load resistance is 10 k. The common
emitter current gain  is
2
1) 10 2) 6 x 102
3) 104 4) 60

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2019 12th April Shift - I 2019 9th Jan Shift - II
53. The transfer characteristic curve of a transistor 56. At 0.3V and 0.7 V, the diodes Ge and Si
having input and output resistance 100 and become conductor respectively. In given
100 k respectively is shown in the figure. figure, if ends of diode Ge overturned, the
The voltage and power gain are respectively change in potential V0 will be

1) 0.2 V 2) 0.6 V
3) 0.4 V 4) 0.8 V
4 6
1) 2.5 x 10 , 2.5 x 10
2) 5 x 104, 5 x 106
2019 10th Jan Shift - I
3) 5 x 104, 5 x 105
57. To get output ‘1’ at R, for the given logic gate
4) 5 x 104, 2.5 x 106
circuit, the input values must be

2019 12th April Shift - II

54. Figure shown a DC voltage regulator circuit,
with a Zener diode of breakdown voltage = 6 V.
If the unregulated input voltage varies
between 10 V to 16 V, then what is the
1) X = 0, Y = 0 2) X = 1, Y = 0
maximum Zener current ?
3) X = 1, Y = 1 4) X = 0, Y = 1

2019 10th Jan Shift - II

58. For the circuit shown below, the current
through the Zener diode is

1) 2.5 mA 2) 1.5 mA
3) 7.5 mA 4) 3.5 ma
1) 14 mA 2) zero
2019 9th Jan Shift - I 3) 5 mA 4) 9 mA
55. Mobility of electrons in a semiconductor is
difined as the ratio of their drift velocity to 2019 11th Jan Shift - I
the applied electric field. If for an n - type 59. In the given circuit, the current through zener
semiconductor, the density of electrons is diode is close to
1019 m-3 and their mobility is 1.6 m2 (V-s), then
the resistivity of the semiconductor (since it is
an n-type semiconductor contribution of holes
is ignored) is close to
1) 2 - m 2) 0.2 -m 1) 6.0 mA 2) 6.7 mA
3) 0.4  - m 4) 4 - m 3) 0 4) 4.0 mA

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2019 11th Jan Shift - II 2020 7th Jan Shift - I
60. The circuit shown below contains two ideal 63. Which of the following gives a reversible
diodes each with a forward resistance of 50. operation ?
If the battery voltage is 6V, the current through
1) 2)
the 100 resistance (in ampere) is
3) 4)

2020 7th Jan Shift - II

64. In the figure potential difference between
A and B is
1) 0.027 2) 0.020
3) 0.030 4) 0.036

2019 12th Jan Shift - II

61. The output of the given logic circuit is
1) 5 V 2) zero
3) 15 V 4) 10 V

2020 8th Jan Shift - I

65. Boolean relation at the output stage - Y for
the following circuit is
1) 2)

3) 4)

2019 12th Jan Shift - II

62. In the figure, given that VBB supply can vary
1) 2) 3) 4)
from 0 to 5.0 V, VCC = 5V, DC = 200, RB = 100k ,
RC = 1k and VBE = 1.0 V. The minimum base 2020 8th Jan Shift - II
current and the input voltage at which the 66. In the given circuit, value of Y is
transistor will go to saturation will be
respectively

1) toggles between 0 and 1

2) 1
3) 0
1) 25mA and 2.8 V 2) 25 mA and 3.5 V 4) will not execute
3) 20mA and 3.5 V 4) 20 mA and 2.8 V

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2020 9th Jan Shift - I 2020 3rd Sept. Shift - II
67. Both the diodes used in the circuit shown are 71. If a semiconductor photodiode can detect a
assumed to be ideal and have negligible photon with a maximum wavelength of
resistance when these are forward biased. 400 nm, then its band gap energy is:
Built in potential in each diode is 0.7 V. For Planck's constant h = 6.63 × 10–34 J.s.
the input voltages shown in the figure, the Speed of ligh c = 3 × 108 m/s
voltage (in volts) at point A is ______ 1) 2.0 eV 2) 1.5 eV
3) 3.1 eV 4) 1.1 eV

2020 4th Sept. Shift - I

72. Take the breakdown voltage of the zener
diode used in the given circuit as 6V. For the
input voltage shown in figure below, the time
2020 9th Jan Shift - II
variation of the output voltage is : (Graphs
68. The circuit shown below is working as a 8 V
drawn are schematic and not to scale)
dc regulated voltage source. When 12 V is
used as input, the power dissipated (in mW)
in each diode is (considering both zener
diodes are identical)________

2020 2nd Sept. Shift - II

69. In the following digital circuit, what will be
the output at 'Z', when the input (A, B) are
(1, 0), (0, 0), (1, 1), (0, 1):

1) 1, 0, 1, 1 2) 0, 1, 0, 0
3) 0, 0, 1, 0 4) 1, 1, 0, 1

2020 3rd Sept. Shift - I

70. When a diode is forward biased, it has a
voltage drop of 0.5 V. The safe limit of current
through the diode is 10 mA. If a battery of
emf 1.5 V is used in the circuit, the value of
minimum resistance to be connected in series
with the diode so that the current does not
exceed the safe limit is :
1) 100  2) 50 
3) 300  4) 200 

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U.SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 412

 2020 5th Sept. Shift - I
2020 4th Sept. Shift - II 75. With increasing biasing voltage of a
73. Identify the operation performed by the photodiode, the photocurrent magnitude :
circuit given below : 1) increases initially and saturates finally
2) increases initially and after attaining certain
value, it decreases
3) increases linearly
4) remains constant

2020 6th Sept. Shift - I

1) AND 2) NAND 76. Identify the correct output signal Y in the given
3) OR 4) NOT combination of gates (as shown) for the given
inputs A and B.

2020 5th Sept. Shift - II

74. Two Zener diodes (A and B) having
breakdown voltages of 6V and 4V
respectively, are connected as shown in
athe circuit below. The output voltage V0
variation with input voltage linearly
increasing with time, is given by :
(Vinput = 0V at t = 0) (figures are qualitative)

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2020 6th Sept. Shift - II
77. The output characteristics of a transistor is
shown in the figure. When VCE is 10 V and
IC = 4.0 mA, then value of  ac is ________ .

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U.SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 414

 NEET

2000 IC
41. For a common base circuit if = 0.98
IE
37. The cations and anions are arranged in
alternate form in then current gain for common emitter
1) metallic crystal circuit will be
2) ionic crystal 1) 49 2) 98
3) covalent crystal 3) 4.9 4) 25.5
4) semi - conductor crystal.
2002
42. Number of atom per unit cell in B. C. C
2000
1) 9 2) 4 3) 2 4) 1.
38. From the following diode circuit, which
diode is in forward biased condition IC
43. For a transistor = 0.96, then current
IE
1)
2) gain for common emitter is
3) 1) 12 2) 6 3) 48 4) 24.
4)
44. In a pn junction
1) high potential at n side and low potential at
39. The correct relation for  for a transistor p side
2) high potential at p side and low potential
1-  
1)  = 2)  = at n side
 1- 
3) p and n both are at same potential
4) undetermined.
-1
3)  = 4)  = 1.
 1994, 98, 2001,2002
45. The given truth table is for which logic gate
2001
1) NAND
40. The current in the circuit will be 2) XOR
3) NOR
4) OR.

46. For the given circuit of p -n junction diode

which is correct
1) in forward bias
the voltage across
1) 5/40 A 2) 5/50 A
R is V
3) 5/10 A 4) 5/20. A 2) in reverse bias
the voltage across R is V
3) in forward bias the voltage across R is 2V
4) in reverse bias the voltage across R is 2V

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 415

2003
53. The peak voltage in the output of a half wave
47. Reverse bias applied to a junction diode
diode rectifier fed with a sinusoidal signal with
1) lowers the potential barrier
out filter is 10 V. The d.c. component of
2) raises the potential barrier
3) increases the majority carrier current the output voltage is

4) increases the minority carrier current 1) 10/  2 V 2) 10 /V

3) 10 V 4) 20/V
48. A n - p - n transistor conducts when
1) both collector and emitter are positive with
respect to the base 54. The output of OR gate is 1
2) collector is positive and emitter are negative 1) if both inputs are zero
with respect to the base 2) if either or both inputs are 1
3) collector is positive and emitter is at same 3) only if both inputs are 1
potential as the base 4) if either input is zero
4) both collector and emitter are negative with
respect to the base
55. Of the diodes shown in the following
diagrams, which one is reverse biased ?
49. If a full wave rectifier circuit is operating from
50 Hz mains, the fundamental frequency in
the ripple will be 1)
1) 25 Hz 2) 50 Hz
3) 70.7 Hz 4) 100 Hz.
2)
50. Barrier potential of a p - n junction diode does
not depend on
1) diode design 2) temperature
3) forward bias 4) doping density
3)
51. Following diagram performs the logic
function of
4)

2005
1) AND gate 2) NAND gate
56. Choose the only false statement from the
3) OR gate 4) XOR gate
following.
1) In conductors the valence and conduction
2004
bands overlap.
52. In semiconductors at a room temperature
2) Substances with energy gap of the order
1) the valence band is partially empty and the
of 10 eV are insulators.
conduction band is partially filled
3) The resistivity of a semiconductor increases
2) the valence band is completely filled and
with increase in temperature
the conduction band is partially filled
4) The conductivity of a semiconductor
3) the valence band is completely filled
increases with increase in temperature.

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57. Zener diode is used for 2006
1) amplification 62. A forward biased diode is
2) rectification
1)
3) stabilisation
4) producing oscillations in an oscillator. 2)
3)
58. Application of a forward bias to a p - n junction 4)
1) widens the depletion zone
2) increases the potential difference across
the depletion zone 63. The following figure shows a logic gate circuit
3) increases the number of donars on the n with two inputs A and B and the output C.
side The voltage waveforms of A, B and C are as
4) decreases the electric field in the depletion
shown below.
zone.

59. Carbon, silicon and germanium atoms have

four valence electrons each. Their valence
and conduction bands are separated by energy
band gaps represented by (Eg)C, (Eg)Si and
(Eg)Ge respectively. Which one of the following t
relationships is true in their case ?

1) (Eg)C > (Eg)Si t

2) (Eg)C < (Eg)Si

3) (Eg)C = (Eg)Si t

4) (Eg)C > (Eg)Ge

The logic circuit gate is
1) OR gate 2) AND gate
60. Copper has face centred cubic (fcc) lattice with
3) NAND gate 4) NOR gate
interatomic spacing equal to 2.5 Å . The value
of lattice constant for this lattice is
1) 2.54 Å 2) 3.59 Å 64. A transistor is operated in common emitter
3) 1.27 Å 4) 5.08 Å configuration at constant collector voltage

VC = 1.5 V such that a change in the base

61. In a p - n junction photo cell, the value of the
current from 100A to 150A produces a
photo electromotive force produced by
change in the collector current from 5 mA to
monochromatic light is proportional to
10 mA. The current gain  is
1) The barrier voltage at the p - n junction
1) 50 2) 67
2) The intensity of the light falling on the cell.
3) The frequency of the light falling on the cell. 3) 75 4) 100.

4) The voltage applied at the p - n junction.

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 417

2007 68. In the energy band diagram of a material
65. In the following circuit, the output Y for all shown below, the open circles and filled

possible inputs A and B is expressed by the circles denote holes and electrons

truth table. respectively. The material is

1) A B Y 2) A B Y
0 0 1 0 0 1
0 1 1 0 1 0
1 0 1 1 0 0 1) an insulator

1 1 0 1 1 0 2) a metal
3) an n - type semiconductor

3) A B Y 4) A B Y 4) a p - type semiconductor.

0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 1 0 2008

1 0 1 1 0 0 69. The circuit

1 1 1 1 1 1

66. A common emitter amplifier has a voltage gain

of 50, an input impedance of 100  and an
output impedence of 200. The power gain is equivalent to

of the amplifier 1) NOR gate 2) OR gate

1) 1000 2) 1250 3) AND gate 4) NAND gate

3) 100 4) 500
70. A p - n photodiode is made of a material with a
 None
band gap of 2.0 eV. The minimum frequency
of the radiation that can be absorbed by the
67. For a cubic crystal structure which one of the
material is nearly
following relations indicating the cell
1) 1 x 1014 Hz
characteristics is correct ?
2) 20 x 1014 Hz
o
1) a  b  c and  =  =  = 90 3) 10 x 1014 Hz

2) a  b  c and      = 90o 4) 5 x 1014 Hz

3) a  b  c and  =  = = 90o

71. If the lattice parameter for a crystalline
o
4) a  b  c and      = 90 structure is 3.6Å , then the atomic radius in
fcc crystal is
1) 2.92 Å 2) 1.27 Å
3) 1.81 Å 4) 2.10 Å

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 418

72. The voltage gain of an amplifier with 9% 2010
77. Which one of the following statements is false ?
negative feedback is 1.0 The voltage gain
1) Pure Si doped with trivalent impurities gives
without feedback will be
a p - type semiconductor.
1) 1.25 2) 100
2) Majority carriers in a n - type semiconductor
3) 90 4) 10
are holes
3) Minority carriers in a p - type semiconductor
2009 are electrons
73. A p- n photodiode is fabricated from a 4) The resistance of intrinsic semiconductor
semiconductor with a band gap of 2.5 eV. I t decreases with increase of temperature.

can detect a signal of wavelength

78. W hich one of the following bonds
1) 4000 nm 2) 6000 nm
produces a solid that reflects light in the visible
3) 4000 Å 4) 6000 Å
region and whose electrical conductivity
decreases with temperature and has high
74. The symbolic representation of four logic gates melting point ?
are given below 1) metallic bonding
2) van der Waal’s bonding
The logic symbols
3) ionic bonding
for OR, NOT and
4) covalent bonding
NAND gates are

respectively 79. The device that can act as a complete

1) (iv), (i), (iii) electronic circuit is

1) junction diode 2) integrated circuit
2) (iv), (ii), (i)
3) junction transistor 4) zener diode
3) (i), (iii), (iv)

4) (iii), (iv), (ii)

80. A common emitter amplifier has a voltage gain
of 50, an input impedance of 100  and an

75. A transistor is operated in common- output impedence of 200. The power

emitter configuration at Vc = 2 V such that a gain of the amplifier

change in the base current from 100A to 1) 500 2) 1000 3) 1250 4) 50.

200 A produces a change in the collector

current from 5 mA to 10 mA. The current gain is 81. To get an output Y = 1 from the circuit

1) 100 2) 150 shown below, the input must be

3) 50 4) 75

76. Sodium has body centred packing. Distance

between two nearest atoms is 3.7Å . The A B C

lattice parameter is 1) 0 1 0

1) 4.3 Å 2) 3.0 Å 2) 0 0 1

3) 8.6 Å 4) 6.8 Å 3) 1 0 1
4) 1 0 0

CHETAN & SACHETAN P.U. SCIENCE COLLEGES, HUBBALLI 419

82. The following figure shows a logic gate circuit 85. In forward biasing of the p - n junction
with two inputs A and B and the output Y. 1) the positive terminal of the battery is

The voltage waveforms of A, B and Y are as connected to p - side and the depletion

given. region becomes thick.

2) the positive terminal of the battery is
connected to n - side and the depletion
region becomes thin.
3) the positive terminal of the battery is
connected to n - side and the depletion
region becomes thick.
4) the positive terminal of the battery is

The logic gate is connected to p - side and the depletion

1) NOR gate 2) OR gate region becomes thin.

3) AND gate 4) NAND gate

86. Symbolic representation of four logic
gates are shown as
83. For transistor action
1) Base, emitter and collector regions should
have similar size and doping concentrations
2) The base region must be very 0thin and
lightly doped.
3) The emitter - base junction is forward
biased and base - collector junction is
Pick out which ones are for AND, NAND
reverse biased.
and NOT gates , respectively
4) Both the emitter - base junction as well as
1) (ii), (iii) and (iv)
the base - collector junction are forward
2) (iii), (ii) and (i)
biased .
3) (iii), (ii) and (iv)
Which one of the following pairs of statements
4) (ii), (iv) and (iii)
is correct ?
1) (4) and (1) 2) (1) and (2)
87. If a small amount of antimony is added to
3) (2) and (3) 4) (3) and (4)
germanium crystal
1) it becomes a p - type semiconductor
2011
2) the antimony becomes an acceptor atom
84. A transistor is operated in common
3) there will be more free electrons than holes
emitter configurationb at Vc = 2V such that
in the semiconductor
a change in the base current from 100 A
4) its resistance is increased
to 300 A produces a change in the
collector current from 10 mA to 20 mA. The
current gain is
1) 50 2) 75 3) 100 4) 25

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88. A zener diode, having breakdown voltage equal 2012
to 15V, is used in a voltage regulator circuit 91. Two ideal diodes are connected to a battery
shown in figure. The current through the diode as shown in the circuit. The current
supplied by the battery is
1) 0.75 A
2) zero
3) 0.25 A
4) 0.5 A
1) 5 mA 2) 10 mA 3) 15 mA 4) 20 mA

89. In the following figure, the diodes which are

92. I n a CE transistor amplifier, the audio
forward biased, are
signal voltage across the collector
resistance of 2 k is 2V. If the base
resistance is 1 k and the current
amplification of the transistor is 100, the
input signal voltage is
1) 0.1 V 2) 1.0 V
3) 1 mV 4) 10 mV

93. C and Si both have same lattice structure;

having 4 bonding electrons in each.
However, C is insulator where as Si is
intrinsic semiconductor. This is because
1) (A), (B) and (D) 2) (C) only
1) In case of C the valence band is not
3) (C) and (A) 4) (B) and (D)
completely filled at absolute zero
90. Pure Si at 500 K has equal number of
temperature.
electron (ne) and hole (nh) concentrations o f
1.5 x 1016 m-3 Doping by indium increases 2) In case of C the conduction band is partly
nh to 4.5 x 1022 m-3. The doped semiconductor filled at absolute zero temperature.
is of
3) The four bonding electrons in the case of C
1) p - type having electron concentration
ne = 5 x 109 m-3 lie in the second orbit, whereas in the case
2) n - type with electron concentration
of Si they lie in the third.
ne = 5 x 1022 m-3
3) p - type with electron concentration 4) The four bonding electrons in the case of C
ne = 2.5 x 1010 m-3
lie in the third orbit, whereas for Si they lie
4) n - type with electron concentration
ne = 2.5 x 1023 m-3 in thefourth orbit.

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94. Transfer characteristics [output voltage
97. To get an output Y = 1 in given circuit which
(V0) vs input voltage (Vi) ] for a base biased
of the following input will be correct ?
transistor in CE configuration is as shown in
the figure. For using transistor as a switch,
it is used

A B C
1) 1 0 0
2) 1 0 1
3) 1 1 0
4) 0 1 0

1) in region III
2013
2) both in region (I) and (III)
98. In a common emitter (CE) amplifier having
3) in region II
a voltage gain G, the transistor used has
4) in region I transconductance 0.03 mho and current
gain 25. If the above transistor is replaced
with another one with transconductance
95. The figure shows a logic circuit with two inputs 0.02 mho and current gain 20, the voltage
A and B and the output C. The voltage gain will be
1) 1/3G 2) 5/4G
wave forms across A, B and C are as given.
3) 2/3G 4) 1.5G
The logic circuit gate is
1) OR gate 2) NOR gate
99. In a n-type semiconductor, which of the
3) AND gate 4) NAND gate following statement is true.
1) Holes are minority carriers and pentavalent
atoms are dopants.
2) Holes are majority carriers and trivalent
atoms are dopants.
3) Electrons are majority carriers and trivalent
atoms are dopants.
4) Electrons are minority carriers and
pentavalent atoms are dopants.
96. The input resistance of a silicon transistor
is 100 . Base current is changed by 100. The output (X) of the logic circuit shown in
40  A which results in a change in figure will be
collector currently by 2mA. This transistor
is used as a common emitter amplifier
with a load resistance of 4 k . The
1) X = A.B 2) X = A + B
voltage gain of the amplifier is
3) X = A.B 4) A = A.B
1) 2000 2) 3000
3) 4000 4) 1000

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2014 104. If in a p-n junction, a square input signal of 10V is
101. The given graph represents V - I characteristics for applied, as shown
a semiconductor device.


I
A then the output across RL will be :
V

B
1) 2)
Which of the following statement is correct ?
1) It is V-I characteristics for solar cell where,
point A represents open circuit voltage and
point B short circuit current. 3) 4)
2) It is a for a solar cell and point A and B
represent open circuit voltage and current,
respectively RE-AIPMT 2015
3) It is for a photodiode and points A and B 105. In the given figure, a diode D is connected to an
represent open circuit voltage and current, external resistance R = 100  and an e.m.f of 3.5
respectively V. If the barrier potential developed across the the
4) It is for a LED and points A and B represent diode is 0.5 V, the current will be :
open circuit voltage and short circuit current, 1) 35 mA
respectively. 2) 30 mA
3) 40 mA
102.The barrier potential of a p-n junction 4) 20 mA
depends on :
(a) type of semiconductor material 106. The input signal given to a CE amplifier
(b) amount of doping having a voltage gain of 150 is
(c) temperature Vi = 2 cos (15t + /3). The corresponding
Which of the following is correct ? output signal will be :
1) (a) and (b) only 2) (b) only 1) 300 cos (15t + 4/3)
3) (b) and (c) only 4) (a), (b) and (c) 2) 300 cos (15t + /3)
3) 75 cos (15t + /3)
2015 4) 2 cos (15t + 5/6)
103.W hich logic gate is represented by the
following combination of logic gates ? 2016
107. A npn transistor is connected in common
emitterconfiguration in a given amplifier. A load re-
sistance of 800  is connected in the collector
circuit and the voltage drop across it is 0.8 V. If
the current amplification factor is 0.96 and the in-
put resistance of the circuit is 192 , the voltage
gain and the power gain of the amplifier will re-
spectively be :
1) AND 2) NOR
1) 4, 3.84 2) 3.69, 3.84
3) OR 4) NAND
3) 4, 4 4) 4, 3.69

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108.To get output 1 for the following circuit, the 2017
correct choice for the input is
112. W hich one of the following represents
forward bias diode?

1)

1) A = 0, B = 1, C = 0
2)
2) A = 1, B = 0, C = 0
3) A = 1, B = 1, C = 0
3)
4) A = 1, B = 0, C = 1
4)
2016 NEET - II
109.For CE transistor amplifier, the audio signal
voltage across the collector resistance of
113. The given electrical network is equivalent to :
2 k is 4 V. If the current amplification factor of
the transistor is 100 and the base resistance is 1
k, then the input signal voltage is
1) 30 mV 2) 15 mV
1) NOR gate 2) NOT gate
3) 10 mV 4) 20 mV
3) AND gate 4) OR gate

110.The given circuit has two ideal diodes

114. In a common emitter transistor amplifier the audio
connected as shown in the figure below. The
signal voltage across the collector is 3V. The
current flowing through the resistance R1 will be
resistance of collector is 3 k, If current gain is
100 and the base resistance is 2 k, the voltage
and ower gain of the amplifier is :
1) 150 and 15000
2) 20 and 2000
3) 200 and 1000
1) 14·3 A 2) 3·13 A
4) 15 and 200
3) 2.5 A 4) 10·0 A

2018
111. What is the output Y in the following circuit, when
115. In a pn junction diode , change in temperature due
all the three inputs A, B, C are first 0 and then 1?
to heating
1) does not affect resistance of p-n junction
2) affects only forward resistance
3) affects only reverse resistance
1) 1, 0 2) 1, 1
4) affects the overall V- I characteristics of p-n
3) 0, 1 4) 0, 0
junction

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116. In the circuit shown in the figure, the voltage Vi is 119. For a p-type semiconductor which of the following
20V, VBE = 0 and VCE = 0. The values of IB, IC statements is true ?
and  are given by 1) Electrons are the majority carriers and trivalent
atoms are the dopants.
2) Holes are the majority carriers and trivalent
atoms are the dopants.
3) Holes are the majority carriers and pentavalent
atoms are the dopants.
4) Electrons are the majority carriers and
pentavalent atoms are the dopants.
1) IB = 20µA, IC = 5mA, = 250
2) IB = 25µA, IC = 5mA, = 200 120.Which of the following acts as a circuit protection
3) IB = 40µA, IC = 10mA, = 250 device ?
4) IB = 40µA, IC = 5mA, = 125 1) conductor 2) inductor
3) switch 4) fuse
117. In the combination of the following gates the
output Y can be written in terms of inputs A and
B as NEET - 2020
121.For transistor action, which of the following
Y statements is correct ?
1) The base region must be very thin and lightly
doped.
1) A.B + A.B 2) A.B + A.B 2) Base, emitter and collector regions should have
3) A.B 4) A + B same doping concentrations.
3) Base, emitter and collector regions should have
NEET - 2019 same size.
118. 4) Both emitter junction as well as the collector
junction are forward biased.

122.The increase in the width of depletion region in a

p-n junction diode is due to :
The correct Boolean operation represented by the 1) increase in forward current
circuit diagram drawn is : 2) forward bias only
1) AND 2) OR 3) reverse bias only
3) NAND 4) NOR 4) both forward bias and reverse bias

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123.For the logic circuit shown, the truth table is :

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