SAINT MARY’S ANGELS COLLEGE OF PAMPANGA

Olongapo-Gapan Road, Sta. Ana, 2022, Pampanga

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL
IN GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING 1
(SOIL MECHANICS)
(GEO 1)

A.Y. 2020-2021

REFERENCES:

1. F. G. H. Blyth, "A Geology for Engineers 7th Edition", Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann, 1984.
2. N. Chenna Kesavulu, "Textbook of Engineering Geology 2nd Edition", Macmillan Publishers India
Ltd., 2009.
3. Bell F.G. "Engineering Geology Second Edition", Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann, 2007.
Unit 1.1: Physical Geology – Introduction
OBJECTIVE

• To introduce the subject

• To list out the main and allied branches of geology, explain their subject matter and to briefly
indicate their relevance from the civil engineering point of view.
• To explore the scope of geology in terms of its academic significance. It is purely meant to inculcate
interest and curiosity in the subject matter.

INTRODUCTION

Engineering geology may be defined as that of applied sciences which deals with the application of
geology for a safe, stable land economical design and construction of a civil engineering project.

Geology is the science of the earth (geo = earth, logos = study or science). It deals with different aspects
of the earth as a whole such as (i) origin, age, interior structure and history of the earth; (ii) evolution
and modification of various features like rivers, mountains and lakes along with their causes; and (iii)
materials making up the earth.

MAIN AND ALLIED BRANCHES OF GEOLOGY

Geology is a relatively recent subject. In addition to its core branches, advances in geology in allied fields
have lead to specialized sciences like geophysics, geochemistry, seismology, oceanography and remote
sensing.

The vast subject of geology has been subdivided into the following branches for the sake of systematic
study:

Main Branches: Allied Branches:

Physical Geology Engineering Geology
Mineralogy Mining Geology
Petrology Geophysics
Structural Geology Geohydrology
Historical Geology (Stratigraphy) Geochemistry
Paleontology
Economic Geology

Physical Geology

This is also variously described as dynamic geology, geomorphology etc. As the name suggests It deals
with:

• Different physical features of the earth, such as mountains, plateaus, valleys, rivers, lakes
glaciers and volcanoes in terms of their origin and development.
• The different changes occurring on the earth surface like marine transgression, marine
regression, formation or disappearance of rivers, springs and lakes.
• Geological work of wind, glaciers, rivers, oceans, and groundwater and their role in constantly
moulding the earth’s surface features
• Natural phenomena like landslides, earthquakes and weathering.
Mineralogy

This deals with the study of minerals. Minerals are basic units with different rocks and ores of the earth
are made up of. Details of mode of formation, composition, occurrence, types, association, properties,
uses, etc. of minerals form the subject matter of mineralogy.

Knowledge in this branch of geology is necessary for a civil engineer because the properties of rocks
(which he is going to make use of in different ways) are to a large extent contributed by the properties
and composition of their constituent minerals. For example: sometimes quartzite and marble resemble
one another in shine, colour and appearance while marble disintegrates and decomposes in a shorter
period because of its mineral composition and properties.

Petrology (Petro = rock, logos = study)

Petrology deals with the study of rocks. The earth’s crust also called lithosphere is made up of different
types of rocks. Hence petrology deals with the mode of formation, structure, texture, composition,
occurrence, and types of rocks.

The composition and textural characters of rocks primarily contribute to their inherent strength and
durability. Rocks based on their suitability can be used as foundations of dams, for tunneling and as
materials for construction. Hence this is the most important branch of geology from the civil engineering
point of view.

Structural Geology

The rocks which form the earth’s crust undergo various deformations, dislocations and disturbances
under the influence of tectonic forces. The result is the occurrence of different geological structures like
folds, fault, joints and unconformities in rocks. The details of mode of formation, causes, types,
classification, importance etc. of these geological structures from the subject matter of structural
geology.

From the civil engineering point of view, it is as important as petrology because these geological
structures modify the inherent physical characters of rocks rendering them more suitable or unsuitable
for civil engineering purposes. For example, at a dam site sedimentary rocks with upstream dip provide
a desirable geologic set-up, while the same rocks with downstream dip make the geological set-up most
undesirable.

Historical Geology (Stratigraphy)

The climatic and geological changes including tectonic events in the geological past can also be known
from these investigations. This kind of study of the earth’s history through the sedimentary rocks is
called historical geology. It is also called stratigraphy (strata = a set of sedimentary rocks; graphy =
description) because this subject deals with details and description of sedimentary rock sequences. This
is a major branch of geology, having a lot of academic and applied importance. From the civil
engineering point of view also it is relevant that older rocks are in general more stable (like shield areas
of the Archaean era) and more competent due to more compaction and sedimentation. Further, study
of stratigraphy can be utilized in predicting the underlying strata which may be very important in some
specific civil engineering constructions.

Economic Geology

Minerals can be grouped as general rock forming minerals and economic minerals. Some of the
economic minerals like talc, graphite, mica, asbestos, gypsum, magnesite, diamond and gems. The
details of their mode of formation, occurrence, classification. Association, varieties, concenteration,
properties, uses from the subject matter of economic geology. Further based on application of
geological knowledge in other fields there is many other allied branches collectively called earth science.

Some of them described here are:

• Engineering geology.
• Mining geology.
• Geophysics.
• Geohydrology.
• Geochemistry.

Engineering Geology

This deals with the application of geological knowledge in the field of civil engineering, for execution of
safe, stable and economic constructions like dams, bridges and tunnels.

Mining Geology

This deals with the application of geological knowledge in the field of mining. A mining engineer is
interested in the mode and extent of occurrence of ores, their association, tenor, properties, etc. It is
also necessary to know other physical parameters like depth, direction (strike), inclination (dip),
thickness and reserve of ore bodies for efficient utilization. Such details of mineral exploration,
estimation and exploitation are dealt with in mining geology.

Geophysics

The study of physical properties like density and magnetism of the earth or its parts, to know its interior,
forms the subject matter of geophysics. Broadly it is subdivided into general (or pure) geophysics and
exploration (or applied) geophysics. Pure geophysics deals with general aspects of the earth as a whole
and exploration geophysics deals with the study of upper layers of the earth's crust in order to

• solve some civil engineering problems,

• locate oil and goes deposits,
• locate ground water,
• explore and estimate the ore deposits, etc., of underground.

There are different types of geophysical investigations based on the physical property utilized, viz ..
gravity methods, seismic methods, magnetic methods. Since these are quickly and easily done on the
surface, large areas can be investigated economically and efficiently.

Geohydrology

This may also be called as hydrogeology. It deals with occurrence, movement and nature (i.e., quality
and quantity) of ground water in an area. It has applied importance because ground water has many
advantages over surface water. This branch is closely related to geology because the very existence,
movement of ground water, etc., are directly related to porosity, permeability, structure, texture and
composition of the surface and underground rocks. Dykes may control the occurrence and movement of
ground water. In general, geological, geophysical (electrical resistivity method) and hydrological studies
are together taken up for ground water investigations.

SCOPE OF GEOLOGY IN CIVIL ENGINEERING

• It is defined as that of applied science which deal with the application of geology for a safe, stable
and economic design and construction of a civil engineering project.
• Engineering geology is almost universally considered as essential as that of soil mechanics, strength
of material, or theory of structures.
• The application of geological knowledge in planning, designing and construction of big civil
engineering projects.

The basic objects of a course in engineering geology are two folds.

• It enables a civil engineer to understand the engineering implications of certain condition should
relate to the area of construction which is essentially geological in nature.
• It enables a geologist to understand the nature of the geological information that is absolutely
essentially for a safe design and construction of a civil engineering projects. The scope of geology
can be studied is best studied with reference to major activities of the profession of a civil engineer
which are
• Construction
• Water resources development
• Town and regional planning