Wear - Elsevier Sequoia S.A.

, Lausanne - Printed in the Netherlands 87

REVIEW OF RECENT U.S.A. PUBLICATIONS ON LUBRICATING GREASE*

R. S. BARNETT
Research and Technical Department, Texaco Inc., Beacon, N.Y., 12508 (U.S.A.)
(Received May 14, 1970)

SUMMARY

Recent lubricating grease research and technology in the U.S.A. has been a
wide-ranging endeavor with fundamental research investigations on theories of
structure (including complex soaps), permeability, electrical measurements, and
electron microscopy adding much to the knowledge of grease structure. NLGI
Fellowship studies have contributed significantly to this phase.
Outstanding advances have also been made in manufacture and processing,
giving greater efficiencies, shorter times of manufacturing and culminating in the
first truly continuous manufacturing process. Radioactive tracing of additive mixing
has been accomplished. Packaging has advanced with new materials, and new
ingredients for greases have become available. Inventory and quality control has
been marked by the use of computers.
Mechanical testing and evaluation has been a major effort in supplementing
simple non-bearing bench tests by providing laboratory rig tests using actual bearings
and gears. Many new designs of testing equipment have been developed, and studies
of the friction, wear and e.p. properties of lubricating greases, including ball joint
testing, have been extended.
Analysis and non-mechanical testing endeavors have included a critical look
at the significance of the bomb oxidation test, the development of an instrumental
method to measure color, and the use of infrared techniques for quantitative analysis
of lithium soap in lubricating grease.
Studies on flow and dispensing have been particularly active resulting in an
advanced understanding of grease flow, both theoretical and in practical applications.
In particular, apparent viscosity determinations have been correlated with flow in
pipes in a very useful way. A continuing development of centralized lubricating
systems has made for efficiency, economy and safety, and great expansions in bulk
handling have come about through better understanding of grease flow.
Formulation of lubricating greases has been marked by development of new
thickeners in addition to complex soaps, and in the expanded use of molybdenum
disulfide as a solid-film lubricating additive. The development and study of products
for extreme environments including aerospace applications has resulted in some
industrial spin-off. The new NLGI Reference Systems provide samples of the same

* Paper presented at the Institution of Mechanical Engineers Symposium on The Use of Grease
as an Engineering Component, London. Feb. I9--20th 1970. Published by permission of this
Institution.

Wear, 16 (1970)87-142
 formulation and manufacture wllich can be used for research and evaluation l)!
laboratories with assurance of continuity, this being particularly valuable for co-
operative investigations by technical societies. Yew discoveries have been nlade wit11
old ingredients, such as the finding that l~igl~-soap-content greases givt> longer ball-
bearing lives. A special grease has been formulated for the food industry.
The application of lubricating greases and requirements for them have been
marked by the development of rustproof applications from the “inside-out” rather
than simply applying an asphaltic undercoating. The new cease-petroIatu]ll-t~ll~e
products applied mainly with airless sprays have given much better rust protection
for the life of the automotive vehicle than was obtained previously. Lubrication
intervals for automotive chassis greases have continued to increase, although certain
makes of cars have reverted to shorter periods and more grease fittings particularly
when conventional greases are used. There has been an intensive development of
aerospace applications with special greases such as the perfluorinated types coming
into the picture where hard vacuum, high temperatures, and other extreme condi-
tions must be resisted. However, it has been found that more conventional greases
may work surprisingly well, not only where sealed against vacuum, but in vacuum
environments. Improvements have been made in railroad lubrication particularly in
the understanding of the functioning of journal roller bearing greases and effect of
vibration on them, and the trend toward mild-e.p.-gear-oil traction-motor gear
lubricants which give better heat transfer, resist thickening, and afford improved
lubrication of gears.
The issuance of a revised NLG1 G~ossu~~) containing approximately IOOterms
now agreed upon in the lubricating grease industry should help the understanding of
these products by users and others. The hrLG1 Grade Classification has been made an
American Standard and is being considered for international standardization.
Production surveys made pe~odic~Iy by NLGI and recent nlark~tillg forecasts
have resulted in very helpful statistics and the recognition of trends. Considerable
thought has been given to better marketing techniques.

INTRODI2CTION

Historical
No review on U.S.A. articles on lubricating grease would be complete without
a mention of BONER’S comprehensive book1 published in 1954 which describes the
manufacture and application of lubricating greases to that time.
HOTTEN’S article2, an excellent, provocative critique written with keen
perception and wit, contains 339 literature references including patents and covers
the field to 1964. A companion article3 is that of BOLLO AND WOODS. This helpful
publication describes developments more recent than the BONER book, especially in
manufacturing and testing.

.%Clpe
The paper at hand summarizes U.S.A. lubricating grease literature as published
in the NLGP Spokesman and the two publications of ASLE** (Lubrication Elzg. and
* National Lubricating Grease Institute.
** American Society of Lubrication Engineers.

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RECENT USA PUBLICATIONS ON LUBRICATING GREASE sg

ASLE Tram.). It covers, primarily, the years 1963 to the present although a few
earlier papers have been included because of their outstanding nature. Some preprints
from the 1968 NLGI Meeting and the 1969 ASLE Meeting are included.

STRUCTURE AND BASIC RESEARCH

Theories of structure
Theories of grease structure have been marked by the varied NLGI Fellowship
studies, the studies of MARTINEK,KLASS AND HAINES~-6 on inorganic-thickened
greases, and also the application by BRIGHT798of electrical measurements to elucida-
tions of grease structure and apparent viscosity.
NLGI instituted, in 1951, their first Fellowship contract with the University
of Southern California. The awarding of Fellowships was temporarily suspended
following the grant which ended in 1968. ARMSTRONG~ and members of the NLGI
Fundamental Research Subcommittee have reviewed and appraised this activity
which has been aimed at a better understanding of the colloidal structure and funda-
mental properties of lubricating greases. Fifteen papers have been published in the
Spokesmalz in the years 1949-1969 as a result of these fellowships, including work
under the direction of M. J. AND R. D. VOLDof the University of Southern California,
EYRINGof the University of Utah, and SLAVERY of Northwestern University. These
investigations have contributed significantly to a better understanding of lubricating
greases.
The paper published concurrently with ARMSTRONG’S review was by MILES,
MILES, GABRYSHAND EYRING10 of the University of Utah on stress-relaxation and
recovery time for grease and polymer systems. Stress relaxation is the increase in flow
of the lubricating grease under stress attributed to the disentanglement of the
thickener fibers or particles. The tendency to return to the original state upon
cessation of shear is called recovery time, and is a measure of the thixotropic nature of
lubricating greases. This work has confirmed in some measure the Hahn, Ree and Ey-
ringtheoryforthisstressandtime-dependententanglement-disentanglementtransition.
The fellowship was returned to the University of California and the VOLDSin
1964 and they presented11 their ideas concerning research on grease structure which
would be pursued in the reinstituted fellowship. They described differential thermal
analyses on two samples of lithium soap greases of identical composition, one prepared
by quick cooling and one by slow cooling. The rapidly cooled sample when worked
gave a typical grease structure while the slow-cooled sample was a granular syneretic
dispersion of soap and oils. The quenched (quick-cooled) sample with good grease
texture showed less perfect crystals than the slow-cooled sample indicating that the
quenched sample may have a greater number of junction points between the soap
particles per unit volume, primarily between exposed carboxy metal groups, and this
may promote a favorable grease structure.
LANGMAN,VOLD AND VOLD~~studied the penetration of a lithium stearate-
cetane system with various fluids substituted by perfusion for the original cetane.
There was no correlation between penetration and viscosity of the interstitial liquid,
or any other simple physical property examined. LANGMANet al. tentatively proposed
that mechanical working, in general, results only in a deformation of the soap network
rather than in its rupture and reformation.

W&Z+‘,
I6 (1970) 87-142
 VOLD, U~tr AND BILP reported, based on differential thermal analysis studies
and unworked penetrations, that the continuous structure in a lithium stearate
grease is necessarily formed from the undercooled waxy form in order to give a hard
grease relative to others of the same lithium stcarate content. This work confirmed
earlier work that a small but significant increase in penetration is obtained when the
surface is oil-wet as compared with penetrating a “dry” surface.
MARTIWEKet al.” developed an electrostatic repulsion theory to explain the
structural stability of inorganic-thickened greases. The theory that such structural
particles are held together by H-O-H bridges, as held by others, is rejected by
MARTINEKet al., their reasoning being that when such structures are ruptured, the
water molecules would redistribute themselves making it difficult to explain the
almost instantaneous reforming of structure upon the cessation of shear. MARTIiYEK
et al. believe that there is an electrostatic balance in non-organic-thickened greases.
When the particles move, repulsive forces build up inversely with the square of the
interparticle distance, following Coulomb’s Law. By their theory the yield value is
primarily the sum of the maximum repulsive forces between particles being moved.
Factors such as particle size, concentration, surface state and the electrical properties
of the dispersing medium enter into this. The decrease in apparent viscosity with
increasing shear is explained by particle momentum overcoming the repulsive forces
separating the particles. ~~aintenance of structure in the presence of syneresis is
explained as particles maintaining the framework at higher interparticle distances
even though capillary forces are decreased enough to permit “bleeding”. MARTINEK
et al. conclude that their theory is qualitative, and it is not possible to measure the
charges on individual particles. Electrical properties of such greases are considered in
Part II5 of this series of articles. The third article” is concerned with methods of test
and apparatus details.
BRIGHT'S first paper7 concerns the effect of shear on the dielectric constant
and dielectric loss, including design of a special cell to measure capacitance. A 14%
lithium-soap grease shows a higher dielectric constant than its base oil. The dielectric
constant of the grease drops off at higher frequencies, but the oil dielectric constant
does not. The dielectric loss goes up with frequency for the 6% lithium-soap grease,
but goes down for its base oil. For inorganic-thickened grease (modified clay) the
dielectric loss does not increase with the frequency, thus showing the difference in
dipolar characteristics between soaps and postulated spherical particles of inorganic
thickeners. The more random the structure, the higher the dielectric constant, as the
effect of shear is to orient the soap particles which perhaps reduces the capacity to
store electrostatic charges. One interesting point here was that a sudden cessation of
shear showed a rise in dielectric constant as the structure recovers from the orienta-
tion induced by the primary shear and reforms its disoriented and more random
structure, Continued constant shear produces a rise in dielectric constant (more
sharply for the inorganic-thickened grease) with time; here again indicating that
there is some shredding of the fiber in the case of the soap and breaking of agglomerates
or chains in inorganic-thickened grease, thus giving back the capacity to store electro-
static charges.
BRIGHTS continued the above work on four soap-thickened greases, inVeSti-
gating the effect of temperature changes on dielectric constant and also studying
points of inflection comparing dielectric constant-temperature data with apparent

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RECENT USA PUBLICATIONS ON LUBRICATING GREASE 91

viscosity-temperature data, the latter being measured with the Trident Probe
apparatusld. It was of interest here that both types of curves showed inflection points
or actual changes in direction at closely corresponding temperatures for a number of
products. The nature and magnitude of the changes occurring in the systems require
further work to interpret them and to determine the importance of such changes in
the use of greases as lubricants.

There has been much interest in the study of the permeability of lubricating
greases during the period covered by this paper, with ten publications appearing. The
pioneering work of SISKO AND BRUNSTRUM~~indicated that lubricating grease would
act as a permeable mass similar to the permeability found when water goes through
sand filters and oil through reservoir rocks. These flow processes having been found
to obey Darcy’s Law.

where B is the permeability of the porous media (cmz), U is the nominal velocity of
flow (cm/set), L is the depth of the porous bed (cm), q is the viscosity of the fluid
(poise) and P is the pressure drop across the bed (dyneslcm2). B is, of course, the
coefficient of permeability and is related to the free cross-sectional pore area of the
permeable material.
These studies relate to a fundamental property of lubricating greases, namely
leakage or oil bleeding; also permeability studies offer elucidation regarding the size
and shape of thickener particles. EWBANK, DYE, GARGARO, DOKE AND BEATTIE~~
made quantitative studies which bore out the earlier SISKO AND BRUNSTRUM ex-
ploratory work and confirmed that grease systems obey Darcy’s flow equation.
Strong interaction of van der Waals type forces between thickener particles and fluid
appear to change the structure and, coincidentally, the permeability, especially when
the greases were permeated with non-petroleum fluids, though not predicted by
Darcy’s law. Permeability is affected by type and amount of thickener, degree of
homogenization, mechanical working and type of fluid used. The relation between
bound and unbound oil in a lubricating grease is being studied.
BROWN AND EWBANK~~ studied the effect of non-soap (silica and coated
bentonite) thickener concentration and concluded that permeability represents the
area of the larger pores which serve as channels for essentially all of the flow. Perme-
ability is dependent on thickener concentration with good correlation obtained for a
two-coefficient equation of the form 3 = Ae-*C
ZAKIN AND Tuls studied permeability to help understand the rate of oil
separation from lithium-calcium greases and organo-clay greases made from naph-
thenic and paraffinic oils. Both types of greases had permeability coefficients in the
same range (about 3-IO.IO-I1 cm2) as for other greases. Both thickener types made
from naphthenic oil blends showed increases in permeability coefficients with increase
in viscosity indicating an increase in thickener particle size for these conditions; how-
ever, the paraffin&z oil greases showed much less variation with oil viscosity. ZAKIN
AND LIN’~ found that greases made from the same ten oils but thickened with two
types of silica differing in surface area, gave permeability coefficients varying from
12.6 ~1o-ll-24.0.1o-ll cm”. The two silicas gave about the same results, but their

Wear, 16 (1970) 87-142

92 R. 5. BARSETT

paraffinic oil greases gave higher permeability values than those made with naph-
thenic oils of the same 77°F viscosity.
The importance of this work was recognized by NLGI, and a subcommittee on
pernleability was formed by the NLGI Technical Committee in 1961 with E~%QJK
as Chairman. This work was summarized by EWBANK in 196520 and it was concluded
that permeability is a basic measure of the leakage characteristics of the lubricating
grease itself, independent of the physical situation in which the grease is found, and
that permeability coefficients are affected by how thickener particles are joined to-
gether as well as by their size and number. The following findings give the consensus
of published work of members of this committee.
(I) Lubricating grease does obey the Darcy equation, with a permeability
coefficient which is independent of changes in fluid viscosity, thickness of grease cake
and pressure gradient, but which is materially affected by a change in the nature, size
or arrangement of the thickener fibers.
(2) The permeability coefficient of a lubricating grease is unaffected by
temperature, although the flow rate (and leakage) will increase with increasing
temperature due to the lower viscosity of the permeating fluid.
(3) Both soap- and non-soap-thickened greases exhibit permeability coeffi-
cients, thus indicating an over-all similarity in the nature of the thickener structure.
(4) In both types of lubricating greases, where manufacturing methods are
closely controlled, the permeability is inversely proportional to the wt. O, of the
thickener, the mathematical form of the relationship being logarithmic:
le-k f%?‘)1
Permeabilitv ti = A i

A and k are coefficients dependent on the nature of the thickener, and there is a
preliminary indication that k is a function of the shape of the thickener particle.
(5) Permeability coefficients have also been found to be dependent on the
type and viscosity of the lubricating fluid from which the grease is made, thus
indicating that there is sufficient inter-particle action between the fluid and the
solid to affect the manner in which the solid particles come together to form the
thickener matrix. This gives experimental verification to opinions long held by
greasemakers that certain types of grease would form properly only if a particular oil
was used as the vehicle. The effect has been shown to occur both in soap-thickened
and in inorganic gelled greases.
(Reviewers note: While repeatable results have been obtained by committee
members in their own laboratories, interlaboratory reproducibility has been unsatis-
factory, and so the above work has been suspended by NLGI with the understanding
that the technique is a useful tool for studying leakage and structural differences
within one laboratory. A summary report on the NLGI work will be published in the
Spokesman.)
WEBSTER AND EWBANK~~ have confirmed the EWBANK AND BROWN relation-
ship that there is a non-linear function between thickener concentration and perme-
ability which has a different value for non-soap thickeners as compared to soap
thickeners.
MCATEE AND CHEN~~ studied the effect of thickener concentration, organic
dispersant concentration, aging and temperature on the permeability and penetration
of an org~o-montmo~~onite-thickened grease. It was found that pe~eab~lity

Wear, 16 (1970) 87-142

RECENTUSA PUBLICATIONSONLUBRICATINGGREASE 93

varied with thickener content indicating different structures for the higher amounts
of thickeners. A possible explanation was that the number and degree of particle-
particle bonds increases to a maximum at about 7% thickener. Above this there
continues to be a great deal of particle interaction, but micropores or channels
develop which lead to the increased permeability. This may be due to less-than-the-
optimum amount of dispersant at the higher thickener concentrations. The effect of
temperature may be to break up aggregates allowing more structure to be built, but
increased thermal energy allows the individual interactions to be weaker which is
shown as a general decrease in both permeability and gel strength.
MCATEE AND FREEMAN~~ studied greases thickened with organo-mont-
morillonite, organo-hectorite, asbestos, asbestos-organo-montmorillonite and silica.
It was indicated that asbestos gave the most open structure with respect to the flow
of fluids through the network, while the organo-montmorillonite results in the least
porosity. Correlating this with structure, asbestos with the smallest surface gives the
largest permeability, whereas the plate-like particles of the organo-montmorillonite
give the least permeability. The lath-shaped organo-hectorite was intermediate in
permeability. MCATEE~~also showed that permeability measurements are valuable
in studying the addition of dispersants and the important structural effects of small
amount of water on organeclay-thickened greases; also, permeability measurements
give information on how dispersants affect the worked stability of greases.

Complex thickeners
The NLGI Glossary (3rd edn., May, 1968) defines complex soap as “a soap
wherein the soap crystal or fiber is formed by co-crystallization of two or more com-
pounds :
(I) the normal soap (such as metallic stearate or oleate),
(2) the complexing agent. (Examples of complexing agents are the metallic
salts of short chain organic acids such as acetic or lactic, or the inorganic salts such as
the carbonate or chlorides. The complexing agent brings about a change in grease
characteristics usually recognized by an increase in dropping point.)
HOTTEN’Sexcellent review2 summarizes the situation well, including his com-
ments on POLISHUK’Scomprehensive paper25 on calcium, barium, and aluminum com-
plex soaps. HOTTENpoints out that a I : I acetate-stearate molecular ratio in calcium
complex greases seems to maximize some properties, such as raising the dropping
point to above 500°F. However, with “super complexes” of higher ratios of acetate,
it is not clear that these are definite chemical compounds as brought out by the earlier
work of PANZER~~.Electron microscopy showed distinctive crystals for the calcium
acetate-stearate complex as compared to different shapes for calcium acetate and
calcium stearate alone. POLISHUK~~thinks that complex soaps are definite chemical
compounds which can only be formed by polyvalent metals. The picture needs further
research to clarify the exact or inexact nature of these complexes. High-melting
complex aluminum soaps as grease thickeners are said to overcome the poor dispensing
properties of calcium complex greases, and the aluminum complex greases show good
mechanical and thermal stability and are reversible. Barium complex greases need
about 30-45% soap, calcium complex greases require 15-250/~ soap while aluminum
complex greases need only about 3-8% soap owing to the very small fiber size of the
Al complex soaps.

W&Z+‘,
I6 (1970) 87-142
 BARRETTE ASI) G~K~AI,E~~~ studied characteristics of lubricating greases
from calcium salt-and-soap complexes synthesized in different reaction media, thcsc
ranging from low-boiling alcohols to highboiling aromatic hydrocarbons such as
xylene. The nature of complexes are not given as they were formed from unspecified
ratios of long-chain fatty acids, short-chain fatty acids and acetic acid neutralized
with unspecified amounts of calcium hydroxide and caustic soda. No analyses of the
thickeners are given. Electron micrographs showed different sizes and shapes for the
thickeners synthesized in various reaction media. However, infrared spectra indicate
no chemical differences occur by making the thickeners in different reaction media,
indicating differences in grease properties found were due to variations in physical
size and/or shape.

Miscellaneous
P,ZKZER”~ has modified and combined theoretical equations from the literature
for nucleation and growth rate of crystals to obtain the effects of certain reaction
variables on the rate of particle size change. Under grease-making conditions, the
equations show that the average grease-thickener particle size is reduced as the
following are decreased: reaction temperature, thickener concentration and oil
viscosity. The predicted results correlate with numerous experimental results reported
in the literature, therefore the equations can be used to guide grease manufacture to
achieve a particular size distribution or shape. Factors affecting free energy, such as
oil composition and surfactants, are qualitatively indicated to be more important than
variations in temperature or supersaturation.
The chemistry of aryl-substituted urea (_4SU) thickeners has been extended
by TRAISE~” whose work indicates that a linear polyurea is the actual thickener in
ASU greases which results in improved grease properties. Both aliphatic and aro-
matic polyureas were studied as thickeners, as well as aliphatic-aromatic mixed
types.
CALHOUN30has studied grease bleeding in some depth, showing that high oil
bleeding correlates with high permeability coefficients for the same greases. This
confirms earlier thinking that the oil component of a grease is held by (I) molecular
attraction of the thickener and polar oil components, (2) capillarity and (3) possible
mechanical entrapment in some greases. Molecular attraction is postulated to hold
some 20-25 y& of the oil in a grease, which can be removed only by solvents. Capillary
forces may hold some 751;) of the oil, of which about 113can be extracted by gravity.
The remainder can be forced out by externally applied forces of sufficient magnitude.
ZAKIN, LIN AND Tc31 used a permeability cell to explore sorption and extrac-
tion of an additive (0.5-3.07;) in lubricating greases. It was found both for lithium
and modified-clay greases that the additive (phenyl-ol-naphthylamine) was partly
associated with the thickeners and partly dispersed in the oil phase of the grease, with
considerably more additive associated with the modified-clay surface than for the
lithium hydroxystearate soap. Extraction with additive-free oil removed the additive
from the thickeners almost completely from the lithium greases, but left a small
amount (about 0.2Yb) in the modified-clay greases. Constants for exponential equa-
tions describing the initial rates of sorption and extraction were evaluated. For each
type of grease, the average values of these constants were about equal.
HOROWITZ END sTEIDLER3" made a digital computer analysis of the effects of

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RECENT USA PUBLICATIONS ON LUBRICATING GREASE 95

non-Newtonianism on the performance of greases in finite-width journal bearings.

Many of the conclusions obtained, especially the advantages of greases at low speeds,
are confirmed in practice. It was shown that it is possible to calculate the journal
bearing performance of greases and obtain results which verify or predict observed
performance characteristics in many respects. These are: (I) safety at low speeds,
(2) low side leakage, (3) less sensitivity of load and friction to speed changes, (4)
flatter pressure profiles, (5) existence of “cores” of plug flow, (6) higher coefficients
of friction at fixed eccentricity.
WILSON~~ presented electron microscope studies to give an attempted recon-
struction of the three-dimensional space structure of three soap thickeners (lithium-
calcium, lithium rz-hydroxystearate and calcium-lead complex). Serial sections and
graphic and photographic methods were used to reconstruct the space structures and
make tentative models, with graphic methods preferred. The three structures differ
in size and shape of fibers and in number of junctions. No evidence of twist was found
in the original network.
VITALI AND BORZA~~ have made an electron microscope study of the twist of
the fibers of rz-hydroxystearate lithium grease. They conclude that the twisted
fibers were not produced by the preparation technique for the electron microscope
examination but that the fibers are twisted originally in the samples. This was true
even though 8 different methods of preparation were used. Apparently the twist
arises from factors such as fiber dimensions, manufacturing methods, raw materials,
etc. which affect the growth conditions of the fibers.

MANUFACTURING,PROCESSINGAND PACKAGING

Manufacturing alzd processing

FORBE@ has written on the safe operation of grease plants, considering the
common hazards and preventive measures.
SPRAYED studied grease-heatingsystems and reported at that time (1964) the
percentage breakdown for this equipment relative to the type of heat used. The
advantages and disadvantages of each type of heating are discussed.
RAICH, ARMSTRONGAND PETERSON37 have studied grease manufacturing by
atomization techniques and find that the efficiency, speed and control of dehydration
and cooling steps are greatly improved by atomization into cooler air.
GRAHAMBEhas written on grease manufacture around the world from a
questionnaire sent to 430 firms in forty-four countries.
LINDEMAN,KNOTTANDPoLrsHuRa9find that 5-lb., r2-lb., and3o-lb. laboratory
grease kettles are convenient and practical. The design of the r2-lb. open kettle and
the so-lb. pressure kettle are described, and operational problems discussed.
WARING~~describes five years experience with a new grease plant built after
fire destroyed 85% of the old plant. A movie available from NLGI shown in conjunc-
tion with the talk described lessons learned from the fire.
FITCH~~describes a typical large grease plant utilizing conventional techniques;
development of lithium-base greases at this plant is outlined in considerable detail.
CORY~~describes the planning, construction and operation of a new grease
plant for a large farmers’ cooperative group in the midwest.
GREEN ANDWITTE43 described the first fully continuous grease manufacturing

W&Z,‘,16 (1970) 87-142

process. Flow diagrams and operating data are given and economics are discussed.
CHAMBERLAIX ANI) ELWARDS 44 described a turbulent-flow type of heat ex-
changer tied into a soap kettle designed to produce 4.5 million pounds of grease per
year. Tests on finished products indicate these are equivalent to open-kettle manu-
factured greases in quality.
RONAN, GRAHAM AND CARTER45 studied a new design (1965 model) of contactor
which was found to shorten the grease-processing cycle, giving heating rates IO times
that of a conventional mixer based on heat-transfer studies.

Processing of specific fomula

DREHER,KOUNDAKJIANANDCARTER 46 have written on the manufacture and
properties of aluminum benzoate-stearate complex greases described earlier by
POLISHuKz5. Aluminum benzoate-stearate soaps made in situ in open mixers at
RIO-330°F with aluminum iso-propoxide as the reactive aluminum compound. These
greases exceed the dropping point of lithium base grease by at least IOO”F, and usually
have a dropping point above 500°F. Milling improves the appearance and thickener
efficiency. The preferred ratio of benzoate-stearate-hydroxyl groups in the aluminum
complex soap is I : I :I. Products are competitive in cost to lithium-soap greases, and
show better resistance to oil separation, and good bearing performance in laboratory
and field tests.

Packaging
LANGNER@ described changes or modifications in frequently used grease
packages in a well-illustrated article ; semi-bulk packaging and bulk grease handling
equipment were also described.
The Fair Packaging and Labelling Act is discussed by SCHNEIDERHAN~~ which
requires that consumer commodities be clearly labelled as to quantity of contents,
nature of ingredients, etc. Such products as antifreeze, automotive chemical products,
LPG, home lubricants, motor oil, solvents and cleaning fluids were ruled to fall
within the consumer commodity classification when this paper was presented in
September 1968 ; appeals are pending on rulings.
wATTS4s tells of the anti-corrosion and dent-resistant properties and leakage
resistance of rigid polyethylene containers.
GILBERT AND CATANZARO~~discussed materials, manufacturing and quality
control of grease cartridges and their filling and distribution for various markets.
NIDF,S~~ discusses the capabilities of the steel container industry and the work
of the Steel Shipping Container Institute. Eighteen million pails and 8.5 million steel
drums, are produced every year for the petroleum industry.

Miscellaneous
Private carriage is attractive to industries, particularly where back-haul can be
employed according to ALEKSA~~.
FRIEDE AND SANGSTER~~have compared six oil bleeding tests run on 17 greases
with varying soap base, soap content, oil viscosity and texture. ASTM D 1742 and a
centrifugal test were found to give the best correlation of static oil separation under
field conditions. The centrifugal test is well-adapted for routine quality control, being
rapid, reasonably sensitive and simple. CROFTER, Chairman of I.P.Panel St-D-r

Wear, 16 (1970)87-142
RECENTUSA PUBLICATIONSON LUBRICATINGGREASE 97

General Tests (Greases), has commented on this paper and pointed out that I.P. 121,
which is one of the six tests considered, has been used to set a 2% maximum for
bleeding of those greases which would generally be satisfactory in storage. The 17
greases examined by FRIEDE AND SANGSTERwere satisfactory regarding separation in
storage. The I.P. method is a screening test only, to show that badly made greases
would give excessive oil separation in storage. The author’s response acknowledged
the clarification given by CROFT, but stated that tests requiring less than the 7 days
required for 1-P. 121 are helpful at times.
CAWLEY~~discussed lubricants plant scheduling and inventory control etc. by
computer; benefits of these programs are discussed.
Quality control in compounding and blending lubricating oils and greases has
been reported by GEBHART~~.Quality control starts with development of a new
product and continues through manufacture and confirmation of the finished product.
Also, quality must be protected in storage, shipping, and in application to realize the
full benefits obtained. Specifications of raw materials are also important. The func-
tions of the quality control laboratory in a large plant are described.
GRAHA~M~~ reported on efficiencies and costs in US grease manufacture in a
paper presented in 1965. Actual manufacturing was observed in the grease plants of
five different companies; a total direct cost summary (Table VI of the paper) is
given. The manufacturing costs developed by GRAHAMaccount for only 3-g% of the
total direct cost figures.
CORSICAreported on the general properties of commercial fatty acids, giving
physical and chemical characteristics. A sequence of description of raw materials,
conversion of fatty acids and separation of fatty acids were outlined. Specifications
are defined and routine analysis and composition of commercial stearic and oleic
acids are described. In 1960, 23.4 million pounds of fatty-acid soap were used in
lubricating greases.
COENENANDGORDON59describe the radiotracer mixing of additives in grease.
This interesting study determined variations in additive concentration made in in-
line blending facilities, and also additives blended with kettle-mixing facilities in
which hydrocarbon-soluble and hydrocarbon-insoluble additives were blended. A
radiotracer technique using radioiodine was used.
SINGH@Jreported in 1965 on the manufacture of lubricating grease in India
and aspects of applications. This survey-type article presents an interesting historical
section of the progress in India from the settlement of Aryans about 5000 B.C. to the
present, including the continuing lubrication with ripe bananas of some IO million
bullock carts in use today, in areas which grow this fruit. Bananas also were used for
the launching of ships as recently as 1955. Concurrent with the indust~alization of
India, the use of modern lubricating greases has grown ; however, animal fats are
unacceptable because of religious beliefs. Native lubricating grease production uses
fatty materials of vegetable origin. The local manufacture of grease started over a
decade ago with production of calcium-soap cup greases using Mowrah fatty oil and
imported lubricating oil stocks. It is hoped in the next decade to satisfy India’s grease
requirements from almost 100% mdigenous
’ components. Modern grease plant facilities
have been developed within the last decade.

WfXW, 16 (1970) 87-142

MECHANICAL TESTING ANI) EVAL,liATION

Ttre testing of lubricating greases on bearings and gears in laboratory rigs can
be thought of as a trial marriage in which new grease compositions meet the hard facts
of life for the first time in the type of mechanism with which they will ha.ve to live.
Analogous are such factors as compatibility, the overcoming of friction and noise,
and the ability to perform smoothly so that fretting and attrition are held within
bounds. Once these things are established, it is time for the continuation of this trial
into the field where even more stresses and strains and environmental difficulties are
imposed. Finally, the successful candidate is ready for its destiny of marriage with
components in full-scale service.
A comprehensive publication is that of SCHILLING~~I~"reprinted from the
Revue de L’lmtitzlt Fraracais du P&role, which examines a large number of test rigs
developed in Europe and in the USA. These are mostly ball- and roller-bearing rigs,
though a gear wear test is mentioned and also the four-ball, ring-and-block and pin-
and-bushing types of e.p. tests. These articles are particularly valuable for their
concise descriptions of each rig together with a schematic drawing illustrating the
basic design in each case. Problems raised by mechanical tests, and the properties of
greases and their components important in the lubrication of rolling bearings are
discussed. A sumn~ary of grease specifications {mostly military) as of 1963 is given. A
summary of the principles and potentials of some mechanical tests and trends in
grease lubrication are also discussed. SCNILLING concludes that the tests outlined are
very complex but necessary because of the shortcomings of simpler classical tests. The
importance of international studies is mentioned and the need to conduct research on
the fundamental properties of grease structure, flow, etc. is mentioned.

53~~~~63 discusses the Association of American Railroads (AAR) work on

performance of greases in railroads and journal roller bearings, giving a history of this
development and the work resulting in AAR Specification M-917. The AAR bearing
performance test was shown to correlate with field service on rolling stock.BvXiE
concludes that consistency is the property most readily changed during use; Loss of
consistency increased leakage and impaired bearing lubrication. Changes occurred in
some corrosion-inhibited greases during use resulting in ineffective antirust action. A
plea for better lubricants was made.
Subsequent to this 1962 paper, LIESER AWDWEST~* have recently described a
vibrating journal roller bearing test and show that greases have a complex flow pattern
within the bearing as determined by r/2-scale penetrations from various parts of the
bearing. This test correlates with field performance and requires only 48 h at 180°F
controlled grease temperature to produce significant results. The test incorporates
vibration parameters (4 G’s, 38 c/set) established by the analysis of actual railway
car service. Large differences were found among products which gave similar results
when tested by standardized bench tests. This discrepancy appears due to rheological
and thixotropic phenomena not duplicated in bench tests. High-soap greases are
available today which satisfactorily perform without objectionable softening. Dis-
cussions by Daniels and McCarthy amplified the subject and McCarthy pointed out
the effectiveness of vibration in promoting feedability particularly for harder greases.
RECENT USA PUBLICATIONS ON LUBRICATING GREASE 99

The authors’ closure answered questions raised by the discussers.

CRISP AND ELLIS~~reported on low-temperature performance of greases in
railway roller bearings (heavy-duty AP type) based on starting and running torques
of eight lithium-soap greases and one barium grease from 60”--55°F. NLGI Grades
ranged from o to 2, and base oil viscosities from 228 to 1170 SUS at IOO’F. Three of
the greases were widely used AAR-M-917-56 Specification greases. Greater torques at
low temperature were produced by greases with higher oil viscosities and also by
slumping greases. Greases harder than the AAR-M-917 products (340-370 specified
penetration) did not result in greater torque at low temperature. Barium-soap grease
showed higher torque than the eight lithium greases, three of which used similar
viscosity oil to that used in the barium-soap grease. Discussion by Meeker brought
out that this work confirms that greases of NLGI 2 and 3 have satisfactory low-
temperature torques which also confirms European experience. Loring cautioned
that channeling at low temperatures may account for low torques obtained on harder
greases, although greases of AAR-approved products of NLGI z Grade have given
satisfactory field service. The author’s closure brought out that oils with pour points
30°F apart showed no significant difference in the low-temperature torque test when
these oils were made into greases.
MAHNCKEG6 has asked what rolling element bearings need from grease and
lists many improvements in characteristics considered desirable. The life of the grease
in the operating bearing is certainly the most important factor. The bearing industry
has done much work in establishing the ultimate fatigue lives of their product under
ideal conditions of oil lubrication using thorough statistical evaluation. Joint co-
operative action on the problem of life testing of greases in all of its phases is suggested,
including oxidation resistance, effect on bearing fatigue and the like. Characteristics
other than grease/bearing life, which are important to the bearing industry, are
rheological stability, low temperature torque, corrosion resistance and storage
stability. Noise level is also important, independent of life effects, and greases are a
part of this problem.
Performance tests in greases and roller bearing rigs has been discussed by
SPICERB7. Mechanical stability, oxidation stability and antiwear properties are con-
sidered to be three interrelated facets of performance. Rigs can also evaluate corro-
sion protection and load carrying, though not discussed in detail in this article. Three
well-known rigs are detailed : ASTM D 1263~53T Automotive Wheel Bearing Leakage
Test, the Navy 10,000 RPM Tester, (FTM 331.1) and the IP r68-ggT Rolling Bearing
Tester. Observations on performance as reflected in final bearing part and grease
appearances are given with comments on the many factors affecting test precision.
HOTTEN~~ studied distribution of lubricating grease life and ball bearings by
plotting data both from his laboratory and the literature on logarithmic and arithmet-
ic plots. A logarithmic plot (geometric mean) was found usually more precise and
realistic than the arithmetic mean as an estimate of grease life. The geometric mean
averaged about 7‘$/0less than the arithmetic mean in the runs studied with repeatabil-
ity d?ferences varying from 2.4 to 4%. The author seeks to explain the logarithmic
nature of grease life by attributing the main cause of failure to oxidation which is
autocatalytic. Tighter fit, uneven lubricant distribution, local overheating, or other
random variation can start oxidation and accelerate grease destruction and thus
magnify the original variation.

Wea?‘.16 (1970)87-142
 The demands of the military for the lubrication of advanced aircraft and spare
vehicle components has stimulated research and evaluation of lubricating greases
extensively in recent years. MCCARTHY Go describes a high speed-high temperature test
rig for grease-lubricated ball bearings giving detail, design features, instrumentation
requirements and operational characteristics of a rig developed under an Air Force
contract to test greases under the following conditions: size 204 ball bearings, speed
up to 45,000 rev./min (maximum of 900,000 DN Value), and with operating tempera-
tures from ambient to Ooo"I;, and under radial and/or axial loads up to rjo lb.
Continuing the studies of greases for aerospace, SLINEV ASD JOHNSON?O
present preliminary evaluation of greases to boooF and solid lubricants to 15oo*F in
ball bearings. Perfluorinated alkyl ether greases with telomer or organic dye thickeners
were satisfactory lubricants up to 500°F for the 440-C tool steel slave bearings used
in this special test rig. These were size 204 bearings run at speeds of 2,000 and 5,000
rev./min (see section on aerospace lubricants, pp. I 23-128).
HOWELL described initial experiments with a ball bearing simulator (BBS),
basically a three-ball thrust bearing with flat disc races. One race is motor driven
and the other is restrained from turning by a torque-indicting system. The balls are
constrained by a cage arrangement supported in miniature bearings. A lithium soap-
mineral oil grease and a lithium soap-synthetic oil product were screened on the BBS
for comparison with gyro life and with memory-drum life with qualitative correlation
obtained indicating the mineral oil grease best. Furey questioned the details of deter-
mining electrical resistance between the moving surfaces (used to give an indication
of film thickness on the raceways), and this was commented on by the author.
The flow of grease in prepacked rolling bearings, has been studied by
LANGSTRBIC by means of a removable section of the outer ring. The rollers and cage
appear to act as pump elements which circulate adjacent grease through the bearing
where it softens, lubricates and removes wear particles from initial running-in. Shear-
stable lithium greases may allow almost full packing of the bearing without shear
breakdown of the bulk grease. This promotes longer life without relubrication.

Noise and vibration

LAYNE AND wARREN7" studied interaction of lubricating grease with ball
bearing vibration in a quiet-running electric motor. This work began the U.S. Navy’s
efforts in studying the effect of lubricating greases on the structure-born vibration of
electric motors, utilizing a vertically mounted 25 h.p. quiet-running motor. This first
established that greases with high heat generation characteristics (6 out of 34 BRB
greases tested) showed a tendency toward high motor vibration levels and can result
in bearing distress. Discussers Gustafsson and West commented in detail on various
aspects of the paper, such as the effect of grease characteristics on vibration of differ-
ent frequencies: answers and comments given by the authors.
GUSTAFSSON74 has reported on the effect of grease lubrication on the vibration
of rolling bearings. Rolling bearings have vibration levels at various frequencies owing
to (I) the displacement of the outer ring as a rigid body, with reference to the inner
ring, and (z) flexural vibrations of the outer ring. These vibrations are due to waviness
of the bearing parts, It is generally recognized that the vibration level of the bearing
is to some extent influenced by the lubricant. It is believed that a lubricant does not
act directly; it transmits vibrations generated by the sources in the bearing. The

Wenr, r6 (1970)87-142
RECENTUSAPUBLICATIONS ON LUBRICATINGGREASE 101

damping characteristics of the bearing are influenced by the lubricant used and
lubricants behave differently in this respect. Various vibration tests with a number of
greases are described and data indicate a substantial effect on the bearing vibration
level in the frequency range between 300 and 10,000 Hz. Grease effects are more
pronounced for smaller than for larger bearings. Higher penetration (softer grease)
correlates significantly with a decrease in vibration level. Preworking greases in a
3-ball grease worker may either raise or lower the vibration level.
BERUSCH AND KINGLY reported on the Naval Ship Engineering Service
Program for improved quiet-bearing lubrication. This work was considered necessary
because of noise problems in auxiliary machinery of submarines. Using both vertical
and horizontal rigs at two laboratories indicates a lubricating grease-ball bearing
interaction which can result in high vibration levels. The hotter running the grease,
the greater the tendency toward high vibration levels. The type of loading, load
amount and temperature levels affect grease-bearing vibration life. An objectionable
increase in vibration in horizontal rigs accompanies an increase in temperature of
some 18°F and this marked also the lubrication life as determined by a complete lack
of grease in the frictional zones. The vibration life of a grease-bearing combination is
equal to total performance (lubrication life) in the horizontal test rigs, whereas
vibration life was equivalent to 5o-qo’$ of the total performance life in vertical test
rigs depending on the grease used. Specification MIL-G-24139, quiet-running grease,
is an outgrowth of this work.
The article by LIESER AND WESTON, previously discussed, bears on the effect of
externally imposed vibration on grease structure and consistency.

Frictioa, wear and extreme pressure (e.p.)

GoDFREY~~ studied friction of greases and grease components during boundary
lubrication. Studies of coefficient of friction utilizing (I) a steel pin sliding on a steel
ring, and (2) a ball-thrust bearing, indicate that soap-thickened greases show a
reduction in friction with heating whereas pastes of inorganic materials do not. This
work definitely shows that the thickener of grease is important in establishing its
frictional properties rather than being just a “storehouse” or carrier for the oil. The
base/oil allows increases in friction on heating and decreases on cooling, as the
viscosity changes; this is the opposite effect to that shown by the grease. The dry
soap powders decrease the friction with heating, the same as for the whole grease.
Friction of greases is also related to soap solubility as influenced by the soap cation.
biscussions by Brunstrum, and Panzer, and the author’s closure amplify and empha-
size the importance of this article.
HORTH, SPROULE AND PATTENDEN 77 have studied friction reduction with
greases. This article also challenges the often-quoted observation that the lubrication
given by greases is due to the oil bled from the soap network. Studies using a bronze-
steel bearing on a series of greases made with the same base oil strengthens the con-
clusion that the thickener does play an important part in the lubricating ability of the
grease. For instance, all but one grease gave lower friction at 100°F than the base oil.
The clay-thickened product and calcium-complex greases gave relatively high friction,
followed by the aluminum and calcium products, with sodium and lithium greases
giving the lowest friction. (The clay-thickened product gave higher friction than the
base oil.) At 250°F six non-complex soap greases gave lower friction than the reference

Wear, 16 (1970) 87-142

I02 Ii.5. l!.\I<Nl!!'f'l

oil;with differences observed at 100~1’ tending to disappear at lligller tempuaturc~.

The differences among greases at the loner tenlpratur~ (IOO’IT) is ;Lttrit)ut(d to tllrL
shear strength of the thickeners.
CALHOLS, I’OLISHI’K et al.78 have reported frictional c~llaracteristjcx of luh--
eating greases, giving the result of the cooperative work of ASTM I) 2 Technical
Division (;, Subsection z of Section I\’ who studied ways to measure tile static and
kinetic coefficients of friction of lubricating greases. Earlier studies were summarized
and the cooperators used various machines including stick-slip, journal bearing, and
pin-on-ring types on the cooperative samples. Data on most of the macllines showed
kinetic values similar to static values at the very low speeds used of 0.02 -0.o5 cm/set.
Average coefficients of friction obtained in the slow-speed tests, both static and
kinetic, range from 0.14 to 0.18. The kinetic coefficients of friction rang’ from 0.06 to
0.07 at higher speeds of 23-204 cm/set.
DE~L~ORESTAXI) \VHIYAKF;I~~~) studied the effect of various lubricants and base
materials on friction at ultrahigh loads from IO,OOOto 150,000 p.s.i. These were low-
speed sliding friction tests. Four different substrates ranging from Rockwell CrS to
Rockwell C55 were used. It was found that inorganically bonded MC& graphite film5
applied to hardened substrates carried the ultimate loads to rgo,ooo p.s.i. and above.
Of the greases tested, a chlorofluorocarbon carried loads from c)o,ooo to ~oo,ooo p.s.i.
on a 440C steel substrate. The coefficient of friction of greases generally increased with
increasing normal unit load, and decreased with increasing substrate hardness at Iligh
loads. These correlations were not found with the dry fihn lubricants.
KITTENHOUSE, JAFFE, NAGLEICAXU MAKTEXS*~ reported on friction measure-
ments on a low earth satellite. This interesting experiment was automaticall!- COW
ducted in space on the Ranger 1, launched in August 1961. Because of a low orbit due
to malfunction, vacuums of 3.10-G-8 .IO~H torr were encountered rather than the very
hard vacuums of outer space. The one grease tested was a silicone oil with an organic
dye thickener (no more information). Experiments with iron alloy, steel, copper allo)
and aluminum alloy riders on an iron alloy disc lubricated by the grease averaged
0.14 coefficient of friction. The temperature for tllese experiments was in range
1oo-144~F. The operating time at 3 rev./min was Soo-13oo min and the coefficient of
friction of 0.14 compares to 0.18 for a laboratory earth test of 50~.-100 min in a conl-
parable vacuum, and compared to c.13 for a pre-flight test in air of 15 .30 min. Dis-
cussions by Ku and Johnson were answered in detail by the author who brought out
that successful operation of moving parts for long periods on later satellites such as
Tires and the \‘enus probe Mariner II showed that problems of friction and lubrica-
tion in space have been reasonably solved by properly selected materials and low-
vapor-pressure lubricants; which confirm the findings of this Ranger I experiment
at which low friction was maintained for at least 22 11of test duration.
The American Society ITor Testing and Materials, Technical Division (; on
Lubricating Greases now publishes the results of cooperative work leading to the
development of new ASTM Methods of Test. S.~,\LLINGSet al.81 describe the standard-
ization of the four-ball wear test, resulting in ASTM Method D 2~66. A description
of the round-robin greases studied, the method of test developed and the precision
arrived at are given in this paper. SAULES et ~1.8” described the development of
ASTM D 2596 the four-ball e.p. tester. Early work with this tester had established a
method for “mean Hertz load”, now called “load wear index” as being a :norc defini-

Wear, r6 (1970) 87-142

RECENT USA PUBLICATIONS ON LUBRICATING GREASE 103

tive term. Round-robin grease characteristics, development of a method of test and

the precision obtained are given.
Azz~@a describes friction and wear testing machines available in 1968. These
are broken down into categories based upon theoretical principles providing line,
point or limited area contact, and machines designed to duplicate specific function.
Six machines selected from the over IOO testing machines recognized by ASLE
Subcommittee on Wear and Lubrication Fundamentals are discussed, including the
four ball and Falex type and also a geared roller test machine. Discussions by Jones
and Kitchen, and the author’s closure brought out that some so-called wear tests
actually are “destructive” tests, and also that the various types of machines do not
correlate because they operate under different conditions of speeds, loads, contact
areas, types of specimens, etc.
MURPHY~~ reported on factors that influence grease oxidation and oxidative
wear. He found that oxidation temperature, dynamic conditions of oxidation, and
various soaps all increase oxidative wear. The most oxidation-stable grease showed
the smallest oxidative wear increase. The soap apparently catalyzes both oxidation
and oxidative wear and appears to negate soap lubricity. The wear-causing material
is attributed to carbonyl compounds, and oxidized grease reaches a maximum oxi-
dative wear increase at a 4-ball wear test temperature of ZIO’F. Various types of
greases, inhibited and non-inhibited were studied.
WEATHERFORD, VA.LTIERRAAND Ku85 made an experimental study of spline
wear and the effects of lubrication. Matched-spline specimens subjected to relative
oscillatory motion simulating angular misalignment, and under the influence of an
applied torque, were tested at z50°F, with or without lubricant, in the presence of
dry air, moist air, JP-5 fuel or JP-6 fuel. Seven different grease lubricants were
studied, and revealed significantly different wear mitigation characteristics. With five
of the greases in dry air an “induction” period was found where no appreciable wear
occurred. With two of the greases in dry air, wear proceeded more rapidly than in the
unlubricated case. JP-fuels in place of dry air diminished the severity of wear partic-
ularly for JP-5. Discussers Waterhouse and Godfrey emphasized the fretting nature
of the wear found. Waterhouse brought out that the five greases showing an induc-
tion period in dry air all contained corrosion inhibitors which may have reduced
corrosion fatigue of the gear teeth. Godfrey discussed the necessity for feedability of
oil to the rubbing surfaces in mitigating fretting, and related this to the induction
period; he also considered that the fuel environment may have washed away the dam
of grease and wear fragments which build up and stop feeding of the oily phase; thus
the fuel decreased fretting. The author’s closure commented that the discussers gave
different interpretation of their results; evidently fretting mechanisms need further
elucidation.

Miscellaneous
CHASE, SANDMANN AND SAVIDGE~~ studied evaluation of lubricants and coatings
for the prevention of thread galling and seizing on
17 lubricants and 7 bolt/material
combinations. Stress corrosion effects of lubricants on bolt materials for use at 4oo”-
550°F external applications were studied. The lubricants, covering a wide range of
solid-film lubricants dispersed in various carriers, did not cause stress corrosion
cracking: however, pitting was noted on certain alloy specimens. Grease-type lubri-

Wear, 16 (1970) 87-142

cants were mostly pastes made with added solid-film lubricants.
(;ILREIZT, \-EI)UIIA .&ND F<o~wr,s 87 describe service-station grease performance
as evaluated in a laboratory ball joint grease test. Automotive engineers now regard
lubricating grease as an essential engineering material, contributing to the ride and
handling characteristics of an automobile. It should prevent squeaks, give an operating
torque exhibiting a minimum change with time and prevent stick-slip friction con-
ditions. Also, in cold areas, low-temperature properties must be considered. This, to-
gether with wear prevention, compatibility with other greases and seals, rust protec-
tion and oxidation stability, are important. The machine described evaluates chassis
ball joints in regard to noise prevention, quality of the grease in the presence of salt
water and also the frictional torque stability of the grease after endurance test con-
ditions extending for 65 11. Only 3 out of 33 service-station greases passed these
tests at that time (paper presented in 19bq).
LI~DE~~A~~~ studied torques on grease-lubricated size 204 ball bearings under
small radial and axial loads in a new Torque Tester. Torque data are presented on
four NLGI No. 4 greases from I-IO,• OO rev./min over a temperature range of -5oG1;-
~50’1;. The tester measures torques from I rev./min runs for starting torques, con-
stant speed runs to torque equilibrium, and other sets of conditions. At z50°P high
speed torques are proportional to speed. However, at 80-160~17 torque does not
increase linearly with speed. It tends to be constant for soap-type greases (NLGI
4 grade) in the 3,000~5,000 rev./min range. Greases were mixed complex, non-soap,
sodium and lithium made from the same base oil of 500 SUS viscosity at IOO”F.
Details of the tester design are given.
BLANK AKD LI?~TDEMAN~~continued this work by carrying out torque tests on
a grease-lubricated one-inch journal bearing tester. Here softer grades (NLGI 2 and I)
were studied, of various thickener types and varying oil viscosities. The tester is
satisfactory for torque measurements from zero to zoo p.s.i. load at speeds up to
5,000 rev./min. Stick-slip data also obtained using a torsion spring drive. The tester
is useful in studying torque effects of soap type, soap content and base oil viscosity.
ADINOFFgo has studied grease evaluation for wedge brakes. This special type
of brake has its components operating within a sealed chamber where relubrication is
not feasible without a tear-down. Special requirements of the lubricant are protection
of steel against so/1 salt spray and in a condensing humidity cabinet, resistance to
flow at 300°F and hardening at 3oo”F, resistance to water washout, and low torque
at -40”l;.

ANALYSIS AND NON-XlECKhNICAL TESTING

P~~s~~a~ testifzg
This category is rather limited as compared to the extensive work on mechani-
caltesting, but analytical efforts were marked by an infrared quantitative analysis
method and also a development of a leakage test using principles of permeability.
BIJTTLAR AND CAxTLEk-$1 developed a quantitative infrared method for
lithiu~l-soap lubricating greases, specifically lithium Iz-hydroxystearate greases.
Past infrared studies have been mostly qualitative on components. Physical charac-
teristics and homogeneity of the soap fiber system, and therefore crystallization
techniques, affect the absorption of infrared radiation. This method uses a controlled
recrystallization technique.

IV&Y,I6 (1970) 87-142

RECENTUSA PUBLICATIONSON LUBRICATINGGREASE 105

EWBANK ANDWARINGQZhave modified the ASTM D 1742 Oil separation kSt

to measure initial leakage (bleeding) rate and ultimate leakage capacity. Leakage-
control additives can reduce the bleeding rate of softer-consistency grades to the
level of a hard-consistency grease. Leakage phenomena govern the storage stability
and lubrication afforded in certain types of grease lubrication.
DICKINSONQ~ examined the significance of the ASTM dropping point (D 566-42)
concluding that it does not predict the maximum operating temperature of the grease
but is a characteristic value for each type of grease.
McCARTErY9*reported in 1967 as Chairman of the ASTM Technical Committee*
G Group on dropping point methods, reviewing the precision limits for D 566-42 and
the development of a proposed method (now D 2265) for wide-temperature-range
600 + “F dropping point.
Color, like beauty, is in the eye of the beholder. As we age, CRIDDLEQ~points
out, our eyes change. An instrumental method is described to establish a permanent
standard for the color of the grease using a ceramic-tile reference standard. Tri-
stimulus reflectance values are used to give objective numerical color descriptions
for the greases. Surface roughness and other factors can affect appearance as well
as color.
KNOTT, LINDEMAN AND POLJSHUK96 have described an inexpensive short-
duration water-spray-resistance test. The harder the consistency (NLGI 2 Grade VS.
NLGI I Grade), and the more viscous the mineral oil component, the more resistant
the grease is to washout. Thickener composition and additives also influence results,
with aluminum complex greases being better than calcium complex greases. A wide
range of water-spray resistance is shown for various types of greases.
LEPERAQ7describes petroleum oil characterization using carbon-type analysis
and infrared spectroscopy. While designed primarily for internal combustion lubri-
cating oils, the characterization given for base stocks and commercial process oils is
of some interest to lubricating grease manufacturers. The method is primarily
intended to provide a rapid evaluation of hydrocarbon composition.

Chemical tests
DREHER, CRIDDLE AND KOUNDAKJIANQ~ questioned the significance of the
ASTM oxidation stability test for lubricating greases. Method D 942 stems from work
in 19x6 by Wright and Mills. It has been standardized for 15 years and in use over
20 years. DREHER et al. contend that its significance remains to be established. Data
show that pressure drop is not a direct measure of oxygen absorption in that greases
produce gases as oxidation proceeds. Therefore, more oxygen can be absorbed than is
shown by the pressure drop in some cases. Additives may lower bomb oxidation
ratings. Dynamic bearing tests in oxidizing environment are considered much more
indicative of performance of greases. Discussions by BOOSER ANDGROSSETT~~con-
tradict DREHER et al. in some degree. Correlation with ball bearing grease life is shown
by BOOSER for a number of greases, and the use of D 942 in specifications for assuring
good storage life is upheld by GROSSETT where similar grease types are compared to
estimate either static performance or shelf life.
MCKIBBEN ANDFORINASH~OO have related humidity-cabinet life of lubricants
to their service life. A method expressed mathematically as a function of temperature,
* Now Division.

~cXZ+‘,16 (1970) 87-142

humidity, and protective life (time) has been developed from experimental data t)>
which humidity cabinet life of a lubricant may be used to predict its protrctive life c,n
steel when exposed to the atmosphere. The equation developed is

C= __H - I.28 2ti1x

( 23.4 1

where C is the corrosivity, H the humidity and t the temperature. Corrosivity is

arbitrarily made equal to I where the temperature was 40°F and the relative humidity
35%. Using the equation, Dayton, Ohio has a corrosivity of 15 and Rangoon, Burma
a corrosivity of 35. One of the lubricants tested was a 2074 dispersion of a grease in
Stoddard solvent with a sodium sulfonate corrosion inhibitor added. The grease was
made from turbine-quality oil (150 at 100°F SUS viscosity), and thickened with
aluminum soap and mineral wax. This technique is applicable to any lubricant when
its own constants are determined, and correlates for worldwide use by using local
temperature and humidity data for the locations under consideration; the test is
particularly important for companies whose products must operate in all parts of the
world.
HERTZLINGER~~~ has discussed the analysis of filled greases using a homo-
geneous decomposition solution. Work carried out indicates that a decomposition
using glacial acetic acid in benzene-isopropyl alcohol is preferable to the ASTM D 128
method which uses hydrochloric acid and hexane. Procedures are given for greases
containing solid-film lubricants such as graphite, and also for asphalt if present.

Miscellaneous
CARTER AND BALJMANN~~~have reported on the gas chromatography of fatty
acids applied to grease formulation. The composition of such acids used in preparation
of thickener soaps importantly affects the grease properties, and examples are given.
New analytical techniques such as gas chromatography permit close control of fatty
acid compositions, and therefore insure uniformity of quality.
CRIDDLE~~~ discussed the use of an electronic counter to study the size of
distribution of dispersed grease thickener particles. Electron-microscope (e.m.) photo-
graphs of thickener particles may not be representative of the particle size and shape
distribution and conclusions are based on observations of less than o.o10/ of the total
solids of the sample. This causes doubts concerning the typical nature of e.m. photos.
Electronic counting emphasizes the larger particles and detects about I-85% of the
total solids; however, size distributions depend on concentration, age of the disper-
sion, and the shearing process. Particles counted were larger than 2 rums. The method
supplements electron microscopy.
JACKSON~~* developed techniques for handling greases and other semi-solid
substances. For greases, a suitably sized sheet of polyethylene is taken and the re-
quired weight of grease molded into a roughly cylindrical shape near one of the longer
sides of the sheet, which is then rolled into a tube, tapered if necessary, and fitted
into the neck of the flask. The grease is extruded by squeezing downwards from the
other end. The amount of sample taken is determined by weighing the flask or tube
before and after the introduction of the sample. A water determination (Karl Fischer
method) can be run using this technique on a IO g sample with less than 0.2 mg water
being introduced during the time the titration vessel is open to the air.

W&W,16 (1970) 87-142

RECENT USA PUBLICATIONS ON LUBRICATING GREASE 107

ANDERSON, NELSJN AND FAKLEY 105developed a novel and useful technique

for preparing grease specimens for electron microscopy. This de-oiling technique uses
the wicking action of a slit filter paper, causing a continuous flow of solvent over the
grease specimen. The specimen is de-oiled in a few hours, reducing artifacts such as
twisted or broken grease fibers shown in electron photomicrographs using the usual
technique.

FLOW AND DISPEMSING

The years covered by this review have been fruitful both in understanding
lub~cating grease flow and in applying this knowledge to such practical fields as flow
in pipes, centralized lubrication systems, bulk dispensing and in the measurement of
apparent viscosity at elevated temperatures.

PAVLOV AND VINOGRADOV~~~have studied the flow properties of lubricating

greases over a very wide range of shear rates. At very low rates (below 10-6 see-1)
flow is of the creep type and work hardening develops-the thickener particles get
“pushed together” as the attractive forces operate through the very thin liquid
interlayers. After the ultimate shear strength is surpassed at higher rates of defor-
mation, the grease framework breaks down as bonds are ruptured, but this is countered
by new forces arising between the resulting fragments. At very high rates of shear
(usually above 104 see-1) the grease viscosities approach the viscosity of the dispersion
fluid.
BRUNSTRUM~~~has developed a nomograph to calculate grease viscosity from
the flow constants of the equation

where pg is the grease viscosity, s is the shear rate and ,um,b and m are constants for
any grease and temperature. This equation makes for easy comparison of the curve
of log viscosity vs. log shear rate obtained from ASTM Method D 1092 for apparent
viscosity. BRWSTRUM’S nomograph, given in the article, supplies the calculation of
pp from the constants, or the constants from the curve. It is also possible to calculate
the flow constants from the point data by using a modified approach to the nomo-
graph.
FARRIS AND SLATTERY~OSconsidered flow in an infinite journal bearing, this
being the first report on the NLGI-sponsored study of the movement of non-Newton-
ian materials in an infinite journal bearing. The work reported herewith concerns a
reanalysis of the coaxial coordinate model set up in terms of a Newtonian fluid. The
results are in agreement with a previous solution based upon a different approach in
rectangular Cartesian coordinates. The next phase will be a study of a variational
solution for a simple non-Newtonian fluid.
MORRISON~~~has reported on the relationships between the composition and
rheological properties of a series of lithium hydroxystearate greases made under
identical processing conditions but using different oils. Earlier work by Ellis had
shown that for a given method of preparation, the relationship between the worked
penetration at 77°F and the soap content of a grease is log penetration= A-B

Wear, r6 (1970) 87-142

(soap content) where A and N are constants. This holds only for a given grease and
varies as the oil viscosity changes. Based on this, a family of curves can be drawn
relating oil viscosity to soap content and consistency. Indications are that if tht
apparent viscosity at elevated temperatures (r15T and 125°C) at a shear rate of
3040 see-l is over five poises, the grease is likely to fail the SKF bearing test proce-
dures 3 and 4a. However, as with oil release tests, the viscosity results are confused
by the factors of mechanical instability at higher temperatures, and dynamic oxi-
dation.
KENNEDY AND GRAN~LJIST~~~ studied the viscometric flow properties of
dispersions of an organo-montmorillonite in organic media. This work indicates con-
firmation of the Granquist and McAtee theory of an ionic double layer stabilization
of such systems where hydrocarbon is the continuous phase. n-Hexadecane is the
hydrocarbon in this study with methanol as the dispersant. A second phase of the
work covers a dispersion of the same organo-montmorillonite to form stable gels in
monosubstituted benzenes without the aid of a dispersant. The stability of such sys-
tems is postulated to involve a combination of dielectric solvation and double-layer
theory.
A fruitful study by ASTM Technical Division G, Section IV culminated in the
article by WOODS etal.14on the viscosity of lubricating grease at elevated tempera-
tures. The aim was to find a method more reliable than dropping point to measure the
temperature at which greases change from a semi-solid to a liquid. The work resulted
in the development of an instrument based on the Brookfield viscometer, equipped
with a trident probe operating within an aluminum sample block. This simple test,
indicated to have acceptable precision, is useful as a routine laboratory control for
temperatures up to at least 700°F. The test in recent years has also proved useful for
obtaining the temperature-viscosity profile of a wide variety of greases over a broad
temperature range. Greases which maintain viscosity at elevated temperatures tend
to show less leakage in bearing tests. (Reviewer’s note: Standardization of the trident
probe method by ASTM is now being undertaken.)
BUEHLER AND RAICH~~~ studied low-temperature flow limits for greases.
Centralized pressure systems have set a premium on adequate flow at low temperatures
and low shear rates. Using a modified Ventmeter, the authors have found that grease
formulation influences flow (and also low-temperature torque) to a greater extent
than grease consistency, or type and viscosity of the base oil. Calcium-lead complex
greases are reported to be better than lithium-thickened greases on the basis of low
temperature bearing starting torque and low shear rate flow limits. The latter two
parameters give limiting low temperatures which are essentially the same for the
same grease.
ROTTER AND WEGMANN~~~ described the Ventmeter and its possibilities. This
equipment measures grease flow under non-steady-state conditions as contrasted to
steady-state flow conditions utilized by the capillary viscometer of ASTM D 1092.
Theventmeterconsists of a zg-ft. coil of copper tubing with a valve and a grease fitting
at one end and a valve and pressure gauge at the other. The tube is filled from a grease
gun containing the test grease at its expected operating temperature, and pressurized
to 1800 p.s.i. The venting valve is then opened quickly and the grease allowed to vent
for 30 set; the gauge reading at that point is the Ventmeter reading. Low readings
indicate desirable flow characteristics for centralized lubrication systems at the grease

Wear, I6 (1970) 87-142

RECENTUSA PUBLICATIONSON LUBRICATINGGREASE 109

temperature used in running the test. Correlation of Ventmeter readings has been
obtained with pipe supply line size and length. Possibilities for extending the appli-
cability of the Ventmeter are discussed.

Flow in. pipes

REIN ANDMCGAHBY~~~ have reported on a method of pronounced engineering
interest which enables one to predict grease flow in large pipes. All that is needed for
the calculations are the pipe constants and the apparent viscosity of the grease at the
temperature and flow rate of interest. The authors state that apparent viscosity
characteristics of a grease expressed as curves of shear stress vs. shear rate at various
constant temperatures can be plotted to represent graphically the interrelation of the
five variables of the Hagen-Posieuille equation, these being volumetric flow rate,
pressure drop, radius of pipe, length of pipe, and the apparent viscosity. Correlation
was obtained with full-scale pumping tests using Ioo-ft. lengths of pipe. This work
was continued by a subgroup of the NLGI Subcommittee on Grease Dispensing in
Central Systems and culminated in the development of charts reported by KJZIN1i4
which are direct-reading in pressure drop and flow rate for pipe and tubing sizes
commonly used in centralized systems and in pumping grease from one point to
another. Sets of the charts and detailed instructions for their use may be obtained
from the National Lubricating Grease Institute, 4635 Wyandotte Street, Kansas
City, Missouri 64112.
STRONGESThas discussed grease flow properties and some relationships be-
tween them. New correlations are presented between penetration and apparent
viscosity at a low shear rate; differing from published correlations by adding a new
term to allow for deviations from linearity at low penetrations; the constants must
also be altered for different thickener types. A discussion of the constants in the Sisko
equation for grease viscosity is given, showing how they are affected by penetration,
oil viscosity, thickener type and temperature. Useful correlations are shown for
penetration and starting torque, and for apparent viscosity and running torque at a
moderate shear rate.

Celztralized systems
There has been a great development of centralized systems for dispensing grease
in the last few years, representing a major advance in grease technology. Such systems
assure delivery of a positive amount of lubricant at the right time and in the correct
amount and also assure that every bearing is lubricated and that minimal contami-
nation will exist.
BERG, HORTH, NIXON, PANZERAND PLUMSTEAD~~~ have studied plugging in
centralized grease lubrication systems. A field survey indicated that a laboratory
screening test could be built that would predict relative performance in a variety of
field installations and also this could be accelerated to obtain useful results in a
reasonable time. It was found that design of metering devices, operating conditions
and grease characteristics all contribute to plugging; with the major grease factors
being consistency, oil separation (if this changes consistency to a large extent), and
the effect of additives. CALLAHANAND McDoLE~~~ comment on this paper to the
effect that straight lithium greases and calcium-complex greases are difficult to
handle in central systems because of separation; however, e.p. additives correct the

Wear, r6 (1970) 87-142

separation shown for straight lithium grease. On the bright side, separation occurs
in only 5’jj, of modern lubricants. More studies on the mechanism of separation art’
needed. The authors disagreed with C~LL.ULW'S contention that the type of thickener
is related to plugging tendency in central systems. ~I~~I>oLEIli, in a further discussion
of this paper, asked if a prediction of years of trouble-free service could be made basis
the authors’ work. The authors responded that the laboratory studies are not refined
enough quantitatively to predict the life of a specific grease in a particular system.
Plugging in central systems does not correlate with plugging in pressure grease cups.
The laboratory plugging test can predict relative field performance of greases. The
most stable greases evaluated in the test rig have never plugged any field installation.
NLGI has been formally studying dispensing problems since 1946 when the
first subcommittee was formed. GESD~RF~~~ and subcommittee members reported in
October 1964 on these activities. This has been the largest NLGI Technical Subcom-
mittee through the years. Its first publication was a tentative method for matching
lubricating grease flow properties with lubricating grease dispensing pump deliver!
behavior at low temperatures. Programmed work has included pipeline pressure drop’
calculations for greasell*, further study of the Lincoln Engineering Ventmeter,
standardization of a unit of measurement for capacity ratings of centralized lubricat-
ing equipmentI’“, and bearing makeup volume per unit of time for correct lubrication.
discussed modern lubrication methods in the stone industry. Lubri-
BERTZ~~~
cation has been modernized by going to automatic centralized systems with grease,
oil or oil-mist lubrication, including mobile equipment.
GESTIORF~"~ discussed modern methods of lubricant application in a well-
illustrated paper, discussing the four basic principles around which centralized lubri-
cating systems can be designed. Mist or fog lubrication, gear spray lubrication and
circulating oil lubrication are also covered in this article as well as a history of appli-
cation devices.
REDENBAUGH~~~ has studied development and application of centralized
lubrication systems for agricultural machinery. Many illustrations show the advantage
of this type of application. The use of a rheopectic grease has allowed the use of a
fluid product which hardens approximately 170points basis worked penetration after
passing through the pump orifices so that a sufficiently consistent grease (NLGI 00)
is applied to the bearing points. This type of application protects machinery invest-
ment and makes winter greasing easy and also eliminates safety hazards and gives
the farmer more time to farm (seep. 123 for more on agricultural machinery).

Dispensing of grease in bulk has grown tremendously in the last six years.
SPARKS AND TOVEY~~~ have discussed “Bulk Grease-rg62”, in a well-illustrated
article, pointing out that bulk grease handling at that time was nearly four years old.
Follow-up plates or mechanical agitation devices have not always proved necessary.
The author gives the following list of main points for a bulk-grease system :
(I) Keep fill and header lines as short as possible.
(2) Fill and header lines should be heat-traced, preferably with electricity or
low-pressure steam, and insulated if exposed to low ambient temperatures.
(3) Storage tanks should be in a heated area or insulated for better grease
slumpability.

Weav, 16 (1970)87--142
RECENT USA PUBLICATIONSON LUBRICATINGGREASE III

(4) Storage tanks should have conical bottoms.

(5) Grease pumps should be placed in conical bottom of tank.
ALBRIGHT~~~ points out that manufacturing in modern grease plants had gone
earlier to bulk storage and pumping through long lines without excessive heat or
pressures. Therefore, techniques were available to expand to customer plants when
they saw the advantage of reduced cost. Bulk grease trailer-truck designs are dis-
cussed, and typical delivery conditions are given.
CLARKANDUNANGST~~~ have given a comprehensive paper which supplements
earlier papers covering mechanical aspects of bulk grease handling in steel mills. The
present authors give special emphasis to the advantages of bulk grease handling,
reasons for steel mills changing from drum to bulk, and types of greases used in
various mills including “black lithium” grease. Also discussed in extensive detail are
properties of the greases, test limitations, and interpretation of tests used to insure
high-quality products. Additives in bulk greases and savings obtained with bulk
systems are also discussed. Black lithium e.p. greases are used in 14 out of 40 mills of
various companies on which data are available.
The lubrication of a new So-in. hot strip steel mill is discussed by LYKINS~~~.
Circulating oil and hydraulic oil systems are described as well as grease systems. The
bulk-grease handling facility is very flexible, consisting of a main bulk system with
14 $z-in. maximum diameter portable grease containers, and a secondary bulk
system with a capacity of 4,000 lb. of grease servicing 17 automatic grease system
reservoirs, and service drops for filling 5 manually operated grease systems, 6 crane
service areas and 8 manual grease service areas. Grease systems are monitored by
23 pressure recorders.
RUSHINGdescribed grease lubrication in a modern steel mill as part of a more
extensive paper published in 1968. There are 22,500 points throughout the plant which
are automatically grease-lubricated, including 70 cranes. An NLGI black lithium e.p.
grease is used in the IGo-in. plate mill, dispensed from a pressurized header type of
bulk-grease system with centralized monitoring. Two 15,ooo-lb. storage tanks are
used to supply this mill which is over 3000 ft. in length. An NLGI I inert base e.p.
grease (500°F dropping point) is used generally throughout the sheet and tin mills
dispensed from a centralized bulk system. A silicone grease is used on the furnace base
fan bearings. Lubrication and lubrication engineering was recognized as important
from the outset of planning for this large modern mill.
BAILEY~~~has discussed “Grease on Tap-1967”. Developments in lubricants,
application methods and containers have resulted in making lubricating grease a mill
utility item, with reduction in handling and chances of contamination and cutting
down on residuary grease. Bulk grease handling has been moved hand-in-hand with
the development of centralized lubrication systems. Details of main line and branch
line piping are given. The steel industry has taken full advantage of this development
and such systems have been “designed-in” since the early 1960’s. A historical section
on various component parts of bulk handling is given.

FORMULATION
ANDADDITIVES

NLGI YejeYence systems

Round-robin tests run by cooperators in technical societies such as ASTM,

Wear, 16 (1970) 87-142

II2 Ii.s. I:.\IzsIi'l-l

IP, and NLGI, have been subject to a recurring objectionable happening, This stems
from obtaining round-robin samples from commercial production submitted 1,~.
volunteering members of the cooperating group. Therefore, when it came time to
repeat or run further round-robins, it sometimes happened that greases had changed
irom the time they were first offered, or were no longer available. This is understand-
able when commercial products are considered.
The need for a standardized set of samples or reference systems was discussed
at NLGI for some years and finally culminated in the formation of an ad lzoc Commit-
tee on Reference Systems in 1966, with the first batches of the Systems being made in
October 1966. The ad hoc group has now become the subcommittee on Reference
Systems of the NLGI Technical Committee and two products of 300-310
worked penetration have been made available to groups who wish to purchase
them. These, both made from the same mineral oil of about 300 SCS/roo"F, are
Reference System A, made with 4.7 (;!hlithium hvdroxystearate soap, and Reference
System B made from 6”; organic-coated-bentonite thickener. The only additive is
0.510 antioxidant concentrate*. EWBAKK, Chairman of this subcommittee, reported129
in 1967 on the development, details of formulation, and status of the systems.
Samples have been distributed widely, both nationally and abroad. Over one-half
the papers at the 1965 NLGI meeting gave data on the reference systems. Therefore,
this achievement is certainly filling a need. A second objective is to follow the storage
of the systems and to determine the degree of reproducibility of successive batches
made from the same ingredients. So far, no significant changes have been found.

PLLVVIMER~~~ reported on formulation, characterization and performance of

aluminum-complex imido-acid greases. These reaction products of $-phthalimido
benzoic acid and aluminum isopropoxide are very stable thermally and do not melt
up to ~,ooo”F; however, the chemical nature is still vague owing to unavoidable
hydrolysis of the aluminum isopropoxide. Greases using meta- phenylether as the
fluid vehicle were made and 10,000 rev./min Pope spindle runs of over 700 11at 500°F
and over 260 h at 550°F were obtained. Electron microscopy showed large rod-like
thickener particles.
CIUTI, CESARI AND Bo~zAl~i have studied lithium soap-organophilic bentonite
complexes as lubricating grease thickening agents. Greases in which the bentonite and
the lithium soap are added to the mineral oil and the product then made into a grease
by stirring or heating are contrasted to a blend of a product made from a lithium-
soap grease and one made from bentonite. In the latter case, an average of the features
of the single components is obtained. However, when the grease is made in sit&hfrom
the mixed thickeners, a higher yield is obtained both worked and unworked, than for
the blends of greases. X-ray diffraction dataindicate interaction between the bentonite
and the soap during manufacture. Electron photomicrographs show little visual
difference between the two types. Practical wheel bearing and industrial use indicate
good service results for the mixed thickener grease.
.,
HOUSE~~” has reported on a modified clay thickener for corrosion-resistant

* 0.25:/o amyl zimate.

Weav, 16 (1970) 87-142

RECENTUSA PUBLICATIONSON LUBRICATINGGREASE 1x3

greases. In addition to retaining the other advantageous properties of modified clay

greases (absence of melting point, lack of phase changes, mechanical stability and
water resistance), greases made with the modified-clay thickener will pass the ASTM
D 1743-60T bearing corrosion test. Acetone is the preferred dispersant. The properly
inhibited product gives good oxidation resistance and resists oil separation. Lead
diamyldithiocarbamate gives good e.p. properties.
DREEER AND CARTER~~~ studied the manufacture and properties of CalCiUm-
hydroxystearate-complex greases. These are contrasted to calcium-complex grease
made with high mole ratios of acetic acid to fatty acids, which possess e.p. properties
and also are high-melting and water-resistant. The calcium hydroxystearate complex
consists of four-way combination of calcium compounds: hydroxystearate, acetate,
carbonate, and hydroxide. Data are presented to show that these products do not
sacrifice anti-wear properties to obtain high load-carrying ability and high-temperature
stability. The authors describe almost ten years of satisfactory commercialization of
the subject greases.
Boron nitride has been studied as a grease thickener by ALLEN, DITTER,
GERSTEIN AND CHRISTIANSON, and by DITTER, ALLEN, THOMAS, GERSTEIN AND
CHRISTIAN135.The first paper shows that using a sub-micron size for boron nitride
particles reduced the thickener content required to 20% rather than 40% to obtain
260-300 unworked ASTM penetration. Also, much better shear resistance was ob-
tained at high shear rates for the sub-micron material as compared to commercial
BN. Details of synthesizing sub-micron-size boron nitride as a smoke at 900°C by
gas-phase reaction of ammonia and boron trichloride are given. The second paper
showed that sub-micron BN greases prepared from perfluoro-polymer base oil stock
gave the best rheological properties, and also gave 2432 (400°F), 1265 (45o”F), and
320 h (5oo”F) by the Pope spindle 10,000 rev./min test. Four-ball tests indicated
excellent wear characteristics for the pe~luoro-p(~lymer grease, and liquid oxygen
compatibility tests indicated complete inertness at the maximum test impact for this
grease. Discussion by Calhoun pointed out that the perfluoro-polymer greases had a
lower thickener content than the greases made from silicone and 6-phenylether and
were much softer; therefore rheological and wear comparisons with the harder products
were indicated not to be valid. Also Pope spindle test data on the silicone andphenylether
greases are lacking and would have added to the comparison. Discussion by Messina
indicated that the anti-wear properties were based on tests run at different tempera-
tures and metallurgy of the test balls, casting doubt on the reliability of the data. The
authors submitted no closure for these discussions.
LOEFFLER, CARUSO AND SMITH136 discussed the development and charac-
teristics of a modified clay thickener made from the pure mineral hector&e. The usual
advantages of this type of grease are maintained and, in addition, data indicate this
thickener to give increased load-carrying ability as compared to soap-thickened
greases, based on load wear index (mean Hertz load) measurements. Proper additives
impart antirust and antioxidant properties. Individual particles of this thickener are
thin, flat ribbons of sub-micron size. Successful years of field experience are de..
scribed.

Greases ~~?~~a~~~~~~
~~ly~de~u~ disufi‘hle
DEVINE, LAMSON AND STALLING 137 have reported on diester lubricating

weear,X6 (1970)87-142
greases containing Alo&. Their study indicates that MoSa increases lo:~d-carryir~g
capacity and reduces wear under heavy loads. No adverse effects on storage stability,
oil separation and antirust properties are given by the MoS2, whicll is confirmed b?;
good field performance, storage stability and corrosion protection. pl;o advantages arc’
given by smaller-particle-size RIoSz (0.3~0.7 ,um) over the lubricating grade &I(&
(6-7 pm) ; in fact, lower oxidation resistance was obtained using the former. (ireases
containing %Io!% and other sulfur compounds regenerate a lubricating film when
tested on a bearing assembly having a molybdenum metal component contrasted to
results in steel-steel bearing combinations.
BARRY AXL) BINKELXW~~X evaluated the effect of MoSa in a multi-purpose
lithium grease, this study being in three parts: load-carrying capacity, antirust
protection and oxidation-bomb stability. Increases in load-carrying capacity and
film endurance were found. Some effect of particle size is shown, with slow-sliding-
speed oscillation tests giving best results with larger particle size, (7 pm), whereas the
higher-speed constant-rotation conditions of the Timken machine reflect better
performance from the finer particle size (o.7 pm). It is indicated that MO& addition
decreased the oxidation rate of uninhibited soap and modified-clay-thickened greases.
Inhibited greases containing MOSS generally pass the ASTM D 1743 corrosion test,
with I”~ of an amine alkyl phosphate being effective in IO out of 12 greases tested.
RIWON AXI) BI~IEIJI,L~ r139 have studied the oxidation stability of un-
inhibited lithium-soap greases with and without MO& in the laboratory, and also
ball-bearing functional-life tests of various greases and pastes containing MoSZ.
Addition of IO’?; MO& particularly reduced the oxidation rates of lithium greases
made from paraffinic base oils, whereas varying the soap content from 8 to 12’j;, for
such greases had very little effect on the oxidation stability. An amine antioxidant
markedly reduced the oxidation of the naphthenic oil-&loSz grease bringing it up to
the level of the paraffinic oil MO& grease without antioxidant. ASTM D 1741 func-
tional life tests are lengthened by the addition of 10”; MO& to lithium, sodium,
calcium-complex, barium and modified-clay-thickened greases, but not for a calcium-
soap grease where poorer life obtained. In the ASTM D 1741 test at 25o”l;, pastes
made with MO& and mineral oil outperformed pastes made with MoS, and synthetic
oils; no jamming of the ball bearings was found in these tests.
RISUIJN ANI) SAI~C;EW~“” have published Part I of a comparison of commercially
available greases with and without )loS L, using Timken, I’alex, four-ball e.p. and
four-ball wear methods. Fifty-eight greases were submitted by 1 j manufacturers, of
lithium, lithium ra-hydroxystearate, calcium-complex, barium, and aluminum-com-
plex soaps and clay types, mostly NIX;1 No. 2 grade. One group contained e.p.
additives initially. In the Timken test method, no continuous-grease-feed apparatus
was employed and the level of Timken OK loads obtained was considerably lower
than that found by using ASTM D 2509 which specifies continuous feed. The overall
results basis Part I, on greases with and without MOST, indicate that calcium-complex
greases provide the best perfortnance in these bench-scale tests, with the remaining
greases performing moderately well. Ry these tests, performance of MO% greases
supplied by- the manufacturer was better than for the same base greases without
Moss, and uniformity of performance was better for the commercial MO% greases than
for the commercial base greases to which MO& was added. Laboratory blends of
commercial greases with I, 3, and IO:,; of MOST added, in general gave higher film

Wear, 16 (1970) 87-7.+~

RECENT USAPUBLI~ATIO~SON LUERX~ATING GREASE IIj

strength as reflected by Falex, load wear index, four-ball weld load, and four-ball
wear scar data. The load wear index (formerly mean Hertz load) was the most con-
sistent indicator of improved performance. Timken results were rather inconsistent
and insensitive to MO& addition. In general, benefits obtained by adding 0.7~,um
MoSz were greater than those obtained from 7-,um MO!&. Phase II of this work will
cover evaluation of the greases in the GMR laboratory ball joint test apparatus for
brine sensitivity and torque stability; as well as for fretting corrosion, corrosion, in
IOO~; humidity, and oxidation stability.
JOHNSON~~~ has reviewed the earlv use of molybdenum disulfide as a lubricant.
The first documentation of the probable*use of molybdenite as a lubricant goes back
to the early 16300's.The good surface adherence of MO& is attributed to strongmetal-
sulfur bonds ; the compound shears easily to give low friction because of the weakness
of the sulfur-to-sulfur bond. MO& performs best in the absence of contaminating
materials while graphite requires adsorbates such as moisture or oxides for its best
functioning as a lubricant. MO& is brought into intimate contact with the base
materials during the rubbing action of loaded mating surfaces. The largest volume use
of MO& is in greases. Small amounts of MoSa (less than 59&) in oils give very limited
improvement in reducing friction wear, probably due to preferential wetting of the
surfaces by the bulk liquid. In the last 25 years, several thousand world-wide technical
papers have been published on the use of MO& as a lubricant. The use of MO& in
bonded solid films, in-situ-formed films, pastes, and solid composites is also discussed.
KITCHEX'@ has reported on the use of molybdenum disulfide in the communi-
cations industry. A number of applications where MoSz has shown to be advantageous
are given for manufacturing and product experience, materials of construction,
service and maintenance and in new-lubricant formulations where conventional
lubricants are unsuitable. These range from the use of MoS&richloroethylene slurry
on rusty chain-sprocket arrangements in a vapor degreaser (where the rust particles
seem to bind the MO&) to use as a wear-in lubricant for large gears of the Telstar
antenna where the gear roughness was reduced from 300 to 145 pin. after two years
of service, using 5-7 pm (200-280 ,uin.) MO& in a heavy oil-soap mixture. Use of
MoSz paste in “flea-power” motors promoted long life and protected against corrosion
in tests under nearly IOO~~ relative humidity at 100-~40~F ambient. Cautions are
that solid MO& must have adequate clearance between rubbing surfaces, and that
uncompounded MO& should not be used under high humidity or highly corrosive
environments because of its absorptive characteristics; MoS2 is not a “cure all”.

BUEHLER, Cox, BuT~~SK,ARMSTR~NGAPITDZAKIN 143described research studies

in 1963 on lubricating grease compositions for extreme environments. This infor-
mative paper considers grease formulations using new fluids, thickeners and
additives to solve the problems brought about by extremely high and low tempera-
tures, high-energy radiation, vacuum, high bearing speeds or loads, vibration and
new bearing designs or metallurgy. Properties of grease components are discussed and
also performance of new greases. The rank of lubricant fluid types for use in greases by
property is shown below143.
~~~i~urn high fewqWabwe utility
Silicones > polyphenyl ethers > esters > mineral oil

Wmr, r6 (1970) 87-142

 Low’ temfierature fluidity
Low phenyl silicones > esters > mineral oil > high phenyl silicones > pJ\:-
phenyl ethers
Lubricating ability
Mineral oil, esters >polyphenyl ethers >silicones
Radiation resistance
Polyphenyl ethers > high phenyl silicones > mineral oil > low phenyl silicones,
esters
cost
Polyphenyl ethers > silicones > > esters > > mineral oils
Halogenated silicones sacrifice thermal stability to get improved lubrication. Fluids
not considered by the authors were super-refined mineral oils, synthetic hydrocarbons,
fluorinated compounds, silanes, and silphenylenes. Successful thickeners for extreme
high temperatures given as high-molecular-weight organic materials (aryl polyureas)
and certain dyes and pigments. The surface coating of modified clays breaks down
at extreme high temperatures. Additives helpful at moderate temperatures may not be
good at extreme high temperatures; for instance, MO& reacts with silicones at high
temperature to form glassy non-lubricating solids. A rule-of-thumb figure of 50-6o;J,
combined loss from bleeding and evaporation appears to limit high-temperature
performance of greases. Severe vibration may reduce grease life by a factor of IO or
more in high-speed, high-temperature lightly loaded bearing tests. Silicone greases
need bearings with z or 3 times the radial clearance satisfactory for mineral oil
greases. It is concluded that suitable greases are available from -100°F to 600°F
with very short life possible up to 700°F (less than IOO h). Silicone greases still give
best performance at highest temperatures but are deficient in lubricating under
sliding conditions. Additives help with present fluids and thickeners, but greases for
use over 700°F will need new chemical species. Actual field service is much preferable
for evaluation to laboratory bearing tests which are useful only for screening purposes.
TRITES~~~ has reported on oxidation inhibitor systems for extreme-tempera-
ture greases. Temperatures above 300°F make common phenolic inhibitors unsuitable
because of volatility. Secondary aromatic amines are effective for these higher
temperatures; however, they are ineffective at the lower end of the temperature
scale. A specific class of tertiary amine compounds exhibits both high- and low-
temperature effective ranges, with a tertiary amido-amine found effective at both
low and high temperatures for synthetic and petroleum-base fluids. A drawback is the
destructive effect of this compound for fluorocarbon elastomers (test data given are
limited to the base fluids).
BOEHRINGER AND TRITESI~~ have reported on new aspects in synthetic grease.
They found that esters of long-chain monobasic acids, namely isostearic, esterified
with various different alcohols give a significant improvement in the swelling of
elastomers as compared to diester greases, when used as the oily component for
lithium rz-hydroxystearate greases. MCCORMICK~~~, in discussing this paper, brings
out that the fluids give less rubber swell than the greases made with the fluids,
whereas the reverse would be expected; however, he confirmed that elastomer swell
is lower for the presumably isostearic acid esters used in his work. Friction and wear
properties, response to additives, performance tests, water resistance, etc. should be
also studied on the isostearic ester greases.

Wear, 16 (1970) 87-142

RECENT USAPUBLICATIONS ON LUBRICATING GREASE 117

McC~RTHY~~~ reported in 1963 on the development and evaluation of greases

for high-temperat~e-high-speed applications, at the top level of severity in which
lubricating greases can perform, namely temperatures up to 600°F and speeds of
20,000-45,000 rev./min, stemming from military requirements for aircraft accessory
components operating under these conditions. This comprehensive article describes
the selection and evaluation of fluid thickeners including their evaluation both by a
non-bearing thin-film screening test (found not to correlate with performance tests)
and performance tests at high speeds and high temperatures. Several triazines,
arylureas and dyes gave the best performance at 6oo”F, with the triazine type being of
preferred stability and thickening ability. Silicones and polyphenylethers showed
most promise as fluid components. However, none of the greases reached the minimum
goal of 500 h at 600°F and 20,000-40,000 rev./min. A number of limitations and
problems associated with mechanical evaluation on bearings of such greases under
these conditions are recognized. Discussions were by Gustafson, who suggested
improvements in housing design and bearings are needed to replenish lubricant films
and to prevent air flow past the bearing, and Armstrong who quoted data to show the
great differences in the performance obtained by running under different conditions
and in different types of bearings where reversal of ratings are obtained. The dis-
cussors brought out that improvement of life is obtained by packing the bearings full
of grease and supplying an additional amount to a special end cap. Interaction of
thickener and fluids with additives which lessen grease life, were also discussed.
hh3SSINA148~149 has studied chemically inert greases non-reactive with missile
fuels and oxidizers, the 1969 ASLE paper being a study of polytetrafluoroethylene-
thickened greases confirming earlier work reported to NLGI in 1963. The use of
PTFE thickeners to form a chemically inert product was described in 1963, with the
preferred oily component being perfluorotrialkylamine. The 1969 work covers pro-
ducts thickened with PTFE (mol. wt. IO,OOO-60,000), the fluids being of paraffinic
and naphthenic mineral oil, diester, polyphenyl ether, polydimethylsiloxane, tri-
methylolpropane ester, polymethylchlorophenylsiloxane, hexa(z-ethylbutoxy)di-
siloxane and deep dewaxed mineral oil types. These products were thought to be
promising for applications requiring high loads or very low torques.

Misceltalzeaus
SCHWARTZ~~Q reported in xg6z on the effect of penetration and thickener con-
tent on ball-bearing-grease performance, with very interesting findings. Considering
pairs of greases, similar in type and approximately identical in penetration, but
differing in thickener content, the non-milled grease with higher soap content gave
si~ificantly better performance in life tests than did its milled counterpart. In con-
trast, specification tests failed to show any significant differences between any milled
grease and its non-milled counterpart. Bearing temperatures were from 100°C to
175X, and speeds ranged from 3600 to 7000 rev./min in both open and enclosed
bearings.
DREHER, SMITHSON AND CARTER~~~reported on a special grease for the food
industry. The product is thickened with alu~num-complex soap and made from
USP white oil plus specific oxidation and rust inhibitors allowed by the Food and
Drug Administration. Details of the isolated equipment use in manufacturing grease
is given: extensive field tests were carried out successfully in can-making and canning

Wear, 16 (xg?o) 87-142

plants of a large food processing company.
BhKEW XKLLtI%)LSTEI115zhave found that the effect of thickener purity is ver1
important to the water resistance of a semi-fluid weapons lubricant. This special
product is a lithium stearate-thickened semi-fluid grease of various esters and silicone
fluids with rust inhibitors and other additives. It was found that water-soluble im-
purities in the preformed lithium stearate were affecting the ability of the lubricant
to pass the gun-firing test because of lowered water resistance. An emulsification
resistance test was developed to screen lubricants to insure the purity of the lithium
soap, measuring the rate at which water separated from the emulsion.
BISH153 studied the effect of aciditv and basicitv of lubricating greases upon
their performance. A series of 24 greases was selected, -8 being commercial products
and 8 others made up from an uninhibited calcium hydroxystearate grease and
various combinations of extreme pressure antioxidants and rust inhibitors. Five
different methods for determining acid numbers were used, and the greases also
evaluated by functional tests. A wide variation was found in the acid and base num-
bers; a high acid number does not necessarily indicate objectionable characteristics
in a grease. Greases should be judged on their individual wear and oxidation properties
rather than acid number.
NEWM.~E hh’n L~KGSTON~~~ studied the performance of calcium hydroxy-
stearate greases in wet conditions. A MIL-G-1092+% type grease used in the UK for
military use (CS 3107A) has been found unsatisfactory under muddy, wet conditions,
while conventional NLGJ I grade calcium soap grease (stearate--oleatc) was satis-
factory. There is a relationship between rig performance and water absorption, with
greases absorbing a tentative minimum of 45 wt. 7; being satisfactory. A wheel bearing
rig simulating the labyrinth seal in a wheel bearing assembly was used to compare the
emulsification of these products and reproduced the behavior of the two types of
greases in the field.
C..~LH~IJK .4m You~cP~, in 1963, studied rust-preventive abilities of greases
and their improvement. This work was mainly toward improving MIL-GIo924A
Automotive and Artillery grease, by incorporation of selective additives, and evalu-
ating the products by FS Method No. 4012 rust preventive test (now ASTM D 1743).
Results indicated that greases at that time needed additional rust protection to meet
ASTM D 1743. Molybdenum disulfide decreases the rust resistance of grease, but
additives will prevent this. Several additives were found which successfully increased
rust resistance of the base grease; however, each different formulation should be
thoroughly tested because additives may affect more than one property of the grease.
AKMSTROSG 8x7) LIKDEM.~X 156 have studied the effects of oil viscosity and
soap type on torque in a grease-lubricated journal bearing, co~ltinuing the studies on
the test equipment presented to the 1967 NLGI meeting by BLANK AND I_,INDEMAK~“.
Running torque measurements were made at 1200 rev./min and a Izo-lb. radial load
Static coefficient-of-friction measurements were made at the Izo-lb. load. There is no
effect of soap type on torque for aluminum, aluminum-complex, and sodium grease,
comparing products of the same NLGI grade made with the same viscosity base oil.
The running torque generally increased with base oil viscosity, and ranged from an
average 825 gem for 100 SUS/Ioo”F viscosity to an average of 1700 gem for ZZoo/
SUS/IOO"F viscosity. Corresponding dynamic coefficients of friction ranged from
0.0x2 to 0.025 and static coefficients of friction at Izo-lb. load ranged from 0.11 to

Wear, 16 (1970) 87-142

RECENT USA PUBLICATIONS ON LUBRICATING GREASE 119

0.19 for all greases tested. A 60 ,uin. finished journal, when lubricated with a grease
of high viscosity base oil, runs at a lower torque than a IO pin. finished journal.
MITCHELL AND SnoRTRNi57 gave an interesting detailed account of the
development of a multi-purpose lubricating grease. Descriptions are given of the
various physical, chemical, and mechanical rig tests used in the United Kingdom to
develop greases, particularly for lithium-soap products, and some of the difficulties
which came up in trying to meet bearing manufacturers’ requirements with a single
product. The authors estimate that it took seven years and 40,000 research man-hours
and IOO,OOOh of mechanical rig testing plus field testing to arrive at their objective.
Details are given on European test rigs such as the SKF RzF tests and the Emcor
corrosion rig, the Ransome and Marles horizontal rig, in addition to the usual ASTM
tests. The reasons for finally ending up with a lithium-soap grease rather than other
thickeners are presented.

APPLICATION AND REQUIREMENTS

Automotive vehacles
For a number of years ELDRIDGE 158-163 has covered the lubrication require-
ments of automobiles at successive NLGI meetings. These have been very useful and
up-to-date articles on new engines, chassis lubricants and relubrication intervals, rear
axle lubricants, automatic transmission fluids, crankcase drain intervals and other
features such as exhaust-emission-control devices in 1969. These articles are well
illustrated with pictures and diagrams, and illustrate trends in lubrication from year
to year.
LANE AND FOELL~~~ considered the matter of extended car service in a 1963
paper, discussing extended lubrication intervals (ELI) which started in the USA
with 1961 automobile models. The pros and cons were discussed. In this connection
ELDRIDGE’S review for 1969 cars 163 shows relubrication periods ranging from 2,000
miles for Buick, if a regular chassis lubricant is used, to 36,000 miles for Chrysler and
Ford.
SAE* Information Report J3roa Automotive Lubricating Greases165 was re-
printed in the NLGI Spokesman in 1968 with the permission of SAE because of its
great pertinence to NLGI. Subcommittee 4, Lubricating Greases, of SAE, with LANE
as Chairman, prepared the report with the help of Subcommittee 4 and the Chairman
of the NLGI Technical Committee. This document, therefore, combines the agreed-
upon thinking of the automotive and petroleum industry members concerned with
lubricating grease. It is a concise primer of lubricating grease characteristics, perfor-
mance requirements and properties; and defines a number of terms and lists pertinent
grease tests which are mostly ASTM methods. Greases are designated by fields of use
in automobiles including wheel bearings, universal joints, chassis (both periodic and
extended-lubrication-interval types) and multipurpose greases. Grease application is
discussed and the relative importance of lubricating grease properties for automotive
uses shown.
MILLER~~~ reports on the “Chrysler Viewpoint-Lubrication 1963” pointing
out that extended lubrication intervals do not end the need for services of the grease
producers by the automotive industry and such cooperation may be increasing be-
--~
* Society of Automotive Engineers

Wear, 16 (1970) 87-142

cause of the greater diversity of requirements, More complete excllange of information
with equipment builders is needed regarding marketing and service pmctices, and
also the development of test methods by which the grease industry can better define
the capabilities of new developments for automotive use. (Reviewer’s not<>: lt is felt
that the publication of SAE Information Report J31oa in 196816” has IAped corn-
munications between the automotive and grease industries.)
The protection of automotive vehicles from rust and corrosion has received
considerable attention by a number of authors. !dAYER167,i"8, in 1962, discussed rusting
and corrosion in a large group of telephone company vehicles, determining the type
of corrosive action and the body areas where this occurs. Rustproof must handle
corrosion, remain effective, and be easily applied into all areas. Screening of compounds
in the laboratory included o” to 20°1j cycled cold tests, salt spray tests, abrasion
resistance in an environment with wet de-icing salts and abrasive materials, and then
field tests on the materials applied on 2 ft. x 0 in. panels having a box section and
fastened to the understructure of a test vehicle. His later 1965 paper’@ brings out
that corrosion of brake lines is particularly hazardous, with some fleets reporting
4095 damage after z years’ operation. Petroleum-based rustproofs* have been found
superior to others for protection against body rusting. Application with airless spray
getting into internal sections is also important with one application of the petrolatum
or grease-base materials providing adequate protection for more than five years.
TrsuALLlfig studied application of corrosion-preventive compounds to auto-
motive underbodies comparing materials such as mastics, synthetics, chlorinated
rubbers, etc. with greases and waxes presumably of the petrolatum type. Description
of different kinds of pumps and airless application equipment are given (both air-
powered and airless). Advantage of the grease-petrolatum-type compounds featured
and new application devices overcome previous application obstacles.
WXCKLK~Z~~O described details of airless spraying of rustproofs bringing out the
advantages of minimum overspray, uniform coverage, reduced air consumption (no
air for atomization), cleaner operation and minimum maintenance. Grease-type com-
pounds average 7-1~ lb, per car, and an airless application can be made in 30 min.
Both automotive and industrial markets are very large.
DROMGOLD, HAM-r ~lc‘n Hrr~;vlatTr present a profusely illustrated article on
the testing of automobile corrosion-preventive undercoating. In Canada, corrosion
damage is estimated to average $ IOO per car per year. Test details are presented for
adhesion, flexibility, abrasion resistance both to water and solids, and corrosion
resistance. The grease- and wax-base materials were found best.
HIGGINS~~" has reported on automotive rustproofing compounds in a well-
illustrated article and concluded that petroleum-based compounds contribute sub-
stantially to the life of automotive and other vehicle bodies, being much better than
asphalt-based materials which tend to harden and lose adhesion in service. The
distinction between rustproofing and undercoating is made, with the petrolatum-type
compounds being applied internally to stop “inside-out” corrosion.
1<AIrTZ173 gives details of rustproofing and undercoating with extensive
excellent photographs of how to do it. This 1963 publication marks the transition
from so-called “undercoating” to a complete rustproof job done from the “inside out”
--_-.
* Reviewer’s note: “petroleum-based” and “petrolatum-based” used interchangeably as con-
trasted to asphalt-base undercoatings in reviews in this section.

Wear, 16 (1970) 87-142

RECENT USA PUBLICATIONS ON LUBRICATING GREASE 121

with grease-petrolatum-type products. A check list is given to determine the effec-

tiveness of the rustproofing job.

CALWOUN~~~,in x963, discussed current policies and trends in the lubrication

of U.S. Army equipment. Data on annual purchases of oils and greases under specifi-
cation requirements are presented. The main purchases are made by the Defense
Petroleum Supply Center with limited local purchasing. Automotive and Artillery
Grease, MIL-G-10924, replaced three other specifications and was by far the largest
grease item (approximately 7 million pounds purchased) in the military system in
1963. (Reviewer’s note: Some 5.5 million pounds purchased in fiscal 1969.) Solid-film
lubricants are being used to lubricate rocket launchers and pictures of this application
to the XM34 Rocket Launcher for the Little John system are given.
MESSINA, PEALE AND GISSER 175 have reported on lubricants for rapid-fire
automatic weapons. The M~I (Vulcan) is a six-barrel Gatling-type machine gun with
a firing rate in excess of 6,000 rounds/min, developed primarily for supersonic aircraft.
It was found that the main bearing on this gun needed a grease rather than an oil,
and the MIL-G-3278 type of product or a semi-fluid experimental grease were both
found satisfactory. The MIL-G-3278 grease was preferred because of availability and
ease of handling in the main bearing during assembly of the gun. (Reviewer’s note:
MIL-G-3278 superseded by MIL-G-23827 Grease, Aircraft and Instrument, Gear and
Actuator Screw.) The semi-fluid product is covered by Specification MIL-L-46oo0,
and both greases were performance-checked in proving ground automatic weapon
tests from -65-260”F, including the firing of more than IOO,OOO rounds in 125-
round bursts. The semi-fluid lubricant “J” meeting MIL-L-46000 was used for parts
of the gun other than the main bearing to improve the low-temperature operation
to -65°F.
MESSINA also reported176 on perfluorinated lubricants for liquid-fueled rocket-
motor systems. Perfluoroalkylpolyether fluids were thickened with low molecular
weight ( IO,OOO-50,000) polytetrafluoroethylene thickener. These products were non-
reactive to conventional fuels and oxidizers, exhibited adequate lubricating and anti-
seize properties, extremely low vapor pressures, did not affect conventional elastomers
and passed high-impact energy tests in the presence of oxidizers. The greases had
fairly good low-temperature torques at - ~2% and -40°C. More testing is needed in
operating equipment.
REBUCK, STALLINGS AND DEVINE iv7 discussed a new servicing vehicle for
naval aircraft. A prototype required 5o-80O/~ less time for aircraft lubrication than
conventional procedures, being advantageous for larger aircraft. The trailer is
provided with all tools, power and lubricants necessary for aircraft lubrication on the
line as well as in the hangar. Color coding is used. The unit uses a self-contained com-
pressed-air-operated pumping unit.

KRUEGER AND LOCKWOOD~~~ have written on the “Urban transit lubrication

panorama”. This paper presents an interesting historical section on the development
of the street car from the days of the early electric cars which were heavy and ruggedly
built but required frequent relubrication. The President’s Conference Car (PCC)

Wew, r6 (1970) 87-142

replaced the first street car, and then came the motor coach and electrically driven
bus (the trackIess trolley). As better and more sophisticated designs and lubricants
became availabie, maintenance periods were extended. Improved products allowed
extension of the relubrication period to 6,000 miles with brakes being serviced prior
to that unless automatic slack adjusters were used. Now wheel-bearing grease packs
will last until brake-lining changes at r-z-year intervals. Requests are made for
lubricants with even longer life, and methods of application reducing tire time to
lubricate a vehicle.
DRIVER~?~ discusses the lubrication of airbrake equipment on railroad freight
cars. Brake design and operation are well-diagrammed and described. The section on
grease covers the development of AAR Specification X-914-42 for brake-cylinder
lubricant. This application was studied for better low-temperature operation.
Canadian laboratory tests at -65°F indicated that greases with lower viscosity oils
were needed. AAR brake cylinder tests also showed that the greases must operate
favorably in the presence of water which may get into the brake system. (Reviewer’s
note: The revised specification is now AAR-M-914-66.) An NLGI z Grade silicone
grease meeting MIL-L-4343 is used to coat the “0” rings in the air-brake valves.
The Railroad Session of the May 1908 Annual ASLE Meeting contained a
symposium on traction motor gear lubricants.
KOCI AND Br~r\iiso covered the design, operation and lubrication of traction-
motor gears and gear cases. This paper is based on the experience of a large diesel-
engine manufacturer and contains a comprehensive, illustrated discussion of design
and operational parameters of traction-motor gears as well as a section on gear and
pinion failures. A section on gear-case design describes components which improve
performance, such as internal gutters which catch lubricant draining down the inside
of the case and direct it around, rather than over the seals. A return duct drains
lubricant passing behind the pinion back into the gear case through the rotary ciear-
ante opening between the rotating armature shaft and motor frame. An overflow
arrangement also drains excess lubricant when the locomotive is standing still to
prevent overfilling the bottom of the case which would cause seal leakage when
running, Lubrication has been obtained historically with high-viscosity asphaltic-
type lubricants, which are still used satisfactorily by some railroads. However,
thickening because of oxidation causes difficulties. Newer products are soap-thickened
materials mostly containing 2-3;: sodium soap and base oils of approximately 1800
SUS at 2ro”F. Recently a major railroad tested e.p.-type oils of 1000 SUS/zro”F and
even lower viscosity. In addition to good oxidation stability and good water resistance,
the products level better, thus making it easier to determine correct additions. HOW-
ever, leakage is increased, requiring very good maintenance. Suggestions for further
work by manufacturer, lubricant supplier, and equipment user are given.
POOLER~*~ reported on a search for improved traction-motor gear lubricants,
covering a number of different types. It was reported that a product of the mild
e.p. gear-oil type of about IOOO SUS,/21o”F has been proved successful in some 100
locomotives where it gave no more consumption than the sodium-soap thickened
grease. Its use was then extended to approximately 700 locomotives. Tests were also
started to find if a 450 SUS/ZIO”F gear oil would be successful. Advantages of the
mild e.p. gear oils over soap-thickened products are better feedability, better oxida-
tion resistance, better flow characteristics obtaining better lubrication at low tempera-

w&W’, I6 {?g70)87-142
RECENT USA PUBLICATIONS ON LUBRICATINGGREASE 123

ture, better heat transfer from the gears to the gear case giving cooler operation of
the gears, more accurate measurement of the lubricant level in the gear case, and a
better lubricant film in the presence of water. Field tests on the gear oils to date
indicate a very low rate of wear as compared to conventional lubricants on this large
railroad.
SWANSON's2 reported on traction-motor greases and gear lubrication on a large
railroad whose operations are discussed in historical detail. This line has had extensive
experience with various types of traction-motor gear lubricants, ranging from the
asphaltic high-viscosity types, which are still used in certain main-line applications,
and some of the soap-thickened types (not further identified). The author believes
that a heavy thickened oil fortified with proper e.p. additives might prove better than
present materials. Railroad traction-motor gear operation is considered much more
severe than industrial gear applications which occur in machinery rigidly fixed or
sohdly mounted, and even huge off-the-road tractors have large rubber tires; these
factors minimize vibration and shock. Railroad operation has longitudinal, transverse
and vertical shock forces which give much greater severity to operation because of
shock loads, vibration, and twisting on unsprung masses of traction motors, gears
and associated equipment. This mandates that all gear cases must be reasonably tight
before a thickened oil material can be successfully used as a lubricant.

SLINGERLAND AND MILLER~~~ discussed the significance of lubricating grease

tests from the standpoint of an agricultural marketer. The various ASTM methods
are outlined and the significance of these is described. More elaborate tests are not
practical for the small marketer. The farmer is most concerned with color, general
appearance, ease of handling or dispensing, consistency (hardness), and bleeding or
oil separation. The helpfulness of the NLGI Glossary definitions and papers in the
NLGI Spolzesman, plus ASTM tests, is of pronounced value in solving the complaints
of the farmer.
HINICLE~~~ discusses the lubrication of farm machinery, emphasizing the
importance of centralized lubricating systems and sealed bearings. While the quantity
of greases needed on farms has decreased considerably during the past 15 years, a
higher quality product, highly stable and rust protective, is now needed because of the
use of centralized-pressure systems and sealed bearings. Most farms need only three
greases: a soft product for the centralized lubricating system, and a summer and
winter grade of lithium grease for the hand-operated grease guns; with the possibility
of using the soft grease for both the centralized systems and the hand gun during cold
weather.
ZIELINSKI~~~has studied lubrication on the farm, bringing out the number of
improvements and aids which manufacturers and suppliers of lubricants and equip-
ment now provide. The paper is featured by a large number of illustrations on various
application devices, starting with hand guns and working up to bucket pumps,
transfer pumps, and portable power equipment both air-operated and electrically
powered or airless type.

Aerospace
LEWIS, MURRAY, PETERSON AND ESTEN~~~J presented a paper in 1962 on

WcX%',
16 (1970) 87-142
lubricant evaluation for bearing systems operating in spatial environments, presenting
a general summary of several programs aimed for the selection of lubricants for
rolling contact bearings. In an extensive program, seventeen greases were given a
preliminary screening, these being petroleum (soap- and non-soap-thickened)
synthetic hydrocarbons, esters, silicone-ester blends and silicones with the latter also
being soap-thickened and non-soap-thickened. A slow-speed, light-load screening test
used a 7-mm bore ball bearing at 50-60 rev.,/min and 140-150°F. Later high-speed
grease tests were at 1800 rev./min on an K-4 bearing, at 200 g axial load and 150” and
250°F. A chlorophenylmeth~ll polysiloxane grease thickened with lithium soap, and a
paraffinic petroleum oil thickened with sodium soap were found best. Barrier films
studied to prevent loss of oily fluid by “wetting” of the shield surfaces gave a large
improvement. In a separate study the combined use of radiation at 108 rads and a
vacuum showed no cause for concern, even when the irradiated greases were run in
open bearings at ~50~--~5o“F’.Discussion by Burton dealt with techniques of measuring
and interpreting vacuum tests, and Young discussed the need for lligI~er-radiation-
level studies on greases. The authors agreed, in the main, with the discussions, and
contributed further comments.
FLEMING~*~in a 1964 publication reported on the past, present and future of
space activities, describing NASA* facilities and programs. In view of the 1969
accomplishment, it is interesting to look back and see what happened in r964-man
had flown in space, unmanned explorations had been made of the moon and Venus,
weather satellites had produced valuable data, and satellites for intercontinental
radio and TV had been achieved. This paper described plans for extending the fore-
going probes and satellites and accurately predicted Apollo II mission which landed
two men on the moon in 1969, with cameras and other instruments which were left
on the moon. Plans for planetary exploration missions were also discussed.
SCHWENKER~*~ discussed grease lubricants and their potential in 1964 aero-
space applications. The scope of aerospace greases included applications on aircraft
from endurance types to the supersonic type and various missiles including the ICBM.
Space-vehicle requirements are also considered. The various properties of greases
needed to lubricate these extreme-environment mechanisms are discussed including
a list of component mechanisms in which the greases will be used. Emphasis is put on
using conventional greases where possible even though achieved only by special
design to protect them from temperature extremes, excessive radiation and hard
vacuum conditions. Descriptions are given of mineral oil and synthetic hydrocarbon
greases, ester base greases, silicone greases, gasoline- and oil-resistant types, non-
elastomer-swell types and also experimental greases using non-soap thickeners such
as the triazines, arylureas, imides and PTFE-tl~ickened fluorinated polymers. This
paper and others covered in this review bring out the long-range planning and
development given to space lubricants which may seem strictly experimental and
exotic when first developed, but which later become familiar and very useful.
JOHNSONAND RwCKLEYls9 also reported in 1964 on lubricants and mechanical
components for space environments (published in 1966). A primary problem in
producing satisfactory systems is that of selecting designs and lubricating materials
resisting evaporation and dissociation at low pressures, and at the same time giving
adequate lubrication. Frictional heat should be dissipated from devices operating in
* National Aeronautics and Space Administration.

Wear, r6 (1970) 87-142

RECENTUSA PUBLICATIONSON LUBRICATINGGREASE I?5

vacuum ; a function of design which should also include minimizing heat generation.
Evaporation at low pressures is a limiting factor for greases and oils but molecular-
flow seals can extend their usefulness. Solid-film lubricants such as MO& or PTFE are
useful in thin films or solid-compact materials and resist vacuum effects. Normal
oxide films, worn away in vacuum and not replenished because of lack of oxygen,
leave the surfaces subject to catastrophic welding. Inclusions of oxides or sulfides in
alloys help replace surface films worn away and reduce failure tendencies; also,
hexagonal crystal structure helps bearing alloys to obtain low friction and minimal
wear. The paper ends with the summarized results of a questionnaire of 33 questions
sent to 50 organizations on the determination of vacuum evaporation characteristics
for lubricants.
YOUNG, CLAUSSAND DRAKE190 have considered in extensive detail the lubri-
cation of instrument ball bearings for satellite and space probe applications. This
1963 publication informs that, at that time, bearings could operate for over one year
at ro-7-10-g torr including lightly loaded grease-lubricated bearings run in small test
motors. The best grease tested in ZMCZSO lasted 9613 h at 175°F before failure, this
being a chlorophenyl methyl polysiloxane thickened with lithium soap. Dry-film
lubricants and special retainer materials were also evaluated. Discussions by Godfrey,
Furby, Jackson and Johnsonraisednumerous questions a~dcommented on details of the
testing which were answered by the authors who also presented additional data.
YOUNG AND CLAUSS~“~continued studies on lubrication for spacecraft appli-
cations. This 1966 publication reports that a chlorophenyl methyl polysiloxane
thickened with a lithium soap gives best results for operation in high vacuum (IO-~-
IO-9 torr) and temperatures up to 3oo”F, and also under radiation equivalent to one
year operation internally in orbits up to approximately zooo nautical miles (4.106 R).
Diester-base lubricants did not appear suitable for operation under vacuum. In
response to a discussion of this paper by Brown, the author wrote that lithium-soap-
base silicone grease, on the whole, seems best because of more data on this formu-
lation; however, the dye-thickened silicone grease meeting MIL-G-25013 is con-
sidered a close second. More data for statistical treatment are needed to reach firmer
conclusions.
Later experiments by CHRISTIANAND BUNTING192 at 400°F and 10-7 and
IO-~ torr have shown that special greases can successfully lubricate both small- or
large-diameter bearings under stringent speed and load conditions for very long
periods of time without relubrication. Polymeric perfluoro stocks thickened with
ammeline were the most promising products, being compatible with liquid oxygen,
stable up to 600°F at atmospheric pressure and up to 400°F at 10-7 ton (an R-4
bearing ran for 1457 h at 10-7 ton-, 400°F).
As the space program progressed, studies on lubricants became more sophisti-
cated and of greater scope. An article by DELAAT, SHELTONAND KIMZEY~~~ was
published in 1967 on the status of lubricants for manned spacecraft, primarily for
Project Apollo. Greases will be used in gear boxes and sealed bearings for the Apollo
spacecraft as well as on fittings, linkages, and other miscellaneous uses. Lithium soap
or fluorocarbon telomers are typical thickeners with base fluids being fluorocarbons,
fluorinated hydrocarbons or a silicone. Selection of lubricants including solid dry-
film types and oils was based on compatibility with oxygen-rich environment for
crew-compartment toxicity-order hazard evaluations; lub~c~t-pro~llant com-

Wear,16 (1970) 87-142

patibility investigations for long-exposure endurance; solid dry-film lubricant con,..
patibility with various anodic coatings, and studies of lubricant sliding-friction
behavior in space-type vacuums. For greases, a completely perfluorinated material
with a fluorocarbon-telomer thickener showed an unsurpassed compatibility with
propellants and a remarkable inertness in the oxygen-compatibility tests. A JHL-(;-
27549 ester-silicone grease and a lithium soap-methylchlorophenyl silicone grease
were approved for use in vacuum basis weight-loss characteristics after 14 days at
10--B torr up to 3oo°F.
HARRIS, REAM sn’n TH~~~PSO~~~~reported on lubrication in space vacuum,
dealing with life-test evaluation of ball bearings lubricated with oils and greases in
small 3000 rev./min induction motors at 10-7-10-8 torr vacuum conditions. This 1968
publication reported that a chlorophenyl methyl polysiloxane oil/lithium-soap
grease was better than a methyl phenyl silicone/dye-thickened grease in full com-
plement tool-steel bearings; both greases gave over 7000 h in other types of bearings
at temperatures of 45” to 75°C in tests with lubricant reservoirs. Tests without relubri-
cation showed decreased lives, as would be expected. An MO&-containing grease
reduced running torque. Conclusions are tentative as many of the tests were still
running at the time the paper was given.
LIPP~~~, in x967, reported on the lubrication of supersonic aircraft which will
travel at speeds of Mach 2.7 minimum and subjected to surface temperatures from
-65°F to 450°F. Thirty-six greases were evaluated for comparative lubricity at 450°F
using a four-ball friction and wear test apparatus. Three greases picked for best
performance by this test and by thermal stability tests at 450°F were run in oscillating
rolling bearing elements under anticipated use conditions. A grease made from a
perfluorinated fluid thickened with fluorocarbon telomer gave the longest running
time (386 h) in stainless steel shielded bearings at 450’F and 42yk rated capacity load.
Some oils and solid film lubricants were also studied. In response to a discussion by
Williams, the author added a description of the grease residues after the evaporation
test at 450”F, showing a range of consistencies and textures. In regard to a discussion
by Armstrong, the author said that the four-ball tests were obtained for an indication
of grease load-carrying capabilities at the very high loads of interest. Actual bearing
tests were the definitive evaluation. It was agreed that the four-ball uni-directional
type of test was quite different from the oscillating bearing test used in the final
evaluation.
A very recent publication reviewed is a bound set of abstracts for a sympo-
siumi96 on “Fluid lubricants-their characteristics, evaluation, and applications in
hardware” sponsored by the Aerospace Council of ASLE and given at the Annual
ASLE meeting in May 1969, chairmanned by VEST. Strangely enough, this conference
covered the use of lubricating greases as well as oils in various aerospace applications.
It is possible that the term “fluid lubricants ” was chosen to contrast with theextensive
use in aerospace circles of the term “solid lubricants” which is now taken to mean
“solid-film” or “dry-film” lubricants. Your reviewer considers this an unacceptable
oversimplification; i.e. “solid” lubricants should be called solid-film lubricants and
“fluid” lubricants used in the sense of this symposium should be separated into fluid
(oil) and grease lubricants. The ASTM* and NLGIr97 definitions of a lubricating grease
begin as follows: “A solid to semi-solid mixture... “; solidity is one of the most im-
-_-._____
* ASTM Designation: D zX8-6r

wazv, I6 (1970) 87-142

RECENT USA PUBLIC.~TIO~S ON ~UBRIC~rI~G GREASE 127

portant properties of lubricating grease in that it imparts sealing and “stay-put”

characteristics in bearing cavities. Being very versatile materials, greases also
become fluid under shear which reduces bearing torque requirements.
The above abstracts are given in some length. It is interesting that fluids and
greases are being used to a significant extent in aerospace applications, and solid-
film lubricants are not necessary in many cases. While this is not a volume use of oils
and greases, it does represent a very important use. It was brought out by various
speakers that some of the most stable fluids are not the best boundary lubricants
and, in addition, they must operate in the absence of water or oxygen. It is necessary,
then, to incorporate additives that will furnish enough oxygen to oxidize the metal
to facilitate lubrication.
Haltner defined the scope of the conference as starting with fundamental fluid
properties, then laboratory evaluation, and finally considering actual experience in
flight hardware. The purpose was to summarize the state of the art and point out
problem areas which need further work. Bearing and lubricant considerations must be
integrated into the total system design concept, as the lubricant or lubrication system
may decide the success or failure of a given space vehicle in its assigned mission. Oils
and greases have been more successful in space use than would have been anticipated
a few years ago.
Klaus discussed hydrocarbon oils and brought out that well-refined and super-
refined mineral oils were stable in excess of zg years storage life confirmed by analysis
of lubricants taken from downed US Air Force airplanes “Lady Be Good” on the
Libyan desert and “My Gal Sal” on the polar icecap. Characteristics of these oils are
described.
Schwenker discussed synthetic fluids as oils and as grease components and
brought out that while vacuum, temperature extremes, zero gravity and radiation
were deleterious space conditions, oxidative deterioration is less, and hydrolytic
stability is no problem. Fire resistance of fluids becoming more important.
Drabek reported that Nimbus II showed 32 months of successful operation
in space and several components essentially exposed to space vacuum are grease
lubricated, surpassing expectations as to their stability. A lithium soap-halogenated
silicone grease is used to a considerable extent. Grease-lubricated units have been
stored for 5-7 years and then have demonstrated satisfactory operation. Drabek also
reported that three oil-lubricated fly wheels on Nimbus I have continued to operate
well through 32 months of space which is about 8 years after these units were first
lubricated.
Evans reported on the scientific satellites such as orbiting geophysical and
solar observatories and concluded that the fluids and lubricating greases have been
used successfully in component mechanisms; however, these units were hermetically
sealed. Bearing applications have covered xz,600-0.8 rev./min speeds, light to
moderate loads and ball bearing sizes from R-2 to 204; gear reducers have also used
grease successfully.
Roller and Anibom reported on greases for use in space environments. Formu-
lation is governed by the requirements of specific mechanisms and of the spacecraft
mission. The grease must lubricate during ground assembly tests and at launch-base
testing, as well as in the space environment. This indicates blanketing with an inert
gas during ground operation to preserve good oxidation stability. Effects of radiation

Wear, r6 (1970) 87-142

and the importance of grease structure are also covered.
Silversher and Dean reported on fluids and greases for instrument-size ball
bearings operating in vacuum and radiation environments at 8,000 rev./min; with a
vacuum down to 10-9 torr, temperatures to 300°F and radiation dosages to 4.107 K.
Greases based on halogenated silicones and phenylmethyl silicones have given tile
longest operating times in vacuum, including vacuum operation at moderately
elevated temperatures and exposed to gamma radiation. A silicone-base grease
(thickener not given) has operated in bearings and in vacuum for 4 years and 4
months without failure.
The May 1969 Annual Meeting of ASLE also presented a compendium of the
Dartmouth Bearings Conferencelgs, with L~NC as moderator. This was held originally
at Dartmouth College, New Hampshire on September 4-6, 1968. A published set of
long abstracts was available. Only two of these dealt with lubricating grease.
Christian discussed vacuum performance of advanced greases in a new bearing
design. These aerospace products are based on perfluoro ether fluids thickened by
z,4-diamino-6-hydroxy-r,3,5-triazine. The products are characterized by chemical
inertness, stability, lubricity, low volatility and reliability over a wide temperature
range under deep vacuum conditions. Final tests were carried out in a specially
designed, stainless steel cartridge-width bearing under load, and under vacuums from
I. 10-7 to 5.10-11 torr. Performance lives ranged from more than 1000 h at 400°F
to more than 9000 h at 300°F. For temperatures less than 300°F performance life was
estimated in excess of five years without failure.
Fainman confirmed earlier work that chemisorbed soaps of straight-chain
acids are excellent boundary lubricants, in a study of the phenomena of boundary
friction in rolling contacts. Coefficients of friction for the chemisorbed compounds are
usually under 0.1 giving smooth sliding, elimination of slip-stick, and minimization
of fretting damage. Greases made from such soaps also have these desirable properties.
(See Section on Friction, Wear, p. I01 .)

Miscellaneous
pOPElgg discussed useful grease tests for general plant lubrication covering the
largest manufacturing plant of his company (140 major buildings, 1,000 acres,
20,000 employes). Photographic film and paper and specialty products are made here.
In production operations, temperatures range from -80 to +goo”F, speeds up to
60,000 rev./min and bearing loads from a fraction of anounce to67,ooolb. By analyzing
conditions of service, three greases have been found to satisfy all but a few special
needs: NLGI 2 sodium soap, NLGI 2 lithium soap, NLGI I calcium or aluminum
soap. Tests used to determine the suitability of greases are ASTM D 1741 Functional
Life of Ball Bearing Grease run at 125°C for sodium, barium, and complex greases
and run at IOO’C for lithium greases. Other ASTM tests are D 1743 for rust preventive
properties, D rogz for apparent viscosity, and D 1478 for low temperature torque.
The Fafnir friction-oxidation test is also used. Bushing tests varied from -2o’F to
240°F are also run to simulate service conditions. The three greases mentioned
previously are covered by specifications. Compatibility is tested by running mixtures
of pertinent greases in the ASTM D 1741 functional life test. 2,030 h in the D 1741
test is considered the minimum to select a grease for further field testing.
MOODIE~OO points out the advantages of preventive maintenance in giving
RECENT USAPUBLICATIONS ON LUBRICATINGGREASE 129

longer equipment life, better availability, and lower cost by using planned and
scheduled programs for the maintenance, adjustment, repair and lubrication of
machinery and equipment trucks in the construction industry. Eq~pment manufac-
turer’s lubrication specifications are used as guides ins electing the products (no specific
data on greases.)
KITCHEN~~~ has studied the lubrication of small motor bearings for unattended
service in automatic electromechanical telephone system equipment. Bearing
temperatures substantially exceed zoooF, and normal life expectancy based on
lubrication by conventional lubricants is about S,OOO-12,000h. In an effort to reach
IOC,OOO h or IO years of life, tests were first run in a multispeed bearing test machine.
In order to establish a reference point, a paste of a high concentration of MO&
powder in a mineral-oil-lithium-soap grease, specifically not recommended for use in
anti-friction bearings, was evaluated in bearings with no shields. It was unexpectedly
found that the bearings reached a surprisingly high projected wear life of xoo,ooo h
of operation without significant increase in tolerances, whereas with shields in place
and the same lubricant, a projected wear life of only 1000 h was obtained. The author
thinks that the bearings run with no shields permitted an escape route for agglomer-
ates of the solid-film lubricant. It was also found in motor environmental tests, that
this MoSa paste could be used in a damp environment where the externals of the
motors corroded badly but the bearings were well-protected under 60-rooo/;, relative
humidity for over 4,000 h. Discussor Vest asked how the projected wear life was
determined; the author stating that such was obtained from the motor manufacturers’
data on bearing failures at similar conditions, and the accelerated wear-test results
were treated with a factor of 70 with a reliability estimated about *zoo/b. In answer
to another question, the author stated that work was being done with formulations
that will not agglomerate so that shields can be used to retain the desirable features
of this design.
FITZSIMMONS, MURPHY, ROMANS ANDSINGLETERRY~~~ have developed barrier
films to increase the service lives of pre-lubricated miniature ball bearings used in
synchros and servomotors, these being important components of computers, guidance
controls, navigation instruments, and fire-control systems where reliable performance
of the bearings is imperative. Loss of lubricant by creeping or spreading rather than
by evaporation was found the predominating cause of short lubricating lives. Un-
acceptable lubricant loss during storage exceeding six months was found. Lubricant
loss by spreading can be prevented by coating the bearing faces with a non-wettable
fluorinated polymer, specifically the polymethacrylate ester of rH, IH-pentadeca-
fluoro-x-octanol. The barrier film also allowed more oil to be held within the bearing
which, of course, increased the operating lives. This is also true for the instrument
greases studied. However, oil is preferred for small synchros as grease-lubricated
precision bearings may have too high friction torque at low temperatures and soap
aggregates may give problems with miniature ball bearings. Liquid ester-type lubri-
cants are preferred over silicones for temperatures up to 175°C in synchros and servos
because of better lubricity and the incidence of gelatinous material in the bearings of
the new or stored units lubricated with silicones. Bearings treated with the barrier
film have increased the lives of synchros from 300 to nearly 4,000 h, and comparably
for servo motors.
The lubrication of nuclear power plants has become of pronounced interest

We@‘,16 (1970) 87--1@

during the last decade, particularly in the United Kingdom where gas-cooled plants
are used. USA experience has been mostly with water-cooled plants where water acts
as a lubricant for the main pump bearings. Cox, OBERKICHT ANI) GREEKa~ reported
on the dynamic and static irradiation of nuclear power plant lubricants in a 1962
publication. This informative paper is divided into a section on greases and a section
on fluid lubricants. It is concluded for the greases that a dynamic test at r IOR ra&
which a grease (calcium acetate-complex thickened/synthetic polyalkylated aromatic
fluid) passed successfully while showing poor results for static irradiation at the same
dose, taken with similar static 75. dynamic results for a calcium-complex-mineral
grease, suggests that dynamic operation involves high-temperature shear and oxi-
dation and results cannot be predicted from static low temperature irradiation with
certainty. The given grease may withstand radiation better under dynamic conditions
than under static conditions. There is indication that high temperature and shear
during irradiation may be beneficial to greases in a limited way.
FRASERzo4 discussed lubricants for paper mills in 1968. This 1969 paper* is
concerned with manufacture of Canadian paper and paper products, for which the
demand is growing at a tremendous rate with overall steam temperatures and machine
speeds being increased. Greases lubricating the fourdrinier wire-support-roll bearings
and felt-dryer-roll bearings are discussed, with the former requiring pronounced
ability to tolerate contamination with water containing paper-making chemicals on
the wet end of the machine. The dryer felt-roll bearing grease must be very shear stable
and provide lubrication under high temperature conditions. Grease leaking onto the
paper web may promote bacterial growth and rot the fabric of the carrier felt. High-
temperature e.p. grease is used for dryer felt-roll bearings and a very water-resistant
lithium-soap grease for the wire-support-roll bearings. The trend is to sealed-for-life
bearings on electric motors, requiring high-quality greases at the antifriction bearing
manufacturing plant. Improvements in greases discussed, including the development
of non-soap greases showing low oil-bleed, corrosion-resistant characteristics and
being capable of being pumped in automatic systems without blocking lines. The
operator should do his part and handle the lubricants in optimum fashion. Hanly
discussed the paper, and took exception to the statement that bacterial growth in
grease will harm felt fibers, quoting data to the effect that deterioration is due to
chemical effects where oily or greasy spots collect rust dust.
SCHIEFER, Azzm AND MILLER m discussed industrial fluorosilicone applica-
tions. Laboratory tests show that TFPM lubricants (trifluoropropylmethylsiloxane)
can be extended to porous bronze bearings, journal bearings, high-temperature ball
bearings, etc. Greases can be made by thickening TFPM oil with high-melting organic
solids to give very shear-resistant, oxidation-resistant greases good to -40’1;. Such
a grease has excellent e.p. properties, showing 80.6 mean Hertz load (now load wear
index) and a 65-lb. Timken load at seizure. The TFPM grease resisted solvent vapor in
panel tests and in a devolatilizer unit better than other products. This grease has run
for over a year at IO,OOO rev./min on a size 204 bearing in an oven operating at 550°-
6oo”I; where loads were too high for conventional silicone greases and temperatures
too high for mineral oil greases. Discussion by Montgomery questioned whether new
designs or materials could have solved problems more economically than with expen-

* Published in 1969.

Wear, r6 (1970) 87-142

RECENT USA PUBLICATIONS ON LUBRICATING GREASE 131

sive TFPM lubricants. The authors stated that TFPM lubricants resulted in the most
economical solution.
HARSACKY~~~ reported on aircraft gear lubrication in a 1963 paper, for tempera-
ture ranges of -65”F-300°F. The smaller gears in which grease is used require an
e.p. product. Greases used in airframe gearing on an Air Force Mach z jet aircraft
described at that time were the following MIL-G products: 3278A, Grease, Aircraft
and Instrument; 7118B, the e.p. version of 3278A; 21164A, synthetic grease with
molybdenum disulfide, and 27549, Grease, Heavy Load Carrying with a mean Hertz
load (load wear index) of 60. The Air Force programs at that time were aimed at long-
term-use at 600°F.

CLASSIFICATIONS, DEFINITIONS, SPECIFICATIONS, REGULATIONS, RECOMMENDED

PRACTICES

Classification and defimition

The NLGI classification for lubricating greases comprising grades o through 6,
was published in 1938. Grades oo and 000 were added in 1962. Grades are defined as
ranges of the values of the 6o-stroke worked penetration at 77°F as determined by the
current issue of ASTM Designation D 217, and are as follows :

NLGI Penetration
grease grades

000 445-475
oo 400-430
0 355-385
I 310-343
2 265-295
3 220-250
4 175-205
130-160
85-I 15

The NLGI classification has now become American Standard Zrr.r3o-rg63207 and is
being considered for international standardization at this time.
MAYORAND0~0~20s have asked whether there is more to grease classification
than consistency. An engineer designing a certain mechanism, but unfamiliar with
lubricating greases, finds nothing in the literature corresponding to the ASTM engine
test sequences, and therefore establishes a specification based on a particular product
which happened to work in his application. The authors propose a type classification,
giving limits for such properties as water washout resistance, extreme pressure (load-
carrying ability), consistency at operating temperatures, etc. with these to be coded.
They recognize the complexity of setting up a system like this for lubricating greases,
but think the need is evident. (Reviewer’s note: The recent revision of SAE Informa-
tion Report J3roa (see p. rrg) is a step in this direction, and ASTM Technical Division
B, Section IV Chassis Lubricants, and Technical Division G, Section III-9 Ball Joint
Tests are working to establish performance tests which will create more of the
“language” needed to help the equipment engineers pick the correct kinds of lubri-
cating greases.)

Wear, 16 (1970) 87-142

 Another basic requirement for good communication between equipment
designers and lubricating grease suppliers is a good set of definitions of terms. NLGI
has been working on this for years, and BLATTEiXHERGER1”7 has reported on its
status. The latest version of the NLGI Glossary (3rd edn., May 1968) defines approxi-
mately IOO terms peculiar to or commonly used in the lubricating grease industry.
The worth of this document is recognized by groups such as the Organization fhr
Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) which has used some of the terms
in the definitions for friction, wear and lubrication by the Research Group on Wear of
Engineering Materials.

Sjwcifications
METZGER~~~described the specification of lubricants for a new 8o-in. hot strip
mill. This paper describes the process of standardization in a large steel company for
all of their plants. A section on lubricating grease describes the development of a
purchase specification covering an e.p. lithium-base grease of NLGI I consistency.
Various modifications of ASTM tests are described to supplement current ASTM
Standards. The former cover a modified Timken e.p. test, shear-stability tests with
the addition of water, a roller test including the effects of oxygen, and base oil tests
for viscosity, flash and fire.
SARGENT AKD BUNTING”~~ have covered grease specifications now and for the
future. This paper is within the frame of reference of a large aluminum corporation
covering a wide variety of operations. Twenty years ago, all antifriction bearings
were regreased monthly. Today (1968), the regreasing interval is once per year.
Older plants made wide use of grease-lubricated sleeve bearings, but today plants are
built with a few or no journal bearings unless they are largely grouped in one location
fcr servicing with a centralized grease system. Grease consumption has dropped from
about 400,000 lb. to about 241,500 lb. Some 90-957; of the grease volume is purchased
to one multipurpose specification. Specifications for a multipurpose product should be
based on functional tests, be reasonable, pertinent, current and use standardized
recognized tests as far as possible, such as ASTM Methods. They should also define
desired consistency or pumpability, mechanical stability, thermal stability, water
resistance, and corrosion prevention. Future specification requirements for greases
will stress thermal and mechanical stability and long-time usage. Wasteful grease
applications will decrease and quality demands will increase and a higher unit price
will be paid.
0~~211 reported on lubrication for machine tool builders in 1963 stressing that
standards and specifications are essential in developing a mutual understanding be-
tween builder and purchaser. Better manpower utilization and reduced lubricant
consumption has resulted from minimizing lubrication points by use of automatic
lubrication systems. A number of illustrated examples is given. Greases should be
specified by NLGI Grade No, and additional test characteristics rather than by brand
name.

Regulations
DOOLEY~~~ reported in 1966 on lubricants in the food industry. This paper
describes the food additive regulations of the Food and Drug Administration (FDA),
the Meat Inspection Division (MID) and the Inspection Branch of the Poultry

wear, 16 (1970)87-142
RECENT USA PUBLICATIONS ON LUBRICATING GREASE I33

Division, describing the circumstances under which lubricants become food additives.
Specifications on the various petroleum products permitted, and the limitations on
their use are given. Considerable clarification has been brought about during the
period 1960-66. Lithium-soap greases can now be used in departments where edible
products are not processed or handled, this being a relaxation of an earlier ruling of
the Meat Inspection Division. Lubricants become food additives when they have
incidental, not accidental, contact with food. When certain potential hazards are
known to the supplier, he should not recommend certain types of grease or other
lubricants to food processors in order to prevent any possible undesirable effects of
accidental contamination. A summary of specific uses of petroleum fractions and
some related substances listed in the Food Additive Regulations as of August 15,
1966 is given.

Recommended jwactices
One of the activities of the NLGI technical committee is to develop re-
commended practices for such items as grease dispensing, wheel bearing packing, ball
joint servicing, and the like. The latest practice to be announced119 is that the cubic
inch be used as a unit of measurement followed by the equivalent cubic centimeter in
parentheses as an option. This was done in connection with the standardization on a
unit of measurement for capacity ratings for dispensing equipment.

PRODUCTION SURVEYS ANDMARKETING

The papers covered in this last section are listed as representing a significant
portion of papers given at the NLGI meetings since 1963 and are of great importance
to those segments of the lubricat~g grease industry with which they are concerned.

Production swveys
HAGSTROM~~~ and JOHNSON AND HAGSTROM~~~, have forecasted the US
grease market from 1962 to 1975 in two papers. A slight trend to a declining volume
is noted and is forecast through x975_ However, for practical purposes, the volume
may be considered as constant. Quality requirements, and thus the prices of grease,
are escalating and continued research is needed to develop the long-life greases being
demanded. Since 1957, sodium-soap greases have declined from 22% of total produc-
tion to 13% in 1965 and simultaneously lithium-soap greases have increased from
28% to 42% of the total.
ELLIOT~~~,OSWALT~~~, and LANE~~~ have successively reported on the NLGI
annual production survey which was started in 1957. This is one of the most important
activities of NLGI, indicating, as it does, the growth of the lubricating grease industry
and also the proportion of the different kinds of greases made. There was a total of
569,038,ooo lb. of grease reported in 1966 against 503,028,000 lb. in r965.This survey
also includes data from Canada which shows 32,536,ooo lb. for 1966 against 34,973,ooo
lb. for 1965. The survey has now been put on a biannual basis.

Market&g
VESPER~~~ asked for a return to sound, fundamental selling practices for
lubricating grease products with new emphasis on improved and basic sales techniques,

Wear, 16 (1970) 87-142

 OFFEK~~" discussed the marketing of automotive undercoats bringing out the
necessity for proper product application know-how and merchandising effectiveness.
Cleanliness of the surfaces to be coated are stressed as being directly proportional to
durability of the undercoat. Good application technique will maximize the station
cleanliness. Apprising the motorist of the importance of rustproofing in overcoming
the unsightly rusting of his car makes an effective sales approach.
The farm market, like industrial markets for lubricating grease, shows an
increasing complexity of machinery but less lubricating grease used per unit. However,
the trend to multi-purpose, high-quality greases tends to offset the loss of volume of
the cup grease type. UHRMACHER‘~0 has tailored his company’s marketing approach
to emphasize higher quality lubricants and expanding specialty lines, and in this way
offset the volume loss described above.
CiC)RE221considers rustproofing as an opportunity for new profits. This author22”
also discussed tile dependence of successful sales effort upon the preparation and
execution of the total marketing plan.
SIEGLE~~~ discusses the market for industrial oil and grease in the manufac-
turing industries. This article covers joint work by a large publishing company with
the API* Industrial Lubrication Panel which developed a questionnaire from which a
1967 survey was made covering textile, chemical processing industries, metal-
working and other manufacturing.
MENTON""" has written on the decision to manufacture lubricating grease or
purchase from another manufacturer for resale. Various factors on when to buy or
when to manufacture the product are covered.
MAHONEY AND Coor;z”j reported on the marketing viewpoint of coal mine
lubrication. This paper features an interesting history of the development of mechanized
methods starting from the earliest handwork done by the coal miner. The first
high-volume grease requirement of the industry was the use of petrolatum or cup
grease to smear on the hooves and lower legs of the mules or donkeys who pulled the
early mine cars to protect against the acidic waters lying in pools on the mine floors.
The same cup grease was later applied to the mine-car wheels. In 1922, a loader was
developed with a pair of mechanical arms sweeping coal onto a conveyor belt, which
principle is identical with that used today. The development of huge drag lines and
trucks for strip mining, and augers in sizes up to 7 ft. in diameter and in excess of
100 ft. long, marked progress in this field, culminating in the development of the
continuous miner for underground operations. The difficulties of lubrication in the
presence of the heavy contaminations existing in coal mines are discussed particularly
coal dust and acidic moisture. Better methods of application marked by lubrication
trailers dispensing through hoses from machines pulled close to the continuous miners.
Semifluid greases of various soap bases are widely used in the gear boxes of continu-
ous miners and also a multipurpose grease which is usually a lithium NO. z grade. It is
estimated that gear lubricant and grease sales for USA coal mining will exceed roe
million pounds in 1980. Underground mining operations are estimated to consume one
pound of grease for every 8 tons coal mined or one pound of gear oil for every 5 tons
mined.

* American Petroleum Institute

Wear, 16 (1979) 877142

RECENT USA PUBLICATIONS ON LUBRICATING GREASE 13.5

Miscellaneozts
The NL,GI Spokesmalz for August 1965 (p. 137) discusses the Service Industries
activity226 of NLGI. This is a group of Associate, Marketing and Technical members
who are charged with developing effective meetings, panel discussions and publications
directed to processes, raw materials, equipment and containers pertaining to lubri-
cating greases.
HoGAN~~~ considers how to read an industrial advertisement.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The author wishes to thank E. J. BECKETT for preparing the References section,
and SUZANNE FREEBORN for transcribing the tapes and typing the manuscript.

REFERENCES

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(1966) 244.
20 W. J. EWBANK, The present status of NLGI work on permeability of lubricating grease,
NLGI Qokesman, 30 (Aug.) (1966) 167.

Wear, 16 (1970) 87-142

136 1~. S. HARNETT

21 J. C. WEBSTERAND W. J. EWBANK, The effect of thickener shape on the permeability of

lubricating grease ,NLGISfiokesman, 32 (Oct.) (1968) 250.
22 J. L. MCATEE AND LIANG-KOA CHEN, Some fundamental aspects of the permeability of
organo-montmorillonite greases, NLGI Sfiokesmarz, 32 (June) (1968) 89.
23 J. L. MCATEE AXD J. P. FREEMAN, Fundamental aspects of the permeability and gel strength
of inorganic-thickened greases, NLGI S#okesman, 32 (Sept.) (1968) 200.
24 J. L. MCATEE, Study of dispersants in the preparation of inorganic-thickened greases, NLGI
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25 A. T. POLISHUK, Physical and chemical properties of complex soap greases, Lubrication Eng.,
19 (Feb.) (1963) 76.
26 J. PANZER, Nature of acetate complexes in greases, NLGI Spokesman, 25 (Nov.) (1961) 240.
27 R. BARRETO AND J. GONZALEZ, Characteristics of lubricating greases from calcium complex
synthesized in different reaction media, NLGI Spokesman, 30 (Sept.) (1966) rgo.
28 J. PANZER, Application of crystallization theory to the behavior of greases, NLGI Spokesman,
28 (Jan.) (1965) 322.
29 T. P. TRAISE, Chemistry of polyurea grease thickeners, NLGI Spokesman, 29 (Sept.) (1965)
180.
30 S. F. CALHOUN, Fundamental aspects of grease bleeding, NLGI Spokesman, 29 (Jan.) (1966)
328.
31 J. L. ZAKIN, H. H. LIN AND E. H. Tu, Exploratory studies of the sorption and extraction of
additives in lubricating greases, NLGI Spokesman, 31 (May) (1967) 43,
32 H. H. HOROWITZ AND F. E. STEIDLER, Calculated performance of grease in journal bearings,
ASLE Trans., 6 (July) (1963) 239.
33 J. W. WILSON, Three-dimensional structure of grease-thickener particles, NLGI Spokesman,
27 (March) (1964) 372.
34 R. VITALI AND M. BORZA, Twist of the fibres of rz-hydroxystearate lithium grease, NLGI
Spokesman, 32 (July) (1969) 126.
35 W. W. FORBES, Safe operation of grease plants, NLGI Spokesman, 27 (Dec.) (‘963) 295.
36 R. P. SPRAY, Grease heating systems, NLGl Spokesman, 27 (March) (1964) 369.
37 H. RAICH, E. L. ARMSTRONG AND B. A. PETERSON, Grease manufacture by atomization
techniques, NLGISfiokesman, 28 (Aug.) (1964) 136.
38 W. A. GRAHAM, Grease manufacture around the world, NLGI Spokesman, 28 (Jan.) (1965)
3’3.
39 M. A. LINDEMAN, C. R. KNOTT AND A. T. POLISHUK, Laboratory grease kettles, NLGI
Spokesman, 30 (April) (1966) 18.
40 R. L. WARING, Five years’ experience with a new grease plant, NLGI Spokesman, 30 (June)
(1966) 92.
41 R. M. FITCH, The how and why of a typical grease plant, NLG1 Spokesman, 29 (Jan.) (1966)
322.
42 T. C. CORY, Planning and constructing a new grease plant, NLGI Sfiokesman, 31 (June) (1967)
86.
43 W. B. GREEN AND A. C. WITTE, Jr., Texaco’s continuous grease manufacturing process,
NLGI Spokesman, 32 (Jan.) (1969) 368.
44 F. E. CHAMBERLIN AND R. K. EDWARDS, Two years’ experience with a new type of grease
manufacturing equipment, NLGZ Spokesman, 32 (May) (1968) 48.
45 J. T. RONAN, W. A. GRAHAM AND C. F. CARTER, New equipment shortens grease processing
cycle, NLGISpokesman, 31 (Jan.) (1968) 357.
46 J. L. DREHER, T. H. KOUNDAKJIAN AND C. F. CARTER, Manufacture and properties of
aluminum complex greases, NLGI Spokesman, 29 (July) (1965) 107.
47 F. W. LANGNER, New packages for lubricating greases, NLGI Spokesman, 29 (July) (1965)
114.
48 C. W. SCHNEIDERHAN, Fair packaging and labeling act, NLGI Spokesman, 32 (March) (1969)
435.
4g
.- W. A. WATTS, Rigid polyethylene-a new concept in industrial containers, NLGI Spokesman
32 (June) (1968) 86. _
50 D. A. GILBERT AND F. B. CATANZARO, Materials, manufacturing and quality control of grease
cartridges and their filling and distribution for various markets, NLGI Spokesmaw, 33 (April)
(1969) 10.
51 A. W. NIDES, Can our capabilities satisfy your needs.,2 NLGI Spokesman, 33 (June) (1969) 95.
52 L. A. ALEKSA, A look at private carriage in industry, NLGI Spokesman, 30 (Aug.) (1966) 162.
53 H. M. FRIEDE AND C. T. SANGSTER, Evaluation of production control methods, storage
stability of greases, NLGI Spokesman, 28 (Dec.) (1964) 289.
54 R. CROFT, Comments on the paper: Evaluation of production control methods for predicting
storage stability of grease, NLGI Spokesman, 32 (April) (1968) 27.

Wear, 16 (1970) 87-142

RECENT USA PUBLICATIONS ON LUBRICATING GREASE I37

55 P. H. CAWLEY, A lubricants plant scheduling inventory control, etc. by computer, NLGI

Spokesman, 32 (June) (1968) 81.
56 J. C. GEBHART, Quality control in compounding and blending lubricating oils and greases,
NLGI Spokesman, 32 (April) (1968) 15.
57 W. A. GRAHAM, Efficiencies and costs in U.S. grease manufacture-1965, NLGI Spokesman,
30 (Oct.) (1966) 249.
58 A. S. CORSI, General properties of commercial fatty acids, NLGI Spokesman, 26 (Mar.) (1963)
378.
59 C. B. COENEN AND B. E. GORDON, Radiotracer mixing of additives ingrease, NLGI Spokesman,
28 (June) (w64 76.
60 N. SINGH, Aspect of grease applications and manufacture in India, NLGI Spokesman, 30
Way) (1966) 53.
61 A. SCHILLING, Mechanical tests of lubricating greases. Part I, NLGI Spokesman, 30 (Feb.)
(1967) 388.
62 A. SCHILLING, Mechanical tests of lubricating greases. Part II, NLGI Spokesman, 30 (March)
(1967) 433.
63 R. BYRNE, Performance of greases in railroad journal roller bearings, NLGI Sfiokesman, 27
(Aug.) (19%) 138.
64 J. E. LIESER AND C. H. WEST, A vibrating rig test for railway bearing greases, Lubrication
E%g., 24 (Sept.) (1968) 399. (Discussed by C. R. DANIELS AND P. R. MCCARTHY); NLGI
Spokesman, 33 (July) (1969) 117.
65 J. N. CRISP AND W. E. ELLIS, Low-temperature performance of greases in railway roller
bearings, Lubrication Eng., 19 (1963) 270. (Discussed by R. F. MEEKER AND L. LORING.)
66 H. E. MAHNCKE, What do rolling element bearings need from grease?, NLGI Spokesman, 27
(Sept.) (1963) 172.
67 F. E. H. SPICER, Performance testing of greases in roller bearing rigs, NLGI Spokesman, 28
(March) (w6s) 375.
68 B. W. HOTTEN, Distribution of lubricating grease life in ball bearings, NLGI S$okesman, 29
(March) (1966) 386.
69 P. R. MCCARTHY, High-speed, high-temperature test rig for grease-lubricated ball bearings,
NLGI Spokesman, 29 (May) (1965) 45.
70 H. E. SLINEY AND R. L. JOHNSON, Preliminary evaluation of greases to 600°F and solid
lubricants to 1500°F in ball bearings, ASLE Trans., II (Oct.) (1968) 330.
71 T. B. HOWE, Initial experiments with a ball bearing simulator, ASLE Trans., 6 (April) (1963)
133. (Discussed by M. J. FUREY.)
72 H. 0. S. L~NGSTR~M, A study of the lubricating flow within a grease lubricated anti-friction
bearing using “scalped” bearing, Prefirint NLGI Annual Meeting, Oct. 29-Nov. I, 1967.
73 R. P. LAYNE AND K. H. WARREN, Interaction of lubricating grease with ball bearing vibra-
tion in a quiet-running electric motor, Lubrication Eng., 22 (Aug.) (1966) 302. (Discussed by
0. G. GUSTAFSSONAND J. E. WEST.)
74 0. G. GUSTAFSSON,The effect of grease lubrication on the vibration of roller bearings, NLGI
Spokesman, 31 (Nov.) (1967) 289.
75 A. I. BERUSCH AND H. F. KING, The Naval Ship Engineering Center’s program for improved
quiet bearing lubrication, NLGI Spokesman, 31 (Sept.) (1967) 196.
76 D. GODFREY, Friction of greases and grease components during boundary lubrication, ASLE
Trans., 7 (June) (1964) 24.
77 A. C. HORTH, L. W. SPROULE AND W. C. PATTENDEN, Friction reduction with greases, NLGI
Spokesman, 32 (Aug.) (1968) 155.
78 S. F. CALHOUN, A. T. POLISHUK et al., Frictional characteristics of lubricating greases.
Report of ASTM D-2, Tech, Div. G. Sect. IV, Sub-Sect. 2, NLGI Spokesman, 33 (Aug.)
(1969) 164.
79 K. E. DEMOREST AND A. F. WHITAKER, Effect of various lubricants and base materials on
friction at ultrahigh loads, ASLE Trans., 9 (April) (1966) 160. (Discussed by D. H. GADDIS.)
80 J. B. RITTENHOUSE, L. D. JAFFE, R. G. NAGLER AND H. E. MARTENS, Friction measurements
on a low earth satellite, ASLE Trans., 6 (July) (1963) 161. (Discussed by P. M. Ku AND
R. L. JOHNSON.)
81 L. STALLINGS et al., The four-ball wear test-ASTM MethodNo. D-2266, NLGISpokesman, 31
(Feb.) (1968) 396.
82 F. S. SAYLES et al., The four-ball e.p. tester, an ASTM method of test, NLGI S#okesman, 32
(Aug.) (1968) 162.
83 H. T. AZZAM, Friction and wear testing machines to evaluate tomorrow’s lubricants, Lubri-
cat& Eng., 24 (Aug.) (1968) 366. (Discussed by J. R. JONES AND G. H. KITCHEN.)
84 G. P. MURPHY, Factors that influence grease oxidation and oxidative wear, NLGI Spokesman,
28 (April) (1964) 15.

Wear, 16 (1970) 87-142

r.33 it. 5. R;\RNETT

85 W. D. WEATHERFORD, M. L. VaLTrERR.% AND 1’. M. KU, Fxperimental study of splint wear

and lubrication effects, ASLE Tvans., 9 (April) (1906) 171.(Discussions by X. B. WATERHOUSE
AND D. GODFREY.)
86 u. I..CHASE, Id.J: SANDMaNN AND I~. F. SAVIDGE, Evaluation of lubricants and coatings for
the prevention of thread galling and seizure, Pvrprint .4SLE Anrzual Meeting, May .5-9,
1969.
87 A. W. GILBERT, T. M. VBRDURA AND F. G. ROUNDS, Service station grease performance as
evaluated in a laboratory ball joint grease test, ,VLGI Sfokesmlan, 29 (Feb.) (1966) 356.
88 M. A. LINDEMAN, Torque tests on grease-lubricated size 204 ball bearings, :VLGI S~okesmalz,
31 (JW (Iv%) 120. -
89 H. E. BLANK AND M. A. LINDEIAN, Torque tests on a grease-lubricated bearing, SLGI
S+okesman, 32 (July) (1968) I zz.
Qo B. ADINOFF, Grease evaluation for wedge brakes, Lubricatio?a Eng., 24 (1968) 416.
91 Iz. 0. BUTTLAR AND R. E. CANTLEY, Quantitative infrared spectroscopy studies of lithinm-
soap greases, NLGI S+okesman, 33 (April) (1969) 18.
92 W. J. EWBANK AND R. L. WARING, Development of a method for determining the leakage
characteristics of lubricating @case, NLGI Sfiokesman, 33 (April) (1969) 13.
93 H. M. DICKINSON, Significance of the ASTM dropping point of lubricating grease, ArLGI
Spokesman, 28 (April) (‘964) 13.
94 I’. R. MCCARTHY, Report of ASTM Technical Committee G on dropping point methods for
lubricating grease, NLGI Spokesma+z, 31 (June) (1967) 76.
95 D. W. GRIDDLE, Instrumental measurement of the color of greases, NLGf S#okesma+a, 27
(JuW (1963) K&
96 C. Ii. KNOTT, M. A. LINDIIMAN AND A. T. POLISHUK, Water spray resistance grease test,
NLGI S~~kes~~a~~, 28 (Jan.) (1965)316.
97 M. E. LEPERA, Petroleum oil characterization using carbon type analysis and infrared spec-
troscopy, XLGI S+okesma%, 32 (Feb.) (1969) 400.
98 J. L. DREHER, D. W. CRIDIXX AND T. H. KOUNDAKJIAN, Significance of ASTM oxidation
stability test for lubricating greases, ANLGI Sfiokesman, 28 (July) (1964) 108.
99 E. R. BOOSER AND K. W. GROSSETT, Discussion of the NLGI annual meeting paper on
significance of .\STM oxidation stability test for lubricating greases, NLGI Spokesma+z, 28
(July) (1~64) 12~.
IO0 R. F. MCKIBBEN AND D. M. FORINASH, Relating humidity cabinet life of lubricants to their
service life, ASLE Trans., 6 (July) (1963) 233.
ror M. HERTZLINGER, Analysis of filled greases using homogeneous solution. NLGI Spokesman,
33 (Sept.) (1969) 205.
102 C. F. CARTER AND F. B~uM~NN, Gas chromatography of fatty acids applied to grease formu-
lation, NLGI S~Qkesm~~, zi3 (May) (1964) 48.
103 D. W. GRIDDLE, Use of an electronic counter to study the size distribution of dispersed grease
thickener particles, NLGIS+okesma~, 29 (Sept.) (1965) 170.
‘04 B. E. JACKSON, A technique for handling greases and other semi-solid substances, A’LGI
Sfiokesman, 29 (Sept.) (1~65) 179.
105 F. W. ANDERSON, K. C. NELSON AND F. F. F~ZRLEY, Preparation of grease specimens for
electron microscopy, A’LGI S~oksswzan, 31 (Oct.) (1967) 252.
106 V. P. PAVLOV AND G. V. VINOGRADOV, Generalized characteristics of rheological properties Of
greases, Lubrication Brig., 21 (Nov.) (1965) 479.
r*7 2. C. BRUNSTRUM, Determinations of grease viscosity from the flow constants, NLGI
Sfiokesmarb, 27 (Aug.) (19631 144,
108 C. J. FaRRIS AND J, C. SLATTERY, Flow in an infinite journal bearing, NLGI Spokesman, 27
(NO-.‘.) (1963) 263.
109 W. MORRISON, Relationships between composition and rheologicaf properties of lithium
hydroxystearate greases, ~r~G~.S~okesm~~, 27 (Aug.) (19631 145.
1x0 J. V. KENNEDY .ND W. T. GRANQUIST, Flow ,properties of dispersions of an organo-mont-
morillonite in organic media, NLGI Sfiokesman; 29 (Aug.) (1~65) 138.
I I I I?.A. BUEHLER AND H. RAICH, Low-temperature flow limits for greases, NLGI Spokesma%, 31
(May) (1967) 49.
I TZ Z. C. ROTTER AND T. WEGMANN, TheLincoln Ventmeter andits possibilities, NLGIS+okasman,
29 (Nov.) (1~65) 26%.
rr3 S. W. REIN AND D. C. MCGAHEY, Predicting grease flow in large pipes, NLGl Spokesma% 29
(April) (1955) 20.
rr4 S. W. REIN, Solution of problems involving grease flow in straight pipe or tubing, AXGZ’
Sfiokesmun, 31 (July) (1967) 131.
115 S. 3. STRONG, Grease flow properties and some relationships between them, NLGI Sfiokesmun,
3.2 (starch) (rQ6g) 426.

Wear, I6 (1970) 87-142

RECENT USA PUBLICATIONS ON LUBRICATING GREASE =39

116 E. H. BERG, A. C. HORTH, J. NIXON, J. PANZER AND R. J. PLUMSTEAD, Plugging in centralized

systems, NLGI Spokesman, 30 (July) (1966) 116.
I I 7 J. J. CALLAHANAND E. E. MCDOLE, Comments on the NLGI annual meeting paper: plugging
in centralized grease lubrication systems, AXGI Sfiokesman, 30 (July) (1966) 124.
118 E. J. GESDORF (Chairman), Comprehensive review of grease dispensing committee activities,
NLGI S#okesman, a8 (Feb.) (1965) 352.
I 19 Anon., NLGI announces a new recommended practice, NLGI Sfiokesman, 32 (May) (1968) 47.
rzo R. H. BERTZ, Modern lubrication methods in the stone industry, Preprint ASLE Alznual
Meeting May j-9,1969.
IZI E. J. GESDORF, Modern methods of lubricant application, Prep?&! ASLE ~~~~~~Z &feeting,
May 5-9, r969.
rzz R. E. REDENBAUGH, Development and application of centralized lubrication systems for
agricultural machinery, NLG1 Spokesman, 33 (Aug.) (1969) 160.
123 J. G. SPARKS AND G. R. TOVEY, Bulk grease--rg6z, NLGI Spokesman, 27 (June) (1963) 83.
124 R. L. ALBRIGHT, Bulk distribution of grease, NLGI Spokesman, 27 (May) (1963) 59.
125 M. S. CLARK AND W. C. UNANGST, Bulk grease--a progress report, NLGI Spokesman, 28
(Feb.) (196.5) 341.
126 J. D. LYKINS, Lubrication of new 8o-inch hot strip mill; Lubrication Eng., 22 (Sept.) (1966)
350.
127 E. RUSH, Lubrication and hydraulic practice in a modern steel mill, Lubrication E?ag., 24
(March) (1968) rr6.
128 C. A. BAILEY, Grease on tap-1967, NLGISfiokesman, 31 (March) (1~68) 422.
129 ‘w. J. EWBANK (Chairman), The development and present status of the NLGI reference
systems, NLGI Spokesman, 3r (April) (1967) 14
130 E. L. PLUJMMER,Formulation. characterization and oerformance of aluminum comdex j imido
acid greases, hriGI S$okesma?a, 28 (Aug.) (1964) 142..
r3r B. R. CIUTI, M. CESARI AND M. BORZA, Lithium soaps-organophilic bentonite complexes as
lubricating grease thickening agents, NLGI Sflokesman, 29 (June) (1965) 84.
‘32 R. F. HOUSE, A modified clay thickener for corrosion resista.nt greases, NLGI Sfiokesman, 30
(April) (1966) TI.
‘33 J. L. DREHER AND C. F. CARTER, .~anufacture and properties of calcium hydroxystearate
complex greases, XLGI S+okesman, 32 (Nov.) (1968) 293.
134 R. D. ALLEN, J. F. DITTER, M. GERSTEINAND J. B. CHRISTIAN,Submicron-size boron nitride
as a grease thickener, Lubrication Eng., 20 (1964) 339.
13.5 J. F. DITTER, R. D. ALLEN, H. T. THOMAS, M. GERSTEIN AND J. B. CHRISTIAN, Submicron
boron nitride as a grease thickener, II. High speed bearing tests, L~b~~cat~o~ Eng., 27 (_hg.)
(1967) 330.
136 D. E. LOEFFLER, G. P. CARUSO AND J. D. SMITH, Development and characteristics of Microgel
greases, NLGI Spokesman, 27 (Oct.) (1963) 224.
137 M. J. DEVINE, E. R. LAMSON AND I.. STALLINGS, Molybdenum disulfide diester lubricating
greases, ~LG~Spokesman, 27 (Jan.) (1964) 320.
138 H. F. BARRY AND J. B. BINKELMAN, Evaluation of moIybdenum disulfide in lubricating
greases, NLGI Spokesman, 30 (May) (1966) 45.
139 T. J. RISDON AND J. B. BINKELMAN, Oxidation stability and anti-friction bearing pcrfor-
mance of lubricants containing molybdenum disulfide, NLGI Spokesman, 32 (July) (1968) 115.
140 T. J. RISDON AND D. J. SARGENT, Comparison of commercially available greases with and
without molybdenum disulfide. Part I. Bench scale tests, NLGf S~okesrn~~, 33 (June)
(1969) 82.
141 Ii. L. JOHNSON, A review of the early use of molybdenum disulfide as a lubricant, NLGI
Spokesman, 32 (Nov.) (1968) 298.
142 C;. H. KITCHEN, Uses of molybdenum disulfide in the communications industry, Lubricatiolz
Esg., 23 (May) (1967) 181.
143 F. A. BUEHLER, D. B. Cox, R. A. BUTCOSK, E. L. ARMSTRONG.~ND J. L. ZAKIN, Research
studies on lubricating grease compositions for extreme environments, NLGI Spokesmalz, 28
(Oct.) (1964) 221.
144 R.T. TRITES, Oxidation inhibitor system for extreme temperature greases, NLGI Spokesman,
32 (Aug.) (rgG8) 168.
145 R. H. BOEHRINGER AND K. T. TRITES, New aspects in synthetic grease, NLGI Spokesmala, 3r
(Sept.) (1967) 205.
146 M. M. MCCORMICK, Discussion of the NLGI meeting paper: New aspects in synthetic grease,
NLGI Spokesmalz, 31 (Sept.) (1967) 208.
147 P. R. MCCARTHY, Development and evaluation of greases for high-temperature, high-speed
applications, ASLE TTans., 6 (April) (1963) IOZ. (Discussed by J. H. GUSTAFSON AND E. L.
ARMSTRONG.)

Wear, x6 (1970) 87-142

140 I-<
..5. B4RNFTT
. _

148 J. MESSI~A, Greases nonreactive with missile fuels and oxidizers, A\FI_GI.‘j@kesma~z, 27
(Sept.) (1963) 177.
149 J. MESSINA, An exploratory study on ~ol~~etrafluorethylene-thickened greases, P~+P&
*QSLE A anuaE ~~~~~~~~ May 5-g / 1969.
150 A. A. SCHWARTZ, Effect of penetration and thickener content on ball bearing grease perfor-
mance, Lubrication Elzg., 18 (&lay) (1962) 237. (Discussed by J, W. JOHNSON.)
151 J. I.,. DREHER, W. L. SMITHSON AND C. F. CARTER, A special grease for the food industry,
lVLG1 S$okesman, 30 (July) (1966) 126.
152 H. R. BAKER AND K. N. BOLSTER, The effect of thickener purity on the water resistance of a
semi-fluid weapons lubricant, i”rrLG1SpokosmaTa. 31 (Oct.) (1967) 249.
753 J. M. BISH, The effect of acidity and basicity of lubricating greases upon their performance,
~~G~S~~kesrnu~, 32 (Sept.) (1968) 193.
154 R. I-f. NEWMAN AND R. P. LANGSTON, The performance of calcium hydroxystearate greases
in wet conditions, NLGI .S$okesman, 30 (Aug.) (1966) 153.
155 S. F. CALHOUN AND R. L. YOUNG, Rust preventive abilities of grease and their improvement,
Lubvicafion Exg., 19 (July) (1963) 292.
156 E. I.. ARMSTRONGAND M. A. LINDEMAN, Effects of oil viscosity and soap type on torque in a
grease-lubricated journal bearing, NLGI Spokesman, 33 (Aug.) (1969) 152.
‘57 C. H. MITCHELL AND G. A. SHORTEN, The development of a muIti-pu~ose lubricating grease,
NLGI ~~~okesrn~~, 33 (Sept.) (1969) 196.
158 H. ELDRIDGE, Lubrication requirements of rg64 cars, NLGI Sfiokesmalz, 27 {Nov.) (1963) 254.
I59 H. ELDRIDGE, Lubrication requirements of 1965 cars, NLGI Spokesman, 28 (Nov.) (1964) 261.
160 H. ELDRIDGE, Lubrication requirements of 1966 cars, NLGl Spokesman, 29 (Nov.) (1965) 260.
161 H. ELDRIDGE, Lubrication of 1967 cars, *VLGI Spokesman, 30 (Dec.) (1966) 328.
162 H. ELDRIDGE, Lubrication of 1968 cars, NLGI S+okesman, gr (Dec.) (1967) 332.
163 H. ELDRIDGE, Lubrication of 1969 cars, NLGI Qokesman, 32 (Dec.) (1968) 34.2.
164 J. W. LANE AND C. F. FOELL, Let’s probe the idea of extended car service, ,%rX_GI S~~kesrn~n,
27 (April) (1963) 23.
165 SAE Information Report J-31oa, Automotive lubricating greases, IVLGI S$okesmam, 32
(April) (1968) 22.
166 D. F. MILLER, Chrysler viewpoint-lubrication, 1965 NLGI Spokesman, 28 (Dec.) (1964) 294.
167 L. F. H~YER, Arresting fleet corrosion, NLGI Sfiokesman, 26 (March) (1963) 383.
168 L. F. WAVER. The most important preventive maintenance in motor equipment care, NLGI
Spokesmaa, 29 (May) (x965) 57.
169 R. R. TISDALL, Application of corrosion preventive compounds to automobile underbodies,
~~G~S~o~e~rna~z, 26 (Jan.) (1963) 318.
‘70 E. G. WICKLATZ, New concept of protective coating application, NLGI Spokesman, 27 (Oct.)
(1963) 222.
‘7’ L. D. DROMGOLD, W. HART AND C. E. HULME, Automotive vehicle corrosion prevention
undercoating, NLGISfiokesman, 28 (May) (1964) 42.
‘72 W. A. HIGGINS, Automotive rustproofing compounds, NLGI Spokesman, 29 (March) (1966)
381.
‘73 W, G. KAUTZ, Antirust: undercoat - don‘t undercut, XLGI S~okesmu~, 26 (Jan.) (1963) 324.
174 S. F. CALHOUN, Current policies and trends in the lubrication of army equipment, NLGI
Sfvkesman, 27 (Dec.) (1963) 298.
175 J. MESSINA, L. F. PEALE, H. GISSER AND K. R. FRISCH, Lubricants for rapid-fire automatic
weapons, NLGI Sfiokesman, 28 (June) (1964) 70.
176 T. MESSINA. Perfluorinated lubricants for liquid-fueled rocket motor systems, &&ication
hzg., 23 (Nov.) (1967) 459.
177 N. D. REBUCK. L. STALLINGS AND M. I. DEVINE, New lubrication vehicle for naval aircraft,
hTLGI S~~kes~~~~, 32 (Feb.) (rg6g) 396.”
178 E. C. KRUEGER AND I’. B. LOCKWOOD, Urban transit lubrication panorama, NLGI S~~kesrna~~,
28 (March) (1965) 371,
I 7g J. B. DRIVER, Lubrication of airbrake equipment on railroad freight cars, Lubrication Eng.,
20 (Jan.) (1964) 16.
180 H. H. KOCI AND P. R. BEN, Design, operation and lubrication of traction motor gears and
gear cases, Lubrication E+ag., 24 (Dec.) (1968) 565.
181 R. R. POOLER, A new look at traction motor gear lubricants, Prep&t ASLE Annwal IMeetimg
May 9 I 1968.
182 R. F. SWANSON, Traction motor grease or gear lubrication in use on the New York Central,
Pre@ilzt ASLE Annual Meeting, May 9,1968.
183 I. R. SLINGERLAND ANII A. J. MILLER, Significance of tests of lubricating greases from the
standpoint of an agricultural marketer, NLGI S+okesman, 27 (Jan.) (x964) 327.
184 C. X. HINKLE, Lubricating farm machinery, NLGI S#okesman, 29 (June) (1965) 89.

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RECENT USA PUBLICATIONS ON LUBRICATING GREASE 141

185 S. J. ZIELINSKI, Lubrication on the farm, NLGIS#okesma%, 33 (Nov.) (1969) 298.

186 P. LEWIS, S. F. MURRAY, M. B. PETERSON AND H. EST~N, Lubricant evaluation for bearing
systems operating in spatial environments, ASLE Trans., 6 (Jan.) (1968) 67. (Discussions by
R. A. BURTON AND W. C. YOUNG.)
‘87 W. A. FLEMING, Space report: Past, present, future, NLGI Sflokesman, a8 (Nov.) (1964) 250.
188 H. SCHWENKER, Grease lubricants and their potential in aerospace applications,
_- Lubrication
Eng., 20 (July) (1964) 260.
189 R. L. JOHNSONAND D. H. BUCKLEY, Lubricants and mechanical components of lubrication
systems for space environment, Lubricathn Eng., 22 (Oct.) (1966) 408.
r9o W. C. YOUNG, F. J. CLAUSS AND S. P. DRAKE, Lubrication of ball bearings for space applica-
tions, ASLE Trans., 6 (July) (1963) 178. (Discussions by D. GODFREY, N. W. FURBY, E. G.
JACKSON,R. L. JOHNSON.)
191 W. C. YOUNG AND F. J. CLAUSS, Lubrication for spacecraft applications, Lubr~cat~a~ Eng.,
22 (June) (1966) zrg. (Discussed by R. D. BROWN.)
192 J. B. CHRISTIAN AND K. R. BUNTING, Advanced aerospace greases, Lubrication Emg., 23
(Feb.) (1967) 52.
193 F. G. A. DELAAT, R. V. SHELTONAND J. H. KIMZEY, Status of lubricants for manned space-
craft, Lubrication Eng., 23 (April) (1967) 145.
r94 C. L. HARRIS, J. E. READ AND J. B. THOMPSON,Lubrication in space vacuum. Part 3. Life
test evaluation of ball bearings lubricated with oils and greases, Lubrication Eng., 24 (April)
(1968) 182.
195 L. C. LIPP, Lubrication of supersonic aircraft, Lubrication Eng.. 24 (April) (1968) 154. (Dis-
cussed by F. J. WILLIAMS AND C. S. ARMSTRONG.)
196 Sy~~os~~rn Fluid Lubr&a&s--Their ~ka~~te~~st~~s, Evaluati~l and A~~l~cat~~ I% Hardware,
Abstracts of Pafiers, C. E. VEST (~hai~an), ASLE Annual Meeting, May 5-9. rg6g
I97 J. W. BLATTENBERGER,Report of the subcommittee on manual test methods and definitions
of terms, NLGISfiokesman, 32 (May) (1968) 53. (NLGIGlossary, p. 55 of sameissue.)
198 Anon., Bearings Conference Program, ASLE Alalaual Meet&g, May s-8, 1969. (Summary of
Dartmouth Conference, Sept. 4-6,rg68.)
19’) C. L. POPE, Useful grease tests for general plant lubrication, NLGI Spokesman, 28 (July)
(1964) 104.
200 R. R. MOODIE, Preventive maintenance and lubrication in the construction industry, NLGI
Sfiokesman, 29 (April) (1965) I I.
201 G. H. KITCHEN, Lubrication of small motor bearings for unattended service in automatic
equipment, Lubrication Eng., 20 (Aug.) (1964) 311. (Discussed by C. E. VEST.)
202 V. G. FITZSIMMONS, C. M. MURPHY, J. B. ROMANS AND C. R. SINGLETERRY, Barrier films
increase service lives of prelubricated miniature ball bearinss, Lub7~cat~on Enc., I 24.,” (Tan.),
(1968) 35.
203 D. B. Cox, E. A. OBERRIGHT AND R. J. GREEN, Dynamic and static irradiation of nuclear
power plant lubricants, ASLE Tvans., 5 (April) (1962) 126.
204 D. J. FRASER, Modern lubricants for paper mills, Lubricatiovc Eng., 25 (Feb.) (1969) 75. (Dis-
cussed by F. J. HANLY.)
205 H. M. SCHIEFER, H. T. AZZAM AND J. W. MILLER, Industrial fluorosilicone applications
predicted by laboratory tests, Lubricatiolz Eng., 25 (May) (1969) 210. (Discussed by R. S.
MONTGOMERY.)
206 F. J. HARSACKY, Gear lubrication in today’s aircraft, NLGI Sfiokesman, 26 (Jan.) (1963)
318.
207 Anon., American standard lubricating grease classification ZII :rjo-1963, NLGI Sfiokesman,
28 (May) (1964) 41.
208 H. A. MAYOR JR. AND L. W. OKON, Is there more to grease classification than consistency?
NLGI S~okes~~, 31 (Marl) (1968) 417.
209 P. D. METZGER, Specifying lubricants for a new So-inch hot strip mill, Luby~~at~~ Eng., 22
(Sept.) (1966) 358.
210 L. B. SARGENT JR. AND J. T. BUNTING, Grease specifications, now and tomorrow, NLGI
Spokesman, 31 (Jan.) (1968) 368.
211 J. G. ORR, What we expect in lubrication from machine tool builders, Lubrication Eng., 19
(Sept.1 (1963) 374.
212 A. E. DOOLEY, Lubricants in the food industries, NLGI @oResman, 31 (April) (1967) 18.
2x3 P. E. HAGSTROM, A forecast of the U.S. grease market 196%1972, NLGI S#okesman, 27
(Feb.) (1964) 350~
214 I. H. JOHNSONAND P. E. HAGSTROM, The rg75 grease market, NLGI Spokesman, 3r (April)
(1967) 8.
2x5 H. B. ELLIOTT, NLGI’s annual production survey, NLGI S#okesmaB, 28 (Nov.) (‘964) 258.
216 L. M. OSWALT, NLGI’s 1964 production survey, NLGI Spokesman, 29 (Sept.) (rg65) 175.

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132 R. 1;. HAIINE’I-I

~17 J. 1%‘.LANE, NLGI’s annual production survey, A’LGI Sfiokesma?~., 31 (Aug.) (rgb7) IO_+.
218 H. G. VESPER, Have we forgotten how to sell?, NI*GI Spokesman, zy (Dec.) (1965) ~95.
219 L. 11. OFFER, Marketing automotive undercoats, NLGI Spokesman, 27 (Jan.) (1964) 3~ 7.
220 11. Ii. FHRMACHER, One way to combat the present unsatisfactory profit trend in the farm
market, NLGI Spokesma?z, 27 (July) (1963) 112.
221 C. E. GORE, Iiustproofing: Opportunity for new profits, *VLGI S~okesma~z, 28 (April) (1964) 8.
222 C. I<. GORE, We have to market if we arc going to sell, NLGI Spokesma~~, 30 (Sept.) (1966)
198.
223 H. J, SIEGLE, The market for industrial oil and grease in the manufacturing industries, NLGl
Spokesman, 31 (Feb.) (1968) 389.
224 F. J. MENTOX, To buy or not to buy that is the question, 9LGI Spokesman, 32 (Jan.) (1969)
374.
225 J. E. MAHONEY AND T. J. KOON, A marketing viewpoint of coal mine lubrication, &VTLGI
Spokesman, 33 (May) (1969) 47.
226 Anon., Service industries activity of NLGI, NLGZ Sfiokesman, 29 (Aug.) (1965) 137.
227 W. T. HOGAN, How to read an industrial ad., NLGI Spokesman, 32 (July) (1968) I 28.

Wear, 16 (1970);87-142