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Problematic internet use among young and adult population in Bangladesh:

Correlates with lifestyle and online activities during the COVID-19 pandemic

Article  in  Addictive Behaviors Reports · November 2020

DOI: 10.1016/j.abrep.2020.100311

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Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Addictive Behaviors Reports

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/abrep

Problematic internet use among young and adult population in Bangladesh:

Correlates with lifestyle and online activities during the
COVID-19 pandemic
Md. Saiful Islam a, b, *, Md. Safaet Hossain Sujan a, b, Rafia Tasnim a, b, Most. Zannatul Ferdous a, c,
Jakir Hossain Bhuiyan Masud c, d, Sourav Kundu c, e, Abu Syed Md. Mosaddek c, f,
M. Shahabuddin K. Choudhuri c, g, h, Kagan Kircaburun i, Mark D. Griffiths i
a
Department of Public Health and Informatics, Jahangirnagar University, Savar, Dhaka 1342, Bangladesh
b
Youth Research Association, Savar, Dhaka 1342, Bangladesh
c
Quest Bangladesh, Lalmatia, Dhaka 1207, Bangladesh
d
Public Health Informatics Foundation (PHIF), Mirpur, Dhaka 1216, Bangladesh
e
Advanced Institute of Industrial Technology, Shinagawa City, Tokyo 140-0011, Japan
f
Department of Pharmacology, Uttara Adhunik Medical College, Uttara, Dhaka 1230, Bangladesh
g
Department of Pharmacy, Jahangirnagar University, Savar, Dhaka 1342, Bangladesh
h
United States Pharmacopeial Convention (USP) Herbal Medicines Compendium South Asia Expert Panel Member, Hyderabad, India
i
International Gaming Research Unit, Psychology Department, Nottingham Trent University, 50 Shakespeare Street, Nottingham NG1 4FQ, UK

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Background: Although internet use can boost individuals’ quality of life in various aspects, activities on the
Problematic internet use internet (e.g., gambling, video gaming, social media use, pornography use, etc.) can be used as coping strategy to
Gaming deal with psychological stressors and mood states (e.g., fear, anxiety, depression) particularly during the global
Social media use
COVID-19 pandemic.
COVID-19
Pandemic
Objectives: The present study assessed problematic internet use (PIU) among Bangladeshi youth and adults in
Bangladesh Bangladesh and examined its correlation with lifestyle and online activities during the COVID-19 pandemic.
Methods: An online cross-sectional survey was utilized between May and June 2020 comprising 13,525 Ban­
gladeshi individuals (61.3% male; age range 18–50 years; mean age 23.7 years) recruited from various online
platforms. The self-report survey included questions concerning socio-demographics, lifestyle, and online ac­
tivities during the COVID-19 pandemic, as well as psychometric scales such as the nine-item Internet Disorder
Scale-Short Form (IDS9-SF).
Results: Utilizing hierarchical regression analysis, problematic internet use was significantly and positively
associated with those who were younger, having a higher level of education, living with a nuclear family,
engaging in less physical exercise, avoiding household chores, playing online videogames, social media use, and
engaging in recreational online activities.
Conclusions: Excessive internet use appears to have been commonplace during the COVID-19 pandemic period
and young adults were most vulnerable to problematic internet use.

1. Introduction Organization, 2020; Worldometer, 2020). To date, in Bangladesh

(where the present study was carried out), there has been over 232,000
The novel coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has cases and over 3000 deaths (Institute of Epidemiology Disease Control
impacted most of the world with (at the time of writing) over 14.5 and Research, 2020; Worldometer, 2020) from the first case identified
million cases and over 655,000 fatalities in 216 countries, creating a on 8 March 2020 (Ferdous et al., 2020; Tasnim et al., 2020). To reduce
public health emergency of international concern (World Health the spread of the virus the Bangladesh government imposed strict social

* Corresponding author at: Department of Public Health and Informatics, Jahangirnagar University, Savar, Dhaka 1342, Bangladesh.
E-mail address: saiful@phiju.edu.bd (Md.S. Islam).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.abrep.2020.100311
Received 30 July 2020; Received in revised form 15 October 2020; Accepted 30 October 2020
Available online 5 November 2020
2352-8532/© 2020 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Md.S. Islam et al. Addictive Behaviors Reports 12 (2020) 100311

isolation and home quarantine measures. online equivalents (e.g., cyberbullying, sexting, internet addiction,
Given the measures that have been implemented, it is unsurprising nomophobia, etc.) (Machimbarrena et al., 2018). Choi and Lee (2015)
that individuals have turned to technology to help cope and function in noted that the abuse of smartphones can lead to many problems,
this situation. Evidence has shown that internet use can enable in­ including the dependence on social media, nomophobia, and PIU and
dividuals to achieve a higher perceived quality of life by supporting their that this can affect individual’s psychological, social, academic and/or
jobs, education, and communication (Tran et al., 2018). Some internet- professional life. Nomophobic individuals constantly check the use of
based applications are appropriate and easy to use, providing e-health texts or calls and experience distress and difficulty if they are out of
care facilities (for instance detailed information regarding doctors, reach of their mobile phones (Bragazzi & Del Puente, 2014). Researchers
hospitals, and ambulance services, as well as some primary treatments have also claimed that individuals who spend a lot of time on the
or guidance for minor diseases), and education to individuals with low internet can suffer from nomophobia (Lachmann, Sariyska, Kannen,
levels of health literacy. It has also been found that internet use can Stavrou, & Montag, 2017), which can decrease perceived quality of life
enhance the perceived quality of life by providing positive connections (Foerster & Röösli, 2017). As a result of technology-related sympto­
on social media, online shopping, online conferencing, and ongoing mology (e.g., nomophobia, cyberchondria, online addictions, etc.), in­
contact with friends and family living far away or in other countries dividuals can experience long-term sleep problems, physical
(Pontes, Szabo, & Griffiths, 2015). inactiveness, difficulties in focusing on work, and poorer relationships
According to the Bangladesh Telecommunication Regulatory Com­ with family members (Casale, Lecchi, & Fioravanti, 2015).
mission (BTRC), the total number of internet subscribers was over 99 PIU can be a risk factor for decreased quality of life, and the research
million at the end of January 2020 (BTRC, 2020). However, measures to in the area stretches back over 20 years (Guo et al., 2020) since the
inhibit the spread of COVID-19 (e.g., spatial distancing, social isolation, initial work of Griffiths (1996) and Young (1996). Adolescents and
and home quarantine), as well as social and economic consequences, can young adults are at particularly high risk of PIU (Wartberg & Linden­
also have a negative psychological impact with feelings of sadness, berg, 2020). In some research, males have been said to be more likely to
anxiety, fear, anger, annoyance, frustration, guilt, hopelessness, experience PIU than females (Laconi, Tricard, & Chabrol, 2015),
boredom, and panic (Ahorsu et al., 2020; Banerjee, 2020; Islam, Fer­ although large-scale studies have found that males appear to experience
dous, & Potenza, 2020; Islam, Potenza, & Van Os, 2020). A recent study more problems with online gaming whereas females appear to experi­
conducted among Bangladeshi university students found that the prev­ ence more problems with social media use (Andreassen et al., 2016).
alence of moderate to extremely severe depression, anxiety, and stress A meta-analysis comprising 164 studies from 31 countries (N =
were 62.9%, 63.6% and 58.6%, respectively (Islam, Sujan, et al., 2020). 89,281) reported that the global pooled prevalence of PIU was 6%
To help cope with negative mood states, individuals may engage in (average age = 18.42 years; SD = 5.02; age range 12–41 years) (Cheng &
psychoactive substance use or engage in specific online behaviors such Li, 2014). In addition, Cheng and Li (2014) also reported that the
as gambling, video gaming, streaming films and television shows, social prevalence of PIU in Asia was 7.1% which was lower than Middle East
media use, watching pornography and these potentially addictive be­ (10.9%) and North America (8%). Other meta analyses concerning
haviors may help to ease the stress of daily living (often referred to as internet addiction have reported multiple factors that are associated
‘escapism’) and avoid problems and difficult thoughts (Blasi et al., with internet use including being male (Su, Han, Jin, Yan, & Potenza,
2019). 2019), psychosocial factors (e.g., hostility, depression and anxiety, etc.)
Consequently, the tendency to engage in such behaviors as putative (Fumero, Marrero, Voltes, & Peñate, 2018; Tokunaga, 2017), and sleep
coping mechanisms in emergencies such as the COVID-19 pandemic is problems (Alimoradi et al., 2019).
likely to have increased considerably and can develop into patterns that During the past three decades, the number of internet users has
are difficult to stop (King, Delfabbro, Billieux, & Potenza, 2020). For the increased markedly in Bangladesh because the Bangladeshi government
majority of individuals, involvement in the aforementioned specific wants it to be a technologically developed country, and is known as the
online activities provides positive benefits. However, for a small mi­ ‘Digital Bangladesh’ movement (Bangladesh Telecommunication Regu­
nority, excessive use of these activities can lead to severe problems and latory Commission, 2020). With the widespread use of the internet,
increase the risk of disordered or addictive use (Griffiths & Szabo, 2014; potentially negative behaviors have been recorded in the country,
Pontes et al., 2015; Vismara et al., 2020). Despite the many inherent including problematic use of the internet and internet addiction
advantages afforded by internet use, excessive and uncontrolled use has (Mamun, Rafi, et al., 2019). A few recent studies that have conducted in
become a significant social and behavioral problem. Problematic Bangladesh focusing on specific populations and specific areas. The
internet use (PIU) in its most extreme form has been termed ‘internet prevalence rates of PIU have been reported to be 24% (among 573
addiction’ defined as excessive and poorly controlled preoccupation, graduate students aged 20–30 years from Dhaka University; Islam &
comprising urges and behaviors related to internet use that leads to Hossin, 2016), 27.1% (among 454 participants aged 19–35 years from
clinical impairment and distress (Shaw & Black, 2008). PIU can lead to three administrative divisions of Bangladesh; Hassan, Alam, Wahab, &
major distress and/or deterioration in financial, familial, social, educa­ Hawlader, 2020) and, 24% (among 350 high school students aged
tional and/or occupational domains (World Health Organization, 2019). 13–17 years residing in Dhaka; Chandrima et al., 2020). However, these
It is therefore imperative that such behaviors, especially during the studies have all had small sample sizes. A Bangladeshi study by Islam
pandemic, remain at a moderate and regulated level. This is also sig­ and Hossin (2016) reported that PIU was associated with being male,
nificant, as gambling, gaming, and pornography industries may enable having lower socioeconomic status, smoking cigarettes, being physically
their clientele to invest longer periods in these activities via the use of inactive, and experiencing psychological distress. Most recently, Hassan
opportunistic marketing campaigns (Király et al., 2020). The internet et al. (2020) reported that PIU among Bangladeshi citizens was signifi­
has become indispensable for most individuals, especially teenagers and cantly associated with living arrangements (e.g., living in a hostel),
young adults, but for a small minority, it can also become dysfunctional spending more time daily on the internet, having a detached family
and cause difficulties, which can have negative consequences on the relationship, being physically inactive, and smoking cigarettes. In
well-being of individuals (Machimbarrena et al., 2019). Research has addition, other correlates of PIU in Bangladesh have included lower
indicated that the majority of youth aged between 18 and 29 years in academic achievements, lower education in both mother and father,
many different countries have internet access (Joshi, Stubbe, Li, & Hilty, mother working outside the home, and spending more than two hours
2019). daily on the internet (Chandrima et al., 2020).
The higher exposure by individuals to smartphones and the internet To date, there is no study that has examined PIU among youth and
increases the chances of traditional offline psychosocial problems adults in Bangladesh during the COVID-19 pandemic period. Therefore,
(bullying, verbal abuse, addictions, phobias) being experienced in their the present study investigated problematic internet use among this

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Md.S. Islam et al. Addictive Behaviors Reports 12 (2020) 100311

cohort and examined its’ association with lifestyle and online activities 2.3.2. Lifestyle related measures
during COVID-19 pandemic. Based on previous Bangladeshi literature, it Information regarding lifestyle-related behaviors during the
was hypothesized that those with PIU were more likely to be male, pandemic period was collected including current cigarette smoking
younger, have a higher level of education, be single, and live with a status (yes/no), average number of daily sleeping hours (classified as
nuclear family. It was also hypothesized that there would positive cor­ normal [7–9 h], less than normal [<7h], or more than normal [>9h]
relations between PIU and lifestyle (e.g., smoking cigarettes, more or based on [Hirshkowitz et al., 2015; Islam, Akter, et al., 2020]), daily
less sleep than the norm) and online behaviors (e.g., excessive internet physical exercising (yes/no), and engaging household chores (yes/no).
browsing, and other online activities such as gaming, social media use,
etc.) and negative correlations with measures of positive health (e.g., 2.3.3. Internet-related measures
good sleep, regular exercise). Internet-related information was collected including the average
number of internet browsing hours daily (later categorized: <2 h, 2–4 h,
2. Methods 5–6 h, and > 6 h). In addition, ‘yes/no’ questions were asked regarding
which online activities were engaged in during the home quarantine (e.
2.1. Participants and procedure g., attending online classes, playing online games, social media use, and
recreational activities such as watching films and television series).
This present research utilized a cross-sectional survey comprising
13,525 individuals (61.3% male; age range 18–50 years; mean age 23.7 2.3.4. Problematic internet use
years), conducted between May and June 2020. A self-report question­ The IDS9-SF is one of the most robust psychometric screening tools
naire was developed and administered online. After generating an on­ for assessing problematic internet use and was developed by Pontes and
line survey link, the survey was shared in various online platforms (e.g., Griffiths (2016). It has been validated in over 15 different languages
Facebook, WhatsApp, online blogs, etc.) in an effort to recruit as big a including Persian (Lin et al., 2018), Turkish (Bener, Griffiths, Baysoy,
sample size as possible. The target group was the young adult population Catan, & Yurtseven, 2019), and Italian (Soraci et al., 2020). The present
residing in Bangladesh who could speak and understand Bangla study used the Bangla version (Islam, Rahman, et al., 2020). The scale
(although the survey was also completed by some individuals aged over comprises nine questions regarding problematic internet use (e.g.,
25 years). The inclusion criterion of the participants was that individuals “Have you jeopardized or lost an important relationship, career or an
had to be aged ≥18 years. The exclusion criteria included individuals educational opportunity because of your online usage?”) which are
who were minors and those who did not complete the full survey. responded to on a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (Never) to 5
(Very often). Total scores are obtained by summing the raw scores of
each item and total scores range from 9 to 45, with higher scores indi­
2.2. Sampling procedure cating a higher degree of problematic internet use. In the present study,
the Cronbach’s alpha of IDS9-SF indicated very good internal consis­
The sample size was calculated using the following equation: tency (α = 0.85).
2 2
1.96 ×0.271×(1− 0.271)
n = zdpq
2 ;n = 0.02712
= 1033.4 ≈ 1033
Here, 2.4. Data analyses
n = number of samples
z = 1.96 (95% confidence level) The data were coded and analyzed using two statistical software
p = prevalence estimate (0.271) packages (Microsoft Excel 2019, and IBM SPSS Statistics version 25).
q = (1-p) Microsoft Excel was used to perform data cleaning, coding, editing, and
d = Precession of the prevalence estimate (10% of 0.271) sorting. An Excel file including all variables was imported in SPSS
Given the most recent study, Hassan et al. (2020) reported a PIU software. Descriptive statistics (e.g., frequencies, percentages, means,
prevalence rate of 27.1% focusing on young adults in Bangladesh, a standard deviations, etc.) were performed using SPSS software. In
sample size of 1033 participants was estimated. Given the present study addition, t-tests or one-way ANOVA tests were performed to determine
comprised 13,525 participants recruited via online convenience sam­ significant relations of the mean IDS9-SF scores with all examined var­
pling, the sample size was more than sufficient in the present study. iables applying Bonferroni correction (by dividing the p-value signifi­
cance threshold [0.05] by the number of statistical tests, the p-value for
significance was calculated to be p < .003). Finally, demographic, life­
2.3. Dependent and independent variables style and internet-related variables that significantly differed in terms of
PIU scores, were included into hierarchical regression analysis with PIU
In the present study, items concerning socio-demographic factors, as the dependent variable.
lifestyle behaviors, and internet-related activities engaged in during the
COVID-19 pandemic were the independent variables. The score on the 2.5. Ethics
psychometric scale assessing PIU was the dependent variable. A pilot
test was conducted on 70 individuals, to test the understanding of the The present study was carried out in accordance with the ethical
questionnaire. The data from the pilot survey were not included in the guidelines for human involving investigations (i.e., Helsinki Declara­
final analysis. tion, 1975). In addition, formal ethics approval was granted by the
research team’s Ethical Review Committee. Participants were well
2.3.1. Socio-demographic measures informed about the procedure and purpose of the study, and the confi­
Socio-demographic information was collected by asking questions dentiality of their information. All data were collected anonymously,
regarding gender (male/female), age (later categorized: young [18–25 and all participants provided informed consent.
years] versus older [25 + years]), educational qualification (interme­
diate or below, bachelor degree, and higher education [above bachelor 3. Results
degree]), marital status (unmarried, married, and divorced), family type
(nuclear versus joint/extended), monthly family income (later catego­ 3.1. Characteristics of the sample
rized: lower-income [<15,000 Bangladeshi Taka (BDT)], middle-income
[15,000–30,000 BDT], and high-income [>30,000 BDT]), and residence The participants’ general characteristics are summarized in Table 1.
(urban versus rural). A sizeable majority of participants had a bachelor degree level of

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Md.S. Islam et al. Addictive Behaviors Reports 12 (2020) 100311

Table 1
Descriptive analysis of each variable and association with IDS9-SF scores.
Variables Total N ¼ 13525 IDS9-SF scores (M ¼ 22.7; SD ¼ 7.8)

n (%) Mean SD 95% CI for Mean t/F p-value

Socio-demographic factors
Gender
Male 8287 (61.3) 22.7 (7.7) (22.5–22.9) 0.15 0.696
Female 5238 (38.7) 22.8 (7.9) (22.5–23.0)
Age
Young (18–25) 10,656 (78.8) 23.1 (7.8) (22.9–23.2) 112.81 <0.001
Adult (>25 years) 2869 (21.2) 21.4 (7.3) (21.1–21.6)

Educational qualification
Intermediate (11–12) or below 2474 (18.3) 22.2 (7.9) (21.9–22.5) 21.56 <0.001
Bachelor 9196 (68.0) 23.0 (7.8) (22.9–23.2)
Higher education (above bachelor) 1855 (13.7) 21.9 (7.2) (21.6–22.3)

Marital status
Unmarried 11,243 (83.1) 23.1 (7.8) (22.9–23.2) 67.91 <0.001
Married 2219 (16.4) 21.0 (7.4) (20.7–21.3)
Divorced 63 (0.5) 21.7 (8.3) (19.6–23.8)

Family type
Nuclear 10,588 (78.3) 22.9 (7.8) (22.7–23.0) 24.07 <0.001
Join 2937 (21.7) 22.1 (7.7) (21.8–22.4)

Monthly family income

Lower class 2612 (19.3) 22.4 (7.9) (22.1–22.7) 5.22 0.005
Middle class 4869 (36.0) 23.0 (7.8) (22.8–23.2)
Upper class 6044 (44.7) 22.6 (7.7) (22.5–22.8)

Residence
Urban area 8376 (61.9) 22.8 (7.7) (22.7–23.0) 5.61 0.018
Rural area 5149 (38.1) 22.5 (7.8) (22.3–22.7)

Lifestyle factors
Smoking status
Yes 2152 (15.9) 23.3 (7.5) (23.0–23.6) 12.77 <0.001
No 11,373 (84.1) 22.6 (7.8) (22.5–22.8)

Sleeping hours
Less than normal 2638 (19.5) 23.2 (7.5) (22.9–23.4) 108.61 <0.001
Normal (7–9 h) 9191 (68.0) 22.2 (7.7) (22.0–22.3)
More than normal 1696 (12.5) 25.1 (7.9) (24.7–25.5)

Physical exercise
Yes 6915 (51.1) 21.8 (7.4) (21.7–22.0) 184.11 <0.001
No 6610 (48.9) 23.6 (8.0) (23.5–23.8)

Doing household chores

Yes 10,378 (76.7) 22.3 (7.6) (22.1–22.4) 154.11 <0.001
No 3147 (23.3) 24.2 (7.9) (23.9–24.5)

Online behaviors
Internet browsing hours
<2 h 1624 (12.0) 18.6 (7.2) (18.3–19.0) 476.80 <0.001
2–4 h 4266 (31.5) 25.6 (7.8) (25.4–25.9)
5–6 h 4211 (31.1) 20.9 (7.2) (20.7–21.1)
>6 h 3424 (25.3) 23.3 (7.2) (23.1–23.5)

Attending online class

Yes 4836 (35.8) 22.7 (7.7) (22.4–22.9) 0.51 0.476
No 8689 (64.2) 22.8 (7.8) (22.6–22.9)

Playing online games

Yes 4635 (34.3) 23.7 (7.7) (23.5–23.9) 115.44 <0.001
No 8890 (65.7) 22.2 (7.7) (22.0–22.4)

Social media purposes

Yes 8771 (64.9) 23.5 (7.7) (23.4–23.7) 285.41 <0.001
No 4754 (35.1) 21.2 (7.7) (21.0–21.4)

Recreational activities
Yes 10,547 (78.0) 23.0 (7.7) (22.9–23.2) 66.22 <0.001
No 2978 (22.0) 21.7 (7.7) (21.4–22.0)

education (68.0%), were unmarried (83.1%), came from nuclear fam­ 3.2. Mean scores of IDS9-SF and online behaviors
ilies (78.3%), were from upper-income families (44.7%), and resided in
an urban area (61.9%). During the pandemic period, the majority did Analysis on the total scores of IDS9-SF demonstrated that the mean
not smoke cigarettes (84.1%), two-thirds slept in a normal daily range of score was 22.7 out of 45 (SD = 7.8) with no significant gender differ­
7–9 h (68.0%), half engaged in regular exercise (51.1%), and a quarter ences. A quarter of the sample spent more than six hours daily on the
did not engage in household chores (23.3%). internet (25.3%). Participants engaged in the following activities on the

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Md.S. Islam et al. Addictive Behaviors Reports 12 (2020) 100311

internet: attending online class (35.8%), using social media (64.9%), analysis. Socio-demographic factors (i.e., age, educational qualification,
playing online videogames (34.3%), and recreational activities such as marital status, and family type) were included in Block 1. Lifestyle
watching movies and television series (78.0%). factors (i.e., smoking status, sleeping hours, physical exercise, and doing
household chores) comprised Block 2. In Block 3, online behaviors (i.e.,
3.3. Association of variables with internet use disorder internet using hours, playing online games, social media purposes, and
recreational activities) were included. After implementing a Bonferroni
With regard to socio-demographics, the mean scores of IDS9-SF were correction, problematic internet use was positively associated with
significantly higher among (i) young adults vs. older adults (23.1 ± 7.8 lower age (β = − 0.07, p < .001), having higher education (β = 0.03, p <
vs. 21.4 ± 7.3, p < .001), (ii) participants having bachelor degree vs. .001), living with nuclear family (β = -0.03, p < .003), lower physical
higher levels of education (23.0 ± 7.8 vs. 21.9 ± 7.2, p < .001), (iii) exercise (β = 0.11, p < .001), avoiding household chores (β = 0.09, p <
unmarried vs. married participants (23.1 ± 7.8 vs. 21.0 ± 7.4, p < .001), .001), playing online games (β = − 0.05, p < .001), social media use (β =
and (iv) participants from a nuclear family vs. joint families (22.9 ± 7.8 − 0.12, p < .001), and engaging in recreational online activities (β =
vs. 22.1 ± 7.7, p < .001) (see Table 1). − 0.04, p < .001). Consequently, marital status, smoking status, sleeping
In addition, the mean scores of IDS9-SF were significantly associated hours, and number of hours of daily internet use were not significant in
with specific lifestyle activities during home quarantine. More specif­ the hierarchical regression analysis. It should also be noted that the
ically, IDS9-SF scores were significantly higher among (i) participants predictive effects of education level, family type, playing online video­
who currently smoked cigarette vs. those who did not (23.3 ± 7.5 vs. games, and recreational online activities were very small. The regression
22.6 ± 7.8, p < .001), (ii) participants who slept more than nine hours model predicted 6% of the variance in problematic internet use
daily vs. those who slept in the normal range (7–9 h) (25.1 ± 7.9 vs. (F12,13512 = 72.42, p < .001).
22.2 ± 7.7, p < .001), (iii) participants who did not engage in physical
exercise vs. those who did (23.6 ± 8.0 vs. 21.8 ± 7.4, p < .001), and (iv) 4. Discussion
participants who did not engage in household chores vs. those who did
(24.2 ± 7.9 vs. 22.3 ± 7.6, p < .001). To the best of the authors’ knowledge, the present study is the first
Furthermore, the mean scores of IDS9-SF were significantly associ­ large-scale study among adults in Bangladesh assessing various factors
ated with online activities during the home quarantine, and significantly associated with problematic internet use during the COVID-19
higher among (i) participants who browsed more on the internet daily pandemic. PIU was significantly associated with being younger in age,
(2–4 h) vs. those who browsed the internet<2 h daily (25.6 ± 7.8 vs. having a bachelor degree level of education, being unmarried, being a
18.6 ± 7.2, p < .001), (ii) participants who played online video games member of a nuclear family, having middle-income socioeconomic sta­
vs. those who did not (23.7 ± 7.7 vs. 22.2 ± 7.7, p < .001), (iii) par­ tus, living in an urban area, being a cigarette smoker, being a heavier
ticipants who used social media vs. those who did not (23.5 ± 7.7 vs. sleeper, being physically inactive, not engaging in household chores,
21.2 ± 7.7, p < .001), and (iv) participants who engaged in recreational and having higher engagement with online activities (e.g., playing video
activities on the internet vs. those who did not (23.0 ± 7.7 vs. 21.7 ± 7., games, social media use, and online recreational activities).
p < .001). In the present sample, after implementing a Bonferroni In modern society, the internet has become essential in people’s
correction (p < .003), IDS9-SF scores did not significantly differ ac­ everyday lives but prolonged daily use can have a detrimental effect on
cording to monthly income (23.0 ± 7.8 vs. 22.4 ± 7.9, p = .005) and individual’s physical and mental well-being. Since the mid-1990s,
residence (22.8 ± 7.7 vs. 22.5 ± 7.8, p = .018). problematic internet use (PIU) has been thoroughly investigated
including Asian countries (Islam & Hossin, 2016). As soon as the COVID-
3.4. Hierarchical regression 19 outbreak began in Bangladesh and the countrywide lockdown was
declared by the government, many individuals had more leisure time to
The results of hierarchical regression analysis are presented in spend at home. This excessive leisure time is likely to have triggered
Table 2. Factors that were statistically significant in the group difference boredom among many internet users and its excessive use during the
analyses (t-tests and ANOVA) were included in a hierarchical regression pandemic may have facilitated problematic internet use behavior
(Wang, 2019). There is significant evidence indicating that the health of
Table 2 a minority of adolescents and adults is adversely affected by PIU (Kuss,
Hierarchical regression analysis predicting problematic internet use. Griffiths, Karila, & Billieux, 2014).
Model B SE β t ΔR2
4.1. Comparison with other studies
Block 1 - Socio-demographics (F(4,13520)=52.88; p < .001) 0.02
Age − 0.12 0.02 − 0.07 − 6.77**
Educational qualificationa 0.43 0.12 0.03 3.50** The findings of this study are now compared with the previous
Marital statusb − 0.42 0.21 − 0.02 − 2.07 studies that have focused on problematic internet use or internet
Family typec − 0.47 0.16 − 0.03 − 2.93* addiction in Bangladesh as well as globally (from meta-analysis). Ac­
Block 2 - Lifestyle factors (F(4,13516)=77.14; p < .001) 0.02 cording to the present study, no gender differences were found which is
Smoking statusd − 0.51 0.18 − 0.02 − 2.85 similar with the previous findings in Bangladesh (Islam & Hossin, 2016).
Sleeping hourse 0.32 0.12 0.02 2.78 Previous studies in Bangladesh have reported that PIU is higher among
Physical exercised 1.68 0.13 0.11 12.55**
males found than females (Mamun, Hossain, et al., 2019; Uddin et al.,
Doing household choresd 1.70 0.16 0.09 10.71**
2016), although research among adolescents in Bangladesh reported
Block 3 – Online behaviors (F(4,13512)=82.87; p < .001) 0.02 that females were likely to report PIU compared to males (Afrin &
Internet using hoursf 0.09 0.07 0.01 1.32
Hossain, 2017). Furthermore, the present study’s findings are different
Playing online gamesd − 0.86 0.14 − 0.05 − 6.07**
Social media purposesd − 1.89 0.15 − 0.12 − 13.00** to recent meta-analysis which found males experienced higher levels of
Recreational activitiesd − 0.83 0.17 − 0.04 − 5.01** PIU than females (Su et al., 2019).
The present study found that the level of PIU was higher among in­
Note: B = unstandardized regression coefficient; SE = Standard error; β =
standardized regression coefficient; a1 = Intermediate (11–12) or below, 2 = dividuals from a nuclear family than individuals from an extended
Bachelor, 3 = Higher education (above bachelor); b1 = Unmarried, 2 = Married, family, although those from a nuclear family are more likely to be lonely
3 = Divorced; c1 = Nuclear, 2 = Joint; d1 = Yes, 2 = No; e1=<7 h, 2 = 7 – 9 h, than those living in the joint/extended family (Antognoli-Toland, 2001),
3=>9 h; f 1=< 2 h, 2 = 2–4 h, 3 = 5–6 h, 4=> 6 h; F(12,13512) = 72.42, p < .001, and according to a study in Bangladesh (Mamun et al., 2020) and pre­
R2Adj = 0.06; *p < .003, **p < .001. vious meta-analysis, loneliness is associated with PIU and internet

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Md.S. Islam et al. Addictive Behaviors Reports 12 (2020) 100311

addiction (Tokunaga, 2017). In addition, the present study found that Mamun, Hossain, et al., 2019). PIU appears to be a major health and
unmarried (single) individuals were more likely to experience PIU psychosocial risk for a minority, and long online sessions (whether for
compared to those who were married. That may be because individuals educational and/or leisure purposes) increase physical inactivity and its
who are separated from their families and/or not with a current partner consequences can include narrower lumbar intervertebral discs,
may be using the internet to address their need for interpersonal inter­ increased fat content in the para-spinal muscles, and low back pain and
action and to build substitute social networks and social support from disability (Teichtahl et al., 2015). Moreover, spending a lot of time
virtual friendship which increases their use of internet. engaged in online activities combined with buffering (e.g., the waiting
Findings also indicated that PIU was higher among cigarette smokers time when downloading large amounts of data related to both work and
than non-smokers, and that cigarette smoking was significantly associ­ leisure activities) has been reported as making some individuals more
ated with PIU. This finding was similar to previous studies in Bangladesh aggressive and hostile (Yen, Yen, Wu, Huang, & Ko, 2011). This can also
among graduate students (Islam & Hossin, 2016) and young adults have an impact on both physical and mental health.
(Mamun, Rafi, et al., 2019). A previous study examining internet The differences in the pattern of relationships between variables in
addiction among adolescents reported that cigarette smoking signifi­ the present study compared to other studies in Bangladesh and globally
cantly increased stress and social anxiety which can play a contributory (from meta-analysis) may be due to different target populations,
role internet addiction (Feng, Ma, & Zhong, 2019). different screening instruments, lack of representative samples, and
Young individuals (aged 18–25 years) and those with a Bachelor’s unprecedented factors relating lockdown situation due to COVID-19.
degree had higher levels of PIU than older individuals and other
educational levels. Most studies have found that internet use tends to be 4.2. Limitations
more problematic for younger users. Such individuals are likely to be
using the internet for both educational and/or occupational purposes as There are some limitations in the present study that should be taken
well as for leisure pursuits. There may be several reasons why students into account when interpreting the results. First, the analysis was cross-
are susceptible to PIU including (i) easy access to entertainment and sectional in nature so did not determine the causality of any of the
social interaction features that are most enjoyed by this cohort (Ceyhan, examined variables. A longitudinal study would be needed in this
2011), (ii) environmental factors (e.g., freedom from parental control respect. Second, the study utilized an online self-report methodology
due to moving away from the family home for the first time) and psy­ which may be open to social desirability and memory recall biases.
chological factors (loneliness, depression and anxiety) in the lives of Although the sample was large-scale, a sizeable majority of students
students that may result in increased internet use (Bahrainian, Alizadeh, participated and the low average sample age demonstrates the sample
Raeisoon, Gorji, & Khazaee, 2014), (iii) students facing new problems was not nationally representative.
adapting to university life and trying to make new friends and/or
maintain old ones through the use of various online applications 5. Conclusions
(Sharma, Sahu, Kasar, & Sharma, 2014), and (iv) using the internet as a
form of stress relief (e.g., from the pressures of having to pass course­ To the best of the present authors’ knowledge is, the present inves­
work and examinations. Moreover, the survey was carried out during the tigation is the first large-scale study in Bangladesh to investigate prob­
lockdown, a lot of educational and occupational work has moved online. lematic internet use during the COVID-19 pandemic in Bangladesh. PIU
Together these factors might help explain the relatively high levels of was strongly associated with socio-demographic factors (being younger
PIU in the present study. in age, having a bachelor degree level of education, being unmarried,
Participants not engaging in regular physical exercise were more being a member of a nuclear family, having middle-income socioeco­
likely to experience PIU and supports findings from previous Bangla­ nomic status, living in an urban area), lifestyle factors (being a cigarette
deshi studies (Hassan et al., 2020; Islam & Hossin, 2016). Research more smoker, being a heavier sleeper, being physically inactive, not engaging
generally has indicated that those experiencing PIU tend to have more in household chores), and online behaviors of an individual (internet
sedentary lifestyles (Aşut, Abuduxike, Acar-Vaizoğlu, & Cali, 2019; browsing hours, playing online games, social media purposes, recrea­
Griffiths, 2010). According to a recent study, healthy individuals expe­ tional activities).
rience less PIU than individuals who are obese. Such individuals are In countries such as Bangladesh where the growth of internet use is
more likely to have sedentary lifestyles and are less likely than healthy more rapid than socio-economic development, the study of PIU is
individuals to engage in physical exercise (Bozkurt, Özer, Şahin, & particularly important especially during the COVID-19 pandemic. The
Sönmezgöz, 2018). The present study also found that PIU was higher results from the study may assist mental health professionals in their
among those not engaging in household chores. Not engaging in clinical practice, particularly in the care of patients who are addicted to
household chores during countrywide lockdown and home quarantine is the internet. In addition, the findings of the present study may help
likely to have contributed to a more sedentary lifestyle and using the policymakers to identify target groups of problematic internet users and
internet for activities such as social media use and online gaming which help in the design of intervention programs to prevent excessive internet
may have contributed to PIU. use. Furthermore, suitable preventive measures such as educating stu­
More specifically, the regression analysis showed that those who dents, and the general public about safe internet use are needed, as well
used the internet for greater amounts of time was not associated with as counseling for those individuals already addicted to the internet.
PIU (as has been found in prior Bangladeshi studies [e.g., Hassan et al.,
2020, Mamun, Hossain, et al., 2019; Mamun, Rafi, et al., 2019] and CRediT authorship contribution statement
elsewhere globally) but with specific types of online activity (i.e., online
gaming, social media use) in the present study, and as found in a pre­ Md. Saiful Islam: Conceptualization, Methodology, Investigation,
vious Bangladeshi study (Mamun et al., 2020). These activities are likely Data curation, Formal analysis, Writing - original draft, Validation. Md.
to have been even more prevalent during lockdown and quarantine Safaet Hossain Sujan: Writing - original draft, Validation. Rafia Tas­
(Király et al., 2020). The lack of regulation of internet use by individuals nim: Writing - original draft, Validation. Most. Zannatul Ferdous:
is significantly associated with PIU (Bruno et al., 2014). Online partic­ Conceptualization, Supervision, Validation. Jakir Hossain Bhuiyan
ipation in these activities is often used as a tool to reduce individuals’’ Masud: Validation. Sourav Kundu: Validation. Abu Syed Md.
social alienation, isolation, and loneliness. Mosaddek: Validation. M. Shahabuddin K. Choudhuri: Validation.
The present study is in line with previous Bangladeshi studies Kagan Kircaburun: Validation, Formal analysis, Writing - original
showing that online communication, social media use, and using draft. Mark D. Griffiths: Writing - original draft, Editing, Supervision,
internet for recreation purposes are related to PIU (Mamun et al., 2020; Validation.

6
Md.S. Islam et al. Addictive Behaviors Reports 12 (2020) 100311

Declaration of Competing Interest Ceyhan, A. (2011). University students’ problematic internet use and communication
skills according to the internet use purposes. Kuram ve Uygulamada Egitim Bilimleri,
11, 69–77.
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial Chandrima, R. M., Kircaburun, K., Kabir, H., Riaz, B. K., Kuss, D. J., Griffiths, M. D., &
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence Mamun, M. A. (2020). Adolescent problematic internet use and parental mediation:
the work reported in this paper. A Bangladeshi structured interview study. Addictive Behaviors Reports, 12, Article
100288. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.abrep.2020.100288.
Cheng, C., & Li, A. Y. (2014). Internet addiction prevalence and quality of (real) life: A
Acknowledgments meta-analysis of 31 nations across seven world regions. Cyberpsychology, Behavior,
and Social Networking, 17(12), 755–760. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2014.0317.
Choi, J., & Lee, J. K. (2015). Investigating the effects of news sharing and political
Firstly, the authors would like to express the most profound gratitude interest on social media network heterogeneity. Computers in Human Behavior, 44,
to all of the participants who participated in this study voluntarily and 258–266. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2014.11.029.
spontaneously. Secondly, the authors would like to express the heartiest Feng, Y., Ma, Y., & Zhong, Q. (2019). The relationship between adolescents’ stress and
internet addiction: A mediated-moderation model. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 2248.
gratitude to all members of the Youth Research Association for their https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02248.
voluntary contributions during the data collection period by sharing the Ferdous, M. Z., Islam, M. S., Sikder, M. T., Mosaddek, A. S. M., Zegarra-Valdivia, J. A., &
survey link in various online platforms (see responsible individuals: Gozal, D. (2020). Knowledge, attitude, and practice regarding COVID-19 outbreak in
Bangladeshi people: An online-based cross-sectional study. PLOS ONE, 15(10),
Supplementary material or https://cutt.ly/acknowledgments). Article e0239254. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0239254.
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