Socio-Economics and Environmental Impact Studies Due To Mining at Bellary-Hospet Sector
Socio-Economics and Environmental Impact Studies Due To Mining at Bellary-Hospet Sector
Thesis
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
Thesis
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
Thesis Submitted
By
Surathkal for the award of the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Mining Engineering is a
bonafide report of the research work carried out by me. The material contained in this
research thesis has not been submitted to any University or Institution for the award of any
degree.
Date:
CERTIFICATE
Research Guide(s)
Chairman-DRPC
(Signature with Date and seal)
DEDICATED
TO
This thesis is the end of my journey in obtaining my Ph.D. I have not travelled in a vacuum in
this journey. This thesis has been kept on track and been seen through to completion with the
support and encouragement of numerous people including my well wishers, my friends,
colleagues and my family members. At the end of this journey, I would like to thank all those
people who made this thesis possible and an unforgettable experience for me. At the end of
my thesis, it is a pleasant task to express my thanks to all those who have contributed in many
ways to the success of this study and made it an unforgettable experience for me.
Teachers, ….they challenge you to grown, help you to learn new skills and facts you ought
to know, they know just what you need to find success in all you do – some teachers make a
difference, teachers just like whom I had during this endeavor. At this moment of
accomplishment, I would like to express my deep sense of gratitude to my Research Guide
Dr-Ing. Y.V. Rao, Professor, Department of Mining Engineering, NITK, Surathkal, whose
expertise, understanding, and patience, encouragement has added considerably to my
experience. I appreciate his vast knowledge and skill in many areas (e.g., vision, aging, ethics,
interaction with participants), and his assistance in writing, which have on occasion made me
"GREEN" with envy.
I wish to express my deep sense of gratitude to my Internal Guide, Dr. Ch. S. N. Murthy,
Professor, Department of Mining Engineering, NITK, Surathkal, for his able guidance and
useful suggestions, which helped me in completing this thesis, in time.
iii
I would like to thank the members of my DRPC committee members Dr. M.B. Saidutta,
Professor & Head, Department of Chemical Engineering & Dr. M.N. Srihari, Professor,
Department of Civil Engineering, NITK, Surathkal for the assistance/guidance they provided
at all levels of the research project.
At times, our own light goes out and is rekindles by a spark from another person, I further
express my deep gratitude to Dr. D.R. Ravi, Deputy Environmental Officer, Karnataka State
Pollution Control Board, for his precious guidance and in valuable help throughout the thesis
including the help/guidance extended during the preparation of the report. He provided me
with direction, technical support and became more of a mentor and friend. It was though his,
persistence, understanding, kindness that I completed this journey and was encouraged to
take this task. I doubt that I will ever be able to convey my appreciation fully, but I owe him
my eternal gratitude.
I am extremely thankful to Mr. C. D. Prabhakar Reddy, Chief Executive and staff of M/s.
Transit Surveys, Bellary, Sri. H. K. Anand, Scientific Officer, Department of Ecology,
Environment & Forest, Government of Karnataka, and Sri. Shreekant. R.L Department of
Mining, NITK, Surtkal for their continual encouragement and support.
I further remember the cooperation and the support extended by Mr. Kantharaj K, Director,
Geology & Mining Planning and other Colleagues of M/s. METAMORPHOSIS for
completing this endeavor- which is tough in its own way.
Very special thanks to Dr. V. R. Sastry, Dr. Harsha Vardhan, Dr. K. Ramachandar and
Sri. Chandrahas Rai, Department of Mining Engineering, Prof. D. Venkat Reddy,
Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, NITK, Surathkal, for their continual
encouragement, support and cooperation during this process and to the office staff for all the
instances in which their assistance helped me along the way.
I would also like to thank my family, especially the contribution and support by my wife
Mrs. K. S. Sreelekha & my lovely daughter Prakruti Shanth for the support they provided
me through out my entire life and in particular, I must acknowledge my wife and best friend,
without whose love, encouragement and assistance, I would not have finished this thesis.
iv
In conclusion, I recognize that this research would not have been possible without the
assistance of the field staff of METAMORPHOSIS and express my gratitude to those
agencies.
Last but not the least, I would like to pay high regards and encouragement by my beloved
brother Sri T. Ramachandrappa, Smt. Shashirekha, mother-in-law and other family
members including Mrs. M.S Poornima, for a source of inspiration throughout my research
work and lifting me uphill to this phase of life, I owe everything to them.
v
ABSTRACT
The Earth’s natural ecosystem is the fundamental part of our life-support system and is the
basis for providing marketable goods to human and other living organisms. The Economic
activity and the environment are inter-related, as all the economic activities are performed on
the goods supplied by natural environment. The degradation of the environment relates to an
interface between the goods and services that are provided directly or indirectly by the
environment to the economy.
The natural environment has always been exploited to fulfill human needs. The green
revolution and industrial revolution has caused serious threat to sustainable development of
both developed and developing countries. The urge of attaining rapid industrialization and the
immediate transfer of benefits to local communities subdued environmental concerns of
sustainable development. These inturn have led to the degradation of air, water and land,
directly affecting the livelihood and human health.
The environmental damage increases, as the economic activity increases, in view of the fact
that the association between economy and the environment are multiple, complex and
important. The identification and quantification of socio economic impact of environmental
pollution caused due to increased mining activity is necessary in the broader economic
analysis. The assessment of their monitory and non-monitory impacts helps in measuring
benefits and costs of various production alternatives. The effect of pollution due to mining
activity shall be quantified as a part of environmental assessment. They are included in the
economic analysis as project cost to prevent the overall impact on the human being.
There are various legislative measures and standards were put in place, with reference to the
mining operations. Therefore present study was envisaged with the objective to identify and
evaluate the impacts of mining activity on Social, Economical and Environmental Aspects of
the area, to formulate suitable matrix for the measurable parameters with reference to iron ore
mines and to develop a management tool for the existing operating mines in the study area.
vi
The data collected on the ambient air quality in the selected stations of study area reveals that
increase in iron ore production has significantly contributed for deterioration of air quality
combing with the transportation of ore without dust containment measures. The analysis has
revealed that SPM concentration has reached as high as 310 µg/nm3 whereas RSPM has 160
µg/nm3, which is five times higher than the AAQM standards.
The detailed data collected on socio-demographic status of the study villages reveals that the
villages have lacuna in terms of having basic facilities like hospitals, schools, community
centers, training centers etc, which contributes for up-liftment of living standards of the
people. The study has also revealed that the respondents have incurred high “out of pocket”
expenditure towards treatment for the diseases which are induce due to exposure for
environmental pollutants either in the working mine leases or during transportation. This
health cost is high in the study area of Siddapura and Jaisinghpur due to more number of
leases vis-à-vis increase in workers working in these mines. The health data collected from
the respondents have revealed, significantly more number of respondents are suffering from
dust allergy, skin allergy in the study area, where there are mines and are working as workers
in those mines, contributing for higher health cost incurred through treatment.
The analysis of environmental management model suggests that the mining companies to
implement effectively the principles of systematic & scientific method of mining adopting
technical and biological reclamation techniques such as engineering measures viz-a.viz
construction of scientifically designed soil erosion control measures.
vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE SHEET
DECLARATION
CERTIFICATE
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ii
ABSTRACT vi
LIST OF FIGURES xv
ABBREVIATIONS xvii
CHAPTER - 1: INTRODUCTION 1
1.0 Introduction 2
viii
1.5.1 Impact on Land 15
1.5.2 Impact on Ecology 16
1.5.3 Impacts on Water Regime 17
1.5.4 Impact on Air Quality 18
1.5.5 Impact on Ambient Noise 18
1.5.6 Water Pollution 19
1.5.7 Solid Waste Generation from Mines 19
1.5.7.1 Top Soil 19
1.5.7.2 Mining Waste/ Rejects 19
1.5.7.3 Tailings from Ore Processing Plant 20
1.5.7.4 Waste from Service Facilities 20
1.6 Description of the Study Area 20
1.7 Objectives of the Present Research Work 24
1.8 Methodology of the Present Study 24
1.9 Limitations of the Study 25
1.10 Chapter Scheme of the Thesis 26
x
CHAPTER - 4: RESULTS & DISCUSSION
4.0 General 94
4.1 Variation of Air Pollutants with the Iron Ore Production 96
4.2 Socio-demographic Profile of the Household 98
PUBLISHCATIONS 139
ABOUT THE AUTHOR 142
xi
LIST OF TABLES
xii
3.19 Status of Ground Water Quality 70
3.20 Soil Quality Characteristics 71
3.21 Details of Noise Level 72
3.22 General Socio-demographic & Environmental Characteristics 73
(Source: Census & IMD)
3.23 Existing Operating Mines 74
3.24 Month-wise production details since from 2002-2008 74
3.25 Status of Surface Water Quality 76
3.26 Status of Ground Water Quality 77
3.27 Soil Quality Characteristics 78
3.28 Details of Noise Level 78
3.29 General Socio-demographic & Environmental Characteristics 79
(Source: Census & IMD)
3.30 Status of Ground Water Quality 82
3.31 Soil Quality Characteristics 83
3.32 Details of Noise Level 83
3.33 Major Crops in the Study Area 84
3.34 The Weeds, Shrubs, Under-shrubs, Climbers and Hedge 85
Plants
3.35 List of Trees Growing in the Village Agro-system in the 86
Study Area
3.36 Plants in Open Scrub Found in the Study Area. 87
3.37 Checklist of Plant Species Found in the Reserve Forests 89
3.38 Wild life Generally Found in the Forest Area. 90
3.39 Bird Species that are Generally Found in the Study Area. 91
4.1 Methodology Adopted for Sample Collection and its Analysis 96
4.2 Village Wise Characteristics 99
4.3 Educational Status of the Study Area in Percentage (N=30 in 100
each Village)
4.4 Occupational Profile of the Study Area in Percentage (N=30 101
in each Village)
4.5 Average Household Expenditure in the Study Area (in Rs) 103
4.6 Source of Income of Household in Different Villages of the 105
xiii
Study Area
4.7 The Status of the Household, Energy for Cooking and the 106
Bath
4.8 Health Status of the Respondents in the Study Area 107
4.9 The Relationship between Health Status and the Time Spent 108
4.10 Doctor’s Visit by the Respondents Since Last One Year 108
4.11 Number of Heath Care Facilities Available in the Study Area 109
4.12 Treatment Cost Incurred by the Respondents in Jaisingpur 110
Village
4.13 Treatment Cost Incurred by the Respondents in PK Halli 110
Village
4.14 Treatment Cost Incurred by the Respondents in Joga Village 111
4.15 Treatment Cost Incurred by the Eespondents in Siddapur 112
Village
4.16 Treatment Cost Incurred by the Respondents in Vaddarahalli 112
Village –Reference Village
4.17 Total Additional Economic Cost Incurred by the Respondents 113
xiv
LIST OF FIGURES
xv
3.14 Pollutant Concentration in Vaddarahalli Village during 80
Summer
3.15 Pollutant Concentration in Vaddarahalli Village during 81
Post-Monsoon
3.16 Pollutant Concentration in Vaddarahalli Village during 81
Winter
4.1 Variation of Air Pollution with respect to Iron Ore 96
Production in Jaisingpur Village
4.2 Variation of Air Pollution with respect to Iron Ore 97
Production in Papinayakana Halli Village
4.3 Variation of Air Pollution with Respect to Iron Ore 97
Production in Siddapur Village
4.4 Variation of Air Pollution with Respect to Iron Ore 98
Production in Joga Village
4.5 Educational Status of the Study and the Reference 101
Village
4.6 Occupational Profile of the Respondents in the Study 102
and the Reference Village
4.7 Average Monthly Income of the Respondents in 103
Percentage
4.8 House Hold Expenditure in the Study Area 105
4.9 Frequency of Doctor’s Visit by Diseased Respondents 109
xvi
ABBREVIATIONS
xvii
OB: Over Burden
OMS: Output per Man per Shift
OPP: Ore Processing Plant
PM: Particulate Matter
PPV: Peak Particle Velocity
RF: Reserve Forest
R&D: Research & Development
R&R: Rehabilitation and Resettlement
PAPs: Project Affected People
PPV: Peak Particle Velocity
QII: Qualitative Impact Index
RDS: Respirable Dust Samplers
ROM: Run Off Mines
RPM: Respirable Particulate Matter
SI: Severity Index
SPM: Suspended Particulate Matter
SPCB: State Pollution Control Boards
SO2: Sulphur di Oxide
TPD: Tones Per Day
TERI: Tata Energy Research Institute
TDS: Total Dissolved Solids
URTI: Upper Respiratory Tract Infection
WHO: World Health Organization, 2005
WTP: Willingness To Pay
xviii
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The Earth’s natural ecosystem is the fundamental part of our life-support system and is the
basis for providing marketable goods to human and other living organisms. Natural
Ecosystems are productive engines of this planet and they sustain us by providing essential
functions like air and water purification, climate control, nutrient cycling, and soil production
/conservation and etc. In every respect, the human development and human survival, is
closely associated with systematic productivity of natural ecosystems.
The Economic activity and the environment are inter-related, as all the economic activities
are performed on the goods supplied by natural environment. The degradation of the
environment relates to an interface between the goods and services that are provided directly
or indirectly by the environment to the economy. Hence, it is necessary to regulate the
economic activity, so that the balance is achieved among the environment, economy and the
other social goods (Karpagam, 1991).
The natural environment has always been exploited to fulfill human needs, but during this
century, the scale of demand has grown so large, that earth’s ecosystem has degraded and
gets damaged. During the past hundred years, the natural environment has prone the stresses
imposed by a population explosion and growth in world economic output. With world’s
population projected to increase by 9 billion during 2050, from the current 6 billion, the
potential for doing irreparable environmental damage is obvious.
Green Revolution and industrial revolution has caused serious threat to sustainable
development of both developed and developing countries. Modern industries have extracted
natural resources as raw materials for their production process. These processes have also
extracted energy from the environment. Such production process have resulted in discharge
of large quantity of wastes into the environment in the form of air toxicants, waste water,
hazardous waste etc. the extraction of raw materials from the ecosystem and the emissions of
pollutants causes severe threats to the natural environment and reduces the quality of human
life. The urge of attaining rapid industrialization and the immediate transfer of benefits to
local communities subdued environmental concerns of sustainable development. These inturn
have led to the degradation of air, water and land, directly affecting the livelihood and human
health. Impacts are categorized in terms of human health, human welfare (i.e gains or losses
2
apart from those associated with health), including environmental viz ecological
consequences like extinct of animal species, loss of biodiversity and climate change, acid rain
etc (Asian Development Bank, 1996, Freeman M III, (1979),PP18-23).
The environmental damage increases as the economic activity increases, in view of the fact
that the association between economy and the environment are multiple, complex and
important. Earlier, the economic activity and economic development were considered in
isolation with the natural environment. However, it is affected by the human induced changes
due to the indiscriminate discharge of different pollutants in to the environment
(Bhattacharya, 2001).
The Minerals are valuable natural resources and are finite and non-renewable. They
constitute the vital raw materials for many industries and are a major resource for
development. Management of mineral resources has, therefore, to be closely integrated with
the overall strategy of development. Controlled exploitation of minerals is to be guided by
long-term national goals and perspectives.
3
India is the leading producer of some of the minerals with diverse and significant mineral
resources. Of the 89 minerals produced in the country, 4 are fuel minerals, 11 metallic, 52
non-metallic and 22 minor minerals. India is the largest producer of mica blocks and mica
splitting and ranks third in the production of coal and lignite, barytes and chromite, fourth in
the iron ore, sixth in bauxite and manganese ore, tenth in aluminium and eleventh in crude
steel. Iron-ore, copper-ore, chromite ore, zinc concentrates, gold, manganese ore, bauxite,
lead concentrates, and silver account for the entire metallic production. Limestone,
magnesite, dolomite, barytes, kaolin, gypsum, apatite, steatite and fluorite account for 92
percent of non-metallic minerals.
The mineral wealth of India, comprises an adequate range of useful products that are
necessary for the industrial development of the country and they constitute one-quarter of the
world's known mineral resources. The reserves of coal and iron ore are ample, the country is
deficient in respect of vital minerals like ores of copper, tin, lead, zinc, nickel, cobalt, sulphur
and petroleum. The minerals like aluminum, refractoriness, abrasives, limestone etc is fairly
adequate and the country has considerable reserves of minerals like titanium and thorium and
mica.
India possesses large quantities of high grade iron ore for the development of heavy industry.
About two-thirds of its iron ore deposits lie in a belt along Orissa and Jharkhand border.
Other hematite deposits are found in Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra and Goa.
Magnetite iron-ore is found in Tamil Nadu, Jharkhand and Himachal Pradesh.
Until recently, mineral exploration and their utilization in the country received little attention.
Except for coal, iron ore and petroleum, the majority of minerals were extracted for the
purpose of bulk export without any dressing, processing and fabrication. These exports
brought small return to the country. Nearly a hundred minerals are produced or mined in
India, of which nearly 30 may be considered as important and are capable of material
development in future with the expansion of industries.
The minerals constitute the back-bone of economic growth of any nation. The extraction of
minerals like coal, iron-ore, copper, lead-zinc has been going on in India from time
immemorial. The GDP contribution of the mining industry varies from 2.2 percent to 2.5
percent only, but going by the GDP of the total industrial sector, it contributes around 10 to
11 percent. The Indian Mining Industry provides job opportunities to around 700,000
4
individuals. However, the first recorded history of mining in India dates back to
1774 when English Company was granted permission by the East India Company for mining
coal in Raniganj. Thereafter, with progressive industrialization, the demand for minerals has
increased constantly and hence the production of various minerals gradually went up. After
India became independent, the growth of mining under the impact of successive Five Year
Plans has been very fast. There are ambitious plans in coal, metalliferous and oil sectors
to increase production of minerals during the 8th Five Year Plan and thereafter.
In India, over the years, a national mineral policy has evolved. The policy addressed certain
new aspects and elements like mineral exploration in the sea-bed, development of proper
inventory, proper linkage between exploitation of minerals and development of mineral
industry, protection of forests environment and ecology from the adverse effects of mining,
enforcement of mining plan for adoption of proper mining methods and optimum utilization
of minerals, export of minerals in value-added form and recycling of metallic scrap and
mineral waste.
The Mines and Minerals (Regulation and Development) Act, 1957 lays down the legal
framework for the regulation of mines and development of all minerals other than petroleum
and natural gas. The Central Government has framed the Mineral Concession Rules, 1960 for
regulating grant of licences and mining leases in respect of all minerals other than atomic
minerals and minor minerals. The State Governments have framed the rules with regard to
minor minerals. The Central Government has also framed the Mineral Conservation and
Development Rules, 1988 for conservation and systematic development of minerals. These
are applicable to all minerals except coal, atomic minerals and minor minerals.
The Hematite and magnetite are the most prominent of the iron ores found in India. Of these,
haematite is considered to be the most important Iron ore because of its high grade quality
and is used in a number of steel and sponge iron industries. Indian deposits of haematite
belong to pre-Cambrian iron ore series and the ore is within banded iron ore formations
occurring as massive, laminated, friable and also in powdery form. The major deposits of iron
ore are located in Jharkhand, Orissa, Chattisgarh, Karnataka and Goa States.
5
1.2.1 Haematite
Haematite is the most abundant iron ore and is the main constituent of iron & steel industry.
It occurs in a variety of geological conditions throughout the world. It is the red oxide
crystallizing in hexagonal system. The fine-grained haematite is deep red, bluish red, or
brownish red and may be soft and earthy ocherous, compact or highly porous to friable, or
granular, or may form dense hard lumps. Considerable siliceous or argillaceous impurities are
common. Fine-grained red haematite may occur in smooth reinform masses in botryoidal or
stalacitic shapes, or may be columnar, fibrous, radiating or platy etc. The coarse crystalline
haematite is steel grey with bright metallic to dull grey lustre and occasionally, coarse
crystals have a deep bluish to purplish iridescent surface. The coarse-grained haematite is
known as specularite or specular haematite and may form blocky or platy crystals with a
strong icaceous parting. The cherry red streak is difficult to observe on this variety. The
composition of haematite is Fe2O3. Ideally, haematite contains 69.94 percent iron and 30.06
percent oxygen.
The specific gravity varies from 4.9 to 5.3 (when it is pure, i.e. 69.9 percent Fe2O3) but the
ores in the field generally have less specific gravity. The hardness varies from 5.5 to 6.5 for
hard ore and is much less for softer varieties. Haematite is feebly magnetic, but a variety
termed magnetite is found in many ore bodies in small quantities having magnetic properties
closely akin to those of magnetite. The iron content of the ore and physical characteristics
vary from place to place in different types of ores. The characteristic of the iron ore with its
iron content and in bulk densities / tonnage factors mined in some important regions of India
is given in the Table 1.1 below.
Bulk density/tonnage
Sr. No. Type of ore Iron Content
factor (ton/m3)
1. Singbhum-Keonjhar-Bonai Deposits
Massive Ore 65 - 69.9 % 4.5 - 5
Laminated Ore 55 – 65 % 3.5 – 4.8
Blue Dust 65 % 3.3 – 3.4
Laterite Ore 52 % 2.3
2 Goan Deposits
Massive bedded Ore 59 – 62 % 3 – 3.4
Platy Ore 58 – 62 % 3 – 3.2
Brecciated Ore 56 – 62 % 2.8 – 3.2
6
Bulk density/tonnage
Sr. No. Type of ore Iron Content
factor (ton/m3)
Mixed Ore 45 – 59 % 2.5 – 3.0
Biscuity Ore 59 – 65 % 2.9 – 3.1
Concretionary Ore 57 – 62 % 3.1 – 3.4
Laterite 40 – 50 % 2.3 – 3.3
Blue Dust or Powdery Ore 58 – 66 % 2.8 – 3.0
Bellary – Hospet Depositsa
Lumpy Ore (Massive & 67 – 69 % 3 – 3.5
Laminated)
Blue Dust Average 65 % 3.8
Bailadila Deposits
Massive Ore and Massive & 67 – 68.26 % 4.69 – 5.11
Laminated
Laminated Ore 63.47 % 3.4 – 4.19
Laterite Ore 47.46 % 3.46 – 3.65
1.2.2 Magnetite
It is the most common species in the magnetite series and is the second most important iron
mineral of economic importance. It is black magnetic oxide of iron crystallizing in the
isometric system and has hardness of 5.5 to 6.5. Its specific gravity is 5.17 and magnetic
attractability 40.18 compared to 100 for pure iron. It occurs as fine or coarse grained masses
or in octahedral or less commonly decahedral crystals. It occurs as veins and stringers in
igneous rocks and as lenses in crystalline schist. Large deposits are considered to be the
results of magnetic segregation and its low grade deposits occur as disseminations in
metamorphic and igneous rocks. It also occurs as a replacement product in sedimentary or
metamorphic rocks. It is found as placer deposits as “black sand” in beach deposits and as
banded layers in metamorphic and igneous rocks.
These minerals are hydrated oxide of iron, forming a part of the complex group in which
proportion of the various radicals can undergo considerable variations. Their colour is brown
to ocherous yellow, but may be black or dark brown to reddish brown and they are often
called “brown iron ores”. Their specific gravity varies from 3.3 to 4.3 and hardness is 5.5.
They may contain 10 to 14.5 percent combined water and are converted into haematite or
magnetite on calcinations. These are secondary minerals, being the product of alteration, they
occur as thick cappings formed by weathering and hydration of the underlying ore body.
When silica is leached out, iron content improves by 10 to 15 percent. These minerals form
7
flakes and needles generally of small dimensions occurring as inter growths with the original
constituents.
1.2.4 Siderites
Siderite, also called “spathic ore”, is a carbonate of iron. Its colour is ash grey to brown with
yellow and red stains resulting from oxidation and hydration. Its specific gravity is 3.8 and
hardness varies from 3.5 to 4. It crystallizes under rhombohedral division of the hexagonal
system. It occurs as sedimentary or replacement deposits.
The Mining techniques can be divided into surface mining (or manual mining) and sub-
surface (underground) mining (or mechanized mining). Surface mining is more common, and
produces 98 percent of metallic ores. Processing of placer ore material consists of gravity-
dependent methods of separation, such as sluice boxes. Only minor shaking or washing may
be necessary to disaggregate (unclump) the sands or gravels before processing. Processing of
ore from a lode mine, whether it is a surface or subsurface mine, requires that the rock ore be
crushed and pulverized before extraction of the valuable minerals begins. After lode ore is
crushed, recovery of the valuable minerals is done by one, or a combination of several,
mechanical and chemical techniques.
1.3.1 Surface or Manual Mines: consists of digging tunnels or shafts into the earth to reach
buried ore deposits. Ore, for processing, and waste rock, for disposal, are brought to the
surface through the tunnels and shafts. Sub-surface mining can be classified by the type of
access shafts used, the extraction method or the technique used to reach the mineral deposit.
Drift mining utilizes horizontal access tunnels, slope mining uses diagonally sloping access
shafts and shaft mining consists of vertical access shafts. Mining in hard and soft rock
formations require different techniques.
Other methods include shrinkage stope mining, which is mining upward creating a sloping
underground room, long wall mining which is grinding a long ore surface underground room
and pillar for removing ore from rooms, while leaving pillars in place to support the roof of
the room. Room and pillar mining often leads to retreat mining i.e removing the pillars which
support rooms, allowing the room to cave in, loosening more ore. Additional sub-surface
8
mining methods include hard rock mining which is mining of hard materials, bore hole
mining, drift and fill mining, long hole slope mining, sub level caving and block caving.
This method of mining is generally confined to float ores. Mining of reef ore is also being
done manually on a small scale. The float ore area is dug - up manually with picks, crowbars
and spades, and the material are manually screened to separate + 10 mm float ore, which is
then stacked up. The waste is dumped back into the pits. Generally, the recovery of float ore
ranges from 30 to 50 percent or at times even more. As regards to reef ore workings, holes of
0.6 m deep and 35 - 40 mm diameter are drilled with hand-held Jackhammers with a spacing
of about 0.6m and each hole is charged with 150 - 200 g gunpowder or special gelatine
cartridges. Usually Jackhammer drills are operated with the help of portable air compressors.
The quantity of ore removed per kg of gunpowder is 2.5 - 3 tones. The blasted ore is
manually loaded into trucks for transportation. Cost of mining and OMS (output per man per
shift) varies from mine to mine. Presently, OMS in manual iron ore mines for producing 10 -
30 mm lump is about 1.5 - 2.0 tones. This method of mining is prevalent in the two important
zones of the Indian iron ore sector namely, Barajamda (Bihar & Orissa) and Bellary – Hospet
(Karnataka). Establishment of centralized crushing & screening plants will not only increases
the production from manual mines, but also helps in optimal utilization of resources.
In this method, the mining of ore / overburden is carried out by shovel-dumper combination.
The mining is invariably done by systematic formation of benches by drilling and blasting.
The loading operations are also fully mechanized and transportation is facilitated by
maintaining mine haul roads. Further, ore handling, washing and screening operations are
mechanized. The degree of mechanization and the size of the machinery vary with the
material required to be handled by the mines.
9
Generally in iron ore mines, the benching will be started from top of the hill and as the ore at
the top gets exhausted, it is carried downwards,. Except in uniform deposits, if the direction
of the bench is along the strike of the beds, it encounters different beds of ores as the working
face advances, resulting in considerable fluctuations in the grade, unless many benches are
worked simultaneously at different depths. This, in turn, requires a large number of smaller
machines which create their own problems of supervision, maintenance, etc. It is therefore,
commonly preferred to open - up benches, so that more uniform grade of the ore is produced.
The height of the benches depends on several factors, such as output requirement, shape, size
and depth of occurrence of ore, geological disturbances, hardness and compactness of ore,
type and size of the machinery proposed to be deployed, availability of finances, etc. The
bench height generally adopted in fully mechanized mines varies between 8 and 14 m. The
length of the face is also dependent on various factors, such as contours of deposit, output
required, variation in grade and blending requirements, capacity of loading machinery, etc.
and varies between wide limits from as small as 60 m to as large as 400 m. The width of the
bench is governed by the size of the largest machinery deployed and varies, i.e. three times of
the width of the dumper.
As an universal practice, iron ore is dislodged by drilling blast holes according to a particular
pattern which depends on the bench height, the hole diameter, the drilling machinery
deployed, nature of rock and the types of explosives used. These blast holes are vertical, but
can be inclined for obtaining better blasting results. The rotary drill is used normally in the
size from 150 to 250 mm. Thus, the depth and diameter of the holes allow expanded drilling
patterns in general and help in reducing generation of fines in softer ores. On the other hand,
in hard ores or in strata where the hard bands are present, they can give poor fragmentation
and toe formation. The poor fragmentation leads to lower rate of loading and increased wear
and tear on the loading machinery. Investigations by comparing the performance with 100
mm and 50 mm diameter blast holes, have shown that the digging rate of the shovels was 50
percent higher with small diameter blast holes. Drilling with 150 mm diameter blast holes has
been the common practice in Indian iron ore mines. But higher rate of production makes the
incumbent to adopt greater bench heights and larger diameter holes. The greater bench
heights permit the use of large shovels, which in turn can handle larger boulders and permit
larger spacing and burdens. All the drills are equipped with dry dust extraction system or wet
drilling arrangements, sound proof cabin, dust hood at the collar of the hole to prevent air
10
pollution due to drilling in the major iron ore mechanized mines in India. However, in
Bellary – Hospet of Karnataka, the wet drilling practice is absent as the rainfall is less than
750 mm per annum and there is a scarcity of water.
As mechanized open cast iron ore mines becoming larger, deeper and more capital intensive,
continuing efforts are being made to improve upon the open cast mining activities through
advances in the equipment size/ design and practices and also through introduction of
innovative techniques. Significant results have been achieved through increasing size of
stripping and hauling units, which apparently has reached a plateau, efforts on further
improvements are being spear headed through new concepts in equipment utilization by
restoring to automation and control. The application of high capacity continuous surface
mining techniques to harder formations, new concept of high angle belt conveying system,
in-pit crushing systems (mobile and semi-mobiles), high capacity dumpers, automatic truck
dispatch system, non-electric blast initiation systems etc. and developments in the area of
bulk explosive systems hold out almost unlimited opportunities for upgrading the
performance of opencast iron ore mining in India.
The reserves of high grade iron ore are limited. Therefore, it would be necessary at this stage
to ensure conservation of high grade ore by blending with low grade ores. As a matter of
policy, only low and medium grade iron ore, fines and temporary surplus high grade iron ore
(+67 % Fe) need to be exported. The R&D efforts are needed for developing necessary
technologies for utilizing more and more fines in the production of steel as a measure of
conservation of iron ores. With the present high capacity of iron ore mines, total utilization of
iron ore has become the need of the hour so as to obtain maximum returns. In most of the
mechanized mines more than 50 to 60 % fines are generated. Blue dusts in these mines are to
be fully utilized to make different value added products. Blue dust can also be used as
additive in concentration of iron ore fines to the extent of 20-40 % for use in steel plants.
Further, in the iron ore mines where wet processing of the ore is done, around 10-20 % of
ROM is lost as slime, depending on the nature of ore feeds and in this context, coarse fines
can be recovered up to 5 % by introducing hydro-cycloning and slow speed classifiers in wet
circuit system, even though, the Fe content of such fines will be slightly low which can be
blended.
11
1.4 SOCIO- ECONOMIC IMPACTS OF MINING
The mining operation is a short-term activity with long-term effects. As most of the mine
lease area is situated in the forest land, carrying out mining activity in this area causes forest
degradation. It is estimated that, mining is threatening the existence of about 38% of the
world's primary forests. The impact of mining and associated activities on the society
assumes a great importance, as all the activities of the human beings are for the benefit of the
society. As soon as the mineral deposit is discovered and proved, and its mining potential is
established, the impacts on the society starts with the increase in the land value, increase in
the migration of people for working in the mines, establishment of mineral specific industries
and establishment of associated business etc. The mining and associated activity causes the
following impacts on the society.
1.4.1 Displacement of People: For mines, it is required to clear the surface of existing
structures along with the vegetation, not only in the area designated for mining purposes, but
also in a large area nearby which is required for making external dumps and placing
associated activities. Therefore, all the people living in this area gets displaced.
1.4.2 Loss of Livelihood: The people living in the designated areas depend generally on the
land for their livelihood. Since, the land is taken for mining in mining areas and associated
activities, the people lose their livelihood.
1.4.3 Changes in Population Dynamics: Invariably the managerial, skilled and semi-skilled
manpower required for mining and associated activities come from outside, as such trained
manpower in usually not available in ethnic population. In addition, people migrate for
business/trade come to the mining areas. Thus, the population dynamics of the area
undergoes a major change over the years resulting in dilution of the ethnic population and
their culture and religion, reduction in sex ratio etc.
1.4.4 Cost of Living: Societies dependent on agriculture and forests usually have a lower
level of economic growth. The development of industrial and other associated activities in
such areas increases the level of the economic activities manifolds. Increased industrial and
economic activities generate more money and increases the buying power of the people who
are directly and indirectly associated with these activities. This leads to an increase in the cost
of living, which adversely affects the other people, including ethnic people, who are not
associated with these activities.
12
1.4.5 Water Scarcity: Mining by open cast methods damages the water regime and thus
causes a reduction in the overall availability of water in and around the mining areas. In the
sedimentary deposit mining areas the water table and aquifers are damaged and thus the
availability of water from these sources reduces.
1.4.6 Health Impacts: Health and well being of the people living in and around the mining
area gets affected due to discharge of different pollutants in to the air and water, noise and
also due to vibrations. In fact, the society in the mining complexes has to bear the various
costs of abating environmental pollution imposing social cost. The people working in the
mines and associated industries get affected by various health problems, e.g. skin diseases,
lung diseases, deafening etc.
1.4.7 Infrastructural Facilities: The mining and associated activities in the mining areas
bring about infrastructural development, i.e. roads are constructed, schools and hospitals are
established, and communication facilities are developed etc., which tend to improve the
quality of life of the people around.
1.4.8 Employment Opportunities: The mining and associated activities offer opportunities
of employment to the ethic population. The Project Affected People (PAPs) are given jobs
and are trained for self employment as a result of the provisions in the Rehabilitation and
Resettlement (R&R) Schemes. People also get employment in the other developmental
activities and also the mineral based activities in and around the mining area.
1.4.9 Increase in Aspiration: The ethnic people of the mining area, with the advent of
mining and associated activities are exposed to various developments and this tends to
increase their aspirations. In fact, this is necessary for the overall community development in
the mining area.
13
1.5 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF IRON ORE MINING
It is recognized that minerals and metals are the mainstay of the economic development and
welfare of the society. However, their exploration, excavation and mineral processing directly
infringe upon and affect the other natural resources like land, water, air, flora and fauna,
which are to be conserved and optimally utilized in a sustainable manner. The mineral sector
in India is on the threshold of expansion with more and more open cast iron ore mines being
opened-up in different states. Under such scenario, systematic and scientific excavation of
iron ore, compatible with environment is essential for survival of our future generation.
Mining is site specific activity, excavation is bound to be done at a place where mineral
actually exist. Hence, the mining changes the land use pattern of the area and becomes
redundant once mineral is exhausted completely. In the process, mining affects all the
components of environment and the impact are permanent /temporary, beneficial/harmful,
repairable/irreparable, and reversible /irreversible. Mines especially open cast iron ore mines,
due to its own peculiarities, can cause disturbance in ecology, resulting in various pollution
problems. The environmental problems are more significant in India, as most of the iron ore
mines located on top of hills and in dense forest areas.
The environmental problems associated with the iron ore mining are diverse. The removal of
vegetation, top soil, overburden/waste and ore, brings about the inevitable natural
consequences, which manifest in many ways, deforestation, climatic change, erosion, air and
water pollution and health hazards. Iron ore mining and processing of ore, affects the
environment in myriad ways causing:
14
The magnitude and significance of these impacts on environment and ecology due to mining
depends on the size and scale of mining activity in conjunction with the topography &
climatic conditions of the area, the nature of mineral deposits, method of mining & capacity
of mines, agricultural activities in the region, forest reserves etc.
The land is required not only for the mine excavation, but also for laying approach / haul
roads, for establishment of beneficiation plant, ore handling & dispatch units, waste dumps,
tailing ponds etc. Land is also required for ancillary facilities and statutory buildings
(workshops, stores, offices, canteen, and crèche). In addition to these, residential colony and
related welfare amenities like school, hospital, shopping centre, recreation centre etc. also
require land.
The major impact on the land use during the pre-mining phase is removal of vegetation and
resettlement of displaced population. During mining and post-mining phases, drastic changes
in landscape with landform take place. The major associated impacts are soil-erosion, loss of
top soil, creation of waste dumps and voids, disposal of wastes, deforestation etc. The
impacts of iron ore mining on land are as outlined hereunder;
¾ Topography and land scenario changes due to excavation of open pits and dumping of
overburden rock mass in the form of land heaps.
¾ The land-use pattern undergoes a change due to the use of the land for mining,
dumping, and other mining and associated activities.
¾ The land-use in the surrounding areas may get affected due to the impacts of mining on
water regime.
¾ Leachates from overburden dumps and other rock masses and polluted water from the
pits affect the characteristics of the top-soil affecting the land-use.
¾ In the mines having mineral concentration/processing plants, it is required to make
tailing’s pond to store the tailings generated from the processing plants. These tailing
ponds require massive area and may cause pollution of ground and surface water
bodies, if proper care is not taken.
¾ The drainage pattern of the area undergoes a change due to the alterations in the surface
topography due to mining and associated activities.
15
It is evident from the above that the mining and associated activities can significantly change
the land use and drainage pattern of the region. These changes can be minimized by careful
planning the surface layout of the mining areas and by integrating the environmental aspects
of each and every unit operation of mining activity. Another important aspect of the land
management is the planning and design of the land reclamation Programme right from the
inception, including the development of the post mining land use planning for optimum
utilization of land in an efficient manner and for overall improvement in environmental
scenario.
The mining activities like excavation, transportation and processing of ore, disposal of
overburden & tailings etc, are posing severe threat for managing the ecology. Over the years
the large scale mining operations in the forest areas, have caused substantial impact on the
ecosystem like degradation of land, deforestation, displacement of wildlife, effect on aquatic
eco-system etc.
The major adverse impacts due to pre-mining and mining phases are loss of habitat,
biodiversity, rare flora & fauna, other aquatic life, migration of wildlife and overall disruption
of the ecology of the area. Major impacts of iron ore mining on ecology are as follows;
¾ Removal of vegetation (flora) from the area required for mining and other purposes, and
thereby displacement of fauna.
¾ Pollution of water in the surrounding water bodies due to leaching from overburden
dumps, seepage/overflow water from tailings pond and from the other activities. These
affect the aquatic ecology of surrounding water bodies.
¾ Dust in the atmosphere, contributed by mining and associated activities, when deposits on
the leaves of the plant in the surrounding area hampers the process of photosynthesis and
retards their growth.
¾ Noise and vibrations due to blasting, movement of HEMM/vehicles and operation of
fixed plants and machineries drive away the wild animals and birds from the nearby
forests.
¾ Water scarcity caused due to the impacts of opencast mining on water regime affects the
growth of vegetation and agricultural crops in and around the mines.
16
¾ Discharge of mine effluents to the nearby surface water bodies, without proper treatment
may affect vegetation in the surrounding area.
It is evident that mining and associated activities have considerable impacts on the ecology of
the mining and surrounding areas. The ecological impacts are more severe in India as most of
the iron ore mines are located in the dense forest areas and on hill tops. By proper
reclamation of mined out areas and rehabilitation of waste dumps through massive
afforestation with local saplings, the ecological impacts can be minimized.
Mining and associated activities have quantitative and qualitative impacts on the water
regime in and around the mines. These are outlined hereunder;
¾ All the surface water bodies have to be removed from the area of mining and associated
activities.
¾ All the aquifers, including the water–table aquifer, above the mineral deposit to be
extracted, gets damaged and reduces the water holding capacity.
¾ If there are high pressure aquifers below the mineral deposit, it becomes necessary to
pump the water from the aquifers to reduce the water pressure to facilitate mining.
¾ Water in the nearby water bodies gets polluted due to leaching from the overburden
dumps, discharge of pumped mine water, and other activities in the vicinity of the water
bodies.
¾ During rainy season the run off water from the areas surrounding the mines carries with
large quantity of the suspended solids into the nearby water bodies.
It is evident from the above that the mining and associated activities changes in ground water
flow patterns, lowering of water table, changes in hydrodynamic conditions of
river/underground recharge basins, reduction in volumes of subsurface discharge to water
bodies/rivers, disruption and diversion of water courses/drainages pattern, contamination of
water bodies, affecting the Yield of water from bore wells and dug wells etc. Therefore, it is
necessary to plan the mining activities in such a manner that their impacts on the water
regime are as minimum as possible.
17
1.5.4 Impact on Ambient Air Quality
The air quality in the mining areas mainly depends on the nature & concentration of
emissions and meteorological conditions. The major air pollutants from mining include:
Dusts are the single largest air pollutant observed in the iron ore mines. Diesel power
stations, diesel operating drilling machines, blasting and movement of HEMM/vehicles
produce NOx, SO2 and CO emissions, usually at low levels. Dust can be a significant
nuisance to surrounding land users and causes potential health risk. Dust is being produced
from a number of sources and through number of mechanisms such as land clearing, removal
of top soil (during opening up of new areas), removal of OB/ore, drilling, blasting, crushing
& screening, processing of ore, loading & unloading of material on site & subsequent
transport off the site etc. In addition to this, wind action affecting stockpiles, dry tailings,
exposed mining areas and waste dumps also generate significant amount of dust. Dust
emissions from these operations manly depend on moisture content of the ore and type of
control measures adopted.
The major gaseous pollutants of concern in iron ore mines are sulphur dioxide and oxides of
nitrogen. Sulphur dioxide can cause respiratory problems. Oxides of nitrogen can react in the
atmosphere with hydrocarbons to produce photo-chemical smog. In addition to this, the
sulphur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen can generate an acid rain harmful to vegetation and
materials.
Mining operations usually generate noise during different stages of mining and handling of
ores. In open cast mines, noise is due to drilling, blasting, excavation, sizing and
transportation of ores. In case of ore processing, noise is due to operations like crushing,
screening, washing, storage and dispatch of ores. These noise generating sources can be
grouped into two categories viz fixed plant and mobile plant sources. Fixed plant machineries
such as crushers, grinders, screens, conveyers, etc., generate noise & vibration. Similarly, the
18
mobile plant used on-site associated with drilling, blasting, loading, haulage or service
operations cause noise.
Water pollution from the mining operations mainly depend on topography of the area,
intensity of rainfall, type of ore, method of mining & ore processing facilities provided insitu
etc. The major impacts are water pollution from erosion of waste dumps/mining areas, oil &
grease, contamination of water bodies due to discharge of mine water/effluents, discharge of
domestic sewage, and sedimentation of rivers and other stored water bodies, solid waste
disposal sites, etc. The following are the major sources of water pollution from the Iron Ore
Mines.
The solid wastes generated from the mining operations are topsoil, over burden & inter
burden, tailings from ore processing and wastes generated from the maintenance and repair of
the HEMM and light vehicles. The wastes generated from the mines and associated activities
have been classified into following categories:
¾ Top Soil.
¾ Waste / Rejects.
¾ Tailings from Ore Processing Plant.
¾ Wastes from Service Facilities.
1.5.7.1 Top Soil: In the mining areas, after clearing the vegetation, the top soil (generally up
to 30 cm thickness) is generally stripped and stacked separately. The top soil is vastly
superior in quality and contains plant nutrients, microbes and humus, which can be used for
stabilization / rehabilitation of waste dumps and reclamation of mined out areas.
19
1.5.7.2 Mining Wastes/Rejects: As a measure of quality control, generally a cut-off point for
iron ore (i.e Fe content) is fixed depending on the type of ore, to ensure ROM feed of
acceptable quality to the Ore Processing and handling Plants. All the ores having Fe below
cut off point are classified as waste/rejects/sub-grade material, and mined out separately and
dumped in designated waste dump areas, keeping in view of the future use.
1.5.7.3 Tailings from Ore Processing Plant: The iron ore extracted from the mines are
beneficiated to separate out the valuable mineral content. The prime function of beneficiation
of iron ore is to improve the Fe content and to decrease the Alumina / Silica ratio for smooth
Blast Furnace operations. The left over residue of the iron ore after the beneficiation in the
state of fine particles is mixed with water in a slurry form, known as tailings and are needed
to be disposed of in the tailings pond for containment. The disposal of tailings is a major
environmental problem, which is becoming more serious with increasing extraction of lower
grade deposits. The tailings are usually transported and deposited into a massive pond for
containment, which are generally called as tailing ponds / tailing dams.
1.5.7.4 Wastes from Service Facilities: There are three types of wastes, being generated
from the service centers viz, metallic, non-metallic and oil contaminated wastes. The metallic
wastes generated in the workshops mainly iron & steel scrap, are collected & stored and sold.
The nonmetallic saleable wastes like, tyres, tubes etc. are also stored separately and sold. The
oil contaminated wastes like waste cotton, oily muck oil filters etc., are categorized as
hazardous wastes. In some of the big mines, secured hazardous waste landfills are provided
for disposal of these wastes. In most of the mines these are being dumped or burned.
The Bellary district in Karnataka lies between North Latitude 140 30’ and 150 50’ and East
Longitude 750 40’ and 770 11’. The mineral bearing area lies in Bellary district, Karnataka
State comprising the parts of Bellary, Hospet and Sandur Talukas (North Latitude 140 55’-150
20’ and East Longitude 760 20’-760 55’). It runs from Bellary South-East to Hospet North-
West that stretches over 60 km in length and 15 km across its widest point with a general
slope towards North. The highest elevation is 1161.29 m above MSL (Mean Sea Level) in
S.M. Block of Sandur Range and lowest is 490.73 m above MSL in Bellary Range.
The Bellary – Hospet region forms a part of the ‘Sandur Schist Belt’, referable as, the
“Dharwars”, a group of Precambrian schistose rocks of Mysore. The lithological units include
20
green stones which are the metamorphosed basic igneous rocks occupying the valley regions,
with phyllite – quartzite’s forming the canoe-shaped amphitheater of hills, trending NNW—
SSE and enclosing Sandur. The phyllites are locally shaly and the quartzites are of the nature
of banded hematite jaspers, and banded hematite quartzite’s, inter-banded with each other.
The banded hematite jaspers, the important source rocks for the iron ores in the area are
prominent in the northern and western part of the ranges, where as the associated shale’s
become prominent in the southern and eastern parts of the area. The iron ores form a capping
over the quartzite’s and shale’s and overlie a sequence of manganiferous phyllitic rocks.
Lateralization is widespread in most of the flat topped ridges.
Structurally, the Sandur hills form a tightly folded synclinorium, plunging gently to NNW
and the hill ranges broadly delineate the folded limbs of synclines, with close repetition of
strata due to minor folds. The strike of the ore bodies is generally parallel to the trend of the
hill ranges; the dips are often steep, being vertical at number of places. Opposing dips
towards NE and SW are found as in the Ramandurg and NEB ranges respectively. Bellary-
Hospet-Sandur deposits are one of the four major known concentrations of high-grade iron
ore occurrences with-in the country. The iron ore deposits of NEB range form a part of the
Bellary-Hospet-Sandur group of iron ore deposits and occupy the Northern tip of Sandur
Synclonorium. These deposits lie on the Northern flanks of Sandur basin.
Mining of Iron & Manganese ore started way back in 1950’s in Bellary-Hospet-Sandur
Region. It started with low scale and supplied to local steel plants. Subsequently with
liberalization of the economy, due to demand from various countries like China, Korea and
Japan etc and better market rate the production of all grades has increased progressively
increased over the last few years. From 2003-04 onwards the production from this sector
increased drastically to meet the global market. Production of iron ore from this sector and
details of individual mines are given in Figure 1.1 & Figure 1.2 and Table 1.2.
21
40
35
33.10 33.85 34.06
Production (million tons)
30
25
20
17.05
15
13.40
12.40
10
5
Production (in million tons)
0
2001-02 2002-03 2003-04 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07
Year
9.31
10.0
9.22
8.40
9.0 Production
8.0
Production in million tons
6.30
7.0
6.0
5.0
3.58
3.42
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
2001-02 2002-03 2003-04 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07
Year
Fig 1.2.:Year-wise Production in the Study Area of 10km Radius (source: department of
mines & geology)
22
Table 1.2: Existing Mining Lease in the Study Area (10 Kms)
23
From the above figures, we can observe that there is drastic increase in annual production
from the year 2003-04 onwards. It is widely accepted that operation of a sector like mining is
bound to have significant negative impacts in the region if appropriate management measures
were not internalized. Though various legislative measures and standards were put in place
with reference to the mining operations, adherence to the same by mine operators was drawn
severe criticism from various corners of the society. Therefore this study was envisaged.
¾ To identify and evaluate the impacts of mining activity on Social, Economical and
Environmental Aspects of the area,
¾ To formulate suitable matrix for the measurable parameters with reference to iron ore
mines,
¾ To develop a management model for the existing operating mines in the study area.
The study on socio-economic & environmental impact due to unexpected increase in iron ore
production of various grades due to demand from various countries was conducted in the
Bellary–Hospet-Sandur range of Bellary District, Karnataka, by considering 10 km radius as
the study area in the region. The entire 10 km radius was divided into four quadrants for
better understanding. The environmental parameters like air, water, soil and noise were
monitored from summer 2001 to winter 2006-07.
Secondary health data collected from hospital situated in 5 selected villages around the major
mine lease area. The data was used to analyze the health effects of increase in iron ore
production and to establish the link between increase in iron ore production on socio
economic status of the people, both in the positive and also in the negative side. Primary data
for the present study was collected by conducting public survey using structured
questionnaire covering 50 households of 5 selected villages in the mine lease area of Bellary-
Hospet. A control group of 50 house hold was selected in the Hospet town representing
similar socio- economic characteristics of the study area. The detailed socio economic profile
of the households in the study area and in the control group household are analyses and
presented in Chapter 4). A public survey was also undertaken along with the socio economic
and morbidity survey to find out the factors affecting the willingness to pay for reducing the
24
environment pollution in the villages around the mine lease area, associated with increase in
iron ore production.
The important limitation of the study lies with the data of various environmental parameters
like, air quality data, water quality, noise monitoring data and soil quality data in the selected
villages, as these parameters are not being regularly monitored in these villages. Selected
parameters are considered to evolve with the health impact of increased iron ore production
on the people who are residing in the villages, since long and also on the workers, who works
in the mine lease area, even though there are other parameters which can significantly
contribute for overall socio-economic status of the villagers.
Only selected heath alignments were considered for measuring health impact due to
deterioration of air quality as well as water quality in the region due to non-availability of
long term data. Only health impact due to Particulate Matter (PM) was considered for
measuring the health impact due to air pollution, as several studies have shown that these
pollutants can cause/aggravate the respiratory diseases in the population. Even though other
pollutants like NOx and SO2 can significantly contribute for the problem, it was not
considered due to non-availability of long term data either in the mine lease area or in the
selected villages.
The study confines to measure the socio-economic & environmental impacted in the selected
5 villages around the mine lease area of Bellary- Hospet-Sandur Region, even though the
production has increased in all the mine lease area spread across the whole district during this
period. The detailed epidemiological studies were not carried out due to resource and time
constraints.
Morbidity data was collected from the people of this area, as the hospitals have not
maintained the required data in the required format, hence the perceptions about the disease
conditions may vary between individuals in the study area. This is likely to be an influencing
factor for either under reporting or over reporting of ailments (Gumber and Breman (1998).
Estimation of air pollution level in the study area is carried out during 3 seasons in selected
places with in the village and 24 hours weighted average is taken for the analysis, which may
25
not represent the actual concentration of the air quality, as minimum of 104 monitoring shall
be done in a year to take the annual average.
The second chapter describes the literature survey conducted in different parts of the world as
well as with in the country along with the detailed methodology of the present study. Chapter
3 concentrated on the detailed description of the study area. Chapter 4 analysis the secondary
data on various socio-economic parameters and health impact on the people in the study area.
Chapter 5 gives the analysis of primary data including socio economic profile of the study
and control group households, while Chapter 6 presents the summary, conclusions and the
policy implications of the present study along with the scope for further research in the field.
26
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
27
2.0 GENERAL
The minerals resources are not only common resources of all in the current ‘nation state’, but
also in the ‘inter-generational state’. The extraction of mineral resources has three major
implications. First, these mineral resources are exhaustible resources, hence as we go on with
extraction activities, we leave less and less for the future generation. Second, the mining
activities make the top soils just not useable due to land conversion and degradation. This is a
serious problem of irreversibility, apart from the problem of dealing with the over-burden
dumps. Third is a human and social problem interms of health impact.
The Mining is considered as one of the important economic activities, which have the
potential contributor to the development of economies. At the same time, the environmental
and health impacts of mining on surrounding people has been a major concern to
governments, the general public and stakeholder organizations and individuals. The earlier
studies have revealed that, mining activities have resulted in land degradation leading to
limited land available for local food production and other agricultural purposes. In addition,
environmental pollution has affected water resources in the mining area, apart from
contributing for air and noise pollution in the surrounding area.
India is the land of high population density (324/sq km in 2011) and large section of poor
population lives in the mineral rich areas or forests. According to the Forest survey of India,
the average forest cover in tribal Districts of the country is 37 percent (Chandra Bhushan,
2008). The livelihood dependency of this section of population on forest resources is quite
high. Hence there is a serious question on land conversion for mining, due to the problem of
rehabilitation and adaptation. As per the CSE’s report 2008, between 1950 to 1991, out of all
the developmental projects, the mining has displaced the second highest number of people i.e
around 25.5 lakh people. More importantly, less than 25 per cent of these displaced people
have been resettled, of all the people displaced by mining, about 52 per cent were tribals.
It is not only the matter of land conversion, but, also the depletion of mineral resources as
they are exhaustible, or leaving the land un-usable for any alternative use as a common
property resources. Already, out of 306 million hectare of land available for any utilization,
104 million hectare of wastelands has been kept for future generation. According to NBSS,
by 2007, out of 328.6 million hectare of geographical area, as much as 148.6 million hectare
28
of geographical area is already degraded (under categories such as water and wind erosion,
salinity, alkalinity, acidity and other complex problems). Large portion of these degradations
are due to mining activities.
According to the available statistics, between 1980 to 2009 as much as 1,00,870 hectares of
forest lands have been approved for mine lease (as per information provided by the Ministry
of Environment and Forest (and as per the submission by Kanchan Chopra Committee, 2006)
about 5, 73,164 hectares of forest lands have been converted during the period from
01.01.2001 to 19.04.2006 for various purposes other than forest use, including mining. This
implies that, about 216 mining projects were granted forest clearance annually – as against
19 clearance annually during 1980 -97 (an estimated total of 1.64 lakh hectares of forest land
has so far diverted for mining in the country (CSE, 2008)).
Further, the total contribution of the mining sector to Indian GDP is just about 2 percent
annually, much of which comes from fuels. According to the CSE (2008) report for every 1
percent of the mining sector’s contribution to the country’ gross domestic product (GDP), the
activity displaced three to four times more people than all development projects put together.
The mining of major minerals generated about 1.84 billion tonnes of waste in 2006 – most of
which has not been disposed of properly. The coal is the main culprit, every tonne of coal
extracted generates three to four tonnes of waste (CSE, 2008).
The Karl Marx in Das Capital, has stated that values of minerals, has value only to the extent
labour involved to extract out to the surface from the earth’s crust. It means that, only the
labour cost of mining will account for its value “all those things which labour merely
separates from immediate connection with their environment, are subjects of labour
spontaneously provided by the Nature”. Such are the fish which we catch, water, timber
which fell in the virgin forest and ores which we extract from their veins. If on the other
hand, the subject of labour has, so to say, been filtered through previous labour, we call it raw
material; such that, ore already extracted and ready for washing. All raw material is the
subject of labour, but not every subject of labour is raw material; it can only become so, after
it has undergone some alteration by means of labour’,[Karl Marx, p.174]). He ignored the in-
situ or intrinsic value of nature altogether.
29
Today, while the labour cost of iron ore production is of the order of RS. 50 per ton, its
export price is around Rs. 4000 (the average value of iron ore mineral varies from Rs. 764/ton
for low grade to Rs. 3719/ton for high grade lumpy ore during 2010). Herald Hoteling (1931),
has stated that, for any optimal and efficient rate of extraction, mineral price trends should
have followed the social discount rates. But the world of development driven by openness of
economics has made minerals extraction lot more attractive than preservation. The recent
trend in mineral prices is strikingly high as compared to any index of social discount rate or
even the sectoral growth rate (the WPI [with 1993 – 94 = 100] for all the minerals taken
together has increased from 119 in 2001 - 2002 to 608 in 2009 - 2010, registering about 50
percent increase annually, where as the growth of the mineral production has been around 5
percent annually)
Much later, Herald Hoteling (1931) has proposed a direct link between the rate of mineral
extraction and its pricing, again to warn about over exploitation of minerals. There are very
serious questions about the current rate of mineral extraction and exhaustibility. Our current
balance of resources (Hematite and Magnetite) is about 25,249 million tonnes. Against this,
the current rate of annual extraction is on the order of 215 million tonnes by about 316 miners
reporting in 2007 (but has crossed over 300 MT by 2010*) (To contextualize these figures,
we need to remember that India started large-scale iron ore mining only in the first decade of
20th century when Jamshetjee Tata started the first steel mill in Jamshedpur in 1907).
Pigou (1920) has first analyzed the impact of pollution by distinguishing between the private
cost and the social cost. He clearly highlighted the private and social cost, stating that,
suppose if a firm’s production process generates a spillover or an externality that directly
affects other economic agent, then the marginal social cost of production will diverge from
the marginal private cost and the firm will produce too much, if the spillover is unpleasant.
Further several studies have been conducted on assessment of impacts by mining activity on
environmental, social and economic status of the surrounding villages. One such study by
Gaven Hilson, 2000, has examined a sustainable development in mining and provided
guidelines seeking to operate more sustainability. The study has revealed that sustainable
development have significant role to play in mining. Since the mining operations have the
potential impact on environmental entities and has vide range of stake holder groups, there is
an opportunity for the industry to operate more sustainably specially with improved planning,
30
implementation of sound environmental tools and cleaner technologies. The extended social
responsibilities to stake holder groups, the formation of sustainability partnership and
improved training, a mine can improve performance in both the environmental and socio-
economic arenas and thus contribute enormously to sustainable development at the mine
level.
Gavin Hilson, 2002, has carried out a study on small scale mining and its socio –economic
impacts in developing countries wherein it was concluded that though the small scale mining
activity has adversely impacted human quality of life through health related problems apart
from damaging the environment, it plays a pivotal role in alleviating poverty in the
developing world and contributes significantly to national revenues and foreign exchange
earnings. The study also revealed that because most of the small scale mines deploy low
technology and employ poorly trained unskilled people, it is difficult for the sector to
improve on its own. It is concluded that government and regional organization could
accomplish much in the way of improved sustainability in the small scale mining industry.
Frank Montavon, et, al., 2006, has carried out a study to verify the corporate reporting of
environmental management practices and firm performance for a mining industry by using
comprehensive environmental and business performance from 45 corporate reports. The
result indicates that the relationships between environmental management practices and the
firm performance are based on the traditional data and strongly indicates that EMPs are
associated with the firm performance.
31
have revealed that improvements in environmental performance are the accepted norms,
safety has the highest priority and sustainability is a part of mining industry. It is safe to use
the best available technology and must demonstrate care and consideration for the
environment and communities.
Heledd Jenkens, 2006, have carried out study on corporate social responsibility in the mining
industry to explore the trends in social and environmental issues. The study was carried out in
world’s ten largest mining companies. It was observed that for mining, one out come of the
CSR agenda is the increase in need of individual companies to justify their existence. It is
concluded that to assess the progress towards sustainability and to improve corporate
strategies, holistic approach is essential, if all the mining companies want to be truly engaged
in the perceived for greater CSR and sustainable outcome.
Kitula A, 2006, has conducted a study in Geita district of Tanzania on the environmental and
socio-economic impacts of mining on the local livelihoods and it was found that the
interventions can help in reducing the negative impacts of mining and the statutory
authorities can provide technical support to local operators to improve the regulations thereby
reducing the illegal mining activity.
Further it was also concluded that socio-economic benefits such as development of social and
economic infrastructure, manufacturing and construction industries, commercial and public
sector activities have improved significantly. Employment creation has improved
significantly, but the income levels of the people are generally low.
A study by Tungalag A et, al., 2008 on land degradation analysis in the Ongi River basin has
revealed that there is a vegetation decrease due to mining activity in the study area. The study
was carried out by measuring vegetation indexes and concluded that the large mining activity
has also contributed to the deterioration and loss of regional bio-diversity and increased level
of land degradation.
A study by Zobrist J et, al., 2009 have conducted a case study in Certej river catchment,
western Carpathians, Romania wherein metal mining activities have created a beneficial
economic development apart from long lasting heavy metal pollution of waters and
32
sediments. The results have indicated that the input of acid mine water has drastically
increased the heavy metal concentration.
The study on socio-economic status shows that mining has provided major source of income
and about 45 percent of the house holds were partly/completely dependent on financial
compensation as a result of mine closure (Zobrist et al 2009).
Another study by Vanessa Petkova et, al., 2009 on mining activities in Australia and its social
impact on the communities have shown that the mining boom has been generating social and
economic impacts, the pattern of the impacts appears to vary across the communities
depending on the size of the impact, community structure and history, and the extent to which
a non resident work force is involved. The study has used a qualitative social impact
assessment technique on six communities in the Bowen Basin in Queens Land following the
increase in the coal prices between 2003-2008.
Emmanuel K Boon, 2009, have conducted a study on Corporate Social Responsibility in the
mining sector at Ghana and have concluded that despite the huge revenue generated from
mining activity, there is growing unhappiness among the population as regard to the real
benefit accrued among the mining communities. The study has also provided a concise
account of the growth and development of mining industry in Ghana and assessed the impact
of corporate social responsibility policies and practices of the major mining companies in the
country.
The mining activities are carried out in various stages, each of them involving specific
environmental impacts. Broadly speaking, these stages are:
2.1.1 Deposit Prospecting Phase: During this phase, the preparation of road for accessing
mining area, topographic and geological mapping, establishment of camps and auxiliary
facilities in the mining area, geophysical works carried out in the mining area, hydro-
geological research, opening up of reconnaissance trenches and pits, taking of different
samples for analysis etc will contribute of environmental degradation in the form of air
pollution, noise pollution and the vegetation loss.
33
2.1.2 Exploitation Phase: During the exploitation phase, the impact on the environment
depends on the method of mining used. In forest zones, the process of deforestation of the
land, with the consequent elimination of vegetation (which is greater in the case of opencast
mines) has short, medium and long-term impacts. Deforestation not only affects large number
of habitat of endemic species (many doomed to extinction), but also the maintenance of a
constant flow of water from the forests area towards other ecosystems and urban centers.
Deforestation of primary forests causes a rapid and fluid runoff of rainwater, increasing
flooding in rainy season, because the soil cannot contain the water, as it does when it is
covered by forest and the roots of thick trees can act as capillary to take to runoff water to the
ground strata.
In addition to the area disturbed by the excavation, the damage caused by mines on the
surface due to the consequent erosion and silting (sedimentation of the watercourse beds) has
become more serious due to accumulation of heaps of rock residues (known as tailings), that
usually form great mounds, sometimes larger than the area given over for excavation.
The enormous consumption of water required by mining activities generally reduces the
water table around the mining area, hence drying up of wells and springs. The water
contaminated by the acid drainage, that is, exposure to air and water of the acids formed in
certain types of ore, particularly sulphuric acids, as a result of mining activities, which in turn
react with other exposed minerals. A self-perpetuated dumping of acidic toxic material will
remain in the environment in different forms for hundreds or even thousands of years.
Furthermore, the small particulates of heavy metals with time separates from the waste and
are disseminated by the wind, deposited on the soil and in the beds of watercourses and
slowly integrating the tissues of living organisms, such as fish.
Hazardous chemicals are also used at various stages of metal processing industry, such as
cyanide. The concentrated acids and alkaline compounds, although significantly controlled,
usually end up, in the toxic waste water discharge, which joins the natural stream (if properly
not managed), through topographical drainage system. The alteration and contamination of
the water cycle has very serious side effects that affect surrounding ecosystems, especially for
the fragile forest ecosystem and on the general people.
Air pollution is being caused by the dust generated by mining activities. Serious causes of
illness in the form of respiratory alignments in the people and asphyxia of plants and trees.
34
Furthermore, release of gases and toxic vapour takes place like sulphur dioxide (responsible
for acid rain in the atmosphere) is produced because of metal treatment, and carbon dioxide
and methane, two of the main greenhouse gases causing climate change-- are also released,
due to the burning of fossil fuels and the creation of artificial lakes for the hydroelectric
dams, built to provide energy for the casting ovens and refineries.
Further, in the case of underground mines, mining activities consume enormous quantities of
wood for their construction and as a source of energy for mines with charcoal-fuelled casting
ovens. When mining operations are carried out in remote zones, mining activities imply
major works such as road building (opening access to the forests), ports, mining villages, the
deviation of rivers, construction of dams and energy generating plants. The deafening sound
of the machinery used in mining and the blasting can also causes major impacts, as they
create conditions that may become unbearable for the local populations and the forest
wildlife.
It is argued that mining is vital for industrialization, because it provides raw material and
sources of energy. However, the present disproportionate concentration of investment on
mining, marginal for industrial production, refute the sector's social justification for its
activities. Mining comes along with its promise of wealth and jobs, but millions are victims
to the high social costs that it brings with it, appropriation of the land belonging to the local
communities, impacts on health, alteration of social relationships, destruction of forms of
community subsistence and life, social disintegration, radical and abrupt changes in regional
cultures, displacement of other present and/or future local economic activities. All this is
added to the hazardous and unhealthy working conditions of this type of activity.
The fundamental link between man and land (including forest and water bodies) are ignored.
The very first Principle of Rio Declaration in 1992, which reads as ‘Human beings are at the
centre of concern for sustainable development. They are entitled to a healthy and productive
life in harmony with nature.’ is totally ignored.
Health is defined as a state of complete physical, mental and social well being of an
individual, and not merely the absence of disease and infirmity (World Health Organization,
2005). An alteration in the living cells of the body which jeopardizes survival in the
35
environment results in diseases. Health problems arise from a variety of man’s activities
including industrial process, farming, mining, migration and others.
The following paras, reviews the literature on the impact of mining on the health of both
mine workers and the people within the surrounding communities of the mines.
Gerking and Staley (1992) looked into the morbidity health effects of air pollution on 824
adult workers of St Louis in USA. They analyzed the cost incurred by the people to prevent
the adverse health effects of pollution and used WTP approach to find out whether the
population affected by chronic illness and years of having the disease influenced the result.
They found that the WTP were very low because the area was not severely affected by the ill
effects of air pollution.
Abubacker (1994) studied the industrial air pollution on human health due to cement
industries in Tiruchanapalli District of Tamilnadu. The study found that, the workers reported
respiratory and skin disease more frequently. This was based on the primary survey of the
workers and it was asked that whether they had suffered with any respiratory related disease
in past one month.
Larson et, al., (1999) undertook a combined health risk assessment, cost effective analysis
and benefit–cost analysis for direct particulate emissions from 29 stationary source in the city
of Volgograd, Russia. Annual particulate related mortality risk from these stationary sources
is estimated to be substantial and was in the range of 960 – 2667 additional deaths per year in
this city of 1 million populations. The cost per life saved was also very low in spite of several
emission reduction projects. The total net benefit to the city of implementing five of the six
identified projects, leading to a 25 percent reduction in mortality risk, are estimated to be
US$ 40 million.
Alberini & Krupnick (2000) compared Cost of Illness (COI) and Willingness to Pay (WTP)
estimates of the damages from minor respiratory symptoms associated with air pollution
using data from a study in Taiwan. A Contingent valuation survey was conducted to estimate
WTP to avoid minor respiratory illness. Health dairies were analyzed to predict the likelihood
and cost of seeking relief from symptoms and missing work. The ratios of COI to WTP were
similar to those for the US, despite of the differences between the two countries. The WTP
values have exceeded by 1.61 to 2.26 times depending upon the air pollution level.
36
According to the study conducted by Stephens and Ahern (2001), mining remains one of the
most perilous occupations for causing both short term injuries and fatalities and long term
impacts such as cancers and respiratory conditions such as silicosis, asbestosis and
pneumoconiosis.
Tungalag A et, al., (2008) have also carried out a study to determine the vegetation condition
in Ongi River Basin of Magnolia, where in it was concluded that Ongi River Basin’s
vegetation loss has increased to 12,000 sq. km, since 1998 and it is showing a decreasing
Trend.
Another study in Tarkwa area, according to health data obtained from Korle-Bu Hospital by
FOE – Ghana during 2001, increase in the mining activity has contributed for increase in
health impact related diseases such as malaria, diarrhoea, upper respiratory tract infections,
skin disease, acute conjunctivitis. The area has the highest incidence of malaria in the Region.
Skin rashes are widespread particularly among communities living along rivers and streams
which regularly receive discharged cyanide waste waters and other metal bearing liquid
wastes from nearby mining (Akabzaa and Darimani, 2001).
The studies on mining and health have revealed that deep mining/ sub surface mining
produces severe harms for employees in terms of their risks of high blood pressure, heat
exhaustion, myocardial infarction and nervous system disorders. The studies are generally
conducted on health risks related to dust pollution due to dust exposure (Stephens and Ahern,
2001). The biostatistics obtained from (FOE-Ghana) showed a high prevalence of upper
respiratory tract infection (URTI) in the area, which medical experts link the mining activities
with the associated environmental pollution (Awudi, 2002). Clinical symptoms similar to
arsenic poisoning have been observed in patients and have been associated with aerial
pollution from mineral procession by the AGC (Awudi, 2002).
Vanessa Petkova et, al., (2009) have carried out a study to assess post development impact of
mining on six communities in the Bowen basin in queens land, where in it was concluded that
significant impact of new mining developments from recent boom have increased the
mobility of local residents, where in increasing proportion of economic stimulus from mining
is flowing out of the towns. Housing shortages and price spikes have also limited the
potential for flow on economic development and created a pressure on non-mining business
and socio-economic groups.
37
2.3 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT SYSTEM IN MINING
38
efficient environmental management plan is to have “win-win” hypothesis using an innovated
data source. This demonstrates that the ranges of EMPs are available to improve the overall
performance of the organization in the field of environmental protection and conservation of
natural resources. These practices are positively associated with multiple firm performance
measures. The following paras explains different section of the environmental pollution
caused by the mining industry and the efficient environmental management plan which can
be adopted to reduce environmental pollution that caused by the mining industry.
In most of the mechanized iron ore mines, ore is being processed either in dry or in wet
circuits depending on the quality of ore feed. Ore having high alumina and silica are
generally being processed in the wet circuit system with the intention to improve the quality
of the ore and to remove the impurities for smooth blast furnace operation. In wet circuit, the
ore is being crushed, scrubbed, washed, wet-screened, classified etc and the water
requirement for this purpose is in the range of 1 m3 per tonne for adding at various stages for
runoff of mines (ROM).
The effluent generated from the ore washing activity mainly consists of suspended solids
with dissolved heavy metals. The effluent is initially treated in the clarifier to recover the
coarser particles as ore fines. The overflow of the clarifier, mainly consist of finer solids i.e.
tailings and is sent to thickener for solid liquid separation. After settling of the tailings at the
bottom of the thickener, clarified overflow water (about 60 %) is reclaimed and recycled to
the system. Underflow tailings are discharged to Tailings Pond for further solid - liquid
separation. Clarified water from the Tailing Pond are also reclaimed and recycled back to the
system in most of the major iron ore mines in India. In some mines, where there is no
provision of reclaiming water from the pond, the clarified water is discharged through a weir.
The treated water after recovery of the tailing is discharged on land fro irrigation or used on
the haulage road for water sprinkling for dust suppression.
The water will be accumulated in the mine pit for iron ore mines, which are operating below
water table or just above the confined aquifers and the same is required to be pumped out
regularly to facilitate the mining operation. The pit water is normally laden with suspended
39
solids, derived from within the pit and generally used for ore washing purposes or discharged
to the nearby water bodies. However, pumping of pit water creates a cone of depression
around the mine area, which give rise drying of nearby wells and springs in the neighboring
villages. A large percentage of iron ore is located below the water table and a number of
mines are now operating below water table. In most of the big mines, the pit water is being
discharged to the exhausted pits and is being utilized for ore washing purpose.
The most important environmental aspect of mining industry is the surface runoff from
various areas during monsoon, as most of the iron ore mines in India are located in hill tops
with steep slopes or in dense forest areas, and in areas with high rainfall. Surface run off from
the mining and other areas gets laden with aluminous lateritic soil from mine benches,
exposed outcrops etc. As the iron ore contains only traces of sulphur, the surface run off
water does not get acidic, but become highly turbid due to loosening of soils by the mining
activities. Direct discharge of the surface runoff to the natural nallas will certainly affect the
water quality of the nallas as well as rivers in the region. Major sources of runoff from the
mines are as follows;
The sedimentation tanks have been provided for treatment of the surface runoff or diverting
to the tailings ponds. In addition to this, garland canal/drains around the waste dumps along
with retaining walls & toe bunds and check dams across the nallas were provided to arrest the
runoff, besides establishing vegetation cover over the waste dumps.
The mining area generally has workshop and garages for repair of the heavy earthmoving
vehicles and other mining equipments. The effluent generated from these workshop and auto
garages mainly consists of oil and suspended solids. Separate effluent treatment plants have
been provided for treatment of these effluents in most of the big iron ore mines. The effluent
40
is treated in series of sedimentation tanks with oil traps. As the effluent generation is very
low, these treated effluents are discharged to the nearby lands where it is evaporated.
Vibration and air blast are among the most significant issues for communities located near the
mining industries. The vibration and air blast from blasting causes fear of structural damage.
This fear occurs because people are able to detect vibration at levels which can cause
superficial damage to buildings and structures of heritage value.
Vibration is the term used to describe the reciprocating motion in a mechanical system and
can be described by the frequency and amplitude of the oscillations. When an explosive
charge is detonated in a confined drill hole, tremendous amount of pressure and temperature
develops with in a very short time interval. The process melts, flows, crushes and fractures
surrounding rocks. After some distance from the explosion site, inelastic process ceases and
elastic effect starts. The excess explosive energy, not utilized in shattering the rock is
transferred to elastic zone and thus propagates the disturbance away from the explosion site.
The disturbance is known as seismic wave or ground vibration. It is generally measured as
Peak Particle Velocity (PPV) in mm/ sec at a specified frequency.
The use of explosives creates airborne pressure fluctuations (air blast) over a vide frequency
range. When in the higher frequency range, this energy is audible and is perceived as “noise”.
At frequencies of less than 20 Hz, the sound energy is inaudible, but it is capable of causing
objects to vibrate such as rattling of loose windows and crockery. Low frequency waves
(<6HZ) causes more damage to structure particularly in case of multi-storied buildings.
Damage caused by ground vibration dependents on the frequency of ground motion. In order
to safeguard the nearest residential buildings and other important structures, various countries
have set the limits for blast vibrations depending upon the socio-economic values of life. All
the vibration standards are based on the resultant peak particles velocity (PPV) of ground
vibration, as this is accepted as the best criterion for assessing levels of damage due to
vibration. In India, DGMS prescribed 10 mm/sec as the safe limit of ground vibration at the
foundation level of the structures within a distance of 300m, depending on dominant
excitation frequency and nature/construction of the building.
41
2.3.6 Dust Control in Opencast Mines
The open cast mining operations and its allied activities, has enormously modified the
exploration of minerals from the earth’s crust, due to the use of modern technology, but from
these process, large amount of dust, gases etc are emitted into the atmosphere. These
pollutants have harmful consequences not only on the mine workers, but also, on the human
settlements, agricultural lands and livestock in the nearby areas depending upon the regional
meteorological conditions.
Air pollution is defined as “the presence of any substance in the atmosphere in such a
concentration that may be or tend to be injurious to human beings or other living creatures or
plants or to the atmosphere itself”. Air is an important commodity for every kind of life and
vegetation, as it protects life on earth from the hostile environment of outer space. But the
very presence and activities of human beings disturb the natural atmospheric system.
In open cast mining area, dust is generated due to various mining and its allied activities. A
brief account of these activities is given in the Table 2.1 below.
Table 2.1: Sources of Dust Generation from the Mining Area
Sr. No. Activity Sources
1 Removal of vegetation • Uprooting/felling of tress/plants/grass.
• Operation of diesel equipment.
2 Removal and handling of • Dozing and scraping.
top and sub-soil • Transportation of soil to the respective location.
• Storage of soil.
• Operation of Heavy Earth Moving Machinery
(HEMM’s).
3 Drilling & Blasting • Drilling operation.
• Generation & dispersion of dust into the open
atmosphere after blasting.
4 Handling of overburden • Excavation of mined mineral and loading of
overburden / rejection.
• Transportation of overburden / rejection to the
predetermined dump location.
• Movement of tippers / dumpers in the mining area.
5 Crushing & Screening • Crushing & screening of ROM to the required sizes.
6 Transportation by belt • Loading on to the belts.
conveyors • Transportation.
7 Reclamation • Backfilling of worked out mining area.
• Dust from haulage and other roads
42
2.3.6.2 Dust Control in Mining Area
Mining operations invariably is associated with emissions of particulate matter (dust) and
gaseous pollutants. Dust problems in mining areas can be controlled by adopting the
following three principal approaches
¾ Dust suppression: The Water spraying by using water tankers is the most important method
of dust suppression. This prevents the dust from being airborne. To facilitate wetting of
dust particles, chemical agents can be mixed with water to reduce surface tension of water.
Mine benches, haulage roads, loading & dumping locations are to be regularly sprinkled
with water, so as to avoid air pollution due to mining operations and movement of heavy
earth moving vehicles in the mining area. Nozzles of spray should be fitted at the
vulnerable points such as crusher; belt transfer points etc and the nozzles of the spray banks
should be designed suitably to give fine mist of water. The water consumption in open cast
mining areas varies with the size of operation, method of operation, temperature and
relative humidity of the area as well as the type of chemical agents being used as surfactant.
¾ Dust extraction: The Dust extraction is a very effective way of controlling dust. The area of
dust generation is covered and hoods are used to collect the dust and to control the air borne
dust in the duct network. The collected dust laden air is then taken to suitable control
equipment, which separates dust from air, and a relatively clean air escapes through the
stack. A fan is operated to deliver air at a pressure great enough to overcome the resistance
of the duct system. The crushing and screening plants are to be operated in a fully enclosed
area.
With mining activities picking up in quantum and extent of reach, it has exerted several
influences. These can be divided into direct and in-direct.
43
2.4.1 Direct Influences
With mining operations starting up, there were several opportunities opened up to cater to the
needs of mining industry, both in skilled, semi-skilled, and un-skilled categories. As
previously mentioned, literacy levels are generally not high in the mining regions and hence,
most of the population could fulfill the demand for un-skilled jobs only. Some members of
the local community could cater to the semi-skilled operations such as machines operators
etc. Further, migration to the local urban settlements in search of the employment
opportunities as the opportunities in the agricultural farm sector was not sufficient. With
opening of the mining sector, there is demand for the workers and some members of the
village have shifted their profession to mine based jobs, this results in higher employment
generation in the mining area. Further, there is slight improvement in the overall
infrastructure facilities such as shops, communication, road network, transpiration facilities
etc.
With employment either directly in mines or indirect employment due to mining operations,
there is change in the income levels at household levels. This increase in income has realized
in terms of education to children, purchasing household amenities, higher spending on
food/recreation etc, investment in household assets etc.
Mining activities are indispensable in the economic development of any country endowed
with mineral resources. This is due to the economic benefits that are made available to
countries, are involved in the extraction of mineral resources, both internal and external.
Internally, there is creation of employment and revenue generation. Externally, a substantial
foreign exchange is available to such countries.
Acknowledging the economic contributions of mining, however, several economies have lost
sight of environmental and health effects associated with mining activities. Studies
undertaken to look into the environmental and health effects of mining have found that
mining activities are more hazardous to economic development than a blessing. Accordingly,
several mining companies in the country claim to have responded to this by instituting and
44
implementing several measures to reduce the negative environmental and health effects of
their activities on the people. Some of these measures are capable of reducing the negative
health impacts of mining on the environment and surrounding communities is a matter of
great concern.
The significance of this research work lies in the fact that it seeks to undertake a thorough
and broader outlook into the environmental and health effects of mining on surrounding
communities, both negative and positive, and recommend policy directives to improve the
already instituted health policies by the mining communities as well as from the government
in the region, as well as reducing the rate of hazardous health effects of the mining activities
that may be identified in Sandur- Hospet region. Findings and recommendations will serve as
guide to other mining companies in the country. Table 2.2 gives the phases of the
Environmental system in the mining sector.
Table 2.2: Phases of the Environment System in the Mining Sector (source: charbel jose
et, al, 2008)
Sr.
Phases Definition
No.
1. Environmental The Environmental policy is a declaration of an organization,
policy when its intention and principles related to its global
environmental performances are shown, as well as its structure
for action and the definition of its environmental objectives and
targets (6).
For daily and Huang (9), top management has to guarantee that
the environmental policy:
(a) is appropriate to the magnitude of the environmental impacts
of the company’s activities:
(b) respects the current legislation
(c) carries out effective revision of the environmental objectives
and targets
(d) agrees with the continuous search for pollution prevention
and global environmental performance: and
(e) Is documented, implemented and communicated to all
employees and to the public in general.
2. Planning In this phase, a plan is formulated in order to follow the
environmental policy in the following items:
(a) legal demands
(b) environmental objectives and targets:
(c) identification of the environmental aspects; and
(d) Structuring of the program of environmental management.
45
Sr.
Phases Definition
No.
3. Implementation and Effective implementation requires that an organization develops
operation the empowerment of its resources and the necessary mechanisms
for implementing its policy, its environmental objectives and
targets. For Daily and Huang (9), there must be an optimal
integration among the physical, human and financial resources
that are going to support the effectiveness of the environmental
policy of a company.
4. Checking and In this phase:
corrective actions (a) the environmental performance is measured and monitored
(b) corrective actions are carried out
(c) the activities of the environmental management system are
registered; and
(d) the environmental auditors check the whole process (9)
5. Management review The analysis has to consider an eventual need of changing the
policy, the objectives and other elements of the EMS, in view of
the results of the audit of the management system, changes in
circumstances and commitment to continuous improvement (6).
According to Seiffert (1). It is recommended that top
management carry out a review of the EMS at least twice a year.
In this study, the methods of sampling were a combination simple random, stratified and
purposive sampling. The reason for this was that the data included different variables of the
target population in terms of place of work, distance from the mines, socio-economic
characteristics of the respondents and differences in perception towards mining activities and
its effects on the environment.
After purposively selecting the study communities based on their proximity to the mine sites,
One Hundred Fifty (150) people were randomly selected for the administration of a detailed
questionnaire using the interview method to ensure a hundred percent completion rate.
The justification of the sample size lies in the fact that time and resources available to the
researcher were not enough to cover the entire area with a population of about 195,000. In all,
there are 52 villages in the municipality. This divides the total population into approximately,
3750 people per village. Five villages were chosen based on their relative proximity to mine
sites or containment points (Table 1.1). T (30) respondents were sampled in each village for
questionnaire administration. This was done to know variations in responses regarding
46
mining effects on the localities by distance from the mines. This distribution gives a total of
One hundred fifty (150). Since the five villages chosen for this survey were not concentrated
at one area, but were scattered across the municipality, the views gathered from the total
sample of One hundred fifty (150) respondents effectively represented the views of the entire
population. Table 2.3 gives details of the mining industries situated around the study villages
and the distance of these mines from the villages along with the licensed production capacity.
47
Table 2.4: Number of Operating Mines with Average Distance from the Study Area
Number of operating Average Distance from the
Village
mines around Study Area
Siddapura Village 10 2.72 km
Papinayakanahalli 8 3.82 km
Village
Jaisingpura Village 2 2.75 km
Vaddarahalli Village 2 6.2 km
Joga Village 1 7.0 km
It is evident from Table 2.3 & Table 2.4 Siddapura Village is surrounded by highest number
of mining area (10 Nos), followed by Papinayakanahalli Village (8 Nos), Jaisinghpura
Village (2 Nos) and Joga Village (1 Nos). This was done purposely by the researcher to know
the variation (if any) in the environmental degradation due to increase in the iron ore
production in the recent times. It also helps to measure the impact among different socio-
economic, demographic groups within and across the villages situated around the selected
mine lease area. This was also done to find out response variations from respondents
regarding the effects of mining activities on their respective communities.
48
2.7 ANALYTICAL FRAME WORK OF THE PRESENT STUDY
Mining
Surface/Sub
surface
Exposure to
Mortality Air & Change in Environnement
Land toxic
& Noise the Land al Pollution
Degradati Chemicals
Morbidity Pollution, Use Viz. Water/Air
ons like Cyanide,
Conditions Accidents, and Noise
Pattern Hg &
Etc Pollution, Etc.
Cadmium Etc
The conceptual framework shows the impact of increased iron ore mining on the quality of
the surrounding environment, socio- economic status and the health of people. The impact of
mining activities on the environment is very remarkable. First of all, mining activities require
acquisition of large tracts of land. Both deep and surface mining degrade the land surface
since there is destruction of the entire forest. Consequently, land for farming and other
agricultural purposes is lost.
Furthermore, spillages of chemicals such as cyanide, mercury and other toxic materials into
the nearby streams cause water pollution, destroying the quality of water bodies, resulting on
the extinction/loss of aquatic life. Exposures of such chemicals are also harmful to human
health. Apart from this, the gaseous and other toxic vapour produced from heavy machines
49
and equipments used, as well as other chemicals are sources of air pollution to the
environment.
On health, several health implications are associated with mining activities. Mining activities
such as blasting of rocks lead to air and noise pollution that affect the people within the
surrounding areas. These sometimes lead to incidence of upper respiratory tract infections
such as cancer, cough or cold and asthma. There are also the incidence of malaria, diarrhoea,
acute conjunctivitis and accidents all of which result in morbidity and mortality conditions in
the mining areas. In response to these, mining authorities provide health facilities such as
clinics, hospitals, and health education to all the employees and to surrounding villagers.
According to the literature that was reviewed, the compounding environmental and health
cost and damages due to mining activities are far outweigh their economic and social
benefits, the magnitude of which cannot be quantified. Hence, high health costs are incurred
as a result of increased mining activities.
From the above literature review, the following Hypotheses can be drawn for the present
study
1 An increase in the iron ore production in the mines around Sandur- Hospet region has
lead to increase in Environmental impact in the region in terms of deterioration of air
quality, water quality, creating noise pollution within the surrounding villages.
50
CHAPTER 3
51
3.0 GENERAL
Industrialization has contributed immensely to the economic development of the world, but in
its wake, it has also caused environmental degradation. Since humans have to live within
their environment, the process of development should be ‘sustainable’, so that environmental
quality is maintained within safe limits. The value of emphasizing sustainability is essentially
to integrate industrial development with environmental management in the development
process. It is only through an integrated effort of the environmental aspects into the planning
and management of industrial development, which makes significant progress towards a
sustainable society. Solutions to the complex inter-related problems implicit in sustainability
require a holistic approach that is beyond the individual economic interests (TERI Report
1997).
The state of Karnataka is fairly well endowed with a wide variety of minerals. Apart from
gold, it has resources of a few other valuable minerals, like iron and manganese and deposits
of chromium (NEERI Report 2002). The iron ore reserves at Bellary –Hospet-Sandur belt has
high grade Fe content and therefore the iron ore from this region is being blended with low
grade iron ore from other region for export to various countries. The mining of iron and
manganese ore has started way back in 1950’s in Bellary-Hospet-Sandur region. Initially, it
was started on low scale and was supplied to local steel plants in the region. With the
liberalization of the economy, opportunities for export of fines to countries like China, S.
Korea and Japan, have increased drastically since 2003-04. Further, local demand for iron
ore has also increased due to establishment of large number of steel plants in Bellary-Hospet
region of the state.
The Bellary district in Karnataka lies between North Latitude 140 30’ and 150 50’ and East
Longitude 750 40’ and 770 11’. The mineral bearing area lies in Bellary district, comprising
of the parts of Bellary, Hospet and Sandur Talukas (North Latitude 140 55’-150 20’ and East
Longitude 760 20’-760 55’). It runs from Bellary South-East to Hospet North-West, which
stretches over 60 km in length and 15 km across its widest point with a general slope towards
North. The highest elevation is 1161.29 m above MSL (Mean Sea Level) in S. M. Block
(Swamy malai Blcok) of Sandur Range and lowest is 490.73 m above MSL in Bellary Range.
52
The Bellary – Hospet region forms a part of the ‘Sandur Schist Belt’, referable as, the
“Dharwars”, a group of Precambrian schistose rocks of Mysore. The lithological units include
green stones, which are the metamorphosed basic igneous rocks occupying the valley regions,
with phyllite – quartzite’s forming the canoe-shaped amphitheater of hills, trending NNW—
SSE and enclosing Sandur. The phyllites are locally shaly and the quartzites are of the nature
of banded hematite jaspers, and banded hematite quartzite’s, inter banded with each other.
The banded hematite jaspers, the important source rocks for the iron ores in the area are
prominent in the northern and western part of the ranges, where as the associated shale’s
become prominent in the southern and eastern parts of the area. The iron ores form a capping
over the quartzite’s and shale’s and overlie a sequence of manganiferous phyllitic rocks.
Lateritisation is widespread in most of the flat topped ridges.
Structurally, the Sandur hills form a tightly folded synclinorium, plunging gently to NNW
and the hill ranges broadly delineate the folded limbs of synclines, with close repetition of
strata due to minor folds. The strike of the ore bodies is generally parallel to the trend of the
hill ranges; the dips are often steep, being vertical at number of places. Opposing dips
towards NE and SW are found as in the Ramandurg and NEB ranges respectively.
Bellary-Hospet deposits are one of the four major known concentrations of high-grade iron
ore occurrences within the country. The iron ore deposits of NEB range form a part of the
Bellary-Hospet group of iron ore deposits and occupy the Northern tip of Sandur
Synclonorium. These deposits lie on the Northern flanks of Sandur basin.
As explained in the introduction, 5 villages within the range of 10 KM radius from the
Bellary- Hospet – Sandur region was considered as study area, including 1 Control village,
where there are no mines surrounded and very bleak movement of iron ore loaded vehicles
with in the village. The following paras describe the general socio-demographic and
environmental characteristics of the study area.
53
Table 3.1 Details of Study Villages
Even though there are 12 villages in the radius of 10 KM, the primary survey was carried out
in 5 villages viz Jaisingpur Village, PK Halli village, Joga Village, Siddapur village and
Vaddarahalli Village. The vaddarahalli village has been considered as reference village as
there are no operating mine lease area. The analysis of the individual study villages are
explained in the following paras.
IV QUADRANT I QUADRANT
54
3.2.1 Jaisingpur Village
The following Table No 3.2 describes the general characteristic of the Jaisingpur village.
Details in
Sr. No. Parameters
numbers
1 Distance from the nearest city in Kms 9
2 Total Geographical Area (Ha.) 385
3 Total Cultivable Area (Ha.) 345
SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC DETAILS
1. No. of house holds 466
2 Total Male Population 920
1814
3 Total Female Population 894
4 Total SC Population 915
5 Total ST Population 245
6 Total Others Population 654
7 No of Literates 549
8 No of Literates - Up to Primary School 429
No of Literates - Up to Higher Primary
9 65
School
10 No of Literates - Up to High School 23
No of Literates - Up to Pre-University and
11 32
above
12 No of Schools 1
ENVIRONMENTAL CHARACTERISTICS
1. Average Rain Fall 505 mm
2 Temperature
3 Minimum Temperature 25
4 Maximum Temperature 37
5 Relative Humidity
6 Minimum Relative Humidity 30
7 Maximum Relative Humidity 77
8 Wind Speed 8 m/s
9 Predominant Wind Direction SE to NE
10 General Soil Texture Clayee
11 Water Holding Capacity in % 45
12 Iron Content as Fe in % 10.53
The above table clearly describes that the total population of the village is 1814, out of which
the male population is 920 and 894 female. The village has 466 household and gets an
average rain fall of 505 mm. The village experiences a maximum temperature of 37 and
55
minimum temperate of 24. The predominant wind direction is SE - NE and the average wind
speed is 8 m/s. The general soil texture is Clayee with water holding capacity of 45 %.
There are 3 mines surrounded by this village. The name of the mines operating with in the 5
KM radius of the village along with the extent of mine lease area with aerial distance from
the study village is shown below Table 3.3.
Table 3.4: Month-wise Production Details Since from 2002-2008 (Source: IBM)
Number of Mine Leases - 3
Year/Month 2002-03 2003-04 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08
Apr 87495 10367 94350 140056 20953 43316
May 77345 9076 96769 139194 20824 43050
Jun 65046 9018 79834 118509 17729 36652
Jul 75078 10784 80832 119990 17951 37110
Aug 75045 9018 72577 107735 16118 33320
Sept 69801 9123 93252 138426 20709 42812
Oct 70597 9813 89723 133187 19925 41192
Nov 74987 8918 89814 133322 19945 41234
Dec 74387 9017 102515 152176 22766 47065
Jan 71287 9201 95257 141402 21154 43733
Feb 66459 9218 97117 144163 21567 44587
Mar 67087 7123 99616 147873 22122 45734
The ambient air quality was monitored near Gram Panchayat Office and the data was
monitored for 8 days in a month for 3 seasons (9 months in a year excluding monsoon). This
monitoring location falls in the fourth quadrant and located on Hospet-Sandur state highway.
There are 3 iron ore mine leases are under operation around this village. Various mining
companies of NEB range & Ramgad range are utilizing the road, which passes through this
village. Season-wise monitoring for various environmental parameters were carried during
56
Summer, Post-monsoon & Winter. The ambient air quality data was compiled and the results
are shown in the Figure 3.2 to Figure 3.4.
400
SPM RSPM
350
300
Concentration in mic.gm/cu.m
250
200
150
100
50
0
SM- SM- SM- SM- SM- SM- SM- SM- SM- SM-
01 02 03 04 03 04 05 06 07 08
250
SPM RSPM
200
Concentration in mic.gm/cu.m
150
100
50
0
PM- PM- PM- PM- PM- PM- PM- PM-
01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08
57
250
SPM RSPM
200
Concentration in mic.gm/cu.m
150
100
50
0
WN WN WN WN WN WN WN-
01-02 02-03 03-04 04-05 05-06 06-07 07-08
58
Results in
Sr. No Parameters Limits IS:10500
Winter
11. Dissolved Phosphate as P BDL -
(mg/l)
12. Sodium as Na, mg/l 40 to 90 -
13. Potassium as K, mg/l 4 to 20.6 -
14. Calcium as Ca (mg/l) 90 to 180 75
15. Magnesium as Mg (mg/l) 42 to 95 30
16. Total Hardness as CaCO3 440 to 830 300
(mg/l)
17. Chloride as Cl (mg/l) 123 to 240 25
18. Fluoride as F (mg/l) 0.4 to 1.4 1
19. Sulphate as SO4 (mg/l) 50 to 104 2200
20. Nitrate as NO3 (mg/l) 3.35 to 15 45
21. Alkalinity as CaCO3, mg/l 285 to 750 200
22. Acidity as CaCO3, mg/l 0.14 to 1.62 --
Soil quality assessed through collecting a set of soil samples which represents various land
uses within the study area. The analysis of soil samples shows there is no considerable impact
on quality of soil even though the mining and its allied activities are from 1950’s including
drastic increase in annual production from the year 2003-04 onwards. The following Table
3.6 depicts the quality during different years.
Sl. Results
No. Particulars S1 S2 S3 S4 S5
1. pH (1:2 aqueous solution) 7.1 7.22 6.33 7.35 7.88
2. Electrical Conductivity 625 550 420 575 760
(millimhos/cm)
3. Nitrogen as N, kg/ Hec 387 265 455 480 420
4. Phosphorous as P2O5, kg/Hec 54 39 48 94 64
5. Potassium as K2O2, meq/Hec 220 210 374 405 563
6. Chloride as Cl (%) 11 10 13 15 17
7. Iron as HCL Soluble, % 8.2 11.98 10.84 11.88 8.21
8. Organic matter (%) 0.86 0.66 0.73 0.84 1.06
9. Sand, % 18 37 20 16 30
10. Silt , % 37 21 38 43 30
11. Clay, % 45 42 42 41 40
12. Texture Clay Clay Clay Clay Clay
13. Water holding capacity, % 52 55 57 55 45
S1 - Agricultural land, S2 - Forest land, S3 - Agricultural land
S4 - Forest land, S5 - Agricultural land
59
3.2.1.4 Noise Quality Status
Noise quality in the villages has been assessed through monitoring the noise level. Based on
the noise level survey, the ambient noise at different villages has increased slightly due to
movement of iron ore through tippers/trucks. Table 3.7 shows the average values of the noise
monitored in the selected places of Jaisinghpur village.
60
Details in
Sr. No. Parameters
numbers
3 Total Female Population 2362
4 Total SC Population 1407
5 Total ST Population 864
6 Total Others Population
7 No of Literates 2108
8 No of Literates - Up to Primary School 1314
No of Literates - Up to Higher Primary
9 417
School
10 No of Literates - Up to High School 349
No of Literates - Up to Pre-University and
11 28
above
12 No of Schools 2
ENVIRONMENTAL CHARACTERISTICS
1. Average Rain Fall in mm 496.8
2 Temperature
3 Minimum Temperature 21.8
4 Maximum Temperature 40.1
5 Relative Humidity
6 Minimum Relative Humidity 23.3
7 Maximum Relative Humidity 88.7
8 Wind Speed in m/sec 6.92
9 Predominant Wind Direction SE-NW
10 General Soil Texture Sandy Clay
11 Water Holding Capacity in % 50
12 Iron Content as Fe in % 7.43
There are 4 mines surrounded by these villages. There are 4 mines surrounded by this village.
The name of the mines operating with in the 5 KM radius of the village along with the extent
of mine lease area with aerial distance from the study village is shown below Table 3.9.
The month wise iron ore production carried out by these mines situated in the vicinity of PK
Halli village are since from 2002-2008 is shown in the Table 3.10 below;
61
Table 3.10: Month wise Iron Ore Production Details Since 2002-2008
From the table, it is clear that, there is a significant increase in annual production of iron ore
in the recent years. Such an increase in iron ore production is likely to have a significant
effect on the environment. Therefore it is important to study the impact on the environment
due to this unexpected increase in annual production of iron ore in this region. An attempt has
been made in this paper to make a comparative assessment of this unexpected increase in
annual production of iron ore on the environment. It is worth mentioning here that till date no
such studies have been conducted in this region to the knowledge of the authors.
The ambient air quality was monitored near the primary school for all the seasons. the
variation of the air quality is show in the fig below Season-wise monitoring was carried out
from Summer to Winter and the assessment of the air quality is shown graphically in the
following Figures 3.5 to 3.7.
62
300
SPM RSPM
250
Concentration in mic.gm/cu.m
200
150
100
50
0
SM- SM- SM- SM- SM- SM- SM- SM-
01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08
200
SPM RSPM
180
160
Concentration in mic.gm/cu.m
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
PM - PM - PM - PM - PM - PM - PM - PM -
01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08
63
250
SPM RSPM
200
Concentration in mic.gm/cu.m
150
100
50
0
WN 01- WN 02- WN 03- WN 04- WN 05- WN 06- WN 07-
02 03 04 05 06 07 08
There is a small seasonal nallah flowing in the outskirts of the village. The water sample was
collected from the nallah for the purposes of analysis for all the 3 season. The water quality
analysis for the specific parameters was carried out in the laboratory. The results of the
analysis are tabulated in the following Table 3.11.
Apart from the surface water, ground water sample was also collected and analyzed for
different parameters. The status of ground water quality is shown in the following Table
3.12.
64
Table 3.12 Status of Ground Water Quality
Soil quality assessed through collecting a set of soil samples which represents various land
uses within the study area. The analysis of soil samples shows there is no considerable impact
on quality of soil even though the mining and its allied activities are from 1950’s including
drastic increase in annual production from the year 2003-04 onwards. The following Table
3.13 depicts the quality during different years.
Sl. Results
No. Particulars S1 S2 S3 S4 S5
1. pH (1:2 aqucous solution) 7.24 7.15 7.0 7.25 7.48
2. Electrical Conductivity 640 540 405 570 745
(millimhos/cm)
3. Nitrogen as N, kg/ Hec 374 250 450 480 410
4. Phosphorous as P2O5, 51 36 42 88 68
kg/Hec
65
Sl. Results
No. Particulars S1 S2 S3 S4 S5
5. Potassium as K2O2, meq/Hec 215 215 378 415 568
6. Chloride as Cl (%) 13 12 12 17 15
7. Iron as HCL Soluble, % 7.6 11.46 10.44 12.25 8.0
8. Organic matter (%) 0.76 0.54 0.79 0.73 0.95
9. Sand, % 20 34 25 17 32
10. Silt, % 35 25 42 39 28
11. Clay, % 45 41 33 44 40
12. Texture Clay Clay Clay Clay Clay
13. Water holding capacity, % 55 60 54 60 47
S1 - Agricultural land, S2 - Forest land, S3 - Agricultural land
S4 - Forest land, S5 - Agricultural land
Noise quality in the villages has been assessed through monitoring the noise level. Based on
the noise level survey, the ambient noise at different villages has increased slightly due to
movement of iron ore through tippers/trucks. Table 3.14 depicts the noise quality carried out
in the selected places with in the village.
This village is falls in first quadrant in the study area. There is no much mining activity going
on close to this village. However, iron ore carrying trucks are plying through this village.
Condition of this village road after movement of trucks has become good to bad. Therefore
the monitoring values of various pollutants in this village during different seasons are
66
observed to be at higher side. The following Table 3.15 graphs show the concentration of
various pollutants during summer, post-monsoon and winter seasons.
Details in
Sr. No. Parameters
numbers
1 Distance from the nearest city in Kms 15
2 Total Geographical Area (Ha.) 451
3 Total Cultivable Area (Ha.) 260
SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC DETAILS
1. No. of house holds 140
2 Total Male Population 570
1148
3 Total Female Population 548
4 Total SC Population 11
5 Total ST Population 959
6 Total Others Population 148
7 No of Literates 181
8 No of Literates - Up to Primary School 141
No of Literates - Up to Higher Primary
9 9
School
10 No of Literates - Up to High School 31
No of Literates - Up to Pre-University and
11 Nil
above
12 No of Schools 1
ENVIRONMENTAL CHARACTERISTICS
1. Average Rain Fall in mm 526
2 Temperature
3 Minimum Temperature 22.8
4 Maximum Temperature 39.2
5 Relative Humidity
6 Minimum Relative Humidity 14.9
7 Maximum Relative Humidity 97.8
8 Wind Speed in m/sec 6.44
9 Predominant Wind Direction WE
10 General Soil Texture Clayey
11 Water Holding Capacity in % 40
12 Iron Content as Fe in % 9.52
There are 1 mines surrounded by this villages. The name of the mines operating with in the 5
KM radius of the village along with the extent of mine lease area with aerial distance from
the study village is shown below Table 3.16.
67
Table 3.16: Existing Operating Mines
Sr. Extent of Mine Lease Aerial distance from the
Name of the Mine
No. area in Ha Village in KM
1 Mine -1 123.84 3.5
Table 3.17: Month wise Iron Ore Production of the Mine Since 2002- 2008
The season-wise monitoring for Joga village was carried out from summer to winter and the
assessment of the air quality is given in the following Figure 3.8 to 3.10.
200
SPM RSPM
180
160
Concentration in mic.gm/cu.m
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
SM-01 SM-02 SM-03 SM-04 SM-05 SM-06 SM-07 SM-08
68
200
SPM RSPM
180
160
Concentration in mic.gm/cu.m
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
PM - PM - PM - PM - PM - PM - PM - PM -
01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08
180
SPM RSPM
160
140
Concentration in mic.gm/cu.m
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
WN 01- WN 02- WN 03- WN 04- WN 05- WN 06- WN 07-
02 03 04 05 06 07 08
69
3.2.3.2 Water Quality Status
There is a nallah at a distance of 1.5 KM from the village. The water quality was analyzed for
all the seasons. The status of surface water quality is shown in the Table 3.18 below
From the above table it can be observed that the surface water quality is meeting the standard
with respect to all the analyzed parameters.
Similarly the ground water sample was collected from the bore well situated near the
residential colony (Community water tank). The water quality parameters were analyzed for
different parameters for all the season. The ground water status is shown in the following
Table 3.19.
Sr. Limits
Parameters GW1 GW2 GW3
No IS:10500
1. Colour (Hazen Units) Colour less Colourless Colourless 5
2. Ambient Temperature o C 25.8 to 27.0 25.6 to 28.2 25.9 to 28.4 --
3. Total Dissolved Solids (mg/l) 620 to 650 710 to 720 390 to 430 500
4. DO 2.9 to 3.8 2.3 to 3.8 2.8 to 3.5 -
5. pH 7.4 to 7.5 7.3 to 7.5 7.3 to 7.8 6.5 to 8.5
6. Turbidity (NTU) 4.7 to 10.6 5.3 to 16.1 0.4 to 2.6 5
7. Total Suspended Solids 7 to 12 10 to29 7 to 16 -
(mg/l)
8. BOD for 3 days at 27 o C <1 <1 <1 to 1.8 -
9. COD (mg/l) 7.80 to 13.67 3.12 to 17.09 3.6 to 13.25 -
10. Total Iron as Fe (mg/l) 0.1 to 0.27 0.11 to 0.32 0.12 to 0.17 0.3
11. Dissolved Phosphate as P 0.028 to 0.024 to 0.054 0.0134 -
(mg/l) 0.042 to0.038
12. Sodium as Na, mg/l 50.2 to 60.4 64.1 to 87.1 23 to 38.4 -
70
Sr. Limits
Parameters GW1 GW2 GW3
No IS:10500
13. Potassium as K, mg/ 1.2 to 1.9 0 to 2.7 0. 1to 1.3 -
14. Calcium as Ca (mg/l) 65 to 74.54 46.49 to 65 36.87 to 50.5 75
Soil quality assessed through collecting a set of soil samples which represents various land
uses within the study area. The analysis of soil samples shows there is no considerable impact
on quality of soil even though the mining and its allied activities are from 1950’s including
drastic increase in annual production from the year 2003-04 onwards. The following Table
3.20 depict the soil quality of the Villages.
Sl.
Particulars S2 S3 S4 S4 S5
No.
1. pH (1:2 aqueous solution) 6.39 7.26 4 .36 5.4 5.45
2. Electrical Conductivity 1230 1000 1260 1290 1260
(millimhos/cm)
3. Organic Carbon % 0.246 0.210 0.239 0.061 0.282
4. Phosphorus as P2O5, Kg/Hec 89.60 14.34 50.18 39.42 93.18
5. Potassium as K2O, Kg/Hec 69.44 71.904 17.92 13.888 109.76
6. Chloride as Cl, mg/100 gm 23.04 3.55 19.5 1.77 17.73
7. Iron (Hcl Solubles), % 8.79 2.93 15.39 6.81 18.59
8. Water Holding Capacity% 66.35 39.07 59.22 29.48 54.68
71
Sl. Particulars S2 S3 S4 S4 S5
No.
9. Sand % 99.64 96.28 99.319 99.48 98.95
10. Silt, % 0.127 2.31 0.157 0.277 0.34
11. Clay, % 0.233 1.41 0.524 0.243 0.71
12. Texture Sandy Sandy Sandy Sandy Sandy
S1 - Agricultural land, S2 - Forest land, S3 - Agricultural land
S4 - Forest land, S5 - Agricultural land
Noise quality in the villages has been assessed through monitoring the noise level. Based on
the noise level survey, the ambient noise at different villages has increased slightly due to
movement of iron ore through tippers/trucks. The noise level carried out in the selected
locations with in the village is shown in the following Table 3.21.
72
3.2.4 Siddapura Village
There are 3 mines surrounded by this village. The name of the mines operating with in the 5
KM radius of the village along with the extent of mine lease area with aerial distance from
the study village is shown below Table 3.23.
73
Table 3.23: Existing Operating Mines
Table 3.24: Month wise Iron Ore Production of the Mine Since 2002- 2008
The season-wise monitoring for Siddapur village was carried out for all the seasons as per the
procedure and the assessment of the air quality is given in the following fig. This village
located on Hospet-Sandur state highway. This road is being extensively by iron ore carrying
trucks to reach railway siding facility located at Hospet. From the Figures 3.11 to 3.13 we
can see that, the pollutants concentration observed was significantly high compared to
subsequent years even though there was a drastic increase in annual production in the region.
74
250
SPM RSPM
200
Concentration in mic.gm/cu.m
150
100
50
0
SM- SM- SM- SM- SM- SM- SM- SM-
01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08
200
SPM RSPM
180
Concentration in mic.gm/cu.m
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
PM- PM- PM- PM- PM- PM- PM- PM-
01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08
75
250
SPM RSPM
200
Concentration in mic.gm/cu.m
150
100
50
0
WN WN WN WN WN WN WN-
01-02 02-03 03-04 04-05 05-06 06-07 07-08
Water quality assessment was carried out by drawing set of ground water and surface water
samples and analyzed for various physical & chemical properties. Ground water samples
were analyzed for various parameters as per IS: 10500 and surface water samples were
analyzed for different parameters as per Indian Bureau of Mines (IBM), draft circular 2003.
The sample analysis report during the year 2001 and 2006 is shown in the below Table 3.25.
76
Similarly the ground water sample was collected from the bore well situated within the
village near the school (Community water tank). The water quality parameters were analyzed
for different parameters for all the season. The ground water status is shown in the following
Table 3.26.
Sr. Limits
Parameters GW1 GW2 GW3
No. IS:10500
1. Colour (Hazen units) Colourless Colourless Colourless 5
2. Ambient Temperature 0C 26.6 to 32.4 25.8 to 30.1 24.7 to 31.4 --
3. Total Dissolved Solids (mg/1) 980 to1250 630 to 780 430 to 520 500
4. DO 2.6 to 3.1 2.4 to 3.8 2.3 to 2.9 -
5. pH 7.0 to 7.5 7.2 to 7.6 7.4 to 7.8 6.5 to 8.5
6. Turbidity (NTU) 1.8 to 23.1 2.8 to 10.5 0.9 t5o 5.2 5
7. Total Suspended Solids (mg/1) 5 to 12 4 to 10 6 to 15 -
8. BOD for 3 days at 27°C (mg/l) <1 <1 <1 to 1.5 -
9. COD (mg/l) 3.59 to 25.20 1.79 to 9.26 1.57 to 7.4 -
10. Total Iron as Fe. (mg/1) 0.23 to 0.78 0.32 to 0.97 0.12 to 0.67 0.3
11. Dissolved Phosphate as P 0.003 to 0.11 0.03 to 0.18 0.02 to 0.15 -
(mg/1)
12 Sodium as Na, (mg/l) 62.3 to 87.2 64.7 to 75.9 55.2 to 76.4 -
13. Potassium as K, (mg/l) 1.6 to 16.4 0.6 to 6.2 0.1 to 5.4 -
14. Calcium as Ca (mg/1) 202.80 to 96.18 to 32.68 to 75
272.54 126.65 40.08
15. Magnesium as Mg (mg/1) 36.95 to 20.24 to 60.82 38.22 to 52 30
103.73
16. Total Hardness as CaCO3 825 to 1085 390to 524 270 to 352 300
(mg/1)
17. Chloride as Cl (mg/1) 264.28 to 99.75 to 27.46 to 25
319.67 118.59 51.44
18. Flouride as F.(mg/1) 0.2 to 0.8 0.2 to 0.8 0.40 1
19. Sulphate as SO4 (mg/1) 21.5 to 47.5 12.5 to 24.5 5 to 14.5 2200
20. Nitrate as NO3 (mg/l) 5.0 to 12.45 3.3 to 5.40 0.35 to 3.6 45
21. Alkalinity as CaCO3, (mg/l) 382 to 509.51 430 to 550 318 to 380 200
22. Acidity as CaCO3, (mg/l) 0.55 to 1.25 0.27 to 1.19 Nil to 0.96 --
Soil quality assessed through collecting a set of soil samples which represents various land
uses within the study area. The analysis of soil samples shows there is no considerable impact
on quality of soil even though the mining and its allied activities are from 1950’s including
drastic increase in annual production from the year 2003-04 onwards. The following
Table 3.27 depicts the quality during different years.
77
Table 3.27 Soil Quality Characteristics
Sl. Results
Particulars
No. S1 S2 S3 S4 S5
1. pH (1:2 aqueous solution) 8.06 7.12 7.1 7.11 8.36
2. Electrical Conductivity 272 420 385 535 363
(millimhos/cm)
3. Nitrogen as N, kg/ Hec 360 225 390 450 430
4. Phosphorous as P2O5, kg/Hec 48 30 40 90 32.9
5. Potassium as K2O2, meq/Hec 24.4 170 365 335 181.27
6. Chloride as Cl (%) 19.5 11.5 9 14 3.2
7. Iron as HCL Soluble, % 6.86 14.22 11.12 10.86 7.84
8. Organic matter (%) 0.80 0.61 0.85 0.72 1.37
9. Sand, % 86 35 15 20 94
10. Silt , % 12 30 40 35 5
11. Clay, % 0.8 35 45 45 0.1
12. Texture Clay Clay Clay Clay Clay
13. Water holding capacity, % 55 50 50 50 40
Noise quality in the villages has been assessed through monitoring the noise level. Based on
the noise level survey, the ambient noise at different villages has increased slightly due to
movement of iron ore through tippers/trucks. The following Table 3.28 gives the average
noise level monitored with at the selected villages in the village.
78
3.2.5 Vaddarahalli Village
This village located on Bellary-Hospet-Honnavar Highway no 63. There are no mines in the
vicinity of this village. However, lot of iron ore carrying trucks ply on this road apart from
public transport. Hence this activity contributes for the air quality in the village. Season-wise
monitoring for various environmental parameters were carried out from Summer,
Post-monsoon & Winter The Table 3.29 gives general characteristics of socio-demographic
of Vaddarahalli village.
79
3.2.5.1 Air Quality Status
The season-wise monitoring for Vaddarahalli village was carried out for all the seasons as per
the procedure and the assessment of the air quality is given in the following fig. This road is
being extensively by iron ore carrying trucks to reach railway siding facility located at
Hospet. From the Figure 3.14 to 3.16 we can see that, the pollutants concentration observed
was significantly high compared to subsequent years even though there was a drastic increase
in annual production in the region.
300
SPM RSPM
250
Concentration in mic.gm/cu.m
200
150
100
50
0
SM - SM - SM - SM - SM - SM - SM - SM -
01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08
80
250
SPM RSPM
200
Concentration in mic.gm/cu.m
150
100
50
0
PM - PM - PM - PM - PM - PM - PM - PM -
01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08
250
SPM RSPM
200
Concentration in mic.gm/cu.m
150
100
50
0
WN 01- WN 02- WN 03- WN 04- WN 05- WN 06- WN 07-
02 03 04 05 06 07 08
81
3.2.5.2 Water Quality Status
There are no surface water sources around the village. However the ground water quality was
analyzed taking the bore well water sample situated within the village. The ground water
quality status is represented in the following Table 3.30.
Sr. Limits
Parameters GW1 GW2 GW3
No. IS:10500
1. Colour (Hazen units) Colourless Colourless Colourless 5
2. Ambient Temperature 0C 23.3 to 27.3 22.3 to 27.2 25.8 to 26.9 --
3. Total Dissolved Solids 970 to 1120 650 to 75 420 to 490 500
(mg/1)
4. DO 2.4 to 2.8 2.1 to 2.6 2.7 to 2.8 -
5. pH 7.3 to 7.5 7.4 to 7.7 7.6 to 7.8 6.5 to 8.5
6. Turbidity (NTU) 4.8 to 7.5 8.3 to 12.5 2.4 to 3.1 5
7. Total Suspended Solids 12 to 17 8 to 35 6 to 28 -
(mg/1)
8. BOD for 3 days at 27°C <1 <1 <1 -
(mg/l)
9. COD (mg/l) 4 to 11.76 6 to 7.84 4 to 5.88 -
10. Total Iron as Fe. (mg/1) 0.43 to 0.73 0.44 to b0.53 0.22 to 0.24 0.3
11. Dissolved Phosphate as P 0.03 to 0.06 0.03 to 0.06 0.06 -
(mg/1)
12 Sodium as Na, (mg/l) 72.2 to 86.9 69 to 79.3 69.1 to 74.5 -
13. Potassium as K, (mg/l) 4.7 to 10.3 0.7 to 1.3 0.5 to 0.9 -
14. Calcium as Ca (mg/1) 265.06 to 280.6 110 to 165.07 36.47 to 75
47.62
15. Magnesium as Mg (mg/1) 40.83 to 45.98 8.11 to 63 41.12 to 30
43.84
16. Total Hardness as CaCO3 830 to 890 446 to 534 260 to 299 300
(mg/1)
17. Chloride as Cl (mg/1) 248.34 to 268.33 103.55 to 111.71 29.26 to 33.6 25
18. Flouride as F.(mg/1) 0.4 to 0.6 0.2 to 0.8 0.4 1
19. Sulphate as SO4 (mg/1) 37 to 68 18.5 to 21 7 2200
20. Nitrate as NO3 (mg/l) 5.15 to 13.05 4.45 to 7.2 1.75 to 2.05 45
21. Alkalinity as CaCO3, (mg/l) 400 to 505 440 to 555 350 200
22. Acidity as CaCO3, (mg/l) 0.49 to 1.44 0.25 to 0.96 Nil to 0.48 --
Soil quality assessed through collecting a set of soil samples which represents various land
uses within the study area. The analysis of soil samples shows there is no considerable impact
on quality of soil even though the mining and its allied activities are from 1950’s including
82
drastic increase in annual production from the year 2003-04 onwards. The following Table
3.31 depicts the soil quality during different years.
Sl. Results
Particulars
No. S1 S2 S3 S4 S5
1. pH (1:2 aqueous solution) 6.85 6.86 7.1 7.26 7.95
2. Electrical Conductivity 610 435 385 515 725
(millimhos/cm)
3. Nitrogen as N, kg/ Hec 375 210 390 475 445
4. Phosphorous as P2O5, kg/Hec 48 35 40 95 65
5. Potassium as K2O2, meq/Hec 195 185 365 385 525
6. Chloride as Cl (%) 11 9 9 13 12.5
7. Iron as HCL Soluble, % 7.56 13.86 11.12 12.85 8.45
8. Organic matter (%) 0.66 0.65 0.85 0.78 0.86
9. Sand, % 23 33 15 18 35
10. Silt , % 35 30 40 38 30
11. Clay, % 42 37 45 44 35
12. Texture Clay Clay Clay Clay Clay
13. Water holding capacity, % 50 50 50 52 45
Noise quality in the villages has been assessed through monitoring the noise level. Based on
the noise level survey, the ambient noise at different villages has increased slightly due to
movement of iron ore through tippers/trucks. Table 3.32. Noise quality at the selected
locations within the vicinity of the village
83
3.3 DESCRIPTION OF FLORA - FAUNA IN THE STUDY AREA
The study area is an intermixed landscape of Reserve Forest (Ramgad RF, Hospet RF,
Billakallu RF, Joga RF) which is in the range of Sandur Reserve Forest. The vegetation
pattern is described as Southern dry Deciduous Forest. The area which comes under Eastern
Karnataka is a dry area with low rainfall associated with high temperatures and consequently
the soils are generally poor (Singh, 1988). However, the area supports for diverse form of
plants. The diversity of vegetation is composed of dry deciduous tree species and scrub
species. There is also a significant composition of Agro-system which is associated with the
human settlement. The cultivation fields, cropping system, agro-trees, village community
plantation on roadside, etc. are also the component of flora in the region. Nevertheless the
weeds associated in the agriculture crops, roadside shrubs and under-shrubs which are
dispersed by moving vehicles, etc. are also the component of vegetation of the area. The
major crops grown in the study region is shown in the Table 3.33.
The following Table 3.34 shows the weeds, shrubs, under-shrubs, climbers and hedge plants
which are generally seen in the study area.
84
Table 3.34: The Weeds, Shrubs, Under-shrubs, Climbers and Hedge Plants
The human settlements consist of village Agro-system and Homestead garden. General
profile of the agricultural field indicates the demarcation of the land among different land
owners by plantation of large number of tree are in the cultivation field by farmers, wherein it
provides shade, timber, firewood and foliage for livestock. The collection of tree component
85
in the agricultural activity is generally known as ‘agro-forestry. The study area although
consists of few agro-forest species there is large number of species planted on the roadside
(avenue plantation), beside household of villagers (Homestead garden). The following Table
3.35 gives the details of plant species generally found in the study area;
Table 3.35: List of Trees Growing in the Village Agro-system in the Study Area
86
Local names Botanical names Family Distribution
Unse hannu Tamarindus indica L. Caesalpiniaceae Agro-forest and
avenue tree
Nugge Moringa oleifera Lam. Moringaceae Agro-forest and
Home-gardens
Eucalyptus Eucalyptus sp Myrtaceae Bunds, wasteland
Neralle Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels Myrtaceae Agro-forest, Home-
garden and Avenue
tree
Bilvapatra Aegle marmelos (L.) Correa Rutaceae Found near temple
ex.Schultz
Karibevu Murraya koenigii (L.) Spr. Rutaceae Home-gardens
Dodabevu Ailanthus excelsa Roxb. Simaroubaceae Agro-forest
Jadi, Jaththi, Tectona grandis L.F. Verbenaceae Agro-forest
Tega
Basurimara Ficus amplissima Smith. Moraceae Roadside
Baage sujjulu Albizia chinensis (Osbeck) Mimosaceae Roadside
Merr.
The main Agro-forest trees are Azadirachta indica, Ailanthus excelsa, Tamarindus indica, etc.
The growths of the woody species are large in number when compared with the forest trees.
This may be due to the frequent nourishment of manure and water by the farmer for the crops
thereby the trees get benefited. The specie Neem is also abundantly planted in the roadside
and home garden. The plant is well known species which can adapt in hot regions and
wastelands. These species have thick foliage which can adsorb the fine dust particles which is
air borne due to mining activity in the surrounding area.
Further the thorn species are also found in the open scrub and rocky area. There is sparse
distribution of open scrubs, and a preliminary survey was undertaken to compile the check
list of plants prevailing in the landscape. The following Table 3.36 gives the plants that are
generally found in the open hers in the study area.
87
Local names Botanical names Family Growth form
Achu mullu, Therane Canthium parviflorum Rubiaceae Shrubby
Kakke Cassis fistula L. Caesalpiniacea Tree
e
Bejjal, Dindiga Anogeissus latifolia Combretaceae Tree
Wall.ex.Guill. & Perr.
Butti-aaragale, garakele Grewia villosa Willd. Tiliaceae Shrubby
Aralukadumandara, banne Bauhinia racemosa Lam. Caesalpiniacea Small tree
e
Avara-gida/ tangedi Cassia auriculata L. Caesalpiniacea shrub
e
Lambaani gida, puchuli Lantana camara L. Verbenaceae shrub
Barige, Karisurimullu Zizyphus oenoplia Mill. Rhamnaceae Spiny straggler
Nuguvempali Indigofera sp Fabaceae Under shrub
Chikka Kaavali Carissa spinarum L. Apocynaceae Shrub
Bandare, Bandarike Dodonaea viscose (L.) Sapindaceae Shrub
Kodugalli/ Bottugalli Euphorbia tirucalli L. Euphorbiaceae Succulent
Aadumuttada gida Tylophora indica (Burm.F.) Asclepiadaceae Climber
Merrill
Nela bedi soppu Croton bonplandianum Baill. Euphorbiaceae Under shrub
Dodda haralu Jatropha curcas L. Euphorbiaceae shrub
Dagadiballi, Sugadigida Cocculus hirsutus (L.) Diels Menispermacea Climber
e
Namadaberu, Sogade beru Hemidesmus indicus (L.) Schult Asclepiadaceae Climber
Malkaamguni, Tandrasi Maytenus emarginata (Willd.) Celastraceae Shrub
Ding
Dundukalli elegalli, Euphorbia nivulia Buch.-Ham. Euphorbiaceae succulent
Yellikalli
The forests in the study region are especially composed of dry deciduous plant is the Reserve
Forest of Sandur Range, which extended to Joga Forest and the Ramgad RF. The diversity of
the area is unique when compared to other dry deciduous forest in Northern India, where the
main composition is the thorn species.
Further, some of the species occurring in the open scrub also occurs in the Reserve forest
such as Acacia chundra, A. nilotica, A. pennata, Bauhinia racemosa, Holoptelia integrefolia,
etc (fringes and foot hill). The overall species occurrence in all Reserve forest has a
homogenous pattern consisting of around 30 dry deciduous tree species. The distribution
pattern is different among geographical landscape, whereas certain species are common to all
areas such as Terminalia alata, Chloroxylon swietenia, Anogeissus latifolia, Maytenus
emarginata, etc. the following Table 3.37 gives the plant species that are generally found in
the reserve forest of the study area.
88
Table 3.37: Checklist of Plant Species Found in the Reserve Forests
89
Kallaarthi, Soudanga gida Solanum erianthum D.Don Solanaceae
Koranekelar Tecoma stans Juss. Bignoniaceae
Barige, Karisurimullu Zizyphus oenoplia Mill. Rhamnaceae
The Reserve forest and the adjoining ecological landscape are renowned places for
harbouring various wild animals. It includes the slot beer, Wild boar, porcupine, fox, jackal
and even panther. The following Table 3.38 gives the general wild life found in the forest
area of the study area.
Conservation
Local name Common name Scientific name
status
Karadi Sloth Bear Melursus ursinus Threatened
Maan-ga Bonnet monkeys Macaca radiate Common
Mola Indian Hare Lepus nigricollis Common
Grey Mongoose Herpestes edwardsii Common
Small Mongoose Herpetes auropunctatus Common
Karu handi Wild Boar Sus scrofa Common
Chirathe Panther Panthera pardus Threatened
Tola Wolf Canis lupis Endangered
Jackal Canis aureus Schedule
Fruit Bat Rousettus leschenaulti Common
Three striped Funambulus palmarum Common
palm squirrel
Porcupine Hystrix indica Schedule
Karu Bekku Jungle cat Felis chaus Schedule
Punugu Common civet, Civet Cat Pardoxurus threatened
Bekku hermaphroditus
Chippu Pangolin Manis crassicaudata Rare
Handi
Nonetheless, it is important to spread knowledge on rare and threat animals in the area so as
to create awareness on the important species. The mining activity should be undertaken
without extensive disturbance to these animal species. The mining executives and worker
should be given awareness on the conservation value of the rare and threat animals of the
area.
90
3.4.2 Avi-Fauna
A large number of birds are distributed in the 10 km of the study area, which consist of
common birds of Karnataka, Birds associated with human habitat, Birds habituated near
water body. The below Table 3.39 give the general bird species that are generally found in
the study area.
91
Lesser Whistling Teal Dendrocygna javanica
Little Cormorant Phalacrocorax niger
Little Cormornant Phalacrocorax niger
Little Grebe Tachybaptus ruficollis
Little stint Calidris minuta
Median Egret Mesophoyx intermedia
Pintail Anas acuta
Pond Heron Ardeola grayii
White-breasted Kingfisher Halcyon smyrnensis
White-breasted Kingfisher Halcyon smyrnensis
White-breasted Waterhen Amaurornis phoenicurus
Wood sandpiper Tringa glareola
The prediction of ecological impact due to any developmental activity is now an integral part
of decision making of any developmental projects. Similar to any other developmental
activity, mining activity is also degrades the quality of the environment, thereby threatening
the flora- fauna of the region. In the study area, the process of EIA of mining has evaluated
different impacts both qualitatively & quantitatively on water, air and land including flora &
fauna of the surrounding area. Hence it is necessary to plan & implement feasible scientific
mitigative measures to prevent the loss of Forest cover and to encourage rehabilitation;
mitigative measures for displacement of birds and animal; conservation plan, etc. Numerous
plantation and reclamation works are incorporated in the mining activity as a part of the
corporate social responsibility, the species found in the study area are generally exotic or
foreign to the area such as Eucalyptus, Cassia siamea, Acacia auriculiformis, Grevillea
robusta, etc. In addition Pongamia pinnata, Dalbergia sps, Bauhinia varigaeta, etc are also
incorporated.
92
CHAPTER 4
93
4.0 GENERAL
Mining is the major economic activity in many developing countries irrespective of mode of
operation and mechanization. Mining has number of common stages/ activities, each of
which has potentially-adverse impacts on the environment & ecology, societal and cultural
heritage, the health of the communities living in the close proximity to mine lease areas.
At all levels, the mining industry is becoming more attuned to the importance of maintaining
a mine’s social – as distinct from its’ legal – licence to operate. It is generally accepted that,
if a mining operation is in conflict with significant sections of the local community, this will
create difficulties with regulators, generate negative publicity and make it more difficult for
carrying out mining operations.
To promote strong relationships with, and to enhance the capacities with the communities on
issues which may affect them, it is necessary to have regular interaction with the local
community, support them with infrastructural facilities, help them to uplift their social status.
Support for community projects will reflect the priorities of local people, sustainability and
cost effectiveness, which will increasingly seek to assess the contribution from the mining
operations to local social and economic developmental activity.
Mining of iron ore contains trace elements that are released in to the environment during
operations and end up in the atmosphere, in regional surface waters and on the soil.
Continual loading of pollutants to the environment is of special concern for either metal
and/or persist in the environment, because of their chemical structure. These pollutants
remain in the open atmosphere for longer period. Exposure to these environmental pollutants
occurs through direct inhalation or indirect exposure. Direct inhalation of the air toxicants can
cause asthma attacks, respiratory infections, or changes in lung function.
The health risks from the exposure to environmental pollution depends on the duration of
exposure, type of pollutant, concentration of pollutants and the sensitivity of the person to the
particular pollutant. Both short-term and long-term exposures are important in assessing the
potential risks, caused due to induced environmental changes. Studies have attempted to
quantify the potential health risks caused due to exposure to toxic emissions are limited due
to insufficient data and to account for multiple and cumulative exposure to many pollutants at
the same time. The following paras will analyse the impact of excessive iron ore mining in
94
the study villages vis-à-vis the measurement of economic cost imposed by the change in
environmental quality of the surrounding villages.
The ambient air quality was monitored by following the standard procedure for five villages
namely Jaisinghpur Papinayakanahalli, Joga, Siddapur, and Vaddarahalli villages with in the
study area of 10 KM. One village has been considered in the first quadrant, one village in the
third quadrant and three villages in the fourth quadrant. Moreover Papinayakanahalli, Joga
and Siddapur villages are located approximately at 1200 to each other from the center of the
study area of 10 kms. The reason for selecting three villages in the fourth quadrant was that
many mining leases were operating in this quadrant compared to others. Further, this
quadrant is having maximum movement of iron ore trucks.
The ambient air quality (AAQ) was monitored using pre-calibrated Respirable Dust Samplers
(RDS) for all seasons except monsoon. The frequency of sampling followed was: - 24 hourly
samples twice a week for four weeks in a month for all months except monsoon for
Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM) and Respirable Particulate Matter (RPM), and - 8 hourly
samples twice a week for four weeks in a month for all the months except during monsoon
for SO2 and NOx.
The methodology adopted for sample collection and its analysis is given in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1: Methodology Adopted for Sample Collection and its Analysis (source: cpcb)
95
The following graphs show the variation of air pollutants (SPM & RSPM) in the study
villages and the reference village.
180.00
160.00
140.00
120.00
Production (in'000 tons)
100.00
Average Annual Iron Ore Production
80.00 Average SPM concentration
Average RSPM concentation
60.00
40.00
20.00
0.00
2002-03
2003-04
2004-05
2005-06
2006-07
2007-08
2008-09
2009-2010
Year
Fig 4.1: Variation of Air Pollutants with respect to Iron Ore Production
The above table indicates that when ever the production of iron ore is high, the ambient air
quality has also increased. Similar trend can be observed in all the study villages. The
variation of the air pollutants in other study villages are shown in the following Figures 4.2,
4.3 & 4.4 below.
The meteorological parameters like wind speed, wind direction and temperature will
significantly contribute for the concentration of air pollutant at the particular location. The air
quality data was monitored for all the seasons, the above graph shows the average values of
the air pollutant concentration.
96
SPM, RSPM Conc. Vs. Iron Ore Production in PK Halli Village
180.00
160.00
140.00
120.00
Production (in '000 tons)
60.00
40.00
20.00
0.00
2002-03
2003-04
2004-05
2005-06
2006-07
2007-08
2008-09
2009-2010
Year
Fig 4.2: Variation of Air Pollutants with respect to Iron Ore production
200.00
180.00
160.00
140.00
Production (in '000 tons)
120.00
Average Annual Iron Ore Production
100.00 Average SPM concentration
Average RSPM concentation
80.00
60.00
40.00
20.00
0.00
2002-03
2003-04
2004-05
2005-06
2006-07
2007-08
2008-09
2009-2010
Year
Fig 4.3: Variation of Air Pollutants with respect to Iron Ore production
97
SPM, RSPM Conc. Vs. Iron Ore Production in Joga Village
160.00
140.00
120.00
Production (in '000 tons)
100.00
60.00
40.00
20.00
0.00
2002-03
2003-04
2004-05
2005-06
2006-07
2007-08
2008-09
2009-2010
Year
Fig 4.4: Variation of Air Pollutants with respect to Iron Ore production
This section mainly deals with the socio-demographic profile of the study area along with the
analysis of different environmental parameters. The increase in iron ore production,
subsequent impact on the socio economic conditions of the villagers situated around the study
area was also discussed. The prevalence of environmentally induced illness, based on the
epidemiological studies conducted in the other countries and within our country, where
excessive mining has caused significant damage in terms of health due to induced diseases.
The same was clearly explained in the earlier Chapter. The prevalence of environmentally
induced illness for the past one year is examined within the respondents.
Further the respondents where the incidences of suffering from the pollution induced set of
health disorders for definite duration and where there is a cost involved for the treatment of
particular diseases was only considered due to technical reason in the study. Respondents
who are suffering from the set of diseases like cough, asthma, dust allergy, respiratory
98
disorders etc, but have not approached doctor for the treatment, but have taken medicine
directly from the shop and suffered for very short period were excluded from study.
The prevalence of illness and the frequency of illness were mainly enquired among the
respondents, both in the study and reference villages. The following paras explain the socio-
demographic characteristics of the respondents including the health impact caused due to the
increase in iron ore production.
The respondents in the study and the control villages were earning members of the household
and in their absence, immediate head of the households was considered. (The rationale for
considering the earning member as the respondent was that, the study requires income and
expenditure of the household and the earning member was the best person to answer this
question). It was also assumed that the respondents have sufficient knowledge about impact
of increase in mining activity in the vicinity and its health impact and can understand the
situation to answer the questionnaire. The respondents are either directly experienced the
affect or have aware of the problem through different medias on the activities that are going
on in their surrounding area.
The Table 4.2 shows the distribution of the respondents in the study and reference village
household in terms of gender, marital status, age group, family size, number of household
members,
Table 4.2: Village wise Characteristics (in percentage)
99
PK Joga Siddapura Vaddarahalli
Parameters Characteristics Jaisingpur
Halli Village Village (Reference)
Number of Male 27 23 23 28 28
House Hold Female 3 7 7 2 2
Members Children 86 45 48 44 41
Marital Status Married 97 80 77 100 97
(%) Un Married 3 20 23 0 3
From the above table, it can be observed that, the 77- 93 percent of the respondents are male
population. The age group of the respondents also ranges from 13 – 30 who falls between the
age group of 20- 30 years. 20-43 percent of the respondents fall within the age group of 30-
40 years. About 10 – 33 percent of the respondents fall between the ranges of 40- 50 years. It
can also be observed that the average family size ranges from 3 – 5 in study and reference
villages. Most of the respondents are married people (77- 100% of the respondents).
Data on the educational status was obtained as a part of social survey. This also helps to
know the capacity of the respondents in understanding the scenario and also to measure the
contribution of increase in ore production to the upliftment of the villages. The following
Table 4.3 shows the educational status of the respondents in the study & the reference area.
Table 4.3: Educational Status of the Study Area in Percentage (N= 30 in each
Village) (in percentage)
From the above table, it can be concluded that illiterate respondents are high in all the
villages (it ranges from 40 – 57 %). The respondents who have completed graduation are very
less (ranges from 3 – 7 %) and even there are no graduate respondents in PK Halli. Another
significant number of respondents have left the schooling after the completion of the primary
100
schooling (ranges from 23- 33 %). The same is also represented in the form of Figure 4.4
mentioned below.
Educational Status
60
50
Educational Qualification
40
Illeterate
Up to Primary School
30 Up to High School
PUC/Diploma
Graduation
20
10
0
Jaisingpur PK Halli Joga Village Siddapura Village Vaddarahalli
(Reference)
Village
Fig. 4.4: Educational Status of the study and the reference village
The below Table 4.4 gives the occupational profile of the respondents in the study & the
reference area. The table clearly indicated that about 37 to 63 % of the respondents from the
study area are working in the mines lease area surrounded by their villages. Even thou there
are no mines in the reference villages, about 27 of the respondents work in the mine lease
area of the study area, as these villages are nearby to each others.
Table 4.4: Occupational Profile of the Study Area in Percentage (N= 30 in each
Village) (in percentage)
Sr. PK Joga Siddapura Vaddarahalli
Parameters Jaisingpur
No. Halli Village Village (Reference)
1 Farmer/Cultivators 27 17 27 47 37
2 Working in mine 40 63 37 37 27
Skilled/ Semi Skilled
3 labour 20 3 7 10 10
101
Sr. PK Joga Siddapura Vaddarahalli
Parameters Jaisingpur
No. Halli Village Village (Reference)
4 Business man 3 4 10 3 12
5 Driver 7 3 12 3 7
6 Others 3 10 7 0 7
Total 100 100 100 100 100
The same is also represented in the form of figure below (Fig 4.5)
Villagewise Occupation of the Respondents
Farmer/Cultivators
Working in mine
Skilled/ Semi Skilled labour
Business man
Driver
Others
Fig. 4.5: Occupational Profile of the respondents in the study & the reference villages
The following Fig 4.6 depicts the monthly income distribution among the respondents in the
study are the reference area. The main source of income is from the agricultural activity apart
from the labour employed in the mining lease area.
102
Average Monthly Income of household in percentage
90
80
70
60
Sample percentage
50 Below 5000
5000-10000
10000-15000
40 Above 15000
30
20
10
0
Jaisingpur PK Halli Joga Village Siddapura Village Vaddarahalli (Reference)
Village
From the above figure, it can be observed that, large percentage of respondents fall in the
range of Rs 5000 to Rs 10,000 in all the villages (ranges from 27 – 80 %).
Respondents with income below Rs 5000 range from 7-40 in the study as in the reference
village. A small percentage of respondents fall in the monthly income range of Rs above
15000 (3 – 7%).
Table 4.5: Average Household Expenditure in the Study Area (in Rs)
103
4.3.5 Monthly Expenditure
The table gives the average house hold expenditure in the study & the reference area. From
the above table it can be observed that respondents from the study and villages will spend
more money towards domestic consumption and on education of their children. It can also be
that respondents who are residing in study villages where there are mines around these
villages and are working in the mines as workers of have incurred an out of pocket
expenditure towards the health cost due to deterioration of environmental quality of their
village due to increase in Iron Ore Mining. The respondents in Jaisingpur and Siddapura
villages have incurred an additional such expenditure. The same can be internalized to the
cost of mine if the same can be reimbursed to the affected workers. The table also helps to
conclude that more mining in the area will helps to earn more income which can be spent to
uplift the a economic status of the respondents .
The analysis of the above table indirectly indicates that the social status of the study village
where there are more number of mine lease area vis a vis more labourers working in these
mines. The average expenditure for different parameters like domestic, education is high in
Jaisinghpur village and the health cost incurred towards environmentally induced illness, due
to deterioration in the air / water quality in the surrounding area.
The average house hold expenditure is depicted in the Figure 4.7. From the table it can be
concluded that, expenditure on house hold and additional health cost is almost the same
amount. However, the cost incurred in the non mining area is less compared to mining belt.
This is indirectly the local community is exposing to environmental degradation due to
mining and related activity.
104
Fig. 4.6: Average household expenditure in the Study Area
The Table 4.6 depicts the source of income for the household in the study & the reference
area.
The above table indicated that the incomes from the wages for working in the mine at
different study are ranges from 27 % to 54%. This table also indicates about 60 % of the
respondents in the reference area has agricultural income as there are no mines in the
surrounding area. The source of income from ‘others’ includes petty shops, provision store,
workshops and small hotels/dhabas.
Table 4.6: Source of Income of Household in Different Villages of the study Area
(in percentage)
105
An attempt was also made to know the indoor air quality through analyzing the source of
energy in the kitchen / bathroom. The following Table 4.7 gives the status of the household,
energy for cooking and the bath.
Table 4.7: The Status of the Household, Energy for Cooking and the Bath (in
Percentage)
About 20 - 64 % of the respondents in the study and reference area are residing in semipucca
house, about 65 – 84 % of the respondents in the study and the reference area are using fire
wood as the source of energy in the kitchen and 77 – 94 % of the responds uses fire wood in
the bath room for heating purposes.
For the purpose of evaluation of change in the quality of the environment due to increase in
mining activity in the study area, Environmental Impact matrix was developed based on the
baseline data collected on different environmental attributes like water, air, noise, soil
characteristics and the details of flora-fauna in the study area. This methodology is evolved
to quantity the environmental impact in the study area due to increased mining operations.
The method involves a method of evaluation, through a weighing scaling checklist. The
checklist consists of various parameters identified from different environmental attributes like
ecology, air, water etc for this purpose. All these parameters have been assigned importance
weight through quantitative analysis for increasing mining activity. The resultant importance
weight points are presented in the Table 4.8 below.
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4.5 HEALTH STOCK MEASURES AMONG THE RESPONDENTS
It is evident that the increase in iron ore production increases the dust emission in the
surrounding environment and accidental discharge/ runoff during the rainy season causes
accumulation of the fines / soil in the nearby surface water body. Exposure to high
concentration of the dust in the air and continuous inhalation and consumption of polluted
water, causes health impact in the exposed population. The following table gives the health
stock in the respondents of the villages both in the study and the reference area.
Table shows the number of respondents suffering from specific diseases in both the area
along with time of exposure and the distance of travel, as it is evident that as the time of
exposure and duration of exposure increases, the inhalation of polluted air increases and
hence the probability of suffering from respiratory disease will also increases.
Table 4.8: Health Status of the Respondents in the Study Area (in Percentage)
The Relationship between Health Status & the time spent by the respondents in the mining
area is given below table. The mining companies predominantly operate in the day light
hours between 06 hrs to 18 hrs in this study area.
107
Table 4.9: The Relationship between Health Status & the Time Spent
Joga Siddapura
Sr. No. Disease Jaisingpur PK Halli
Village Village
1 Asthma 6 8 8 7
2 Dust Allergy 8 6 5 7
3 Respiratory infection 6 4 7 5
Gastro Intestinal
4 disorders 4 7 5 5
5 Water Borne Disease 4 4 5 6
6 Loss of hearing 0 4 5 5
An attempt was made to collect the data on the frequency of doctor’s visit by the respondents
who are suffering from the set of environmentally induced illness. The following table 4.10
gives the frequency of doctor’s visit in the study and the controlled villages.
Table: 4.10: Doctor’s Visit by the Respondents Since Last One Year in Percentage
From the above table it can be observed that large number of respondents suffering from the
set of induced illness in all the study villages have visited the doctor for 0 – 3 times for taking
treatment. It ranges from 60 – 80 % in the study villages where there are operating mines and
it is 57% where there are no mines and health victims are also less. As the frequency of
doctor’s visits increases, the number of respondents reduces indicating that the respondents
are suffering from chronic diseases and not the acute one.
It was also observed from the field survey that all the mining labour are being provided with
safety shoes, mask and ear plugs as preventive/ mitigating measures. These will reduce the
environmental burden induced due to the exposure to different pollutants/ occupational risk
with in the mine lease area.
Further baseline data on the health care facilities provided by the government/ the private
medical practitioner with in the study area and the reference area was also collected to know
availability of treatment facilities to the respondents. The following Table 4.11 gives the
status of health care facilities in the study and the control villages.
108
Table: 4.11: Number of Health Care Facilities Available in the Study Area
Sr. PK Joga Siddapura Vaddarahalli
Type of Hospital Jaisingpur
No. Halli Village Village (Reference)
1 Government 1 1 0 0 0
2 Private Clinic 2 3 1 2 2
The above table indicates that there are few government hospitals in the study villages (only
Jaisinghpur and PK Halli has one primary health unit/centre, where as there are no
government hospitals in other villages). All the villages have private medical practitioners
operating the clinic. The villagers have to depend on these clinics for any unforeseen
emergency. At two places, the private doctors were residing in the same village, hence an
easy access to the villagers in case of emergency.
This has also contributed for higher expenditure on the health cost, as the doctor’s fee ranges
from Rs.50- Rs.100 in the study and in the control villages as compared with the consultation
with the government hospital. The government has provided free medical checkup for low
income group (people from below poverty line (BPL) and there is only registration fee of Rs
20 for the respondents who are above poverty line (APL). There are no hospitals in the mine
leases spread across the study area.
109
4.6 MEASUREMENT OF THE HEALTH COST
An attempt is made to measure the health cost imposed by increase in the mining activity,
which has contributed for deterioration of air quality, water quality in the study villages. The
following Table 4.12 to Table 4.16 gives the health cost incurred by the respondents in
different study villages individually.
Average
Total Loss of Total Cost
Average Cost of
Number of Cost of Income Incurred
Sr. Doctor’s medicine
Disease patients in Medicine/ due to towards
No. fee paid Spent
Jaisingpur Visit in sick/y in medicine/
in Rs. /person/
Rs. Rs. time in Rs.
Visit in Rs.
Air Pollution induces Diseases
1 Asthma 4 100 480 1920 3000 5020
Dust
2 Allergy 13 100 382 4966 750 5816
Skin
3 Allergy 5 100 235 1175 1000 2275
Water Pollution induces Diseases
1 Malaria 2 100 125 250 500 850
2 Jaundice 3 100 785 2355 750 3205
Gastro
Intestinal
3 disorders 2 100 345 690 1000 1790
4 Dehydration 1 100 150 1 250 351
Total 19307
Average
Number Loss of Total Cost
Average Cost of
of Total Cost of Income Incurred
Sr. Doctor’s medicine
Disease patients Medicine/Visit due to towards
No. fee paid Spent
in P.K in Rs sick/yr medicine/
in Rs /person/ Visit
Halli in Rs time in Rs
in Rs
Air Pollution induces Diseases
1 Asthma 3 100 280 840 3750 4690
Dust
2 Allergy 10 100 180 1800 500 2400
Respiratory
3 infection 1 100 380 380 500 980
Skin
4 Allergy 8 100 565 4520 250 4870
110
Average
Number Loss of Total Cost
Average Cost of
of Total Cost of Income Incurred
Sr. Doctor’s medicine
Disease patients Medicine/Visit due to towards
No. fee paid Spent
in P.K in Rs sick/yr medicine/
in Rs /person/ Visit
Halli in Rs time in Rs
in Rs
Water Pollution induces Diseases
1 Malaria 3 100 384 1152 500 1752
2 Jaundice 1 100 1385 1385 2500 3985
Gastro
Intestinal
3 disorders 4 100 980 3920 1000 5020
Total 23697
Total
Loss of
Number Cost
Average Average Cost of Incom
of Total Cost of Incurred
Sr. Doctor’s medicine Spent e due
Disease patients Medicine/Visit towards
No. fee paid /person/ Visit in to
in Joga in Rs medicine/
in Rs Rs sick/yr
Village time in
in Rs
Rs
Air Pollution induces Diseases
1 Asthma 1 50 315 315 1500 1865
Dust
2 Allergy 8 50 265 2120 750 2920
Respirato
ry
3 infection 6 50 342 2052 750 2852
Skin
4 Allergy 7 50 512 3584 1250 4884
Water Pollution induces Diseases
1 Malaria 4 50 205 820 750 1620
2 Jaundice 2 50 1160 2320 500 2870
Dehydrat
3 ion 1 50 260 260 500 810
Total 17821
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Table 4.15: Treatment Cost Incurred by the Respondents in Siddapura Village
Average Total
Loss of
Number of Average Cost of Cost
Total Cost of Income
Sr. patients in Doctor’s medicine Incurred
Disease Medicine/Visit due to
No. Siddapura fee paid Spent towards
in Rs sick/yr in
Village in Rs /person/ medicine/
Rs
Visit in Rs time in Rs
Air Pollution induces Diseases
1 Asthma 2 80 296 592 3250 3922
Dust
2 Allergy 11 80 318 3498 2000 5578
Respiratory
3 infection 5 80 300 1500 2250 3830
Skin
4 Allergy 4 80 285 1140 3750 4970
Water Pollution induces Diseases
1 Jaundice 1 80 658 658 3000 3738
Gastro
Intestinal
2 disorders 2 80 426 852 1750 2682
3 Dehydration 1 80 125 125 500 705
Total 25425
Total
Average
Loss of Cost
Average Cost of
Number of Total Cost of Income Incurred
Sr. Doctor’s medicine
Disease patients in Medicine/Visit due to towards
No. fee paid Spent
Vaddarahalli in Rs sick/y medicine/
in Rs /person/
in Rs time in
Visit in Rs
Rs
Air Pollution induces Diseases
1 Dust Allergy 6 80 210 1260 1000 2340
Respiratory
2 infection 3 80 268 804 1250 2134
3 Skin Allergy 4 80 432 1728 1750 3558
Water Pollution induces Diseases
1 Malaria 1 80 135 135 1250 1465
Total 9497
The following Table 4.17 gives the consolidated total additional Economic cost incurred by
the respondents in the study and the reference village due to Pollution/ Annum is in rupees.
112
Table 4.17: Total Additional Economic Cost Incurred by the Respondents
The above Table clearly indicates that the respondents who are residing in those villages
where there are more number of mines and the transportation of ore laden vehicles.
Even though the statutory authorities like Ministry of Environment & Forest (MoEF) and the
State Pollution Control Boards (SPCB) stipulated the condition that the ore laden vehicles
shall have to be covered completely with the tarpaulins and the ore has to be transported with
wet condition, generally the mine owners will transport the ore in the open loaded vehicles
with out any cover and in the dry state. This ultimately makes the fine ore to get air borne and
lots of spillages will also takes place on the road sides of the villages exposing the people
who are residing on the road side to higher concentration of the dust.
Further there was also a condition that the haulage roads with in the mine lease area has to be
wetted with water sprinkling arrangement on regular basis and the mines dumps also has to
be provided with water sprinkling arrangement. However due to practical difficulties,
generally the haulages roads were not wetted. This has also contributed for higher
concentration of air pollutants in the vicinity.
The distribution of human settlement and density of population is drastically changed since
the past few decades owing to its geological component that is rich in Ores. The activities of
agriculture create less pressure on the natural forest in the surrounding area, whereas mining
activities have imparted a change in the local landscape. The nature of impacts of mining on
natural vegetation is different from different activities. The nature of impacts of the increase
in the mining activity on the surrounding environment is discussed in following paras;
113
4.7.1 Denudation of Natural Vegetation
There is removal of green cover and top soil in mining activity. The top soils are conserved
accordingly as proposed in the mine scheme whereas the vegetation cover is removed once
for all. The Mine Lease in the study area mostly falls under the Reserve forest. The ores
deposits are stored inside the mountain folds, thereby it is also feasible for extraction from the
top of hillocks. Site clearance for starting mining activity involves removal of plants & trees
in the surrounding vicinity. Further, an approach road is also required for the incoming and
outgoing ferrying vehicles. A general presentation of the mines showing the extend of
removal of vegetation cover can be view from aerial images
Denudation of vegetation cover (lateral view and aerial view of google image)
114
The program on reclamation and afforestation in the mine area is undertaken with fast
growing species. The fast growing species are mostly Eucalyptus, Acacia auriculiformis,
Cassia siamea, Grevelia robusta, Casuarina equisetifolia, etc. These fast growing species
extract nutrient and water extensively from the substratum thereby leaving behind the soil not
fit for any plant growth. Moreover, whether the local birds and animals can shelter the fast
growing grooves is a big question.
4.7.3 Solid Waste and Waste Water such as Dust and Mine Wash-out
Another problem with mining activity is the transportation and vehicular movements. The
dust dispersed from the local village road contaminate in the surrounding structure, biotic
component, household utensils, etc.
The generation of the fine dust due to air borne particulates contaminates the surrounding air
environment. The mine wash-out which will follow the surface run off due to rains will get
accumulated in the cultivation field has become a serious issue since from the beginning of
the mining activity. The loss of crops cannot be estimated practically, but crop losses are
reported due to dust accumulation on foliar surface of the plants; and reduction in production
due to poor soil condition. The contamination of mine wash-out is common in the nearby
cultivation fields, if not checked by providing proper technical reclamation/conservation
measures such as check dams, gully plugs and toe retention wall. Creation of scientifically
designed storm water drainage at critical locations such as around the rejection dump area,
115
shoulders of the haulage road and all round the active mine pit to carry rain water, which will
prevent of lose muck and dust particles joining the adjacent agricultural field and or siltation
natural drainage system.
The Dust is one of the main nuisances produced during the mining operations. The removal
of top soil, clearing the site for mining, and excavation of the ore through operation of heavy
earth moving machineries, movement of vehicles including drilling & blasting operations
creates lot of dust in the surrounding area. With the monitoring and measurements of
statutory authorities, the dispersal of dust from the mining activities are restricted with the
implementation of various pollution control measures like regular water sprinkling on the
haulage road, mining pit, avenue plantation, covering the ore with tarpaulin which
transportation, transporting the ore in wet condition etc, the problems of dust dispersion from
mining activities is still a long debate.
Dispersal and deposition of the air borne dust on the nearby human settlements and
cultivation field attract serious concern among the general public. The settling of dust on
household material, biotic component and livestock has disturbed the well-being of a society.
Meanwhile the deposition on natural plants and vegetation has not raised alarm on legal
ground. But as far as crops are concerned various issues are raised on the issues of loss of
crop yield. The loss is also emanated from the contamination of sediments from the wash-out
during rain.
Regarding studies on impact of dust on plants, various studies are available in the regional
context of India. The general impacts highlighted are reduction in chlorophyll content,
protein and other metabolite. This may be due to fly ash pollution (Prasad, 1990), cement
dust (Tiwary and Patel, 1993) as well quarry dust pollution (Pandit et al., 1996, Somashekar
et al., 1999). Also effect on leaf epidermis (stomatal index, length, width of guard cell) is
highlighted in plant growing near stone crushers (Shammushauel, 1995; Paramesha et al.,
2007).
Further studies on the impact on crops are also available relating to various physiological
effects such as reduction in growth and biomass yield on Brassica oleraceae and B.
campestris by Zagar et al. (1999) and Shukla et al. (1990). The reduction in chlorophyll
content, protein, starch, yield and phytomass in Groundnut was reported by Prasad and
116
Inamdar, 1990. Overall, particulate dust falling on leaves may cause foliar injuries, reduction
in yield, change in photosynthesis and transpiration, etc. (Raina et al., 2008).
An environmental management system is a tool used to identify measure and manage the
effects of its human activities on the environment. An EMS sets out the goals for
environmental performance and a plan for achieving those goals. Ideally, the company will
set goals in areas such as compliance with environmental laws, minimization of risks to
human health and the environment, use of natural resources, and prevention and reduction of
pollution.
Environmental Management System is most effective when they are part of normal business
activities rather than treated as separate programs or initiatives. The EMS provides a
systematic way to integrate those efforts and direct them toward established goals. The
significant range and variations of EMSs can be attributed to the differences among
organizations in size, activities, impacts, regulatory requirements, corporate culture and
policy commitments. This is applicable to organizations of all types and sizes, is based on
five components:
117
5. Review of the EMS by top management "to ensure its continuing suitability,
adequacy, and effectiveness. The following Environmental index has been evolved
based on the primary analysis of the data collected on different environmental
attributes.
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
Villages
Measurable
Attributes PK Joga Siddapura Vaddarahalli
Parameters Jaisingpur
Halli Village Village (Reference)
SPM in
µg/NM3 8 5 8 5 2
RSPM in
µg/NM3 5 5 8 5 2
Hardness in
mg/l 8 5 5 2 5
Suspended
Solids in
mg/l 5 2 2 5 2
T.D.S. in
Environmental
mg/l 5 2 5 5 5
pollution
Turbidity in
mg/l 8 5 2 2 5
Total Iron
as Fe in
mg/l 2 2 8 5 2
Community
noise dB(A) 2 2 5 2 2
Occupation
noise
dB(A) 5 5 2 2 2
118
Qualitative Impact Index (QII) of Ecological Parameters
Villages
Measurable
Parameters PK Joga Siddapura Vaddarahalli
Jaisingpur
Halli Village Village (Reference)
Ecological Vegetation/Agriculture M M M M L
Parameters Crops M M L M L
Soil Characteristics M M M M M
Ground water L L L L L
Soil erosion S S M S M
Villages
Measurable
Attributes PK Joga Siddapura Vaddarahalli
Parameters Jaisingpur
Halli Village Village (Reference)
Age <30 x x x x x
(yrs) >30 x x x x x
Male x x x x x
Sex
Female
x x x x x
House <3
x x x x x
Social hold members
member >3
x x x x x
s members
Educati Literates + + + + +
on Illiterates _ _ _ _ _
Infrastructure + + + + +
Economy output + + + + +
Employment + + + + +
Drinking water
Economical + + + + +
supply
Community health + + + + +
Occupational health _ _ _ _ _
The above Tables clearly indicates that there is an positive impact on the economic out put,
employment as there is an increase in the employment opportunities and hence there is a
economic output for the people. Further, the basic facilities of the villages like drinking water
119
supply, community health and infrastructure will improve because of contribution from the
owners of surrounding mining companies with the intension that they can operate the mining
operations with the complete cooperation from the surrounding community. This also is a
part of social responsibility of the entrepreneur under “Corporate Social Responsibility” for
environmental protection.
There is an always a positive impact on the community health the affordability of people for
health care facilities and also from the mine owners.
There is no impact on social aspects like age, sex, house hold members etc due to increase in
iron ore mining in the surrounding area as these parameters are demographic features of any
location and or not location specific/area specific. However, there is a positive impact on the
literacy rates of the people due to the facilities provided by wither government through
collection of high revenues in terms of tax from the mining companies or directly from
mining companies themselves as a part of social obligations.
The qualitative impact index of ecological parameters are also reveals that in all the villages
of rhe study area, there is a moderate impact on vegetation, agriculture, crops and soil
characteristics due to increase in mining activity by the surrounding mines. However, there is
least impact on the ground water aquifer in all the study villages and there is severe impact on
soil erosion in three out of five villages of the study area, but there is a moderate impact in
two villages on the issue of soil erosion. The overall analysis of qualitative impact index
reveals that the impact will be from low to moderate as compared to the severe.
The overall analysis of the environmental management model envisages the efficient
management system for preventing/controlling the impact of increase in the iron ore mining
on different environmental attributes including flora and fauna.
120
CHAPTER 5
121
The iron ore mining brings wealth to the society, a country as a whole foreign exchange. Lot
of industrial, infrastructural and developmental activities requires iron as a raw material
which contributes for economic growth of the country. However, mining causes negative
externality through degradation of land, surface and ground water and air quality of the
surrounding environment and ecology.
Detailed data on socio-demographic status of the villages which are situated around the mine
lease areas at four villages were collected and a reference village was also considered for
comparison. Detailed analysis of field data collected on various social and environmental
attributes reveals that the villages have lacuna in terms of having basic facilities like
hospitals, schools, community centers, training centers etc which contributes for upliftment of
living standards of the people.
In all the study villages, illiterates were high when compared with the respondents with
educational qualification of primary and high school. There were very few respondents who
have completed the graduation in all the villages.
The analysis of occupational profile have supported the hypothesis that more respondents
were working in the mines, situated near the study area and there were few respondents who
are residing in the reference village, are working in the mines of other villages. Apart from
the mines, agricultural activity has contributed significantly for the income of the house
holds. There was small percentage of respondents who are earning through business, drivers.
The analysis of average monthly income of the household reveals that the study village
Siddapura was more number of mine leases is situated, has high rate of average monthly
income when compared with the other study villages.
The respondents have spent significantly more amount towards domestic, medical and
education in the study villages where there are mine leases. It has also revealed that the
122
respondents have incurred high “out of pocket” expenditure towards treatment for the
diseases which are induce due to exposure for environmental pollutants either in the working
mine leases or during transportation. This health cost is high in the study area of Siddapura
and Jaisinghpur due to more number of leases vis-à-vis increase in workers working in these
mines.
The analysis of source of income for different household in study area reveals that source
from agriculture activity is significant apart from mining. Livestock and forest produce have
also contributed to a small extent among the respondents.
An attempt to measure the in door air quality in the study area through collecting a data on
status of house, source of energy in the kitchen/bath room have revealed that higher
percentage of respondents are residing in semi Pucca house and are using fire hood as energy
source in their houses. Cowdung is also being used by the respondents to a significant extent.
The health data collected from the respondents have revealed, significantly more number of
respondents is suffering from dust allergy, skin allergy in the study area where there are
mines and are working as workers in those mines.
The data collected on the ambient air quality in the selected stations of study area reveals that
increase in iron ore production has significantly contributed for deterioration of air quality
combing with the transportation of ore without dust containment measures. The analysis has
revealed that SPM concentration has reached as high as 310 µg/nm3 whereas RSPM has 160
µg/nm3 which is five times higher than the AAQM standards. Continuous exposure to this
higher concentration for longer duration will significantly contribute for health impact and
health cost among the respondents.
The increase in iron ore production has not significantly contributed for deterioration of
surface water quality in the surrounding villages. The analysis of surface water quality of
nallah/tank water has revealed that few parameters are near to the standards but well within
the limits. Hence there is a need to have preventive measures like construction of toe
retention wall, check dams, gully plugs and contour trenches to prevent accidental/
unforeseen run-off due sudden down pour/cloud burst.
123
The analysis of ground water has indicated that, there is no significant change in the water
quality as most of the area has clayee structure where there are less pores which can carry
surface water to the ground water aquifer/ground water table.
Finally the analysis of health impacts due to deterioration of environmental attributes among
the respondents in the study area has indicated that, the respondents who are residing in the
villages near to the mine and working as workers in the mine lease area are suffering from set
of air pollution induced respiratory related illness. The study villages viz. Siddapura and
Jaisingpur villages where more mine are operating has shown high incidences of illness
among the respondents contributing for higher health cost incurred through treatment. As the
mine’s owners have not provided clinics/health care establishment within the lease area, the
expenditure incurred towards the treatment has resulted in “out of pocket” expenditure which
makes house hold to become indebtness.
The analysis of environmental management model suggests that the mining companies to
implement effectively the principles of systematic & scientific method of mining adopting
technical and biological reclamation techniques such as engineering measures vis-à-vis
construction of scientifically designed soil erosion control measures.
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CHAPTER 6
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128
APPENDICES
129
APPENDIX-A
Questionnaire
Address: _________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
1. Age :
1 2 3 4 5
Illiterate Up to Secondary Up to High School Technical Diploma/(ITI) Graduate
6. Occupation:
1 2 3 4
Farmer Unskilled Labour Skilled Labour Others
7. Working Place:
1 2 3 4
Private (with in mines) Business Driver Others
130
8. Total monthly Income:
1 2 3 4
<.5, 000 5,000 - 10,000 10,000 - 15,000 >15,000
1 2 3 4
Agriculture Livestock Forest Produce Others
1 2 3
Domestic Education Others
Own 1
12. Do you stay in own or rented house? Rented 2
1 2 3 4
TV Fridge & Washing Machine Vehicle (2, 3 & 4) Others
1 2 3
Type of flue used in Type of flue used in Bathroom Ventilation in House (Kitchen)
Kitchen
131
Section B: Air Quality Status
1 2 3 4
Suspended Particulate Matter (PM10) Suspended Sulphur Di Oxides of
Particulate Matter Oxide (SO2) Nitrogen (NOx)
(PM2.5)
1 2 3
Ton/Day Ton/month Ton/Annuam
1 2 3 4
Public Supply Open Well Bore Well Other
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
pH TDS Turbidity Total Calcium Magnesium Total Chlorides Fluorides Alkalinity
Iron as Ca Hardness
5. Whether they experience the noise and vibration of blasting 1-Yes 2-No
132
6. If Yes, the rating they can give 1- Normal 2- Moderate 3- High
Yes 1
No 2
1 2 3
Type of Diseases Duration of Diseases Have you Consulted any
Doctor
3. Consultation of Doctor:
1 2 3
Government Private Other
4. Health Status:
1 2 3 4 5 6
Cost incurred to Doctors Cost of No of days No of leaves Loss of
meet the Doctor Fee Medicine of medicine taken due to wages
taken diseases
5. Hospitalization if Any:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Name of No of Cost of Cost of No of No of Loss of Total exp
the days hospitalization medicine people leaves wages Incurred
Disease Admitted occupancies taken
1. Do you feel the mining activity has changed the environment of the area? 1-Yes, 2-No
133
3. Do you feel any change is required? 1-Yes, 2-No
1 2 3 4
Restriction on Restriction on Intensive Afforestation Restriction on Mine lease
Production Transportation area
1. Are you willing to pay as one time basis for reducing pollution? 1- Yes 2- No
2. If yes, how much are you willing to pay to reduce the pollution (Select from the following
Table)?
1 2 3 4
Less than 100 between 100 to 250 between 250 to 500 More than 500
4. Did you consider your budget while answering this question? 1- Yes, 2- No.
Thank You for spending your valuable time and filling up the questionnaire. The
information given by you will be used only for study purposes.
134
APPENDIX –B
AIR QUALITY DATA OF DIFFERENT VILLAGES
JAISINGPUR VILLAGE
YEARLY AVERAGE VALUES
PAPINAYAKANAHALLI VILLAGE
YEARLY AVERAGE VALUES
JOGA VILLAGE
YEARLY AVERAGE VALUES
135
SIDDAPURA VILLAGE
YEARLY AVERAGE VALUES
VADDARAHALLI VILLAGE
YEARLY AVERAGE VALUES
136
APPENDIX –C [
137
AMBIENT AIR QUALITY MONITORING DATA
138
AMBIENT AIR QUALITY MONITORING DATA
Hours 06- 00 to 14-00 hrs 14-00 to 22-00 hrs 22-00 to 06-00 hrs 06-00 to 06-00 hrs
Date SO2 NOx SO2 NOx SO2 NOx SPM RPM
A I. Siddapur Village
02.09.2003 3 1 9 4 7 10 153 92
10.09.2003 8 2 5 9 3 1 137 71
19.09.2003 5 9 1 10 6 11 175 124
30.09.2003 2 7 10 1 11 3 148 90
A II. Papinayakana Halli Village
02.09.2003 10 7 2 8 5 3 117 85
10.09.2003 1 4 6 10 7 12 186 124
19.09.2003 5 8 1 15 3 11 145 116
30.09.2003 2 4 7 10 14 6 177 120
A III. Joga Village
02.09.2003 5 12 3 9 4 12 110 82
10.09.2003 3 10 8 1 1 6 145 112
19.09.2003 6 2 14 9 10 3 136 98
30.09.2003 15 8 11 7 17 10 151 118
A II. Vaddarahalli Village
04.09.2003 7 10 5 13 11 4 192 120
09.09.2003 3 12 9 7 1 8 183 117
17.09.2003 9 5 6 4 2 1 207 26
26.09.2003 4 2 8 6 9 3 165 108
A III. Jaisinghpur Village
04.09.2003 11 7 1 6 10 3 96 48
09.09.2003 3 9 5 12 8 1 77 41
17.09.2003 9 20 12 3 2 2 47 26
26.09.2003 5 4 9 7 6 3 112 70
139
PUBLICATIONS
140
List of Publications based on Ph.D Research Work
141
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
142
Name: SHANTH AVERAHALLY THIMMAIAH
Designation: Director
Address: METAMORPHOSIS
#143, II Floor, 39th Main, 4th Cross,
Behind Silk Board, BTM Layout II Stage,
Bangalore-560 068.
E-Mail: shanth@metamorphosis-india.com
1. Educational Qualification:
143
Mines. Panaji, Goa.
4. Professional Experience
*Role/Duties/
Period Organization with address Department Designation
Responsibilities
19/10/2006 METAMORPHOSISSM Environment, Director Overall
to Till date HEAD OFFICE: Mining, responsibilities
#143, II Floor, 39th Main, 4th Environmental of Environment,
Cross, Behind Silk Board, BTM & Industrial Mining &
Layout II Stage, Bangalore-560 Research Laboratory duties
068, KARNATAKA. Laboratory
17/05/1999 V. M. Salgaocar & Bro. Pvt. Ltd. Geology & Environmental Environmental &
to Salgaocar House, Off. Francisco Mine Planning Engineer ISO –QMS &
16/09/2004 Luis Gomes Road, Post Box. Dept. EMS for the
No. 14, Vasco-da-Gama, GOA- entire group.
403 802.
22/09/2004 Transit Surveys, Environment & Sr. Manager EIA –EMP
to 2nd Cross, Nehru Colony, Laboratory Preparation
10/10/2006 Bellary- 583 101,
KARNATAKA.
144
20/08/1998 Transoft International Pvt. Ltd., Environment Environmental Preparation of
to J.P. Nagar, Bangalore-76 Engineer REIA & EMP of
10/05/1999 power plants
145