I^J

* li

i
^
Wf

m f,
9

WiUiamC

illTom Thcmison
 Mrs. M, Dale Nixon
38 Princeton Circle
Longmont; Colorado 80501
II
vrf %

K?
MATERIALS
AND
STRUCTURE
I
OF MUSIC

I'l
t^

'>.di'^mf
 MATERIALS
AND
STRUCTURE
OF MUSIC

William Christ

Richard DeLone

Vernon Kliewer
Lewis Rowell

William Thomson
Indiana University

Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey

© PRENTICE-HALL, INC.
1966 by
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey

All rights reserved. No

part of this book may
be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any
other means, without permission in writing from
the publishers.

Current printing (last number):

10 9 8 7 6 5 4

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 66-14354

Printed in the United States of America. C-56030

PRENTICE-HALL INTERNATIONAL, INC., London

PRENTICE-HALL OF AUSTRALIA, PTY. LTD., Sydney
PRENTICE-HALL OF CANADA, LTD., TorontO
PRENTICE-HALL OF INDIA (PRIVATE) LTD., NeW Delhi
PRENTICE-HALL OF JAPAN, INC., TokyO
To
Nelda, Joanne, Diane, Annette, and Betty,
who were so patient
^.

.•'^."
 Prehace

There can be only one valid reason for writing still another
book tiiat deals with the materials of music: the desire to
contribute insights and techniques of learning that are fresh
and that are superior to those already presented for our
understanding of music. The two volumes of Materials and
Structure of Music are unique in several ways: they repre-
sent the synthesis of the broad experience of five people who
know music as composers, performers, listeners, and teachers;
they are an accounting of the time and pitch bases of the
music of Western Civilization, not a rechewing of the dubious
"rules" of a limited body of music. Perhaps most significant is
the fact that they stand as an attempt to strip away the sur-
face peculiarities of the music of any one composer or "style"
and delve into more basic matters.
In these two volumes we have attempted to accomplish two
main tasks: (1) To set out in effective pedagogical order a
framework of understanding for the materials and structure
of music; and (2) to transmit this understanding by means of
the actual music produced in the Western world.
To achieve the first goal, Volume I begins with a study of
melody. The complexities of the traditional four-part "har-
mony" work have been deferred until step-by-step knowledge
of basic pitch organization in two- and three-voice combina-
tions has been introduced. In this way the learning sequence
is realistically geared to student comprehension, and a true

ordering from simple to complex is realized.

The format of introducing pitch association through rudi-
ments of counterpoint in these early chapters (9-12) is more
akin to the traditions of sixteenth century contrapuntal teach-
ing than to any other, for the internal is the basis of pitch
determination. Ours is not, however, a "species" approach to
the study of tonal association; we feel that at this stage of

v;;
VIII PREFACE

learning this technique of rhythmic structuring is more stul-

tifying than it is illuminating. We believe that the teaching
of counterpoint as a compositional discipline is more properly
within the domain of the composition than the theory
class
class; in the theory class the work aims more toward compre-

hension of music than toward demonstrable skill in writing,

for the written work
only a means to the more basic and
is

significant goal of understanding. The object of this early

introduction to rudimentary counterpoint is not to provide a
rigidly disciplined course in -contrapuntal skill, but rather to
enrich the student's understanding of music.
In these two volumes the different structural elements of
music, such as tonality, melody, harmony, texture, and form,
are presented as inter-related phenomena without unwar-
ranted emphasis upon the formulation and application of
contrived principles of chord connection. Through this ap-
proach, and through liis own involvement with all of the
materials of music, the student develops a wider perspective
and a deeper understanding of its organization.
To meet the second goal, an abundance of musical examples,
each selected for exacting purposes of illustration, accompanies
the text of Volumes I These volumes contain more
and II.

examples from before 1700 and after 1900 than any other
basic theory text that is available at this time. There is an
emphasis, of course, on the music of the so-called "period of
common practice" which is included with the full realization
of the significance of this repertoire both to the performing
and listening musician.
Materials and Structure of Music I and // are designed for
a basic music theory curriculum. It is assumed that the ma-
terials of the two volumes and accompanying workbooks will
be used as the basis for the entire course of study, with the
supplementation of melodies for music-reading practice and
at least some of the scores for works that are discussed in the
texts. Each chapter is followed by suggested Exercises designed

for the application of information exposed in the text. These

sections contain guides for aural training, written application,
keyboard work, and sight-singing practice, thus utilizing all
approaches to the understanding of subject matter presented
in the text. These Exercises are minimal and are intended
only as outlines of supplementary work that should be done.
Both of the accompanying workbooks, however, are planned
to furnish sufficient materials for a comprehensive course of
study, and for maximum efficiency it is highly recommended
that the workbooks be utilized.
The teacher should by all means plan his use of these books
PREFACE IX

to meet the needs of his own class and his own academic
situation. The separate volumes are planned around the thirty
week academic year of a four semester course, the "freshman
and sophomore theory classes." Many of the concepts and
procedures presented here have been applied successfully in
music programs of such diverse institutions as a state univer-
sity of the Northwest, a southwestern teacher's college, a large
midwestern university, and an eastern private school.
Some of the chapters might well be dealt with in less than
a week of class time, while others conceivably should be
granted more time for discussion and assimilation. The ex-
perienced teacher should encounter no difficulty in establish-
ing a workable time sequence that will fit the texts and
workbooks to the needs of his own classes.
It is intended that Book I be the basis of a beginning theory

program with no prerequisites other than demonstrable per-

formance skill on an instrument and a serious interest in
learning more about the nature of music. Chapter 1 of Book I
is a kind of reintroduction to fundamental matters which the

average music major already knows from his applied experi-

ences.
Book II is a logical continuation of Book I. While Book I

isdevoted mainly to the materials of music. Book II deals

more with the organization of these materials. The subjects
covered in Book II represent some departures from the con-
ventional second-year theory text. In addition to the treatment
of musical forms, melodic, harmonic, and rhythmic concepts
and materials are introduced which exceed the bounds of the
"traditional." Their inclusion is essential because the student
of music will not be equipped to understand the music of
this century if terminated with the materials that
his study is

were typical of Bach, Mozart, Beethoven, or even \Vagner.

These "new" materials are introduced when possible as the
extension of matters fundamental to all music. For instance,
chords are built of intervals: therefore, chords can be con-
structed of fourths, or seconds as logically as from thirds, even
though the past four-hundred years of musical practice might
lead one to assume that tertian chords are normative for all
music.
Some of the concepts and terms used in these volumes are
unique, and as a consequence some of the terminology is not
in common parlance, such as basic melody, cadcntial conso-
nance, leaning tone, tonality frame, and terminal cadence. A
Glossary at the back of Book II gives definitions of important
terms that are discussed in Book I. This should aid the reader
who is not familiar with Book I, as well as the reader who,
 PREFACE

though familiar with the first volume, feels the need of review-
ing some of the important terms and concepts that are treated
there.
Furthermore, there is approach during the
a shift of basic
final six chapters which are devoted to Impressionism and
contemporary materials and procedures, a shift necessitated
by the fact that the music involved represents a diversity of
musical types for which no universal pattern of common prac-
tice has been developed. These final chapters are devoted to a

systematic and comparative examination of significant musi-

cal resources and individual techniques both "old" and "new,"
with an explanation of the musical logic of each. Though no
all-embracing rationale of analysis is offered to elucidate all
contemporary music, techniques of analysis and points of
view are explained.
We wish to thank all of those who were directly helpful in
the preparation of the manuscript and the compilation of
musical examples. Particularly of significance was the accurate
and faithful typing of Miss Alison Rivers and Mrs. Mary
Cooper, and the editorial aid of our colleague. Miss Mary
\Vennerstrom.
The Authors
 Contents

BASIC PROPERTIES AND NOTATION OF TONE 1

Characteristics of rhythm, 1 Basic durations and the

beat, 2 Meter signatures; establishing the basic dura-
tion's length and grouping, 4 Notation of rhythm, 5
Compound meter, 10 Subdivisions of the basic dura-
tion, 12 Notation of pitch, 12 Intervals, 16

TONALITY 19

Pitch roots, 24 Interval quality and melodic organiza-

tion, 27

KEY, MODE, AND SCALE 32

The diatonic scale systems, 34 Terminology of scale de-

grees, 39 Key signatures, 40 Modulation and
mutation, 45

MELODIC CADENCES 50

Perfectand imperfect terminal cadences, 55 Transient-

terminal cadences, 56 Cadences and musical style, 58

FORMAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MELODY: THE

MOTIVE AND PHRASE 62
Motive structure, 63 Phrase structure, 66

6 THE EXTENDED MELODY 76

7 BASIC MELODY 87

Melodic terminal points, 89 Melodic contour, 92

Duration and metric locations, 96

8 MELODIC ELABORATION 100

XI
XII CONTENTS

9 TWO-VOICE COMBINATIONS 113

Texture, 113 Rhythmic Combi-

Association, 113
nation of melodies; the two-voice framework, 119
basic
Pitch material, 124 Vertical considerations in two
voices; consonance and dissonance, 127 Vocal ranges
and spacing, 130

70 TWO-VO/CE COmiNATIONS: DECORATIVE

PITCHES 133

Decorative pitches, 133 Contrapuntal motion between

parts and approaches to structural intervals, 137 Con-
trapuntal treatments of other consonances, 141 Sum-
mation of principles of melodic movement and intervallic
succession, 143 Basic contrapuntal treatments of un-
stable intervals, 144 Other unstable intervals, 146

7 7 CONTINUATION OF TWO-VOICE COMBINATIONS 148

Cadences, 148 Two-voice cadences in major and minor

keys, 154 Other interior cadence patterns, 159
Tonal function within the phrase; root relations in the
two-voice frame, 161 Organization of two-voice
phrases, 162 Repetitive factors in phrase organization,
165 Sequence, 166

12 CONCLUSION OF TWO-VOICE COMBINATIONS 170

Suspensions, 170 Ornamental resolutions, 176 The

change of bass resolution, 178 Imitation, 183 Other
forms of melodic decoration: anticipation, leaning tone and
escape tone, 186 Structural aspects of melodic disso-
nance, 190 Cross relation, 192

7 3 THREE-VOICE COMBINATIONS 196

Rhythmic association, 196 Rhythmic unity, 200 Pitch

association of three parts, 205 Spatial distribution of
parts, 209

14 CHORD STRUCTURE 214

Chord succession, 219 Chord position, 223 Chord

inversion, 224 Melodic-harmonic synthesis, 228

15 CONCLUSION OF THREE-VOICE COMBINATIONS 232

Spacing, 232 Crossing voices, 235 Contrapuntal

and homophonic textures, 235 Doubling in three
voices, 238 Decorative patterns, 240 Suspensions
in three-voice textures, 244 Ornamental resolutions of
suspensions, 247 Other forms of pitch decoration, 248
CONTENTS XIII

16 HOMOPHONIC TEXTURES OF FOUR VOICES.

NON-CHORD TONES 251
Textural considerations, 253 Spacing of four-voice
textures, 255 Harmonic succession, 260 Contra-
puntal considerations (voice leading), 262 Non-chord
tones, 266 Pedal point, 270 Simultaneous non-
chord tones, 273

17 TONIC, DOMINANT, AND SUBDOMINANT CHORDS

IN ROOT POSITION AND FIRST INVERSION:
DOMINANT SEVENTH CHORD 276
The root and first inversion tonic chord, 276
position
The root position and first inversion dominant chord, 279
The root position and first inversion subdominant chord,
281 The dominant seventh chord, 286 Harmonic
cadences, 288

18 INVERSIONS OF THE DOMINANT SEVENTH:

HARMONIC RHYTHM 293

The V* chord, 297 The Vt chord, 298 The vii^

5
chord, 301 Harmonic rhythm—further study, 303

19 SECOND-INVERSION TRIADS 309

The cadential it, 309 Passing six-four chords, 312

Embellishing six-four chords, 314 Other uses of six-

four chords, 315 Parallel six-four chords, 317

20 TERNARY FORM: THE SUPERTONIC CHORD 320

The supertonic chord, 326

21 SUBMEDIANT AND MEDIANT CHORDS:

CHORD RELATIONSHIPS 337
The submediant chord, 337 The mediant chord, 343
Tonal relationships of the diatonic triads, 351

22 THROUGH-COMPOSED FORM: MUTATED CHORDS,

HARMONIC SEQUENCE 353
Mutated chords: ''111and ^VI, 359 Harmonic se-
quence, 364 Other examples of harmonic parallelism,
367

23 BINARY FORM 370

Baroque binary form, 373 Binary and ternary forms

contrasted, 379 Rounded binary, 379 Song form
and trio, 381
x/v CONTENTS

24 SECONDARY DOMINANTS 383

Melodic significance of the dominant, 385

secondary
Harmonic significance of the dominant, 386
secondary
Sequential treatment of secondary dominants, 387 Sec-
ondary dominant of the dominant (V/V; V/V), 388
Approach to dominant of the dominant, 389 Resolu-
tion of dominant of the dominant, 390 Use of domi-
nant of the dominant, 391 Dominant of subdomi-
nant, 398 Uses of dominant of the subdominant, 400
Dominant of the supertonic, 404 Uses of dominant of
the supertonic, 405

25 CONCLUSION OF SECONDARY DOMINANTS 411

Dominant of submediant (V jvi; V/VI), 411 Uses of

dominant of the submediant, 412 Dominant of medi-
ant (V/iii; V/III), 417 Uses of dominant of the medi-
ant, 418 Dominant of the subtonic, 423 Irregu-
lar resolutions of secondary dominants, 424 Deceptive
resolution, 425 Other irregular resolutions, 430 Se-
quential use, 434

26 TONALITY CHANGES 439

Modulation, 439 Melodic modulation, 440 Rela-

tionships of keys, 445 Less common key relations, 450
Other aspects of tonality change, 452

27 PROCEDURES OF TONALITY CHANGE 461

Modulation by pix'oi chord. 461 Pivot tone modula-

tion, 465 Modulation by chromatic inflection, 466
Enharmonic modulation, 469 More abrupt tonality
changes, 472 Mutation, 478
 There is a certain marvellous order which belongs
to the nature of harmony in general; in this order
every instrument, to the best of its ability, participates
under the direction of that faculty of sense-perception
on which they, as well as everything else in music,
finally depend.
Aristoxenus,
The Harmonics, Book II
^.Vf^l

»\
 Basic Properties
7
orii

Notation

of Tone

As performers, and composers, we deal with patterns of

listeners

organized sound. Any pattern of musical sounds has four properties pitch, which :

may be described as high or low; intensity, described as loud or soft; timbre, or tone
quality; and rhythm, or tone duration. In this chapter we shall review some of the
important characteristics of two of these properties, pitch and rhythm.

Characteristics of Rhythm

We often respond to music by participating physically in its rhythm through

tapping our feet, dancing, or snapping our fingers. In doing so we are carried
along by a characteristic of rhythm called pulse. Rhythmic pulse can be compared
to the ticking of a watch or the throbbing of a heartbeat. In a sense, rhythmic
pulsations, like heartbeats, indicate "aliveness," and music comes alive through
rhythm. We respond easily to rhythmic pulse when it is periodic, or regular. When
pulses are not periodic, it is more difficult for us to react or participate through the
physical responses mentioned above.
Rhythmic grouped (or metered) by acknowledging
pulses (or beats) are usually
one of a series as a mental accent or "more important" pulse. These groupings are
generally made in the form of pairs, or threes, or fours. Any grouping, however, is
possible, and units of five, seven or more beats per group can be found in Western
music. Beats, then, are usually regularly recurring pulsations, like the ticks of a
metronome, which have a precise speed (tempo). In the three melodies shown as
Ex. 1-la, Ex. 1-lb and Ex. 1-lc, twelve periodic beats have been grouped dif-
ferently: first in pairs, second in threes, and third in alternate groups of two and
three. Perform the melodies at a moderate tempo (M.M. = 80 per beat) and note
that it is through our acknowledgement of accented (strong) beats, as indicated
below each melody, that we perceive each successive group.
2 BASIC PROPERTIES AND NOTATION OF TONE

Ex. 1-1.

^ ^
w S
r
w
^^
S w

^ ^w
^
w w w S w

S w w w w
s
S w
*
w S
Ww
The particular grouping of beats within a composition is called meter. Metric
accent is the impetus or inflection created by the accented pulsations of strong
beats. Unaccented beats are called weak beats. In Ex. 1-la the ordering of beats
creates the pattern strong=weak {S=w), and the pattern in Ex. 1-lb is S=w = w.
The irregularity of Ex. 1-lc results from alternate groupings o£ S = w and S—w =
w.
Our perception of meter is not limited to the recognition of accented and un-
accented beats. In fact, in many compositions our comprehension of meter results
more from the grouping of melodic pitches or chords than from the mere ordering
of strong and weak beats. To understand better this aspect of rhythm and meter,
let us reconsider the term beat.

Basic Durations and the Beat

A beat is understood to last until a next beat occurs. But if we imagine beats as
instantaneous pulsations or ticks, view one beat as continuing
then it is difficult to

until the next beat occurs. However, if we regard the beat as only the beginning of
a regularly recurring time span, then we can more accurately describe the total
time span from one beat until the beginning of the next as a basic duration. Further-
more, the various durations used in a composition can be related to the basic
duration. Meter^ then, is more accurately described as an ordering of basi c durations ,

into groups of two, three or four units per measure, or whatever pattern the com-
poser may wish to establish. Basic duration refers to the time span from the articula-
tion of one beat to the next, and this unit is usually represented in notation by one
of the note-values shown in Ex. 1-2.

Ex. 1-2. Basic Durational Signs (note values )

Whole note = o Half note = J Quarter note = J Eighth note = J)

Sixteenth note = J)
Thirty - second note = ^ Sixty -fourth note = ^
 S

BASIC PROPERTIES AND NOTATION OF TONE

Pulse or beat (1)""""

1 i 1 1 ^
Basic duration (« *)
f f f f

* Basic duration represented here by the quarter-note.

We have noted several processes that are involved in creating meter. First a pulse

of a particular tempo or speed must be established. And second, the successive

beats must be organized into periodic groups, each of which begins with a strong
(or mentally accented) pulse.
Meter is a basic kind of rhythm, the rhythm of pulse, or metric rhythm. It is im-
portant to note, however, that rhythm also occurs in the form of accented and
unaccented, long and short durations which organize melodies, accompaniments,
chord patterns and other parts of a musical texture. These varied patterns of dura-
tion in most melodies communicate metric organization to the listener. This can
m
be seen in the melody of Ex. 1-3, which is shown without a meter signature. Bath
the distribution of long and short notes and patterns of durations in three's

J J IJ J IJ J J IJ. IJ J IJ J IJ J J u.

created by the pitch line, reinforce our notion of a triple meter.

As a rule, then, the structure of a melody (or other parts of a musical texture)
confirms the metric organization denoted by the meter signature.

^
Ex. l-3a. Beethoven: Symphony No. 3, I.

(>)
(» {» (>) (>) (>)

^ (>)

t
^
f
(Theactualmetersignaturefor the melody in Ex. 1-3 is I). When a conflict occurs
between the accents of melody or chords and the metric accents, syncopation results.
By notating the melody from Ex. 1-3 in ^ meter, a conflict is created between the
implicit triple meter of the melody and the metric accents {S=w) of the notated
meter. This is shown in Ex. l-3b.

Ex. l-3b. Renotation of Ex. l-3a.

S S (w) S

(
w

Syncopation)
S w

^
S

J
w
J

(Sync.)
I
( S

J
w )

S tw) S w (S) %v S w S w (

iB: i ^ J J 1^
in

( Sync.)
^ (
T
Sync.)
4 BASIC PROPERTIES AND NOTATION OF TONE

Other placement of high or low notes, or the emphasis

factors too, particularly the
created by the use of dynamic accents such as /or szf, or >, frequently reinforce
or agree with metric accents. When they do not, syncopation results.
The strong beat has an importance to rhythmic structure and musical form that
is greater than a simple description of its position in a duple or triple measure
suggests. In fact, the strong beat is often a rallying point for rhythmic patterns,
phrase beginnings, or the initiation of larger musical sections. Furthermore, strong
beats are important in relation to cadences, melodic decoration, and many types
of harmonic progressions.
Rhythm occurs in many ways. Meter is one form of rhythm in that it involves
duration. In addition, any aspect of music that possesses duration, such as succes-
sions of pitches that constitute a melody, the duration of a chord, the time span
occupied by a clarinet solo, or the total duration of a large section of a symphonic
movement, creates rhythm. It is the coordinate activity of both large and small
levels of musical action that produces the total effect of rhythm in music.

Meter Signatures; Establishing the Basic Duration's Length and Grouping

The rate at which basic durations occur in given meters is usually indicated by
an appropriate designation such as Allegro (fast) or Adagio (slow) or other descrip-
tive words. Since these terms, which are generally chosen from Italian, French,
German or English, are not precise, composers also often assign a metronome mark-
ing. The metronome is a clock-like instrument which divides the minute into a
precise number of beats ranging from thirty to two-hundred. By indicating a metro-
nome speed, (M.M.= 120, or M.M. = 80)^ the composer can set the desired tempo
accurately for performers.
The number of basic durations per measure is shown as the upper part of the meter
The lower part, a number such as 2, 4, or 8, represents the basic duration.'^
signature.

For example, the number 2 represents a half note; 4, a quarter note; and 8 in-
dicates that eighth notes equal the basic duration. Meter signatures whose upper
numbers are 1, 2, 3, or 4 are called simple meters. The prevailing note-values
in simple meters generally represent divisions or multiples of the basic duration
by two, four, or eight. The conductor's beat patterns for duple, triple and quad-
ruple simple meters are shown in the diagram of simple meters at the top of
page 5.

An interpretation of the meter signature is often subject to the tempo. For

example, a fast simple triple measure such as \, Allegro molto, may be interpreted
or conducted "in one," in other words, with one main pulsation (divided by three
equal sub-pulses) per measure. And a duple or quadruple meter may be per-
formed "in one," or "in two." By the same token, an extremely slow simple measure
may be divided into twice as many beats as are indicated by the signature, where
to do so facilitates the performance.

1 M.M. stands for MaelzeVs metronome.

- We shall note important exceptions to these statements when we study Compound meters.
4

BASIC PROPERTIES AND NOTATION OF TONE

Duple Triple Quadruple

Usual Number of Beats per Measure 2 3 4

Common Basic Durations

J;J;J) J;J;J> J;J;J)
Grouping of Strong (S) and S w S w S w
weak (w) beats
1-^
Conducting Patterns

[3

Notation of Rhythm

Notating rhythm involves the use of the following symbols: 1) a note-head,

o • ,
that is written on the line or space of the pitch to be expressed 2) a note-
, ;

stem, (for all durations except whole notes) which is formed by a straight line
,

that joins the note-head at the left or right, depending upon the location of the

note-head on the staffs, J , f , 3) a flag, \ which joins the note-stem at the

farthest point from the note-head, J or double, triple or quadruple flags, J^ J^ J^

depending on the duration desired. Flags are frequently replaced by beams,

J J = J J which are used to join series of similar durations that would nor-

mally employ flags.

Beamed notes are associated primarily with instrumental notation, while the
use of flagged notes is indigenous to vocal music, where the flag is used for notating
tones that occur with single syllables of text, as shown in Ex. 1-4.

Ex. 1-4. Schubert: Longing for Spring.

m ^^ Mur -

^
mur- ing bree/. -
i
es
^
r
Soft
P
flow -
p
ing by ,

3
^^^^ ^Fl^fc^ "T'pL^
^^m ^ ±1

i i
' If the note head is located above the third line of thestafT, its stem usually
points down, or hangs
below the note head. The opposite is true when the note head is written below the third line.

M>
 ,

BASIC PROPERTIES AND NOTATION OF TONE

Ex. 1-4. Continued.

J' I
I > h r p I
Sweet are your kiss es Balm y your sigh.

33^5 5^ ^^=^
i ^r=f

m m
Flags are always used for isolated notes or where single durations of an eighth
note or less are preceded or followed by quarter, half, or whole notes (or their
equivalent rests). See Ex. 1-5.

Ex. 1-5.

^ c;>^ ^^ ^j^ l
pyp^py yj)|j J^yyyj) »
^ '' d ^a
m"

Beams help the reader to group note patterns according to basic durations.
In the group of patterns shown
first in Ex. 1-6, the location of beats has been
obscured by illogical beaming.

Ex. 1-6.

(J) (J) (J) (J) (J) (J) (J) (J)

s w
In Ex. 1-7 the same patterns are beamed in groups that reveal the meter's beat
structure.

Ex. 1-7.

^^ (J) (J) (J) (J) (J) (J) (J)

i
(J)

A general guide for notation is to avoid beaming more than six notes together,

unless more are needed to consume the equivalent of one basic duration and ;

further, beams begin on the beat unless the notes they join are preceded by a rest
sign.

.•< T • i' •> > .

BASIC PROPERTIES AND NOTATION OF TONE

Ex. 1-8.

s^ MIZ
r[_rr i '
u xLium^r
^

When possible, avoid mixing flagged and beamed notes, except in notating vocal
music.

Ex. 1-9.

Poor Better

"^r 'Pc;cp i
r ppbt h 'PULs \
r pu^
Absence of tone is indicated by rests, and each of the basic durations
Rests.

discussed earlier has an equivalent rest symbol. Rest equivalents for each basic
duration are shown as Ex. 1-10.

Ex. 1-10. Basic Durations and their Rest Equivalents

Note value
- Rest Name
-^ —H- Breve (or double whole -note)

_Q_ Whole note

1 Half note

1 Quarter note

Eighth note

1 Sixteenth note

A I Thirty - second note

1 f Sixty -fourth note

Rests may be used in the same situations as their corresponding note-values,

with the following exceptions:

1) Rests are never tied.

2) Half-note rests are not used in J meter.
3) The whole-note rest may be used for convenience to indicate a full measure
rest in any meter, except in those meters in which the whole note is equal to
less than a complete measure's duration.
4) The notation of rests, like note values, should permit clear understanding of the
metric organization.
 BASIC PROPERTIES AND NOTATION OF TONE

Ex. 1-11 clarifies the use of rests.

Ex. i-n.

(a) 9
4
- J I J. II
better written I ^ J | J.

(b) better written "^

g ^ 7 I J. II I J. il

(c)| })l J)777| J)J

more clearly written
^yl J)y I jJ)J
J)--- II J)y]{ | ||

{r rr r rrr r) {r rr r r rr r)

Augmentation Dots, Ties and Slurs. The augmentation dot ( •

), placed im-

mediately after a note-head '

a- ), extends the duration of the note by one half of

its normal duration. This means that o J could also be written as J. Augmenta-

tion dots are not used if they would prolong a note into the next measure v 4 J a- ).

In such a situation, and where a continuation of sound between two notes of the
same pitch is sought, ties are used. The tie is a curved line which connects two

notes of pitch .The should not be confused

identical
ical
^ j{ , ZBt
tie

with the slur, which is used to indicate a smooth connection of two notes oi different

pitch: AHfc ^
Ex. 1-12 illustrates several notational signs and principles of clear notating.

Ex. 1-12. Beethoven: Sonata for Violin and Piano, Op- 23, II.

I
BASIC PROPEHmS AND NOTATION OF TONE

I ^ J n N ? :
m P I
y J^ y j)

^f

U
m^^ ^ i=a: S ^^ w
^ ^ ^^^Ht
1
if.

? ^^^^

B i^
i*
jg^^^
^?F
CTt?5C.
i
JJ^
^ iM
5

{/:
^^T"

^ ^^
yt #_^:-
-^^
5=fc=5 i
^? 1 ^
?r = ^^f
pSii
cresc.
^ffi
* £5
W
 1 ^

70 BASIC PROPERTIES AND NOTATION OF TONE

Ex. 1-12. Continued.

*^
decresc.
^ £
J^i^l
^ -^ —

i|t^ ''

^
>>f! ^
5^ ^ f^^-fe^
«:

i>i5
f: ^
fe
decresc.

S ^Ht
*pt
J
c

VjJ^ilJ i
3
I
-hiHr^
^i*
#
-^^^^

Compound Meter

We have noted that the common divisions and multiples of the basic duration
in simple meters are duple. Since in a simple meter the division of the basic dura-
tion by three (the triplet) is not a usual one, it is generally shown by writing a 3
'
3 —
above the beam, or by a. J) J) J) bracketed 3 above the stems if a beam is not used.

In contrast to simple meters, triple divisions of the basic duration are common to
meters called Compound Meters.
Compound meters, those calling for a triple division of the basic duration, have
a dotted note as the basic duration, as shown here:

(Common) Basic Durations in and their Normal

Compound Meters Divisions

J. J~7
J)- « «

J. J J J

Compound meters, like simple meters, are called duple, triple, or quadruple,
depending on the number of basic pulses per measure. The family of compound

meters can be shown as 2, 3 or 4 with the upper numbers signify-

X (.., J^ J., .^)
ing the number of beats per measure and A' representing any of the basic durations
shown above (as dotted notes).
Meter signatures for compound time are actually representations of the first (or

primary) division of the basic duration, rather than the number of main pulses and
basic duration, as in simple meter signatures. For example, a common compound
BASIC PROPERTIES AND NOTATION OF TONE II

meter signature is |. This signature would seem to denote a meter of six basic
durations per measure, each of whose value equaled the eighth note. While such
an interpretation can be made, it does not present an accurate picture of general
performance practice and rhythmic interpretation. This is true because in most
instances, except in very slow tempi, performers acknowledge two, not six, main

pulses in | meter, with each basic duration as J- ,

(or its equivalent) and the eighth

note as a division of the main pulse (basic duration). Read the melody that follows
and note the analysis of its rhythm shown below.

Ex. 1-13.

Note the essential grouping of each measure into two main pulses (duple). The
eighth notes divide each basic duration by three and are in fact a division of the
basic beat rather than a primary level of accent. Only those eighths that fall as the
first or fourth (eighths) of a measure correspond with the main accentual bases of

the measure. It can be seen that the signature |, which accounts for the total num-
ber of eighths that occur in a measure of | meter, actually refers to a grouping that
results from dividing each basic duration by three, thereby producing a total of
six eighths (or their equivalent). Six-eight meter could be more effectively shown
as 2, and has been by some composers.

f n
If we apply the same reasoning to other compound meters we note that | is
a triple compound meter, easily grasped as 3, and g is a quadruple meter under-
IH!

stood as 4. Any dotted note can serve as the basic duration for a compound meter.

r
The most common compound meter signatures are grouped below:

J.= basic duration r = basic duration

6 6 2^
8 if) Uf) 'iif) 16 'il)
16 Vp-/ 'HI-)
16 \p

h— basic duration

9 12
if) 4 }) 4 f)
 :

12 BASIC PROPERTIES AND NOTATION OF TONE

Sub-divisions of the Basic Duration

Although the primary division of the main pulse in compound time is usually
triple, the sub-divisions of the basic duration, that is, divisions of the primary divi-
sion, are generally duple. Triple sub-divisions of the basic duration are called ir-
regular, as are triple divisions of the beat in simple meter. The first four measures of
the melody in Ex. 1-14 contain regular (duple) sub-divisions of the basic duration,
while the second four measures illustrate both regular and irregular sub-divisions.
An analysis of the rhythmic content of the example shows

basic duration = J- primary division = J J J

regular sub-division — J J J J J J J J J J j5
irregular sub-division = JT2 JT^ fH J72 JT2 J^

Ex. 1-14.

Moderate

^m. i
X
J /»! 1

3 3

J ^ ** J * J i -
$ ^

Notation of Pitch

from the sustained, periodic vibrations of a flexible body such as a

Pitch results
string, a column of air, or a vocal cord. Pitch is indicated by symbols, most familiarly
the first seven letters of the alphabet, a b c d efand g. These letter-names represent

the different lines and spaces on the five-line staff:**

By itself the musical staff is meaningless. However, by placing a clef sign at its

left edge, a specific letter-named pitch is designated for each line and space. The
treble clef sign is actually an elaborate script G that designates the pitch g^ on the
second line of the staff.

Ex. 1-15. Notes on the staff in the treble clef.

$ B D
~9
D
^
C

* For example, the tone that results from a vibration rate (frequency) of 440 vibrations per second
(v.p.s.) is known as a^
BASIC PROPERTIES AND NOTATION OF TONE 13

The bass clef specifies the note/ for the fourth line of the staff.

Ex. 1-16. Notes on the staff in the bass clef.

FGABCFEDCBAGFE
The question may arise as to the need more than one clef. If our musical
for
system were limited to only seven or so pitches, there would be no such need. How-
ever, the capabilities of hearing are such that a broad range of pitches has been
used in most Western music. Consequently, a number of clefs are used, each em-
ployed to represent pitches in particular areas of the pitch spectrum, or gamut.
The gamut of pitches most used in music is shown in Ex. 1-17, which illustrates
the "Great" staff.

Ex. 1-17.

4.. n jLU
r> f^
-2g p

The mid-point of this staff, which joins or links the treble and bass clefs, is a
broken line that represents middle c, or c^. Added line segments above or below
either staff are called ledger lines, and they are used to notate pitches which lie

beyond the staff area of a particular clef.

Although the treble and bass clefs are most used, other clefs are needed for the
notation of some music. They are known as "movable clefs," or as the "family of
74 BASIC PROPERTIES AND NOTATION OF TONE

c clefs." Using these c clefs, it is possible to assign middle c to any line of the staff.
Four c clefs are shown in Ex. 1-18.^

Ex. 1-18.

Alto Tenor Mezzo soprano Soprano

i
t
Musicians have developed a useful terminology for pinpointing the various
pitches of the gamut. This amounts to grouping the pitches of the pitch spectrum
into seven-note segments, called "octave segments." Each segment begins with a
C and includes all possible pitches between C and the B seven notes above. With
the addition of the two tones below the lowest C [CC) on the piano, AAA and BBB
(the partial segment called "Sub-contra"), the different seven-tone segments are
named Contra (CC-BB), Great (C-B), small {c-b), prime or 1 (c' or c^ b' or b^), —
double prime or 2 (c" or c^ —b" or b^), triple prime or 3 (c'" or c^— b'" or b^),
quadruple prime or 4 (c"" or —b"" or c'* b*). The highest note on the piano begins
the five prime segment, c'"", or c^. This nomenclature is illustrated in notation as
Ex. 1-19.

Ex. 1-19. The seven-tone segments of the pitch spectrum.

c4- b4 c5

;1. bl
;2. b2

TT"
-»'
^ 5
— I
— — I —
* o
middle c

P 331
J
c-b
^ ^ ^ C-B Small
J Great
AAA -BBB ^CC-BB
Sub-contra Contra

Accidentals. Any of the notes of the gamut may be preceded by accidentals.

Sharps ( ff ) or flats ( |> ), double sharps (x ), or double flats ( b b ) are placed im-

mediately before the note head and indicate slight pitch modifications. Sharps in-

^ The two most often found are those that place c^ on the third and fourth lines of the staff.
c clefs

These are the alto and tenor clefs, and they are used for the notation of parts for alto and tenor
instruments (or voices) such as the viola, cello, and trombone.
BASIC PROPERTIES AND NOTATION OF TONE 15

dicate a raising of the natural note by one half-step, while flats indicate that the
natural note is to be lowered a half-step. Similarly, double sharps indicate a
raising of the note by two half-steps, and double flats are used to lower the note
by two half-steps.

Natural signs ( J] ) are used to cancel previous sharps or flats. Proper use of all

accidentals may be found in Ex. 1-20.

Ex. 1-20.

When accidentals are used, they are understood to continue throughout the
measure in which they appear without being rewritten. Therefore, all of the/'s
that recur in Ex. 1-21 should be performed as/' sharps.

Ex. 1-21.

')^v'r»rrr

Furthermore, accidentals govern only those notes that occur on the pitch
level at which they are introduced; they do not affect pitches in different octaves.
The result of the passage in Ex. 1 -22(a) is clarified in version b.

Ex. 1-22

(a) (b)

^m ^ i=F
 ) »

^^^^a\

16 BASIC PROPERTIES AND NOTATION OF TONE

Intervals

An interval is Numbers are used

the spatial relation or gap between two pitches.
to describe the total number of
names encompassed by any two pitches.
letter

Thus a fourth denotes an interval that spans four different letter names of the
staff; for example, c' up tof spans four letter names, c' d' e and/', and a down to

e spans four letter names, a' g' f

and e' Intervals may be described as melodic,
.

which means successively sounded tones, or harmonic, which means sounded to-
gether.

Who/e and Half Sfeps. The half step is the smallest difference of pitch
commonly employed in Western music. The half step interval is easily observed by
locating those white keys on the piano that have no intervening black keys. The
relation between these pairs of keys, e-f and b-c is called a half step^, a minor second
(m2), or semitone. The relation between pairs of white keys separated by black keys
comprises a whole step, or major second (M2).
Thus although the numerical name of an interval describes the number of dif-
ferent lines and spaces spanned, and this is easily relatable to the positions of two
pitches on the staff, it does not account for the exact size of the interval. This can
be checked by comparing the sound and total number of whole and half-steps in

each of the following intervals, both of which are fourths:

^*^(i) (2)
•i / 1
^
The first of these two intervals is one half step smaller than the second, since it
consists of a total of two whole steps and one half (or five half steps), while the
second interval spans three whole steps (or six semitones). To describe intervals
more accurately, musicians use the terms perfect, major, minor, augmented and di-

minished. The abbreviations for these are shown below:

Perfect-
Major- -M
minor— -m
Augmented- -Aor( + )
diminished d or (o)
Doubly Augmented .\.\ or ( ++
Doubly diminished dd or (oo)

The term perfect is applied only to unisons (primes), fourths, fifths and octaves,
while the words major and minor are applied only to seconds, thirds, sixths and
sevenths. Augmented and diminished are applied to certain modifications of any type
of interval. As a synopsis of the preceding discussion, the following chart may
prove useful for reference.

The half step from e'f is more accurately called a diatonic half-step, which means that different
*

note names are employed in its notation. These same pitches in other instances may be notated as
e' and e' sharp. This notation differentiation calls for using another name, chromatic half step, for a

relationship that is identical in sound to that of e' and/'. By placing sharps or flats in front of notes
on the staflP, their pitch is raised or lowered by one chromatic half step. The various available pitches
of our musical gamut can be notated different ways, that is, spelled enharmonically, and ournotational
practices are usually determined by specific musical contexts, as we shall note in Chapters 3-8.
 ; ;

BASIC PROPERTIES AND NOTATION OF TONE 17

Perfect Intervals Major Intervals Minor Intervals

Octave (8^'') Seventh Seventh

Unison (prime) Sixth Sixth
Fifth Third Third
Fourth Second Second

Enlarged by ^/g step* Enlarged by ^/g step Enlarged by ^/g step

becomes augmented becomes augmented becomes major;
Reduced by ^/^ step Reduced by ^/g step Reduced by ^/g step
becomes diminished; becomes minor; becomes diminished:
* All chromatic half steps.

Two any interval. First

processes are necessary for the precise identification of
a generic classification must be made, based on the number of letter names spanned.
This is easily done by noting the relative positions of two notes in terms of lines
and /or spaces on the staff. These are illustrated in Ex. 1-23.

Ex. 1-23.

=^ 3x:
m 33: ^cn
^ II 8 3
-O-
xn 33:
331 -e- jOT
=ai
or
2nds 3rds 4ths 5th£

-e- 331 -e- JOZ

~rr^ jCH 33:
331 TT- -o-
jcr zaz

6ths 7ths 8thj

Note that seconds are notated on adjacent lines and spaces; thirds span two
lines or two spaces; fourths span two lines and a space or two spaces and a line;
fifths span three lines or three spaces; sixths span three spaces and a line or three

lines and a space; sevenths span four lines or four spaces; and octaves span four
lines and a space or four spaces and a line.
Having determined the generic classification of an interval (as shown in Ex. 1-
23), a more precise description, such a.s perfect, major, minor, augmented, or diminished,
can be made on the basis of the number of whole and half steps involved. This is
illustrated in Ex. 1-24.

Ex. 1-24.

Major and minor

33:
33: 33:
33: tT

M2=l m2: H M3 = 2 m3 — lH M6 = 4Hor m6 = 3 whole steps

P5 plus 1 plus 2 halfs or
P5 plus H
331
I M7 = 5l^or 2!/2 plus 3, or m7-2\i plus 2H or
P8 minus V^ P8 minus 1
 . .

78 BASIC PROPERTIES AND NOTATION OF TONE

Ex. 1-24. Continued.

Perfect

IXC 331
-o e
Unison or P4 = 2 Vo P5 = 3 H P8=5 whole -steps
Perfect Prime plus two half steps
Tritones (TT)
tmr
Xt: 3X:
+ 4 =3 whole steps o5 = 2 whole -steps
plus 2 half steps

Exercises

Additional materials are contained in Materials and Structure of Music I, Workbook, Chapter 1

1 Practice drawing treble and bass clef signs.

2. Identify the names of notes written in both clefs, indicating the specific octave (contra,
small, 1, 2, etc.) of each note.
3. Locate the different note and rest symbols in a composition.
4. Name the equivalents of different notes in smaller denominations of note values. For
example, how many sixteenths equal a dotted half note?
5. Correctly rebeam patterns of incorrectly beamed notes.

6. Transcribe a vocal melody of many individually flagged notes into correct instrumental
notation.
7. Identify the notes that occur in each part on successive strong beats in Ex. 1-1.

8. Use Ex. 1-11-1-17 for interval identification.

9. Compose eight measures of rhythm in 2 nieter, trying to avoid the repetition of any
measure's pattern.
10. Make a neat copy of Ex. 1-1.

11. Play any note on the piano (within your voice range) and sing fourths above and below
the note played. Apply the same procedure to the practice of other intervals.
12. Write the following intervals above and below g^:

p5, M3, m7, +6, m3, M2, p8, "5, M6, "7, M7, +8, mlO, +4.
04,

13. Transcribe Example 1-14 into j^g and ^ meters.

 Tonality
2

In Chapter 1 our discussion of meter showed that music can be

grouped into regular units of time, or "metered." In this sense the patterns of weak
and strong beats form a framework within which groups of tones are organized
into rhythms. The total range of pitches we use in music can be ordered in a similar
way within still another kind of framework, in this case called tonality.
If music were made from only one continuously repeated pitch, the need for
such an organizing scheme would not arise; melody would derive its charm from
rhythmic play alone. In fact, some very simple music does incorporate a relatively
limited set of pitches, thus reducing its attraction primarily to rhythmic motion.
The two very primitive melodies of Ex. 2-1 illustrate such a narrow choice of pitch
ingredients.

Ex. 2-1. Taulipang melody (after Hornbostel). From Curt Sachs, The Rise of Music in the
Ancient World, New York W. W. Norton & Company, Inc.
:

i_/0
IJ J JrJ J^J^ jo:
ff** *
JIl

"^^""X
Ex. 2-2. Vitoto Indian melody (after Bose). From Curt Sachs, The Rise of Music in the
Ancient World, New York: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc.

r r r r-^ u u ^
i:

r^
It is clear that in each of these melodies one pitch emphasized so extensively
is

{a in melody melody 2) that it

1, f in becomes a point qf^focus^around which the
other pitches are more or less decorative. Just as all the dots in Ex. 2-3 point to the

19
20 TONALITY

last dot to the right, all pitches in these simple melodies converge toward one point
of focus; in music, this point of focus is called the tonic, or center of tonality.

Ex. 2-3.

In the melody of Ex. 2-1 the pitch a is stressed, for it is both the beginning and
ending pitch, as well as the pitch of longest duration. The numerous g-sharps
clearly perform a more decorative role as pitch filigrees related to their more basic
neighbors, the a's.

The melody of Ex. 2-2 is organized with c as its tonic, or focal pitch. C is heard
first and last, and it is heard more often than its two associates, b and a. In other
words, dwelt upon as a kind of ho me ba se^ a frequent point of departure and
c is

return during the course of the melodic unfolding.

These examples are simpler in structure than the melodies that we associate
with our Western musical heritage. By our melodic standards they are a bit dull
in terms of pitch resources, and they move within a pitch range that is narrowly
restricted. (The wider melody of Ex. 2-2 covers a span of only a minor third, a' —
c".) Nonetheless, the more complicated melodies of our own musical tradition

reveal identical principles of organization. Note the repetitions and emphases (in
time and pitch) that are partial causes of the respective tonics of the melodies in
Ex. 2-4.

Ex. 2-4a. German folksong.

i
i=i

Ex. 2-4b. Irish folksong.

^
^ 3
TONALITY 21

Ex. 2-4c. Gregorian Chant : Responsorium, Libera me (first two phrases).

The melodic excerpt of Ex. 2-5 begins and ends with the same pitch, /'. But
unlike the simpler melodies of Ex. 2-1, 2-2, and 2-3, this melody does not confirm
its first and last pitch by frequent repetitions, nor does the tonic have excessively
greater durations than other pitches. And yet, the melody does not require a full

playing to convince us that/ is the tonic pitch.

Ex. 2-5. Mozart: Sonata No. 12 in F, (K. 332), I.

i ^3
JH
^''i'^^ ^
i
r 1
^

This leads us to the conclusion that something about tones in a melody, in addi-
tion to accents or durations or position as first or last, can create this element of
pitch-focus in melody. This further source of tonality lies in the interval relations
between the tones of a melody. In their movement in time, the various pitches
create a tonal frame work, a kind of "flooiL2Xld_ceiling," within which the melodic
parts will all sound as related elements of the tonal design. Sorne^itches are basic
to this framework like the beams of a house, while others are more important as
the decorative overlay.
In the Mozart melody of Ex. 2-5 the longer and metrically stressed notes seem
more important to the overall contour of the whole melody. The first pitch, /', is
the beginning of the melodic pattern; it performs the vital function of "leading the
listener" into the melodic organization. Here the composer's problem is similar
to that of the painter who wishes to compose an effective picture both must im- :

mediately attract the attention of an audience and, at the same time, ensure that
this first attraction is the beginning of comprehension.
To achieve this immediate goal the painter usually organizes his canvas into
forms that "point" to the focal areas of interest. Regardless of which area of the
painting we look at first, we are always led back (if it is a good painting) into the
picture-plane by the formal arrangements of lines and forms and colors. A clear
illustration of this attention-focusing can be seen in the reproduction shown in
Ex. 2-6 and the analysis of linear forces that reveals this painting's main linear
scheme of organization.
22 lOUAlHY

Ex. 2-6.

The Last Supper, Leonardo da Vinci

DIRECTIONAL FORCES OF MAIN LINES

:>i'
 —

ONALITY 23

The composer ushers the listener into a suitable framework of pitch reference
he "auditory picture-plane" — by beginning his melodies with patterns that
stablish a tonality.Melodies that begin with a downbeat pattern most frequently
)egin with the tonic, while melodies that begin with an up-beat figure frequently
)egin with some other pitch, but move to the tonic without delay, often on the first
aetric accent.
Regardless of the relation of the first pitch to the melody's tonality, the
irst few pitches usually make clear all or a part of the pitch framework that will

erve as a basis for the remainder of the melody.

;x. 2-7a. National Anthem.

m
(a)

f f
EI
P

X. 2-7b. Comin' Round the Mountain.

I
#J.#

X. 2-7c. Italian folksong

c)

The idea of a pitch framework within which the tones of a melody are organized
las still another facet. Notice that the metric stress we associate with thef^ of meas-
ire 5 Mozart melody (Ex. 2-8) invites us to accept this pitch as an important
of the
)oint of arrival within the whole melody. It acts as the basic high point of melodic
notion. Though actually higher, the g^ of measure 3 is rhythmically less forceful
md thus sounds like a mere upper neighbor to the more important/^ that arrives
n measure 5.

Ex. 2-8. Mozart: Piano Sonata No. 12, (K. 332), I.

24 TONALITY

The pitchy forms the bottom of the pitch framework of this melody, and so the
Mozart melody is essentially a pitch line that forms a path from/' up tof^, then
returns to its original point of departure. Its framework of activity is

^
t
For this reason alone, / assumes
an important function within this succession of
tones. This particular framework, combined as it is with f as the first and last
pitches of the melody, creates a tonality that unmistakably bears f as its tonic.
We shall refer to this relationship, formed by the tonic and the highest and lowest
structural pitches of a melody, as the tonality frame .

Pitch Roots

Within a melody certain special groupings of pitches can confirm or deny a par-
ticular pitch as tonic. Just as the words "I am going home" take on a quite dif-
ferent meaning when rearranged to the order "Am I going home?" so the tonality
of a melody is afifected by the way in which pitches follow one another and by the
rhythms they form. Although both melody (a) and (b) below contain the same
pitch materials, they represent different "tonal meanings" because they are or-
ganized in ways which make C the tonic for the first melody, F the tonic for the
second.

Ex. 2-9a.

Pitch material
I ^e^ o- o ^>

Melody "a" ^^^

f3^ ^
Melody -•p # IZZ

The particular intervals formed between pitches sounded in succession produce

qualitative effects that influence tonal organization.
The octave has the unusual quality of sounding like the same pitch duplicated
at different high-low levels. It is this peculiar effect that leads us to repeat note
TONALITY 25

names of tones at every octave of the musical staff, so that the thirteenth note of
any series always has the same name as the first. For instance, if at the piano we
begin with any key and play every successive white and black key, the thirteenth
key will always have the same note name as the beginning key.

Ex. 2-9b. Octaves.

Other intervals share this quality of pitch identity in lesser degrees than the
octave; the octave is the only interval to bear notes of the same name. A clear
representation of the decreasing mutual identity of pitches is found in the ove rtone
or harmonic series._ This natural order of pitches functions as a part of our hearing
process, and it operates as a part of the tone production of almost all musical in-
struments. When we hear a tone, we actually recognize only its most prominent
characteristic, for the "tone" is in reality a complex sound pattern composed of
several different elements. In a sense, we hear only a generalized tone, for the less

obvious features of its constitution escape our attention.^

A tone D, for example, when played on most musical instruments, is really
only the most prominent part of a scheme of pitches that follows the pattern of
overtones illustrated in Ex. 2-10, the natural harmonic series.

Ex. 2-10. Harmonic series above D.

^1>¥^
I
S TJ 1

Fewer or more parts (or partials, as these accompanying sounds are called) are
present in the make-up of a tone, depending upon what instrument produced it.
A violin normally produces a tone that contains more partials above its funda-
mental pitch than a saxophone or a flute. But the pattern is duplicated in a greater
or lesser fashion by any musical instrument,^ and except for unusual cases, we re-

' With training one can learn to recognize some of these other parts of a tone that lie higher in
pitch than the note by which we name it.

* Only pure tones contain one simple pitch element, and they are quite rare in music.
 —

26 TONALITY

cognize only the lowest (or fundamental) as the pitch of the tone. These additional
members of the harmonic series affect the qualitative aspects of instrumental and
vocal tone, controlling the tone color or timbre by their presence or absence and rela-
tive strength.
This pattern of pitch relations represented in the harmonic series is imposed
upon our every experience of musical tone, and its particular formation (the way
the various parts are ordered in relation to one another) has many interesting
world of sound. The harmonic series of a single tone is itself a kind
parallels in the
of "pitch framework," for the fundamental member of the series serves as a nucleus,
or tonic, for all of its accompanying parts.
In listening, we impose the structure of the harmonic series as one kind of guide
to tonal organization. That is, we mentally gauge the jumble of incoming sounds
and, in so doing, we have recourse to the patterns that are intrinsic to tones them-
selves, the relations of the harmonic series.
We have already noted the unique quality of the octave, the way its separate
parts fit together in a relationship that suggests a mutual identity; for this reason
the t^v•o parts even bear identical note names. The second interval that occurs "in
the harmonic series after the octave, the perfect fifth, shares this mutual identity of
its parts to a lesser degree. It is not difficult to hear this interval as two separate

pitches, even when played simultaneously. But next to the octave, the fifth is the
simplest of all pitch relationships. It is not so simple as to sound like a single tone,
but it is simple enough to create a strong effect of tonal focus, this quality causing
its lower tone to act as the fundamental pitch of the interval.

Ex. 2-1 1. Pitch roots.

(a) (c)
(Ty

^Root
E
Root
?
Root

The first five partials of the harmonic series create five different intervals, in-

cluding the perfect octave and the perfect fifth.

Ex. 2-12. First five partials and intervals.

fl M.^

"^
^^
p.5.r J

m [^
-
^M.G

8'ca

Since the fundamental pitch of the harmonic series is the focal point for the
whole pattern, the root pitch for any one of these intervals is the fundamental pitch of its
TONALITY 27

series. This means that if we hear one of these intervals apart from any extraneous
context, we tend to regard the fundamental of the series to which the interval belongs as
the interval's root. Whether the melodic (successive) or harmonic (simul-
interval is

taneous), each of these intervals implies a root that can operate in melody. When
combined with rhythms, these interval relations create a pitch framework of
melodic organization.
The intervals in Ex. 2-13 are arranged in pairs according to their inversion pro-

perties. Note that turning each interval upside down produces its inversion com-
plement: the inversion of the perfect fifth is the perfect fourth; the inversion of
the major third is the minor sixth; and the inversion of the major sixth is the minor
third. This similarity is also revealed in the common root that each interval of the
pairs shares with its inversion.
This root property of musical tones can best be illustrated by separating each of
the five elementary intervals and showing their separate root effects.

Ex. 2-13. Interval roots.

inr\ £>
Root Root Root Root Root Root Root Root
FTT :2± xnt*t rn

L-e-
to-
^
^f-
t-o-
C8 i or [8 i

We should remember that this root effect operates with more force for the octave,
the perfect fifth, and the perfect fourth than for any other intervals. Implied within
the harmonic series itself is a dwindling relationship to a fundamental pitch; the
higher in the series an interval appears for the first time, the weaker is its root
effect. The above the fifth partial become increasingly
roots of intervals that lie

negligible. For this reason, melodies that span a range of less than a perfect fifth
or perfect fourth rely most heavily upon rhythmic details (such as repetition, dura-
tion, and accent) to produce an effect of pitch focus.
As can be seen in Ex. 2-13, even the major sixth and minor third are subject to
two possible root analyses, depending upon their position within a group of tones.
As isolated intervals, the first root possibility is more probable, but in a musical
context, melodic emphasis on the upper tone of the major sixth or on the lower
tone of the minor third can impart to those tones a significance that outweighs
their effect alone.

Interval Quality and Melodic Organization

Returning to theMozart excerpt of Ex. 2-5 (page 21), we can now see other
reasons for the importance ofyas the tonic.

Ex. 2-14. Mozart: Sonata No. 12 in F, (K. 332), I.

^ ^^ ^
 —

28 TONALITY

From its first skip, this melody traces a pattern that reinforces / as tonic; each
new tone of the entire first two measures confirms this relationship to / as root
tone.

Ex. 2-15. Analyses of Ex. 2-14.

P. 5
M.3

M.3

These inner relationships within the pitch framework of/' c^ pre-establish the
basis for this melody's pitch organization. After the first two bars any digressions
(such as the b-Jlats and e's of measures 3 and 4) are heard as subservient in their
relations to f as tonic. And then the return of/ in the seventh measure is like the

closing of a full circle, for it comes as the return and reconfirmation of the funda-
mental pitch from which the melody originated.
Other melodies reveal these same characteristics of pitch organization to lesser
or greater degrees. The relative simplicity or complexity of any melody is deter-
mined to a great extent by the clarity with which the various pitches have been
organized in relation to a tonic. Some simple songs of widespread use hymns, —
—
communal songs, children's play chants and the like are even more tenacious
than the Mozart example in their adherence to a tonic. (Sing through the first six
measures of America for such a sample.) More complicated melodies are compara-
tively vague as pitch organizations around a tonic, avoiding rhythm and pitch
patterns that could confirm and intensify the focal role of any single pitch.
Sing or play through the melodies of Ex. 2-16 as samples of this less definite
kind of pitch organization in melody.

Ex. 2-16a. Hindemith Theme and Four Variations. (C) 1947 by

: B. Schott's Soehne, Mainz.
Reprinted by permission.

(tonic?)

i^iJ-
^F
^
»r iTCrP ^P
pitch frame

Ex. 2-16b. Bach: Well-tempered Clavier I, Fugue XXI in B-flat Major.

m ] l J1^jJ1 J^SClLi^
l
g
..if,i
TONALITY 29

Ex. 2-16c. Mozart: Piano Sonata in E-flat Major, K. 282.

^^ p gf or g/ i

Efr ^'r W'

Melody (a) of Ex. 2-16 is ambiguous because no pitch is singled out as a point
of focus for the whole melody. After the initial emphasis of c (by repetition at the
octave with the fifth-fourth forming g in between), no pattern confirms this open-
ing tonic.
Melody (b) contains a different problem, for here it is possible to find two plausi-
ble tonics, The numerous soundings of/ draw our attention to it as a
b-JIat or f.
possible reference pitch, but b-Jlat is also very much in evidence. B-JIat is the in-
tended tonality (we know this because of what happens in the remainder of the
piece), but the patterns of the first few measures are not decisive in establishing
this pitch as a tonic.
Melody (c) is similar to (b), for again there some question about the pitch of
is

focus. Is it b-Jlat or is it e-Jiat? Heard with the accompaniment provided by Mozart

there would be little question, for e-fat predominates within the first measure. But
out of context, this short passage dwells upon b-fat to such an extent that even
the perfect fourths, b-flat'
— e-fat^ cannot convince us that e-fat is the tonic. It is

only with the entrance o^ a-fiat in the last pattern that b-flat is made a very negligi-
ble possibility. Once we have heard melody through measures 3 and 4 it is
this

much easier for us to hear the beginning notes within a framework that has e-flat
as its tonic.
Many other melodies, like the Mozart melody of Ex. 2- 16c, do not by them-
selves create an altogether clear tonality. Such patterns are normally associated
with a chordal accompaniment that fulfills, with the melody, the total pitch
orientation. Such melodies usually make clear a focal pitch at some point within
their courses, but often only at the end or at some location well within their interior
structure. So even without the chordal accompaniment, once we have become
familiar with these tunes we do not have to hear their total span to realize their
pitch orientation.
When rhythmic and intervallic emphasis of a particular pitch are combined in
melody, a sense of organization results where aimless, random successions of tones
might otherwise prevail. The effect can be engaging, for musical tone by itself can
be an object of beauty, but the whole might add up to nothing that reveals a scheme
of organization : the compositional technique in such a case does not communicate
form. Tonality provides this organizational basis for all of the pitches that comprise
man's range of hearing. When we sing, play, or listen to music, tonality is one
of the most important form-giving elements, helping us to orient our tonal
"thoughts" into comprehensible images. We shall learn about other agents of
musical organization as our study progresses, but of all those pertinent to the
musical experience, tonality is most intrinsic to musical tone.
 )

30 TONALITY

We can isolate four simple questions that are important to any decision about
tonal organization of a melody. The study of any particular melody should begin
with the answers to each of these questions.
1 What is the last pitch, and what is the first pitch of rhythmic importance (be-
cause of metric position or greater duration or both)?
2) Is any single pitch made prominent because of its frequent occurrence, or its
several repetitions, or because of its and stresses?
relatively greater durations
3) What intervals occur during the first patterns of pitch motion, and what is

their common or most emphasized root, if any?

4) What is the lowest and what is the highest pitch of the whole melody or its
several parts, and what is the interval relationship between these and any
pitch that is important because of reasons covered in items 1, 2, and 3 above?

Many melodies incorporate at least three schemes for establishing a tonic, others
no more than two, and still others commandeer every available force to establish
a single tone as the focus of pitch organization. It is the basic problem of the per-
former and the listener to recognize the various clues of pitch organization and
then allow the conclusions to serve as guides to musical understanding. Three
melodies of simple pitch structure are shown below, each accompanied by its

tonality frame.

Ex. 2-1 7a. Pergolesi

p^ip?

c;T7[; ^r i
cj
ii

i
^#
rr cp^' ^
Tonali^y frame

J J^ i
J ns A
Tonic

Ex. 2-17b. Hungarian folksong.

Tonality frame

;z=^
i
*r Tonic
 :: : :

TONALITY 31

Ex. 2-1 7c. Scotch folksong.

—m
m -zl
m m
Pr i
-P
r r ^r If r r

s:
i i ^
Tonality frame

P ^
^ flf I?
'
Tonic

Exercises

See Chapter 2 of Materials and Structure of Music I, Workbook for more detailed work.

1 . Using only the given prescription, write a short melody that fulfills each of the following

A) Tonality, F Meter, :
I
: Pitches ^^
B) Tonality,

C) Tonality,
A

D) Tonality, D: Meter,
: Meter,

flat: Meter,
C :

|: Pitches:
Pitches

2; Pitches
^
m
§ h '

E) Tonality, C : Meter, | : Pitches 3

2. A) Find five melodies which exhibit a tonality frame of an octave, tonic to tonic.
B) Find five melodies which exhibit a tonality frame of an octave, dominant to
dominant.
C) Find five melodies which exhibit a tonality frame of only a fifth, from tonic to
dominant.
3. At random, choose relatively simple melodies from a sight-singing collection. Analyze
each melody for tonality frame and the relations (step or skip) of all other pitches within
the melody to that frame. Then sing the melody.
 Key,

Mode,
3
ani

Scale

Closely related to the tonality framework discussed in Chapter 2

are the key systems and scales of traditional music. Although pitch focus can be
produced with tones in many different ways, the music of Western tradition has
developed its own characteristic methods.
We commonly speak major" or "in
of a composition as being "in the key of C
the key of B-flat minor." In such statements we establish a relationship between
particular pitches of focus (C and B-flat respectively) and particular patterns of
notes (major and minor scales). In other words, key combines the factors of tonic
and scale.
Many different kinds of scales can be abstracted from music: There are "Hun-
garian Scales," pentatonic scales, whole-tone scales, chromatic scales, gapped
scales, symmetrical scales, and so on, each of which has a unique combination of
notes that sets it off from any other. Aiiy one of these scales is nothing more than
a particular ordering of notes that can form the basis for the pitch patterns of
music.
If we extract all of the notes from the Mozart melody quoted in Chapter 2 (Ex.
2-5), then order them in succession following the tonic pitch of the melody (F),
the result is the scale that serves as the pitch basis for this melody; it represents the
pitches which are used to fill in the span between the outer limits of the tonality
frame, /^ tof^.

Ex. 3-1. Mozart: Sonata No. 12 in F, (K. 332), I.

zn

f i
zn s
? 3t

32
 —

KEY, MODE. AND SCALE 33

Pitch scale
-e-

The result of this abstraction is what we call the major scale of F. DnU^ KhO fJ
Any series of pitches that duplicates the same pattern of successive intervals
1,1, ^/a, 1, 1, 1, ^/2 — is a major scale. (The number 1 represents a whole step, ^/a
represents a half step.) The note combinations of Ex. 3-2 cojntain five pat,terns ^^

which are major, five which are not. ^tiCjil ,qIxJQ^ X'CuXiiLf ^^'/ ^^^

Ex. 3-2.
JUcdL<^ <c

-'^'
k^ l>o - ly ^E f O
t> I'O
(D^-

o ff"
in: =e=fct

©
o itr
i oj^^ Q
11

©
'>
O M °>" °- p
-»—1U3_
® o -e-
'' O
•®
tt

o 1^ 1. I'o 31: -e-

TT" it.y u

W^ ^3 n—
^n e-
1^
®
3 .. O lM> O '- ^ ^
We can transpose^; each of the scales shown in Ex. 3-2 so that the pattern of
intervals remains the same but the initial note is always c'. In this way the simi-
larities and the differences in the various arrangements become more apparent.

Ex. 3-3.

A ® ®
n O 331
331 -O-
331
O " -O-
$ O "

I 33" : : o o 331 O "

j ^ ^, ^o I m. ^o ^^
1 Transpose literally means to "change position." In music it refers to a change of pitch level. Thus,

any series of notes can be transposed if the series is kept intact but changed to a higher or lower pitch
register.
 34 KEY, MODE, AND SCALE

Ex. 3-3. Continued.

''^ o <> l>o "

[,0 l^o 1^" '^Q : »

®
331 331
o ini 331
n o =o=n=
^o^
® ®
n O 331 i» O 1, i>o "
"or -e- o

Each of the scales in Ex. 3-3 is a " C scale," although half do not qualify as
"major scales."
. Q qD Our music reveals that certain arrangements of pitches have been
literature of
.1
i^^^ most favored by composers during the past several hundred years, and for this
reason we shall pay particular attention to these. We might note in passing that
our musical staff, with its alternating lines and spaces, and the black and white
key pattern of the piano both have a simple relationship with the C major scale
pattern.

Ex. 3-4.

331 O «> °
331 mnn
cl dl el fi gl ai bl c2

Thus a scale of all successive notes beginning on C and extending up an octave

automatically creates a major scale pattern on the staff of any clef; playing the suc-
cessive white keys of the piano from C to c automatically results in the C-major
pattern.

The Diatonic Scale Systems

Ifbegin a scale on any note other than C (written on the staff or played at
we
the keyboard), and if we use only unaltered pitches, different kinds of scales are
produced. As in major, there will still be a pair of minor seconds at some two points
within the series, but they will no longer fall between the 3-4 and 7-8 notes where
they fell in the major pattern. It is the shifting of location of these two smaller
intervals within the series of scale tones that determines the scale form.
KEY, MODE. AND SCALE 35

Ex. 3-5.
^xfXtl fKcDMA£)J^
Major ( Ionian) Dorian

Phrygian Lydian ^ t^/^f ^ TJ^ / '

^^ ^^^

^ Mixolydian

Locrian
^
'-vur.j

m • •
-^^^tU^^^ V^C7)f/. Aeolian( minor) /)(rlurO

-' jj^
n
i

i
Each of these different arrangements of seven notes is called a scale or mode^ '^

Ifwe again use C as a common tonic, we can see more readily how changes of
mode are brought about with the relocation of the two half steps in relation to
the tonic note.

Ex. 3-6.

Ionian ( Major) Dorian

n o ZSSl ^o- 3x:
o=9= * XT I.O «i Q '^

Phrygian Lydian

o-

Mixolydian Aeolian ( Minor)

-e- "
o ^^t° " I I

j ^ .U .. oJ:-.-^° "

Locrian

i> o t'o
.. l>o ^n ^o g

2 The word modi is derived from the sa me wo r d root a s mood. Each of the traditional
mode names
is of Greek origin Ionian, Dorian, Phrygian, Lydian, Mixolydian, Aeolian, and Locrian. In most instances
:

the word mode is interchangeable with scale.

 — —

36 KEY, MODE. AND SCALE

Since scales "1" and "6" of Ex. 3-6 are better known today as major and minor,
we shall henceforth drop their impressive Greek names in favor of the more
familiar.
Itjs significant that six of the seven modes contain a perfect fifth interval between
their tonics and their fifths. As we can recall from our study of the tonality frame-
work in Chapter 2, the diminished fifth is not an interval that is conducive to a
strong root effect. For this reason, the Locrian mode traditionally has been regarded
more as a "theoretical mode" (i.e., not used in music), and it is rarely found as
the pitch basis for a composition.
The melodies of Ex. 3-7 are labeled according to the mode used. Sing or play
each,making certain to produce all pitches accurately in order to recreate the true
modal character.

Ex. 3-7a. Greek : Hymn to Seikelos.

fM i JT r i
T^r I
pflj 1^^
^
t f

fii^^LEJ IP^ P'J Icjj'ffiN'^

Mode: Mixolydian a
zzi
oaz

Ex. 3-7b. United States Folksong.

^
:

^ * w
^ -0 —w t
^
^ J) 1 (!;iJ
J 1
^ * d m * '

$ • w
t m ^ i
Mode: Dorian

Ex. 3-7c. Spain : Chant to the Virgin.

m£ f i I
f
KEY, MODE, AND SCALE 37

m W
^^^^
L/ i

r
i'
Lf f i

^ Mode: Natural Minor (Aeolian)

. * • ^' ^ z^l

Composers and have not always created melodies that consisted

folk singers
exclusively of the pitches from any one of these scales. In this sense, scales or modes
are really basic patterns that are often altered in various ways to suit the taste of

the person using them. For instance, the melody in Ex. 3-8 is essentially Dorian, but
notice that the seventh scale note is raised a semitone in measure six.

Ex. 3-8. Dufay : Chanson, te /cor s'endorf.

(h (ii)

P ^^ p i ^P ^^
u i,^ nA
^ i- i.
la i
^ ?

By raising this note one semitone, the melody line leads with even greater
j

impetus into the tonic pitch, D. This strong melodic relation— the melodic half- /
step below tonic pitch —
gives this seventh scale degree the name "leadingjtone^"|/
Two modes contain this relation between their seventh and eighth notes without
note alterations: Major and Lydian. To contain the leading tone, the remaining
modes would require the raising (by sharp or natural accidentals as the case may '

require) of the seventh scale member. Without this change their seventh degrees
are called "subtqnics," to distinguish them from the semitone step of the leading
tone — tonic relation.
When the seventh degree of the Dorian mode is raised by one half-step, a pat-
tern very similar to the major mode results. It is different from major only in that
its lower half-step falls in a different location.

Ex. 3-9.

1
Y

^ ., o o o t^'^ Major

i
:^^fe Dorian with raised 7
j o ^^ :xsz
 ^

38 KEY, MODE, AND SCALE

This scale is better known by still another name, melodic minor. It shares the
minor second placement between pitches 2 and 3 of the Aeolian mode, but it is
different in that its other minor second occurs between 7-8 rather than 5-6.
This whole scale, then, consists of the interval succession of 1 | 1 1 i. —————— 1 1

A third kind of minor scale results if the seventh note of the Aeolian (natural
minor) pattern is raised a semitone to create a leading tone. This new pattern
differs from the other modes discussed in that it contains three minor-second inter-
vals rather than the usual two. Such an arrangement leaves an unusual interval,
the augmented second, between 6-7,

Ex. 3-10.

^^- XE
4 o A- ° ^
Aeolian

O O Melodic .minor (.th^l^ .loL^

331 -o-
"O"
xn

o O 33: Aeolian (Natural minor)

-& o

m "cr
/i7q
+2

y Harmonic minor IxJUMci ^iK JW^

The fourth scale of Ex. 3-10 is traditionally called harmonic minor. Along with the
melodic and natural patterns, it occurs frequently in the music most familiar to us.
It important to remember that each of the modes derives its unique character
is

from (1) the intervals formed by the separate pitches with their tonic, and (2) the
intervalsbetween any pitch and its immediate predecessor and successor. For this
reason we can
profit from a growing acquaintance with the different intervals that
form the scale types discussed thus far: major (Ionian), natural minor (Aeolian),
melodic minor, harmonic minor, Dorian, Phrygian, Lydian, and Mixolydian.

Ex. 3-lla.

Major m.: Natural minor rf\l iw«-

m2 _Q_
ZESl
^^
ZZZ.
TT -O-
:7^-^ 3x:
-^z^S ^^
33:
zss.
Z^L

M2 M3 P4 P5 M6 M7 M2 m3 P4 P5 m6 m7

^ One tradition regards melodic minor as actually consisting of two different scale patterns, one
the ascending form (as shown here in Ex. 3-9), the other what we shall call natural minor.
 )

KEY, MODE, AND SCALE 39

Melodic minor Harmonic minor ni2

> +2

M'2. m3 P4 P5 M6 M7 M2 m3 P4 P5 m6 M7

Dorian Phrygian m2
m2 A m2
-^»3-
311 fro-
TT ^^ m o " zz:

* o^o V °
*
?JT,,^l_^^
-

m2 mS P4 P5 mG m7
z^

M2 m3 P4 P5 M6 m6

Lydian m2 Mixolydian

-&-
o o h; ir^
M2 M3 +4 P5 M6 M7 M2 M3 P4 P5 M6 m7

Terminology of Scale Degrees

In addition to the tonic, which is the central tone of any scale of pitches, the tones
of all scales are named in a way that classifies their particular function within the
total scale system. This gives us an additional name for reference. Ex. 3-1 lb shows
a C major scale and the various symbols which are commonly used to represent

each degree.

Ex. 3-llb.

C Major scale jj IV VI
Supertonic Subdominant Submediant ( Tonic
-o- 331

I I

To nig Mediant Dominant

3SZ

Leading tone
in V vn

This set of names is applied to every scale or mode, no matter what its structure,
except when the seventh degree is not a semitone below tonic in this case the pitch
;

o[ seven is called subtonic rather than leading tone.

The name for each scale degree is derived from its functional relationship to
tonic. The set of definitions that follows explains the distinction of each name as
it relates to the scale set.

i
Tonic: Tone of focus for the scale
Dominant: The tone a fifth above the tonic
$ Tonic Dominant
 .

40 KEY, MODE, AND SCALE

Mediant: The tone between (the "medium" or "halfway" tone) the tonic and its

dominant

Dominant

Tonic Mediant

Subdominant : The tone a fifth below the tonic (The under-dominant)

$ T^ "^o"'^
Subdominant

Submediant: The tone between (The "medium" or "halfway" tone) the tonic and
its subdominant

Tonic Submediant
E±S
$ F^ Subdominant

Supertonic: The next tone above tonic

Leading-tone: The tone a semitone below tonic
Subtonic: The tone (when present) a whole step below tonic

Each of these names is a normal part of the trained musician's vocabulary. We

shall use them even more when we deal with chords. At that time we shall use both
the numerical distinction (such as I (for "one") and V (for "five")) and the func-
tional distinction, such as tonic chord (or pitch) and dominant chord (or pitch)

Key Signatures

The notation of music developed concurrently with the gradual adoption of our
major-minor scale systems.* One adaptation of music writing to these scales has
been the development of a shorthand method for previewing the pitches encoun-
tered in a composition. Such is the essential function of the key signature that appears
at the beginning of many compositions. These collections of sharps or flats (or
their absence) indicate the alterations of the "natural" note system that must be
made to achieve the desired pitches. Without sharps or flats the musical staff" re-

* Most of our current music notation practices were established during the seventeenth and

eighteenth centuries. Earlier music requires considerable deciphering to be made readable by

modern performers.
 )

KEY, MODE. AND SCALE 41

presents a set of notes that renders a major scale possible only from C, a natural
minor scale only from A.

Ex. 3-12.

. C Major

^ O
o O ini
331
m A Minor

TT «
( natural

ZJJZ
ICC

Since the lines and the spaces of the staff have "built-in" half steps and whole
steps, untransposed modes result from unaltered successions of pitches. A beginning
on any note other than C or A will produce one of the modes, Dorian, Phrygian,
Lydian, Mixolydian, or Locrian. (See Ex. 3-5.)
A composer writing a composition for soprano voice based on the natural minor
scale could, by pitch alterations, shift the intervals of the unaltered C scale so that

minor results. The required alterations are those which produce minor seconds
where they occur in the pattern of natural minor, between 2-3 and 5-6.

Ex. 3-13.

Major Minor ( natural)

~n- »i I'o "
~CT~ l

~0" 331
o l^o " ^

As a convenience to the composer and the performer, the three flats {B-Jiat,
E-Jlat, and A-Jlat) required to make this shift of pattern can be indicated as a

"signature" at the beginning of the line after the clef sign. This relieves the com-
poser of inserting necessary alterations every time these notes occur within the
melody.

Ex. 3-14.

In the same way, the key signature of three flats can be used to produce the major
mode from a scale that begins on the note E-flat.
42 KEY, MODE, AND SCALE

Ex. 3-15.

E Phrygian Et Major

o 9 o *
1 o irc o «>

^^\ ,. o_,,. ° ^^ 331

The order in which flats or sharps are placed in the key signature follows a set
pattern; it is based on the sequence of pitch changes required to produce a reloca-
tion of the scale.
Using the unaltered mode based on F, one alteration is needed to create the
major scale the lowering of B to B-flat. Since this is the first flat demanded in
:

the notational system, it is always the first flat to the right of the clef sign of any
signature containing flats. Ex. 3-16 shows the successive alterations required to
produce major scales from the natural notes of the musical staff.

Ex. 3-16.

~rr xn
o 9
ZJJC -o-
* TT e- ^ =o=a=
o 9

IS
331 E^ o o - im
jCC -e-
It o ~XT-
v\r ^1 ?

P T> O- 331
O ^> "
t> 9

Notice that after introduced, E-flat follows; A-flat next; then D-flat and
B-flat is

G-flat. A progressive series by fours is established that can be represented as:

BCDEFGABCDEFGAB
12 3 4 5
etc.

With the addition of sharps for the creation of major scales, the series follows
a sequence by fives. The first sharp alteration required is F-sharp; the second C-
sharp; the third G-sharp; and so on.

12
FGAB CDEF GABC DEFG
3 4
etc.

Ex. 3-17.

i» o " xn
33: n O 3X1
O o
o
^ LI O 33= =e=33=
i -e- 33=
-o- tl o =n=
31=

yu o

p
»«
~n~ 33=
331
33= T^ <> O
 -

KEY. MODE, AND SCALE 43

This series of pitch akerations has historical significance as the circle of fifths,
which is a circular scheme that pictorially represents the system of keys for our
major-minor scale system.

Ex. 3-18. Circle of Fifths.

>—
/.^^\>
circle q/-

/''r AV, rD
*

-3b 3HA

61
H
Db 6b Cb

Two scales which have the same tonic but which do not contain identical pitches

on every scale degree are called parallel scales. For instance, the keys of B-Jlat
minor and B-fiat major are parallel keys. On the other hand, two scales (or keys)
which contain identical pitches but do not have the same tonic are called relative
scales. Thus G minor and B-fiat major are relatives, and D major is the relative major

of B minor.

Ex. 3-19.

Parallel scales '

1^ Bb Major
te:

-''"'^^
i ^ ^l,.^-
Bb Natural minor

M 3
i2L

Relative scales '

m G Minor

Bb Major
'>
D Major

.11."
B Minor
»'
44 KEY, MODE. AND SCALE

Since double sharps (X )and double flats (b l>) are not generally used in key
signatures, the system of keys normally is extended no further than seven sharps

(for C-sharp major or A-sharp minor) and seven flats (for C-Jiat major or A-fiat
minor). But the progression by fifths can be continued until the original pitch,
spelled enharmonically^ as B-sharp, is reached.
The key signatures of our music are usually derived from the diatonic scale struc-
tures. As a music based on the pitch resources of some other scale does not
result,

readily fit our traditional signatures. A composition that makes free use of the twelve
tones of the chromatic scale gains little of practical use from a key signature. If
used, the composer and the performer are kept busy staying abreast of alterations
and, ultimately, their frequent cancellation.

Ex. 3-20. Chopin: Valse, Op. 64, No. 3.

Compositions based on scales unlike the traditional modes might conceivably

use signatures that look strange. The melody in Ex. 3-21 incorporates such a scale,
and the composer fabricated a special key signature that indicates to the per-
former the pitch materials to be expected within the composition.

Ex. 3-21. Bartok Cradle Song, Violin Duets, No. 11.

:

Copyright 1933 by Universal Edition; renewed 1960. Copyright & renewal

assigned to Boosey & Hawkes Inc. Reprinted by permission.

^i ^
Scale

(|
Bb Db

^° ' ^°
^ r y l9-=-

^ Enharmonic tones are those which bear different note names but which have the same pitch. For
example, F-JIat and E, A-fat and G-skarp, B-sharp and C are all enharmonic pairs.
 —

KEY, MODE. AND SCALE 45

Modulation and Mutation

Our foregoing discussion of keys, modes, and scales must be amplified somewhat
to account for the pitch organization of many melodies. For the sake of variety,
more than one pitch framework is often used within a composition.
The word modulation refers to this shifting from one pitch focus, or tonic, to
another. Thus we can say that a modulation occurs at section "Y" of Ex. 3-22,

the initial tonic of C replaced by the new tonic of G.

Ex. 3-22. Russian folksong.

xi ^=zi—

"^•icrcircrcJ i

TO^
^ f
Tonic
V r V II

Tonic
J 11 ^^
Sections "X" and "Y" both utilize simple scale materials within their respective
boundaries, each incorporating only four different notes. It is the new focus on G,
following the focus on C,. that constitutes the modulation or change of key.
Change of mode alone does not achieve change of tonic. On
the same result as

the contrary, we can best describe the pitch organization of Ex. 3-23 by noting
that a common tonic, F, persists throughout. The change of mode from minor to
major at section "Y" represents mutation rather than modulation. In this case,
mutation refers to scale change as distinct from tonic change. In this example the
contrast is affected by a change to the parallel major scale.

Ex. 3-23. Swedish folksong.

^^
^^nnm^^ j
^ £ "r ^m
^^ ^
\[j

jt nn^ \S-}i

z-
s P ^P
Pitch frames
 ^

46 KEY, MODE. AND SCALE

Modulation is closely allied with the sectional divisions the phrases of musical —
I'brm —
which we shall discuss later in Chapters 4 and 5. For the present, however,
we can observe that the melody of Ex. 3-22 illustrates this formal division by shift-
ing tonics halfway through the melody. In a similar way, Ex. 3-23 is sectionalized
—
by the change of mode the mutation that occurs after measure eight. —
It is this psychological shift from the old tonic to the new that makes modulation

an element of variety, for only the relation of the original tonality to another
establishes a condition of change. Either one without the other would represent
merely one particular tonality, and thus provide no contrast.
In establishing a new pitch focus, the same techniques of repetition, duration,
metric placement, and strong interval embellishment (fifth or third above, leading
tone relation) are used. The melodies which follow incorporate these various meth-
ods of establishing a new tonic. It is interesting to see that several techniques can
be combined, as in Ex. 3-25, to create an immediate and unmistakable shift of
pitch focus.

Ex. 3-24. Schumann : An den Sonnenschein, Op. 36, No. 4.

^— I I

-&
Bb major

m£m m.
pr cJ i r r
i J'J J

X2I m m m
^
I
t

pr r If P^ f^
i
—F major

n ^ u ^
H — Bt major

¥ r r r c
^ wnr gr u
Ex. 3-25. Chopin : Madchens Wunsch.

A major
^ •
H J J

^ u S g
^
^ iEt
J
rzs
it
^s>s
minor
I J- e
J'^ I ^-
, Ji

£
\± A major
i^^
^ ^j^ _l
KEY, MODE, AND SCALE 47

It would be unrealistic, however, to regard all shifts of pitch emphasis, no matter

how brief, as key changes. In this sense we are dealing with an organizational mat-
ter that is subject to relative judgments. Pitch focus is itself a product of our psy-
chological response to tone patterns, so it is reasonable to assume that one person's
reaction might be slightly different from another's. For instance, one person might
regard the "Y" section of Ex. 3-26 as an interesting diversion within the tonality of
D; another might hear the passage as a definite modulation to the new tonic of A.

Ex. 3-26. German chorale.

r r p
i
^J- J i
j^J p J i
J j'] ^ ^

As a general rule, we can judge melodiesmodulating if the ap parent shift of

as

tonic is^c onfirmed by at least two c onsecutive sections of the melody.^ Thus the melody
of Ex. 3-27 does not contain a change of key; the emphasis on E-flat in the bracket-
ed section represents emphasis on the dominant within the tonality of yl-flat. On
the other hand, the melody of Ex. 3-28 modulates, for the emphasis continues long
enough for the new pitch frame to be established clearly in the listener's mind.

Ex. 3-27. Beethoven: Piano Trio, Op. 1, No. 1.

fi'^^cS- ^ ^'
i

^cjcj- i
&r ^

^' } Pvpv
\ > |
I^r pv^P
^m
r^CfrTTJ J rJ3

• We shall make our definition more preci.se in Chapter 4 by regarding ihe phrase, with its attendant
cadence, as the unit of measurement for modulation.
 J — #

48 KEY, MODE, AND SCALE

Ex. 3-28. German chorale : Valet will ich dir geben.

to A:- - - - - - -confirmed >- - back to D

Some melodies use a modulatory scheme to create a series of shifting tonics,

each new section creating a new reference point. These transitory modulations usually
occur between sections of clear tonal focus, the shifts of tonics creating a tonal
variety as compared to the definite, unchanging pitch frameworks of the beginning
and ending sections. Once again, it is quite possible to hear such melodies as or-
ganized around a single tonic, the changing pitch frames representing changing
stress upon different pitches belonging to the single overall tonality. In cases where

a beginning and ending are clearly grounded in a single tonality, it is perhaps

more accurate to favor the latter interpretation.

Ex. 3.29. Froberger : Gigue.

W
±=R
H jn j J' J ^ s

j"
10
^r^^r/exf i i
^ nsj r i r ^r^^r,!; !

0^ —

20
p
15

i
gsf M'U ^HHf PLJ r i r Br rJr ^^
25
^P I- I S) ^-
i
j ^LLT i r Peg
^
30

I 5
w 5
t*f^ m
The melody in Ex. 3-29 contains a beginning section based within the tonality
frame of e' — e^. The leading tone —tonic ((/-sharp e) pattern in measure eight is

the final substantiation of this tonic before a change occurs, in the section marked

J
 —— :

KEY, MODE. AND SCALE 49

"X." This second section revolves around the pitch frame of ^^ g', with emphasis
on the fifth of d^. From measure fifteen through seventeen d and /-sharp are em-
phasized by repetition and by the leading tone created by the sharped c. Measures
eighteen and twenty relate these two pitches (rf and^-sharp) to a new pitch frame
based on a tonic of 5. Thus section "Y" brings a new tonic to the fore, followed by
a return (Section "Z") to the beginning tonality frame of e' e^. We can digest this
tonal movement into a simple diagram.

Section "W" "X" "Y" "Z"

1-8 9-14 14-20 21-30

Tonics E B E_

Overall Pitch Frame

(Principle Tonic: E

Exercises

See Chapter 4 of the Materials and Structure of Music I, Workbook for more detailed work.

1. Look and find examples of Dorian,

in a collection of melodies (for sight-singing, perhaps)
Aeolian (or natural minor) Phrygian, Mixolydian, and Lydian scales. Copy the total
r~-^elody and then show the pitch frame and scale in notation after the melody.
[2. Write a melody according to each of the following prescriptions
^-^ a) Six measures long, range d —
d' in bass clef, tonic D, in Mixolydian mode.
—
b) Four measures long, range from g g', tonic C, in major mode.
c) Four measures long, range from e' —
e^, tonic E, in Phrygian mode.

3. Find examples of melodies which begin and end clearly in the same key but which contain

a modulation to another tonic within interior parts.

4. Write a melody eight measures long that emphasizes F as beginning and ending tonic,
but stresses C at some point within.
5. Transpose relatively simple melodies in major or minor keys to new pitch levels. (For
example, transpose at sight a melody in the key of B-flat major to E-flat major.) Play at
the piano. Practice the same procedure with other instruments.
6. Practice writing every possible major scale, beginning with C and ending with B as tonics.
7. Practice spelling scales orally.
8. Write the proper key signatures for all major and minor scales.
 Melodic
Cadences
4

A fundamental characteristic of human behavior is our inabihty to

sustain a peak level of attention or participation in any activity. Whether in work
or play, our patterns of involvement are normally marked by periods of successive
intensity and relaxation. Such behavior is required for maximum efficiency,
whether in reading a book or in physically more taxing pastimes.
Even our speech reflects patterns of rise and fall, slow and fast, motion and rest,
hard-accent and soft-accent, all of which, when combined, transmit more effec-
tively what we wish to communicate they create the cadence of our phrases and
;

sentences. The result is an organization of sounds into meaningful language.

The cadence in music is an adaptation of these same points of pause amidst
activity that gives form to the unfolding of tonal ideas. Even if composers did not
mold such articulations of movement-repose into their music, listeners would seek
them as aids to the listening process. A continuous series of identical clicks is heard
as grouped into accents of twos or threes; and melodies areheard as patterns of
tones grouped around certain structural rallying points.
The cadence is that point in melody that provides momentary pause to the on-
ward flow of musical pattern or, at the melody's end, signals permanent conclu-
sion. It is, therefore, a sign for the listener of relative degrees of termination; it

separates one melodic unit from another. Like the written commas and colons
and periods of speech, the cadence is a heard signal that helps us organize our world
of tones into comprehensible forms.
The cadences of music arenamed according to the roles they play in tonal or-
ganization. In regard to melody alone we shall discuss only two basic types: the
terminal cadence, denoting a partial or total cessation of melodic activity; and the
progressive cadence, marking a break in tonal flow but with the suggestion of continua-

tion. Compared with the punctuation marks of language, the terminal cadence
resembles the period, while the progressive type is more like the break in a sentence
marked by a comma.
50
 MELODIC CADENCES 51

The Beethoven melody in Ex. 4-1 contains each of these cadential types, pro-
gressive at the midway point in measure four, terminal at the end.

Ex. 4-1. Beethoven: Symphony No. 9, IV.

J

m /^'
-| '

^m r r If r r \
r
Progressive
cadence

s r r I

f r ^ i
r ^ 1

Terminal
cadence
^5'-'
J$>

Rhythm and pitc h com bine^t o produc e the c ad ence effe ct. Although each of
the two segments of the melody in Ex. 4-1 closes with the same rhythmic unit

( J- J J )' the two cadences create different expectations because of the positions

of their cadence pitches within the melody's tonality. The e of measure four is

foreign to the d— a frame established in measures 1-3. Since it does not create
an effect of repose, it sets the stage for continued activity. By contrast, the d of
measure eight, as tonic of the melody, renders permanent conclusion a logical
consequence.
In addition to the increased note durations in measures four and eight, another
aspect of rhythm confirms the arrested motion at these two cadence points. Notice
that the pitch contour of this melody consists of a two-measure shape that rises
gently in measure two, falling to a low point at the beginning of measure three.

^
Ex. 4-2.

m
The same shape is repeated in measures three and four, creating a balance of
melodic contour, a musical statement modeled from the repetition of a two-meas-
ure unit. The continuation of this pattern into measure four, combined with the
contrasting longer durations (dotted quarter and half), impHes that the close of a
definite musical section has been reached.

Ex. 4-3.

^m r r I

f r r I
f ^
 —

52 MELODIC CADENCES

While these rhythmic groupings create the cadential caesura — the pause effect
it is the cadence pitch that determines the kind of punctuation.
It is interesting and informative
experiment with other pitches as cadential
to
notes in the middle of the Beethoven melody, to observe the punctuative effects
produced by different relations. Since the second four measures duplicate the first
four (excepting the cadence pattern itself), separation of the two by a terminal
cadence produces a monotonous, disjunct effect, as illustrated in melody a of
Ex. 4-4. Play or sing each of these versions to observe the contrasting cadential
effects.

\v- ^.c-^
•>
<^..^

(e)
T-^ etc.
rr i
f rr i
fpr

With the exception o[d a.x\df-sharp, the alternate cadence pitches perform about
the same role as e of the original. They imply, in varying degrees, the continuation
of melodic flow. However, all would not be successful choices for this melody be-
cause some, such as /-sharp and g, destroy the two-measure shape established as
a pattern of contour in measures one and two.
Cadences frequently lie at equally spaced locations within a melody, thus giving
a simple continuity to the flow of tones. But all melodies do not follow the same
four-measure pattern clearly stamped into the fabric of Ex. 4-1, and some melodies
are notably free of the regularity imposed by phrases of equal lengths.
Melodies "a," "b," and "c" of Ex. 4-5 have balanced pattern lengths; but
melodies "d," "e," and "f" deviate from this regularity of formation. The last two
examples are interesting because their cadences establish unbalanced melodic
units as the basis for melodic form.
 M

MELODIC CADENCES . \ f^^^^^\ ^J^ i

53

Ex. 4-5a. American folksong,

^^j^^ H[ ;
^^

^ 1(3) r

-0 —w »— =gfe=^ "2^ * r
i
(3)
^ n{3) 1(3)

(a(l> J.
J J
J I
J. J J i
^? w
i g W
U
Ex. 4-5b. Schubert: Piano Trio, Op. 100 (Scherzo).

^^ ^(4)

^
r

^^^ i '
^
P r r r If
(4)

^
Ex. 4-5c. Bartok :Mikrokosmos, "Staccato and Legato," Vol. V. Copyright 1940 by Hawkes
& Son (London) Ltd. Reprinted by permission of Boosey & Hawkes Inc.

n(3) 1(3)

$ ^ '
Vj J •!
t 'nj ^ g
Ij 'jTil fL''

Ex. 4-5d. German folksong.

^g I
^ 1(3)
(3)

I
r

?^^ m 3

1(3)
(3)

Ex. 4-5e. German folksong.

1(3) (3) 1(2)

t rrrnrrrr i
rrMrrrrirrrrirrHr^
1(2) 1(3) r 1(3)

rrrrirrrirrrr rrrrirrHrrrr i i
rrrrK^
54 MELODIC CADENCES

Ex. 4-5f. Brahms : Haydn Variations (theme).

^^
1(5)

f i[^ ^ i r
- »

(5)
ti
$ r ic-Zcj ^
rj^ i
nmrJ P
1(4)
M' F m w
^^
f ucj- If ^"ir/ i r
l
U^^if^ (5)

The patterns that span the distance from one cadence to the next are called
phrases. This unit of melodic form will be discussed in greater detail in Chapter 7,

but no discussion of the melodic cadence could be clear without some attention to
its nature. We might turn to language again for comparison to note that the
melodic phrase is similar to the "clause" or "phrase" of the sentence. And like its

language counterpart, the musical phrase can usually be reduced further into
smaller units called motives. For instance, the third phrase of the melody of Ex. 4-5d

consists of the rhythm :( ]t

J J J J) and its immediate repetition, both squeez-

ed into the span of three measures.

The Brahms-Haydn melody (Ex. 4-5f) yields a similar result in that the five-
measure phrase units can be reduced to two-part units, the first unit of three
measures, the second of two. In this case the divisions are represented by different

patterns rather than the repetition of a single motive.

Ex. 4-6.

repetition

motive a motive b

For reason a break occurs between the patterns of measures three and four
this

which, in a limited sense, is a cadence; only after hearing the continuation of

measures 6-1 1 can the listener decide that the important melodic units are five
MELODIC CADENCES 55

measures long. The combination of the two phrases resuhs in a ten-measure

section.^

Perfect and Imperfect Terminal Cadences

As we noticed earlier (page 52), it is the particular pitch at the cadence that
determines the cadential effect by implying or denying continued motion. A
strong progressive cadence forcefully suggests continuation, while a strong terminal
cadence unquestionably marks finality. The most appro-
tonic as cadence pitch
priately fulfills this latter function, while its scale relatives a major or minor third
or perfect fifth above can also, under most circumstances, imply closure to a limited
degree.
The third cadence of the Brahms-Haydn melody in Ex. 4-5 is an imperfec Uerminal _

caden ce. Since the ultimate pitch d is preceded by the tonic B-flat, and since B-Jlat
is the root of this melodic relation B-flat — d, the cadence pattern does not un-
equivocally demand continuation. And yet, it also does not suggest that melodic
motion has concluded; such a cadence lies in the never-never-land between the
weak p rogressive cadence a.nd^tjtrong terminal cadence.

The cadences of the melody in Ex. 4-7 are similar. Here there are two based on
a, the perfect fifth above tonic d. In measure four the a acts as a point of brief rest.

It fits into the frame of the D-tonality (since the tonic, D, is also the root of the re-
lation d' — a), so it does not demand resolution to the same extent as other pitches,
such as e, c-sharp, or g. Compare the relative intensification of this cadence when
these other pitches are substituted for a. Play or sing each version several times
to realize the precise cadential effects.

Ex. 4-7.

^ Original

p
O I (
^^
g ^ it.

^m
Revised with cjf

m \
Pr
i -e-

This combination of two phrases separated by a progressive cadence and ending with a terminal
^

cadence is sometimes called a. period.

56 MELODIC CADENCES

Ex. 4-7. Continued.

Revised with g

m ^
?z==®^

:^ ^
Revised with

P=:^
e

£^ ^
In a later chapter we ways accompanying chords and melodic
shall discuss the
activity in other parts can emphasize or weaken the cadential effect of a particular
pitch. This is one of the ways chords can add variety and alter the function of
pitches within a melody. Without chordal underpinnings a melody must depend on
rhythm and pitch relations within its tonality frame to create the available nuances
of cadence, which act as form-giving elements.

Transient-Terminal Cadences

If melodies always hovered tightly within the orbit of a single tonality frame and
scale, the foregoing discussion of cadences would suffice for all music. But since
many melodies fluctuate in their obedience to a single pitch focus,^ some cadences
momentarily create the effect of closure, and yet they do not meet the other speci-
fications demanded by our definition of the terminal cadence.
The middle portion of the melody in Ex. 4-8 pauses momentarily on d, a tone
made prominent by its leading tone, c-sharp. If the initially established tonality
were d, then this would be a simple terminal cadence. But since G is the tonic of
the tonality frame (g' —
d^), the pause on d does not represent a perfect terminal

cadence.

Ex. 4-8. German chorale : Er muntre dich, mein schwacher Geist

is ^
m ^ ^m
^^
We shall call such a cadence transient-terminal. Only if the motion to the cadential
d is interpreted as a modulation from the tonality of G to the tonality of D can it

be associated with full termination.

Transient-terminal cadences can occur on any degree of a scale other than
tonic. The dominant (5) is one of the most common, as illustrated in Ex. 4-8. Other

^ See the earlier section of Chapter 3 that deals with modulation, pp. 45-49,
MELODIC CADENCES 57

pitch degrees that frequently function in this way are the subdominanl, the mediant,
and the submediant.
Each of the melodies in Ex. 4-9 contains at least one transient-terminal cadence.
Of particular importance to melodic structure is the way each of these "temporary
tonics" is established as a pitch of emphasis, either by association with its leading
tone, with pitches a fifth or third above, or by its successive repetitions.

Ex. 4-9a. German chorale : Valet will ich dir geben.

^ ^ al 3JI
n
p-
r
mf
wm
^

rrr f i

r i^^rrr r^^ '

Ex. 4-9b. Irish folksong.

^7 MC;^^ ^i^p
i![

^m
'^^'^r &cr i
r

s £j^a:' i
r
j:?^^
^-^
^=^
') r r r h ium mmm Submediant

S M f
'
r p \
i!
m ^
Ex. 4-9c. John Dunstable: Soncta Maria.

1i ^ *—^r
J-
^N- JJJ1
Dominant

S
58 MELODIC CADENCES

Ex. 4-9d. Handel : Air with Variations (Var. 3).

tariejt
m^ m m
^m Mediant
^ p m
A more detailed discussion and precise classification of cadence patterns must
wait until harmonic features can be added to the rhythm and pitch elements that
create the cadential effect.^ The present limitation of basic types to the progressive,
the terminal (both perfect and imperfect), and the transient-terminal suffices for a
comprehension of the usual patterns found in melody.

Cadences and Musical Style

As we have seen, the cadence is a fundamental determinant of musical form. It

punctuates melodic flow in a way that suggests momentary or ultimate pause,

thus contributing a kind of gauge to the forward propulsion of tonal motion.
Operating in combination with the pitch patterns of the musical phrase, it is a key
element in the organization of music.
Since it does perform these unique roles, it is not surprising to find that com-
posers consistently have made use of individualized cadence patterns in their
music. Stereotyped formulae can be found, used repeatedly by one composer or
by a group of composers who share a common musical heritage. These cadential
"cliches" run the gamut from the strong terminal cadences in music of the eight-
eenth and nineteenth centuries to the actual suppression of cadential effect in some
works of the twentieth century.
We mentioned earlier that the cadence acts as a "signal" in musical form. Like
the other signs of everyday life — the green light, the siren, the waved hand, the
raised eyebrow — the melodic cadence can function as a clear, absolute signal, or,
at the other extreme, as a weak symbol or hint of musical organization. Music litera-

ture contains melodies whose cadences operate at both of these extremes, as well
as at levels in between.
It is not difficult to follow the melodic structure of some fourteenth century
music, for instance, because many of the outlining cadences use a specific scale
formula, 7-6-1 as their pitch content.

Ex. 4-lOa. Ciconia : Et in terra pax.

m U 7 6—1

* This further discussion appears in Chapter 17.

MELODIC CADENCES 59

Ex. 4-lOb. Landini: Amor dal tuo suggetto.

£
J)lJ ^H i5
7 6 — 1

Ex. 4-10c. Machaut : Mes esperis.

^^ 7 6
^
1

Although the name "Landini cadence" (after the fourteenth-century Italian

composer) has been coined for this pattern, it was actually used as the common
property of many earlier and later composers.
In music of the sixteenth century the fusion of a set rhythm and pitch formula
provides the cadential basis for many compositions, particularly the choral sacred
music of Palestrina. Ex. 4-11 shows this pattern, a rhythmic syncopation com-
bined with the 7-1 scale degrees, both as a terminal and as a transient-terminal
cadence.

Ex. 4-1 la. Palestrina: Vestina i colli (Kyrie).

a)r °
»r
Pitch:

Ex. 4-1 lb. Palestrina: In dominicus quadragesima.

m
Ex. 4-1 Ic. Lassus : Cantiones, No. 1,

*5ii
$
The use of these established "signals" of cadence goes somewhat beyond the mere
"rhythmic pause" of the cadential effect as we discussed it earlier; their repeated
use in music established "road signs" of musical form. The
them as the powerful
appearance of a conventionalized pitch-rhythm pattern reinforces the mere dura-
tional and tonal ingredients in differentiating the parts of melodic form.
60 MELODIC CADENCES

Bach, Handel, Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven shared as common property the
perfect terminal cadence of 7-1, the leading tone resolving to tonic, with a weak-
to-strong metric location. It power of this simple pitch-rhythm pattern to
is the
confirm tonality relations that makes it a significant cadential formula in the entire
history of music. Aside from its frequent appearances in music written by com-
posers of the classic and Baroque eras, this cadence pattern can be found in the bulk
of popular and community music whose most conspicuous features are simplicity
of tonality and phrase organization.
One special adaptation of the 7-1 figure became a cadential trademark in the
music of Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven, whereby the usual weak-strong rhythmic
placement of the two parts of the 7-1 pitch pattern were regrouped into a strong-
weak relation of syncopation. The leading tone of such a cadence is suspended
from a preceding weak position, thus delaying resolution to the tonic pitch.*

Ex. 4-1 2a. Haydn: Piano Sonata No. 1 (Adagio).

^m strong weak

7
JH

Ex. 4-1 2b. Mozart: Piano Sonata No. 16, K. 533.

strong weak

In our own day, some composers have used certain cadential patterns frequently
enough to justify their identification with the composer's personal style. Since
harmony plays a crucial role in determining the character of most recent music,
it is increasingly difficult to identify cadential patterns as melodic formulae alone.
However, composers whose music emphasizes melody as a dominant ingredient
use melodic cadences of some uniformity.

Ex. 4-1 3a. Hindemith : Theme and Four Variations. (C) 1947 by B. Schott's Soehne, Mainz.
Reprinted by permission.

^± ^ weak

Upper leading -tone cadence

strong

'
This delay is further enhanced, as we shall see later in Chapter 17, by the underlying chords.
 :

MELODIC CADENCES 61

Ex. 4-13b. Hindemith : When Lilacs Last in the Dooryord Bloomed. (C) 1948 by Schott &
Co., Ltd., London. Reprinted by permission.

^g Ct: Upper leading-tone cadence

S
t

It seems clear, then, that in addition to its role as a determinant of form, the
cadence can be elevated to a position of significance and individuality, thereby
recognizing its contribution to the "personality" of a particular work, the works
of a single composer, or even the compositions from an entire era of music-making.
In this latter role the cadence is a prime element that suggests, perhaps in a more
direct way than other musical elements, the peculiar flavor that makes one melody
utterly and uniquely different from another.

Exercises

See C:hapter 4 of the Materials and Structure of Music I, Workbook for more detailed work.

1 . Write several melodies, each of which fits one of the following schemes
Compose other melodies with similar characteristics.

3
(a) Key, D minor Meter

transient-terminal terminal
cadence on A cadence
(d)

(b) Key, A major:

Progressive transient -terminal terminal

cadence on G* cadence on F" cadence (A)

(c) Key, G Mixolydian:

Progressive terminal
cadence on F cadence
(G)

2. Copy several complete chorale tunes from a collection such as the 371 Bach Chorales.
Using only the melody as a basis for determination, name the cadence types.
3. Write one- or two-measure fragments which illustrate each kind of cadence type. Use
a variety of keys, major, minor, and modal.

Example: -/L-t y - *
i
ttj "w transient-terminal cadence in D-major

4. Analyze the melodies of any chosen composition for scales. Having determined the tonic
pitch for a passage, arrange the pitch materials in an ascending scale that begins with the
lowest note and extends to the highest. From this determine the basic scale.
 Forma/ Characteristics
of Melody:
5
The Motive
and Phrase

In Chapter 4 we saw how cadences impose form on tonal ideas by

one melodic unit from another. In this sense cadences form still another
setting off
kind of musical framework. The span between cadences is "filled-in" by various
related and contrasted melodic patterns. Even in the most complex melody, these
patterns are combined to create recognizable units between the cadential bound-
aries.

Since music takes place in time, we hea r musical patter ns in successioa. At times
a pattern is repeated immediately; at other times a new unit is followed by a pat-
tern stated earlier; and at times a pattern is changed slightly or a great deal, there-

by creating a variation. It is t his succession of discrete tonal units or sectionsjhaj;

produces form in music.
Such a description of musical form is very general; however, a close look at
several melodies will show what is meant by musical form. The terminal cadence
in measure 6 of Ex. 5-1 divides the whole melody into two smaller sections. These
two sections complement one another tonally and rhythmically, even though they
'
are not of equal length.

IKfcii ^ ac^icj^' mimi^ ^cxjic^rrj mxiK

Ex. 5-1. America.
}iVf'
4
^ e r r r If
'5

9 10 11 12 13 14

Each of two melodic sections is a phrase. As each unit is succeeded by an-

these
other, the unfolding of the melody takes place and its form is delineated. As Ex.
62
FORMAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MELODY: MOTIVE AND PHRASE 63

5-1 illustrates, the phrases need not be of equal length; however, each of the phrases
is set off by a clear cadence. Not until we count the measures do we become aware
of unequal phrase lengths.
Both phrases of Ex. formed from successive statements of smaller pat-
5-1 are

terns, each of which is two measures long. Thus, just as this melody is made up of
two sections, so each of its phrases is made up of smaller units called motives. These
motives are simple rhythmic patterns such as those seen in measures 1 and 2

( 4 J J J I J- J^J )• ^^^ immediate repetition of these patterns in measures

3 and 4 gives prominence to the motive. In measures 5 and 6 a new pattern

( J J J I J- ) is introduced which, because of a longer duration at the end

and the settling on tonic, brings the first phrase to a terminal cadence. The
phrase contains three two-measure units, two of which are rhythmically alike.
first

The third unit contrasts somewhat with what has gone before, completing the
rhythmic design of the phrase.
The motive at the beginning of the second phrase estab-
restatement of the initial

lishes a strong bond between the two phrases. In this case the phrase does not end
with the statement of the contrasting pattern, but continues for two more meas-
ures.Because of the particular rhythmic and tonal points of emphasis that have
been established, we might expect the melody to halt on the first beat of measure
12 on the pitch g. However, the dotted rhythmic figure is preceded by a new pat-
tern as well as a pitch motion up to d; consequently, more music is demanded to

complete the phrase.

The prominence of the rhythmic pattern (J J J | J. /^J) is the essential bind-

ing force of this tune. In many melodies a short pattern may form the basis for the
unfolding of the initial musical phrase and subsequent phrases as well. In some
melodies this is not as easily observed as in the tune America, and in still others no
short unit or section is repeated (see Ex. 5-2). However, some characteristic pat-
tern usually appears as a formal binder.

Ex. 5-2. Beethoven: Piano Sonata No. 8, Op. 13, II.

*e:r:= tef
s
'y-M'i^ f|fr.s' |
fv rr:!]i^
i

Motive Structure midiiK. -f^yTAcJUk^ .Uct(i^XL^A. ni^ami^

A motive is a short a nd di stinctive melodic pattern, often characterized by
simplicity ofrhythm and pitch design. Because of its brevity, the motive is easily
recognized and frequently plays an important role in the organization of a melody.
Both_pitch and rhythrn produce the distinct qualities that characterize a par-
ti cular motj vg. Either the pitch or the rhythmic structure can be the dominating
factor, or both can be combined and equally important. The motive illustrated in
64 'FORMAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MELODY: MOTIVE AND PHRASE

Ex. 5-3 does not have a noteworthy rhythm, and yet its pitch outUne forms a strik-
ing pattern of great melodic potentiality.

Ex. 5-3. Mozart: Symphony No. 41, "Jupiter," K. 551,

-o- ux:
331
IE

On the other hand, rhythm

dominant feature of the motive shown in Ex.
is the
5-4. As is frequently the case, this motive has an upbeat beginning, its first real
stress falling in the second measure on a relatively longer duration. Here, as in

many passages of music, the motive is restated immediately, thereby establishing

its importance and contributing to musical continuity.

Ex. 5-4. Beethoven : Symphony No. 5, I.

Cs /7\

pi
In Ex. 5-5, repetition of the motive ( F^ I
JV ) forms the rhythm of the

whole phrase until the change at the cadence. The pitch pattern of step-down step-
up is restated at different pitch levels until the approach to the cadence. This rep-
etition at different levels gives prominence to the rhythmic figure and makes the
motive the organizing feature of the phrase.

Ex. 5-5. Bach : Brandenburg Concerto No. 3, I.

Still another factor gives shape to the Bach phrase. Notice the filling-in of the
—
octave {g g'), and the fifth {g — d'). The sketch in Ex. 5-6 illustrates that while
the phrase unfolds rhythmically, dominated by a melodic pedal on g', and
it is

—
balanced by the descent from d' g. The introduction of c'-sharp and the change
to ascending motion momentarily shifts the emphasis from G to D, creating a
transient-terminal cadence.

Ex. 5-6.
FORMAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MELODY: MOTIVE AND PHRASE 65

In many melodies the motive's pitch pattern is varied when it is repeated- The
emphasis created by the repetition of a particular rhythmic pattern is typical of
compositions based on dance forms. Such an emphasis is created by the rhythmic

motive ( J J J J J ) in Ex. 5-7. Here a new figure is introduced to bring about

the close (measures 6-7; measures 14-15). As we can see, this new pattern

( J JV J I
^n J J\l) assumes greater importance in the second phrase by

being stated twice. Notice also that as this motive is made more prominent, the
initial motive receives less emphasis by appearing three instead of five times.

^
Ex. 5-7. Pachelbel : Sarabande.

m
*t
1
m m

ffr
11
pr irjr
12 13
J^

14 ,
15 1^
^^ 16
i«t
r'cJitnrpr i
^fr m i

When a motive is repeated hnth pi trh and rhythmic changes may occur. Ex. 5-8
shows some changes a motive might undergo when it is repeated. Notice that the

characteristic rhythm of the first part of the motive {\ \ J ) is retained. Notice

also that the restatement is shorter, three beats instead of four. However, the re-
petition has six articulations: the fourth, c —g is filled-in in the restatement.

Ex. 5-8. Piston: Symphony No. 4, I. (C) 1953 by Associated Music Publishers, Inc., New
York. Reprinted by permission.

Piacevole 43d:CUt^5
'

i St
, ,

^^--

^ m
Sometimes a motive and a phrase are the same. When such a merger occurs,
as in Ex. 5-9, a motive has the significance usually attached to a phrase.

Ex. 5-9. Schubert : Symphony No. 5, I.

Allegro
66 FORMAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MELODY: MOTIVE AND PHRASE

Subsequent£e£etitions^Fa_niotive generally appear in the_same metric position,

but deviations from such a plan may occur, as in Ex. 5-10. The repetition of the
five-beat motive an interesting example of variety created by rhythmic reloca-
is

tion; the repetition of the motive begins on the second instead of the first beat.

Ex. 5-10. Prokofiev: Violin Concerto No. 2, I. By permission of the International Music
Company, New York.
Allegro moderato

r ri'Tr'^r i
r^

Phrase Structure

Earlier in this chapter and in the preceding chapter we discussed some pro-
perties of the musical phrase, and the vital role which the motive frequently plays
in its organization. At a larger level of structure, the phrase is also a distinctiye
agent of form. Thejnotive is relatively short and is usually a sub-unit of the phrase^
An examination of music shows that there are numerous possibilities for construct-
ing phrases.
A common type of phrase structure is seen in Ex. 5-11. Each of the four phrases

is marked off rhythmically by a tone of longer duration and a rest (J. Jv 7 )

When the two elements of greater duration followed by rest are combined, a
rhythmic cadence is unquestionably established. Therefore, at the beginning of
measure 5 we recognize, in retrospect, a complete rhythmic structure, a phrase.
The succession of shorter rhythmic figures shapes the entire phrase. Notice that in
this melody the shortest durations occur in the first measure of each phrase, and
that the second longest duration occurs in the second measure.

^^
Ex. 5-11. German folk melody. •Ui'^Jf

mm
___ 2
'

^ *-j-»
udJ^'^^^^

*• * s
J i^

JH-'
^^12-^^V
i j j'^Jj
.
j3
8in

^^
^)Y'

E=5
^4 j5
10

^^jg
FORMAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MELODY: MOTIVE AND PHRASE 67

If the measures of the first phrase are considered separately, we can see that each
has a different rhythmic arrangement. The design of each creates balance within

the phrase, e.g. 8 J^ J!!]

I /T] I J- J il J J^JTi I J- /^ ; measure 1 is

similar to measure 3, and measure 2 has longer durations in common with mea-
sure 4. Even if this phrase is performed without the assigned pitches, we recognize
it as a complete rhythmic structure; nothing else is needed to complete it as a

balanced rhythmic design.

As we saw in Chapter 4, cessation of activity does not by itself cre ate a cadence.
In Ex. 5-1 the first part of each measure always contains a longer duration, and
1

an upbeat precedes each durational accent. The rhythmic motion from a lesser to
a greater accent also occurs between measures, as from measure 1 to the durational
accent of measure 2. Considered in this light, the phrase is grouped rhythmically
by groupings of two's.
Phrase grouping of this type occurs so frequently that it is considered to be the
norm. By this criterion, the phrases illustrated in Ex. 5-12 would have to be con-
sidered "abnormal," although in their context they are perfectly normal.

Ex. 5-12a. Alec Wilder: Concerto for Oboe, String Orchestra and Percussion, I. (C) 1957
by Associated Music Publishers, Inc., New York. Reprinted by permission.

ii t;
Oboe
J = ab. 92)^'^'^^

Tnf
S ^
^'t^" '^ ^^ afiOM^y^ r^iUAi-

z
s;

^
331
^

ft r r
cJt I
r ii
^ ^
ii u r
/

Ex. 5-12b. Bartok : Mikrokosmos, V, "Boating." Copyright 1940 by Hawkes & Son (London)
Ltd. Reprinted by permission of Boosey & Hawkes Inc.

Allegretto J=116

U U J^y_^^? t'f hd\

^^^
68 FORMAL CHARACTERISTICS Of MELODY: MOTIVE AND PHRASE

Ex. 5-1 2c. Schumann: Symphony No. 1,

Larghetto JL66

Ex. 5-1 2d. Trouvere song: Virelais, Or la iruix.

mm
1 r

^m J l

^ rrl J^J i

Pitch factors also influence phrase structure. We often speak of a melodic "line,"
which is an analogy to the graphic arts. For example, if we perform only the rhythm
of Ex. 5-11 without a change of pitch, we can represent its pitch contour with a
straight line, . A complete rhythmic structure still remains; how-
ever, most of us would agree that such a phrase is comparatively dull, that it is

not really a melody. When changes of pitch are added to our performance a dif-

ferent kind of "line" results. This line generally corresponds to a wavy line, with
the high points, low points, final note, etc., delineating a melody. The pattern set
up by a succession of different pitches influences the general shape of a phrase. The
old expression "What goes up must come down" also applies, broadly speaking,
to melody.
In the first phrase of Ex. 5-1 1 the highest pitch occurs very near the beginning.
As soon as the highest point is reached a descending pitch motion takes over. The
contour of this phrase can be represented by a wavy line which has one pre-
dominant arch, _*-*-~* A more precise representation of the phrase contour
.

would include other segmental waves, «*— " ~"^ .

The rhythm of the second phrase in Ex. 5-11 is identical with that of the first
phrase. However, a change in pitch structure is made so that the cadence tone now
becomes d. The change is accomplished by interrupting the descending motion
with a minor third skip, then descending to tonic. This, together with the rhythm,
delineates the phrase.
Using the same rhythm for two or more successive phrases is common. This
type of phrase relationship is caWed parallel phrase construction. Phrases related in this
manner melody by restatement of similar material. In the melody of Ex. 5-
unify a
1 3 only the rhythm of the first phrase is retained in the second every pitch is dif- ;

ferent, i ^ . •

IL (_
- -
« — :-_ V ._
„ ^u
w -0_^Jw
. ti
u>till>rY\

.Up CiiJkl
FORMAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MELODY: MOTIVE AND PHRASE 69

Ex. 5-13. Brahms: Quartet No. 2, Op. 31,

Allegretto con grazia

^ -fJr^^^rJ^ijJr'-'ncrcjcj- ^
i^ji'i^jinu ^lI'iili
^j^
J"""

In Ex. 5-14 both phrases are four measures long. Since most of the second phrase
differs in rhythm from the first, this phrase creates a contrast. Such a relationship
is called contrasting phrase construction. The two phrases together form asymmetrical^
structure because both are of the sam,e length. it>/U^^^ ^
MjrtJL
Ex. 5-14. Beethoven: Piano Concerto No. 3, Op. 37, C

Allegro

ji't 8 I
J. r

i^BE ^

In Ex. 5-15 the phrases vary in length. This means, simply, that some phrases
are longer than others. Balance is achieved by combining phrases of unequal pro-

portions, resulting in an asymmetr icoL structure. . ,

i (J
Ex. 5-15. Hovhaness Prayer of Saint Gregory, for Trumpet and String Orchestra. Copy-
:

right 1952 by Peer International Corporation. Reprinted with permission of

the copyright owner.

^ g^j i i ^m ^
70 FORMAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MELODY-. MOTIVE AND PHRASE

Formal units containing phrases of equal duration (as Ex. 5-14) are common,
for they create anunderstood musical form. In Ex. 5-16 both phrases are
easily
four measures long. Moreover, each phrase is a complete rhythmic unit. However,
the phrases are dependent upon one another tonally; a terminal cadence does not
appear until the end of the second phrase.

Ex. 5-16. Beethoven: Piano Sonata, Op. 31, No. 3.

^ ^4^ i^#
rf i
f f i
tfrnrp

Both phrases in Ex. 5-16 form a musical period. In a period, two^£more£hrases_

are joined by avoidinjg an implication of finality at the close of the_interior phrase
or phrases. In Ex. 5-16 thisaccomplished by the progressive cadence at the end
is

of the phrase. The two-phrase formal unit, then, is understood when the ter-
first

minal cadence appears at the end of the excerpt.

Many melodic periods consist of only two phrases. However, this is not always
the case. In Ex. 5-17 three phrases combine to form a period. Each of the phrases
contains similar melodic elements. Since the second phrase does not have a strong
rhythmic close, there is no suggestion of finality until the end of the third phrase.

Ex. 5-17. Beethoven: Symphony No. 8, I.

^te ^ r^*^
/
^
M'
'f
T '^r j)yj^

Formal sections consisting of four or more dependent phrases occur frequently.

In Ex. 5-18 each of the four phrases is The emphasis on first beats
of equal length.
(by duration in measures 3 by
1 and
dynamic accent
; in measures 5 and 6) estab-
lishes a pattern suggesting that the phrases will probably close on a first beat.
Contrary to our expectations, the first three phrases end on beats other than the
first. The statement of the fourth phrase satisfies our expectations by coming to

a close on the first beat, completing the rhythmic design of the melody.
Even though each of the phrases in Ex. 5-18 is a rhythmic unit, a larger formal
unit is not heard until all four phrases have been stated. Not only are the first and
third, and the second and fourth, phrases rhythmically similar, they are also alike
in pitch contour. Notice the subtle pitch changes in the last phrase which provide
variety and aelay the arrival of tonic. The second cadence (measure 8) binds the
FORMAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MELODY: MOTIVE AND PHRASE 71

first phrase pair to theby closing on supertonic. Each of the phrase pairs forms
last

a period. In this example, however, the two periods are dependent upon one
another both tonally and rhythmically. Such joining of phrase pairs is often called
a double beriod.

Ex, 5-18. Haydn: Symphony No. 93, I.

Allegro assai

^ u w
10 11

^ 12 13

^
14

r
15

m
16

m
We have seen that certain typical cadences mark off the phrase as a formal
unit, that a motive frequently dominates the unfolding of a phrase, and that each
phrase is a particular kind of pitch and rhythm structure. These distinctions apply
to phrases in general. However, any phrase of music is heard as a unique structure,
even if many of its elements are similar to those in other phrases we know. As we
music we are probably aware first of the "highs" and "lows" of the pitch
listen to

motion, the contour of the phrases and their relative balance rather than their exact
lengths.
Phrase contour produced by the rhythmic placement of the high and low
is

pitches. In the first phrase of Ex. 5-19 the pitch apex is in measure 4, the highest
point of the entire melody. After this highest point the predominant pitch motion
is down to tonic. The phrase forms one broad arch that includes several smaller

waves. Notice that the pitch apex is the dominant scale degree, which is important
in creating tonality.

Ex. 5-19. Trouvere song: C'esf la fin.

^ P^ pi

P
^ a

^ rir
pg:

ir rrcf ^r

^
r r i r r
i i ^
c;-^

S^ ^ V
^ ^m
72 FORMAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MELODY: MOTIVE AND PHRASE

The contour of the second phrase forms an inverted arch. The second phrase
also contrasts with the first phrase because of its length and its range. A phrase-
arch of this type is less common than that produced by the first phrase ; in part,
this arises from the resulting ascending motion cadence pitch. This rising
to the
inflection raises a "question," similar to the way the pitch of a spoken word rises
when we ask a question, producing an expectation of something to follow. Notice
also that a progressive cadence is used. Thus, ascending contour, combined with
progressive cadence, results in anticipation of continuation.
In Ex. 5-20 the pitch apex appears at the beginning of each phrase. However,
both phrases differ in contour and range. Considering the number of waves in the
line, it is "complex," each phrase consisting of several secondary arches.

Ex. 5-20. Tansman: "Berceuse," Pour les Enfanfs 4th Set. (C) 1934 — by Editions Max
Eschig, Paris. Renewed 1962. Reprinted by permission.

The five-tone melody in Ex. 5-21 forms another type of contour. The wave pat-
tern is characterized by descending motion until the rise to b (measure 5) which is

the highest point in the phrase. The appearance of the highest basic pitch (b)
coincides with a change of tonal emphasis. The opening of the phrase outlines a
D tonality (the perfect fifth, a — d) However, the tonality of the excerpt is E. The
.

tonal center of E is created by using b, the dominant degree, as the apex of the
phrase and e as the final pitch.

Ex. 5-21. Bartok Mikrokosmos, IV, "Playsong." Copyright 1940 by Hawkes

: & Son (London)
Ltd. Reprinted by permission of Boosey & Hawkes Inc.

The arch formed by the phrase in Ex. 5-22 is a common one. Notice that the
highest pitch is reached around the middle of the phrase and that this pitch is the
dominant scale degree. Notice also that the leaps centered around c in measures
2 and 3 slightly disguise the tonality of a.

Ex. 5-22. Brahms: Salamander, Op. 107, No. 2.

^'^J 1^ ^ r r i r r
^
r r c/c/i-^ i
 —

FORMAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MELODY: MOTIVE AND PHRASE 73

The possibilities for different types of phrase contour are numerous. Ex. 5-23
illustrates other possibilities.

Ex. 5-23a. J.C. Bach: Symphony in B-flat, II.

^
Ex. 5-23b. J.S. Bach
m
: St. John Passion, "Rohf wohl,
[J- If
n n
-^

ihr
i

heiligen Gebeine."
^m

A 4^r\
U^U rr l J LT I

^ ^^ '
"• 0* 4

m
Ex. 5-23c. Bloch :
^g fern

Concerto Grosso for String Orchestra with Piano Obbligato,

0^ W
i^^ m ^=^
IV. Copy-
right by Universal Editions. Used by permission.

^ 'ii'i 'ii"iiiJi]uiayiii^i"JjjlL"jiy 5

Ex. 5-23d. Ravel : String Quartet, I. By permission of the International Music Company,

^
New York.

r>
i m
I^
ZZl
#
^
^ Ji.j i.r3 /3
$ i i

Ex. 5-23e. Florentio Maschera .-

Canzona.
-f>i'tfUL4->C I k\jX'.*iC

jjj Jiij]::^ ^
i pjp-^ jjjJOT i i
p aj'J jjJ

Ex. 5-23f. Mozart: Concerto for Two Pianos, K. 365, III.

Safe rji:j'irr i rf i
r[:; i r:£; i riiJ i

m ^: \ n.mrrn m
 . . :

74 FORMAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MELODY-. MOTIVE AND PHRASE

Ex. 5-23g. Beethoven Symphony No. 8,

^
: I.

^^ la 3?t^ m p^^^
.n n i I, :i^^^ ^W

Generally, the apex of a line will be a pitch that is basic to the tonality frame
the dominant, the tonic, or the mediant scale degrees. Other parts of the scale also
appear as highest points, but they frequently have clearly decorative relationships
to pitches that are basic to the tonality.
Pitch climax is also associated with the contour of phrases. As a phrase unfolds,
the pattern of motion to the highest pitch directs our attention to that pitch. In a
manner of speaking, the "energ)'" of the directional pattern is concentrated in the
pitch apex or in its opposite, the low point. Since we know that a "build-up" of
energy is usually followed by release, we expect the same to happen in a phrase
of music. The pitch apex and the low point, then, are important factors that out-
line the contour of a phrase or section of music.
It is impossible to exhaust all the possibilities for constructing phrases, for every
composition presents new solutions. However, certain principles are present in
all compositions.

1 A phrase is by a cadence. The stress patterns

a rhythmic-pitch unit marked off
produced by rhythm and pitch generally reinforce the meter of a phrase
as indicated by the meter signature.
2. The length of phrases, considering only the number of measures, is variable.
In part, the length is determined by tempo; more precisely, it is completely
influenced by our psychological span of attention. Certain phrase lengths pre-
dominate, e.g., in a slow tempo, two measure phrases; in a faster tempo,
four or more. Other phrase lengths, such as three, five, etc., are also possible.
3. The shape or contour of a phrase is the result of the placement of high and low
pitches. The apex and the lowest pitch of a phrase are usually either the tonic,
mediant, or dominant.

Exercises

For more detailed assignments see Materials and Structure of Music I, Workbook, Chapter 5.

1 Perform each of the examples in this chapter. Listen for the larger formal sections. Isolate
the motive, or motives, and describe the rhythmic structure and pitch structure of each
motive found.
2. Use several of the motives contained in examples cited in this chapter as the principal
unifying factor in two-phrase melodies.
3. Devise three or four original motives. Then use these motives to organize original three-
phrase melodies.
4. Listen to and analyze the phrase structure of songs by Schubert, Schumann, and Brahms.
Describe phrase lengths, pitch structure, and rhythmic structure of the melodies selected.
5. Find examples of melody in the literature for your voice or instrument containing paral-
lel phrase construction, contrasting phrase construction, and period construction.
FORMAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MELODY: MOTIVE AND PHRASE 75

6. Listen to the first movement of Mozart's Symphony No. 40 in g minor, K. 550. Compare
the prominence given to the initial motive with the use of the motive in the first move-
ment of Beethoven's Symphony No. 5.

7. Find examples of melodies in a collection such as the Harvard Anthology of Music in which
motive repetition, phrase repetition, etc., play a small organizational role. Describe how
unity is achieved.
 The
Extended
6
Melody

In a broad sense, a melody may be regarded as the joining together

of several phrases. One-phrase melodies are possible; however, most of the mel-
odies we hear are longer. The principles of repetition and contrast, briefly men-
tioned in the preceding chapter, form the core of our musical experience in
extended melody.
Repetition of a musical unit produces emphasis, but when carried on excessively
constant repetition can be boring. For this reason, contrasting ideas usually mark
off the various parts of a melody, thereby contributing to musical balance and
variety.
Contrast and repetition are opposites. In between these two extremes changes
can be wrought that combine features of both. In other words, rhythmic and tonal
patterns can be varied to produce contrasts that are still within the bounds of sim-
ilarity. The possibilities are infinite, as we shall see later in the chapter.

Repetition. A simple way of extending a melody is to repeat complete

phrase units. The repetition of the initial phrase in Ex. 6-1 immediately focuses
our attention on that phrase. In this excerpt the repetition is almost exact.

Ex. 6-1. Schumann: Dichterliebe : "Im Wunderschonen Monat Mai.'

^^mfci
tVLj ^^
More frequently the repetition of a pattern will contain some change, usually
at the cadence. In Ex. 6-2 two changes appear: the progressive cadence (measure
4) is replaced by a terminal cadence in measure 8, and the pitch contour of measure
7 is slightly altered from its prototype in measure 3.
76
THE EXTENDED MELODY 77

Ex. 6-2. Brahms: Symphony No. 1, IV.

j p^J JjJj Jj J ji' jj J J^Jj U J

"j j jj j
i I i l
i
j
j

In many melodies extension is achieved by the repeti tion of a phrase at a dif-

ferent pitch level. This type of repetition is called sequence.

Ex. 6-3. Prokofiev: Rigaudon, Op. 12, No. 3. Reprinted with permission of Robert Forberg
(Sole ogents : C. F. Peters Corporation, New York).

Changing the pitch level is one of the many ways musical materials can be
varied. Notice that the intervals are not precisely the same in both phrases. This
will always be the case when a sequence follows the notes of only one scale
(diatonic sequence).
Both phrases in Ex. 6-4 use the same motive. The first phrase unfolds sequen-
tially.(The use of sequence within a phrase usually involves the repetition of a
motive) The end of the sequence is signalled by the change of the perfect fourth
.

skip in measure 2 to a minor sixth skip in measure 4.

Ex. 6-4. Beethoven : Piano Sonata, Op. 2, No. 3.

Allegro

wtj * m *

^ CjiJ r i^i^U-^^ ^ *

In Ex. 6-5 the motive that begins in the last portion of measure 2 is treated
sequentially, spinning out an extended contrasting phrase.

Ex. 6-5. Mozart : String Quartet, K. 499, I.

m '

; ^^r>J
''''"' i
-^-
Jj
t^uur^- ^^J '

ijiju.
^
yp
'^
J J J J IJ- [^ mi
 J

7^ THE EXTENDED MELODY

Ex. 6-6 illustrates a sequential section that is not diatonic. Note that the melodic
pattern remains identical because the same intervals are used.

Ex. 6-6. Elliott Carter : Piano Sonata, Used with the permission of the copyright owner,
Mercury Music Corporation.

j 'i ^ Jffl-^ ? 3 ##
^ mm
Repetition need not be as obvious as in the previous examples. Some composi-
tions repeat only the rhythmmelody of Ex. 6-7 none
or motive of a phrase. In the
of the pitch patterns are exactly the same, but the phrases that have the same
rhythmic shape contribute to a balanced design.

Ex. 6-7. Anon : Sumer Is /cumen In.

iif Fr pirprjij i
JJy jjJ- i hj J'J JiJ JJ j^

f J
pr p i

f ^ ^ r i r|f J>J JjJ pp J>

^^^
^ J'j
p i J J'j
r Mr
i ^ J-'
\ i i

f pr

i'j j-mJ pr p
i

^^
"

Just as melodies are lengthened by phrase repetition, so a phrase may be length-

ened by adding material. One characteristic procedure is the repetition of a small
melodic unit at the end of a phrase. The cadential extension in Ex. 6-8 lengthens the
third phrase by reiterating the closing figure. The extended length of six measures
better counterbalances the two preceding four-measure phrases.

Ex. 6-8. Beethoven: Piano Sonata, Op. 2, No. 1,

Allegretto

» » I J 1 1 i j
* # r^ihi'ii
^

^ ^ ^m
1 r 1 >:

m ? te:
:zt
it
 —

THE EXTENDED MELODY 79

Another type of extension delays the appearance of the cadence pitch. Because
of the stress pattern and the pitch motion, we expect the cadence to occur at meas-
ure 8 in Ex. 6-9. But our anticipation is deceived, for the motion to tonic is tem-
porarily halted by afermata, followed by the repetition of measure 7 in a stretched
out version in measures 8 and 9 and measures 10 and 11. This delay intensifies
our expectations and emphasizes the finality of this section.

Ex. 6-9. Beethoven i Piano Sonata, Op. 53, I.

J J l^'

A phrase also may be lengthened by As in the cadential extension,

interpolation.

the lengthening is accomplished by the repetition of some melodic unit, as in Ex.

6-10.

Ex. 6-10. Brahms: Symphony No. 3,

' — 1*

j('f [j r
J I
J J J y-j
M ^ ^
P m
>):.r i rcrr irfrr rrr i
pTTI i f^

The recognition of this type of phrase extensiondependent upon previously is

recognized phrase lengths. Thus a phrase built from motive repetitions or a phrase
in which a motive fragment is repeated is not necessarily an extension by inter-
polation.
As can be seen in Ex. 6-1 1, interpolation by sequence is another possibility. The
first phrase establishes the phrase length we expect to hear continued, but the
sequential repetition of this initial pattern extends the second phrase considerably.

Ex. 6-11. Wagner: Die Meistersinger, Prelude, Act

80 THE EXTENDED MELODY

Succeeding phrases may also be shortened, as in Ex. 6-12. Again an expectation

of a four-measure phrase has been established however, the second phrase is only
;

three measures long. In this case the compression results from the "mosaic" block
statement of the motive of phrase one in the second phrase. This type of com-
pression is called truncation. Since truncated phrases result from shortening phrase
duration, the effect of compression will be understood only if the phrase lengths
have been previously established, and if the truncated phrases are easily relatable
to an earlier phrase.

Ex. 6-12. Schubert: Piano Sonata in A Major, II.

j^ii
Andante

iim \ ijj] \ m ).m^ \

\
jf Vi ji^^m
i

another type of compression occurs when the close^^£qne phrase is t he be-^

Still

ginning of the next phrase, as in Ex. 6-13. Such phrase interlocking is called _elision._
When phrases elide continuity is produced by negating a cadential "breathing
point." Elision also creates a shorter total time span for the interlocked phrases
than when a separation occurs between phrase endings and beginnings.

Ex. 6-13. Bach: Sonata No. 3 for Flute and Harpsichord, II.

Confrosf. Successive repetition of a single musical pattern provides rather

limited possibilities for extending a melody. Generally, the repetition of a first

phrase unit is "interrupted" by the introduction of a contrasting pattern, which

makes later restatements of the initial pattern more interesting and welcome.
In Ex. 6-14 the second phrase forms a contrast to the first by a change of con-
tour, by slight changes in rhythm, and by the transient-terminal cadence.

Ex. 6-14. Beethoven: Symphony No. 2, II.

^ h^ x
P

r-
r

irijir
iLC/ i
r

^
p rt
^m 1 r
^
 THE EXTENDED MELODY 81

1 r

* ^ *
c/'^Pto \ui^ i
r ^ {nj \ i
C-££l Pa
» ^ *
'rn P r^rr l l
c/^ g i r B' l
[rrr ^^
The third and fourth phrases are repetitions of the first two. The two part se-
quence of the fifth phrase contrasts with the preceding phrases, and the sixth phrase
adds still further variety to the whole melody.
For convenience, a letter system of diagraming is used to designate the various
parts of a melody. If we call the first phrase of the preceding melody a, the form
representation of the total melody would be ab ab cd cd' There are four sections, .

each resulting from the combination of two phrases. Since each of these sections
forms a larger unit, it is helpful to "reduce" the diagram to its lowest common
denominator, A A B B'
a b a b c d c d'

Variation. In their simplest forms, repetition and contrast are easily

understood. Of greater interest are those melodic procedures which combine
elements of both, i.e., gradations of contrast and repetition brought about by
varying the materials. The fourth phrase of Ex. 6-15 is obviously related to the
second phrase. By inverting the perfect measure 3, the resulting perfect
fifth in

fourth produces a change of pitch contour in measure 7. Note also that some of
the pitches in measure 4 are eliminated in measure eight to create a clearer
cadential motion. As a whole, phrase four is a variation of phrase two.

Ex. 6-15. Schubert: Impromptu, Op. 142, No. 3.

Andante

^ ^m S
1 r

fc
^ ^
zz

1 r
0—0 M 0-

^^
We have already observed that phrases in parallel construction have the same
rhythm, but the pitch structure frequently is changed. In Ex. 6-16 the second
phrase begins like the first, but the pitch structure is a variant of the first phrase.

Ex. 6-16. Schubert: Trio, Op. 99, II.

Andante un poco mosso

 —

82 THE EXTENDED MELODY

Notice that each of the phrases is four measures long, containing a three-meas-
ure and a one-measure extension. Both measures 4 and 8 are varied by simple
elaboration and are thus variants of measures 3 and 6, respectively.

Some forms of varying a melody normally occur when melodic units are re-
peated in the later portions of a melody. In Ex. 6-17 both the pitch and rhythm
patterns of the phrases are slightly ornamented, producing a more active variation
of the initial statement.

Ex. 6-17. Le Begue : Bouree.

yfc^F^ #—(^

m. 1-4
p u \
^
a^ ^J !
^

7^^
f^K —^ Lj/|* P m ^
""Tr
^ M f M f '— f
rrrrrr rr
f » f * ^
lt r ••••••
i-»—i^id
§ \' ^
h

m 13-16

Frequently only parts of a phrase are varied in a later appearance. In Ex. 6-18
the approach to the final cadence of the excerpt is the same rhythmically in both
versions. However, the varied version contains figurations not hinted at in the
original.

Ex. 6-18. Satie: Fifth Nocturne. (C) 1920 by Editions Max Eschig, Paris. Renewed 1948.
Reprinted by permission.

^m ^
E
&. * #
"m ^^^^^^^^^
r F r P ^ s

r r p^ ^ ^m
In variation movements melodic embellishment sometimes becomes the prin-
cipal procedure of melodic organization. Ex. 6-19 shows typical changes a phrase
might undergo in a variation movement.
THE EXTENDED MELODY 83

Ex. 6-19. Beethoven: Symphony No. 5, II.

n^ it rj^n ^^ ^
WmT^

To a greater or lesser extent these procedures of variation could be used in any

composition, either forming the basis for an entire movement, or appearing less
consistently as an extension procedure. In any event, the relation of a variation
to the original is usually apparent. However, the embellishments could reach a

state of complexity in v^hich the original melody is no longer recognizable.

In some melodies rhythms are varied by changing the durational values of all
or parts of a phrase. In Ex. 6-20 the pattern of measures 9-12 is an augmented
(lengthened) version of the preceding patterns in measures 5-6 and 7-8.

Ex. 6-20. Beethoven: String Quartet, Op. 18, No. 2, IV.

,y ii^f'f i
Pm
The pattern that begins in measure 11 of Ex. 6-21 is a diminished (shortened)
version of the pattern that begins in measure 5. If the tempo remains the same,
augmentation lengthens a phrase; conversely, diminution shortens a phrase.

Ex. 6-21. Beethoven: String Quartet, Op. 18, No. 2, iV.

84 THE EXTENDED MELODY

Sometimes a melody is extended by inverting the whole or a part of a phrase. The

rhythm of the pattern that is inverted might remain the same, but its intervals are
reversed, ascending motion duplicated by descent and vice-versa, as in Ex. 6-22a
and b.

Ex. 6-22a. Bartok: Mikrokosmos, Vol. IV. Copyright 1940 by Hawkes & Son (London)
Ltd. Reprinted by permission of Boosey & Hawkes inc.

112 3 4 •
^f p m , ^f r> m ^
i jj u jj J or cjij I
J J J J j)^
I I

j^ I

Inversion

Ex. 6-22b. Brahms : A German Requiem.

t-
gi ^J N J|J
W
Inversion

Since change of contour creates only pitch contrast, the inversion of a pattern is

easily recognized. Notice that only the first portion of Ex. 6-22a is inverted. Note
also that measure five is a partial augmentation of measure 2. (This excerpt is
noteworthy for yet another reason; it contains only eight different notes.)
Variety of phrase structure frequently is produced by mutation. In Ex. 6-23a, the
fourth phrase repeats the third phrase in the parallel minor key; the third phrase
in Ex. 6-23b also is in the parallel minor. In the latter, mutation coincides with the
beginning of a new section, while in Ex. 6-23a phrase repetition is involved.

Ex. 6-23a. Beethoven : Piano Sonata, Op. 53, Rondo.

m i
P h \
> r ^ p

Mr pn> MT
^^
j i r If r i
r
r
r If

^ m 0- M m.
THE EXTENDED MELODY 85

Ex. 6-23b. Schumann: Carnaval, "Reconnaissance." i) )aTCjfiOI^

Changes of tonality help to intensify our awareness of form. In Ex. 6-24 the
first and last sections are in G, while the middle section is in D. This change of

tonal focus, plus other aspects of phrase contrast, delineates the form. In fact, it is

probably more accurate to say that the tonality change coincides with other con-
trast-producing elements, such as the change in contour and pitch motion. As is
often the case, the return to G provides unity, even though earlier melodic material
is not restated.

Ex. 6-24. Weber : Feldeinwarts flog ein Voglein.

m r pr r ^^^
^ ^
r f i
fr ^ m
Change of tonality frequently is introduced at the end of a section, announcing
that a new formal unit will follow. The return to the original tonality and the
restatement of the opening material coincide in the following excerpt, vividly
delineating the form.
 86 THE EXTENDED MELODY

Ex. 6-25. Schubert : Der Alpen Jdger.

j^^ i
f J j)
i /^^^ i
r ^ i

Our awareness of musical form is aided when a change of tonality coincides with
the statement of a new formal unit. Generally, changes of tonality are more essen-
tial to an extended composition than to a short melody. In either case, a new tonal
center provides variety with its new focal point.

Exercises

For more detailed assignments see Materials and Structure of Music I, Workbook, Chapter 6.

1. Extend Ex. 6-1 for four more measures. Use one of the procedures discussed in the
chapter.
2. Find examples in music for your instrument or voice that contain sequence, variation,
and change of tonality.
3. Write a melody that has as its basis the rhythmic structure of Ex. 6-7.

4. Listen to and analyze the phrase combinations of various works from Bartok's Mikro-
kosmos, Volume IV.
5. Use one of the motives invented assignments as the basic unifying factor of
for previous
a three-phrase melody. Create variety through the use of the procedure of inversion.
/ 6. Write an experimental melody four phrases long that contains no repetition of pitch or
rhythm patterns.
7. Listen to the first movement of Beethoven's Piano Sonata, Op. 2, No. 3. List and

describe the ways in which Beethoven varies the motive and the phrase lengths.
 Basic

Melody
7

In the last five chapters our attention has been drawn to various
aspects of melody — tonality, scale, cadence, phrase, and —
motive that constitute
the organizational procedures and materials. It is now possible to study the full
melody and reduce its total pitch structure to a skeletal outline. Through this

procedure many melodies can be seen as elaborations of essentially simple tonal

plans. We shall call thesefundamental outlines basic melody.
The pitches of a basic melody differ from less structural pitches because they
receive, special emphasis through their placement and function. In other words,
the total pattern of tones is formed so that some individual parts are more important
than others.
Strip an automobile of all its parts except its motor and drive mechanism, its
chassis and wheel assembly, and, strictly speaking, an automobile still exists. The
thousands of additional parts are in varying degrees elaborations or ornamenta-
tions of the core, the fundamental mechanism. No one would seriously advocate
a return to such "fundamental autos," but clear knowledge of any object car or —
—
melody begins at the basic structure.
The tonality frame discussed in Chapter 2 is one kind of drastic melodic pitch
reduction, representing the pitch order around which a melody is organized. In
this sense, many melodies could have the same tonality frames; it is the varied

"elaborations" of the frames that create the uniqueness and the charm of particular
melodies.
The Mozart and Beethoven melodies in Ex. 7-1 not only share the same tonality
frame types; they also resemble one another in the way this common pitch nucleus
has been elaborated.

87
88 BASIC MELODY

Ex. 7-1 a. Beethoven: Piano Sonata Op. 2, No. 1, I.

j.rirrx^Dli.i rrir^t^i^
^ 5
S?ES i

^ 3 i
^
3 i

^^
Ex. 7-1 b.
?
Mozart: Symphony No. 40,
fS
fe
K. 550, IV.
i^ ^
Tonality frame

^ SH
?
'IWiC

The tonality frame is, a basic level of pitch organization, serving as the
therij
tonal outline within which melodic activity takes place.
Moving on to the second higher level of organization, the pitches that determine
total melodic shape constitute basic melody. By shape is meant the general sweep of
melody, its important high and low points, its beginning and ending, an d the im-
portant junctional pitches in between.

Ex. 7-2a. Beethoven: Basic melody of Piano Sonata, Op. 2, No. 1, I.

2^
y m m^
i
•-'
()
;z:

Ex. 7-2b. Mozart : Basic melody of Symphony No. 40, K. 550, IV.

3 4 5 6|,^r^ 7 8

The third (and most complicated) level of melodic organization is the full-blown
pattern, complete with the rhythmic life that creates the wonderful illusion of
 1

BASIC MELODY 89

moving tones, Here the tonaHty frame has been fleshed in

the experience of music.
with the patterns that link basic pitches together and form the interesting relation-
ships that make true melody. Look back to Ex. 7-1 and compare the whole melodic
patterns there with the reduced forms of Ex. 7-2. These latter abstractions are
mere skeletal outlines of their parent melodies.
For the present we shall view with greater interest the melodic skeleton, shifting
our attention in Chapter 8 to the vital elaborations that create the final product.

Melodic Terminal Points

From the standpoint of basic melody, the most important tones are the firstand
t he last. As end-points of what is heard, these tones are the structural time bound-
aries of melody.
The last pitch is particularly fundamental to melodic design because, as the last
sound heard, it offers an ultimate point to which all preceding pitches can be re-
ferred. Thus the final pitch in most melodies is tonic. When it is not, the pitch is.
usually a nieml^er of the tonality frame, the dominant or the mediant.
The first pitch is the beginning of melodic pattern Chapter 2, it ; as we saw in
helps to lead the listener's attention to the tonality frame within which the whole
melody will operate. The first pitch of melodies beginning on a metric accent is
generally the tonic, with the dominant and the mediant as lesser possibilities. What-
ever the first pitch of the downbeat beginning, it is usually linked immediately
with another member of the tonality frame, thereby leaving no doubt as to pitch
orientation.

Ex. 7-3a. Dufay : Mon chier amy (Ballade).

Tonic beginnings

d:
W £
JM J J,i
J J J I

J Ji j J)
1

W
Ex. 7-3b. Mozart: Piano Sonata, K. 545, I.

^M
C:
^
Ex. 7-3c. Schubert : Symphony No. 8 in b minor, I.

aa ^ b:
^ m 5
90 BASIC MELODY

Ex. 7-36. Hindemith: Third Piano Sonata, I. (C) 1936 by B. Schotfs Soehne, Mainz. Re-
newed 1963.
Mediant beginnings

S L/ ^^'
P

Ex. 7-3e. Mozart: Piano Sonata No. 16, K. 331, I.

*4
m
A:
p ic:i;r ^ \ <^>
^'r p
i

r r/r
p

Ex. 7-3f. Dvorak : Symphony No. 5, II

^^
Db:
^F
*
^ #

Ex. 7-3g. de Lantins : Puisque je voy (Rondeau).

Dominant beginnings

if ^ 1
^ ^
1-
. IJ . 1>
f
Ex. 7-3h.

fiiir-
Schubert: Symphony No. 8

\ri^ \
{
in B Minor,

i fii^j

Melodies with weak metric beginnings the anacrusis or upbeat pattern do not —
I.

^ —
often start with tonic. Rather, their first sound is usually the dominant, the mediant,
or, in rare instances, the leading tone. This first pitch is then followed on the first

strong beat by the tonic or another member of the tonality frame. The excerpts of
Ex. 7-4 show various ways in which the anacrusis melody initiates its tonal pattern.

Ex. 7-4a. Liszt: Hungarian Rhapsody No. 9.

j^'l. ' J^'J liJ

If ^y \ PJ rJ'J p
J3
I

J)
^

IJHRML^
BASIC MELODY 91

Ex. 7-4b. Telemann : Fantasia for Harpsichord No. 1.

(Ih {',
!) j) h
^ a iiism^^ ^m
Ex. 7-4c. Shostakovitch : Symphony No. 7, I. (C) Copyright by Leeds Music Corporation,

m ^
New York, N.Y. Used by permission. All rights reserved.

m ^ m rO^'^ I'
l
r^ II

Ex. 7-4d. Haydn : Piano Sonata No. 6, II.

**
fr^[lJ^ l c^3

In still other melodies the first tone's relation to the tonality made clear
is not
immediately. In association with other parts the relation might be made clear by
accompanying chords (as in Ex. 7-5). But in terms of pure melodic structure,
the delayed establishment of tonality can create a degree of tonal suspense for the
listener. This is particularly true in melodies like (c) of Ex. 7-5.

Ex. 7-5a. Copland: Concerto for Copyright 1949 by Boosey & Hawkes Inc.
Clarinet, I.

Copyright assigned to Aaron Copland. Reprinted by permission of Aaron

Copland, Copyright Owner, and Boosey & Hawkes Inc., Sole Licensees.

(Di i r
lS^ F m
^ S
S 4 i
¥
i
¥
i i
+ '+•
T
Ex. 7-5b.

*
w^
k^
Ab:
Chopin: Etude, Op. 25.

^
Ex. 7-5c. Bortok : Concerto for Orchestra, IV. Copyright 1946 by Hawkes & Son (London)
Ltd. Reprinted by permission of Boosey & Hawkes Inc.
92 BAS/C MElOOy

The cadence pitches at phrase endings are also basic Hnks in the tonal chain.
It is not an exaggeration to think of the cadence as a point of respite at which the
listenercan take stock of what has preceded, instantly forming an impression of
the important tonal events that have led to this point in the melody. The role
performed by cadence pitches is basic, then, to the total organization of the melody.
At this point we can make a rudimentary analysis of melody by abstracting the
first and last pitches and all cadence patterns to reveal a great deal more than the

tonality frame.

Ex. 7-6a. Brahms: Intermezzo Op. 117, No. 1.

^^
J J
*^
I

r
Reduction
to termi-
s^ is;
nal points

^
Ex. 7-6b. Barber Schoo/ for Scandal, Overture. Reprinted
: by permission of copyright
owner, G. Schirmer, Inc.

ZZI f=m
W m
'^-
4. 1 - I

^ i
__ L-" i - -L____j3

Ex. 7-6c. Vivaldi : Violin Concerto in C Minor, III.

(b*)

To make our search for basic pitches more penetrating we must study units
smaller than the phrase. In addition to the terminal pitches, others are basic
because of: (1) their positions as parts of the overall melodic contour, (2) their
relatively great duration, and (3) their favored metric position.

Melodic Contour

If we regard a melody as a line that weaves through points on the musical staff,

we see that the resultant wave possesses height and depth. Like the first and last

pitches, the highs and lows of melodic motion are impressive parts of melodic shape.
BASIC MELODY 93

In_melodies where a succession of peaks and valleys is formed, the resultant out-
'
linine; pi tches ar e basic. ~^ "

The Samuel Barber melody of Ex. 7-7 becomes clearer as a basic structure when
these tops and bottoms of emphasis are incorporated into the basic melody reduc-
tion that was first attempted in Ex. 7-6.

Ex. 7'7. Barber School for Scandal, Overture.

: Reprinted by permission of copyright
owner, G. Schirmer, Inc.

( Partial reduction)

The g of measure 6 is not a low point of the immediate pattern, for the e that
follows is still lower. The g is structurally important, however, because it is part
of a step-p rogression formed between the low pitch of measure 5 (a) and the final/.
As one level in this brief descending stair-step, its basic role in the melodic shape
is established.
Thi s does not mean that every step relation in a melody automatically forms a
sierra gression. On the contrary, step-progression refers to delayed ascending or
descending motion by steps that outline the contour of the line over the whole or a large
segment of the phrase.
Almost any melody contains a step relation of some kind between some two or
more pitches, but this alone does not warrant recognition as a determinant of basic
structure.To achieve the status of step-progression such a pattern must create a
recognizable uniformity within the pitch design, an obvious linking of highs and
lows that controls the melodic progress from one melodic segment to another.
Ex. 7-8 through Ex. 7-12 clarify the function of a step-progression within a melodic
form.
The circled notes of Ex. 7-8 establish a clear line of ascent by step for a sizable
portion of the pattern. The successive steps in other parts are mere decorative
motions, activities which lead from one basic pitch to another. Bach did not
allow this rather strict and obvious ladder of steps to dominate his line alto-
gether, for the e of measure 3 overshoots the conclusion of the ascending pattern,
thus avoiding monotony and stressing the pitch d as the beginning of the following
part of the melodic shape.

Ex. 7-8. J. S. Bach: Well-tempered Clavier Book I, Fugue 15.

94 BASIC MELODY

These tracings of pitch by delayed steps form the backbone for many melodies,
either in their entirety or in isolated parts of their total structure.
As such, they
lead the listener to expect to arrive at a highest or lowest pitch (depending upon
whether the line ascends or descends), and in most instances this pitch of "arrival"
will be a part of the tonality framework or a pitch that rhythmically "leans" on a
member of this group.
In some melodies the step-progression forms a periodic ascent or descent clearly
allied with metric accent, as in the Bach melody of Ex. 7-8. In others its contour
is more subtly imbedded in the pitch motion, as in (b) of Ex. 7-9.

Ex. 7-9a. Lully : Overture to Alceste

s ^'
v^ rrfP V
i i
vpn J3^r P
¥
S^tep
"pro-
gression

Ex. 7-9b. Palestrina : Kyrie (Vestiva i Colli).

331
lH
i ZUZ

-or
-O-
P fe
m ^z

Ex. 7-9c. J. Strauss : Emperor Waltz.

m r^ ==¥

Still other melodies display partial ascent or descent by delayed step relations
without forming a clear step-progression as such. The patterns marked with brackets
BASIC MELODY 95

in Ex. 7-10 are fragmentary; none adds up to a structural pattern that controls
the ascent or descent of the whole line.

Ex. 7-10. Glazunov : Carnival Overture.

zzi
fe
r i
^rn w r i
^r W

The highest pitches of the smaller groupings in measures 2 and 4 do not lead in
a regular way to the apex of the line, the a of measure 5. Even if^ is heard as the most
important high pitch (because of its repetition in measure 6), it too is not reached
by delayed steps.

The ascending probably a structural feature in more melodies

step progression is

than the descending, but the same organization can be found as a falling pattern
in enough melodies to justify recognition. In many cases the low pitch of a line
will return after intervening patterns, creating a mild form of pedal or "drone."
This kind of repetition serves as a structural ground over which the melodic motion
freely unwinds, as in Ex. 7-1 lb.

Ex. 7-1 la. Bach: Well-tempered Clavier Book I, Fugue 11.

Ex. 7-1 lb. Bach: Invention in 3 Voices, XV.

Ex. 7-1 Ic. Handel: Organ Concerto No. 4, Op. 4.

^m m
Step
m
-

proijression
96 BASIC MELODY

The pitch basis of the melody in Ex. 7-1 Ic is clearly a double step-progression,
the upper pattern moving in contrary motion to the lower. The combination of
two such distinct step-lines can create the illusion of two separate parts if the lines
have a distinct separation of range. The Bach melody in Ex. 7-12 is typical of such
"one-line counterpoint." Its step-progressions descend.

Ex. 7-12. Bach: Invention in 3 Voices, No. 3.

Step
^^^^^^^m
progression

Implied ,s^^^jr-aj,=a
"-:^
parts
''pf^cj 1
^
Like two wires suspended in space, the delayed steps formed by these two lines
frame the pitch activity sandwiched in between, which in this excerpt is relatively
negligible.
The pitches that constitute a clear step-progression are significant parts of the
melodic shape and are, therefore, parts of the basic melody. When no step-progres-
sion is evident only the peaks of melodic motion can be regarded as basic pitches,
and then only when their metric location and duration favor them over their
neighbors.

Duration and Metric Locations

If other elements are equal, a tone that sounds longer than those around it will
attract more attention. Even when metric accent coincides with one pitch, another
close by will be regarded as more important if its duration is considerably greater
or if it acts as the cadence point for the phrase.

Ex. 7-13. Tchoikovsicy : Symphony No. 5, II.

SP3=5
f"''^JJj J-i- ! j: i

Basic
melody
BASIC MELODY 97

When embodied in the same pitch, the

greater duration and metric accent are
impressive nature of that pitch is reinforced. Such coupHngs of organizational
functions produce a simpHcity of structure that reduces the Ustener's problem of
understanding, because rhythmic stress coincides with metric stress.

Ex. 7-14a. Bach: Passacaglia.

Basic
i a:
'): . i
ni
?
-^u- r r
QI

^^
P"
i
^'

melody

Ex. 7-14b. Brahms: Symphony No. 2, Op. 73, I.

The measure of the Brahms melody of Ex. 7- 14b shows how repetition
third
within the measure can confirm a pitch's basic role. Obviously, repetition without
intervening pitches is a simple extension of duration, for no other pitch competes
But repetition within the immediate pattern (of approximately
for attention.
one measure), even after intervening tones, also emphasizes the returning pitch.
The Beethoven melody in Ex. 7-15 shows arabesques of eighth notes moving
around the repetition of the pitches that fall on metrical accents in measures 1 and
2. Because of their subsequent return these pitches are confirmed as basic.

Ex. 7-15. Beethoven: Symphony No. 5, Op. 67,

Basic
melody

In highly ornamented music, consisting of a broad range of rhythmic values,

some pitches act as pivots around which others skitter as orbitings around a mother
98 BASIC MELODY

planet. Repeated returns to a single pitch as the rallying point substantiates it as

basic for the pattern. The melodies in Ex. 7-16 contain some pitches that are basic
because of their extended durations ; others are fundamental because of this con-
centration of neighbors around the one pitch.

Ex. 7-16a. Bach: Well-tempered Clavier, Book I Prelude 10.

S ^a
P m PP
'ei

W- S3
Bassic
I \
J/ —*-
mel(ody I W) =

.ff r ^[Jrfj \
f T rrfr ^
Ex. 7-16b. Corelli : Concerto Grosso.

? s i s I
-pz.

^
• .
-^ . ^^= ^^i=^

As dual representatives of basic and the tonality frame

structure, the basic melody
reveal the organization of pitches within a particular melody in its barest form.
As we have seen, the two are quite similar, the tonality frame itself a maximum
reduction of melody to the tonal nucleus of overall structure.
In the following chapter we shall examine the various ways basic pitches are
linked together to create the logical tonal flow that characterizes the successful
melody. Naming these links elaborations or decorative patterns is no indication of lesser
importance. Melody is as much the manifestation of its decorative overlay as of its

basic structure. The separation of basic from decorative is made for purposes of un-
derstanding rather than for the establishment of a standard of musical values.
The pattern (a) in Ex. 7-17 by itself would interest no listener for long. But when
used as the basis for the pattern shown at (b), it is transformed into a dynamic
melodic statement that seizes a listener's attention and begs of continuation.
 BASIC MELODY 99

Ex. 7-17. Beethoven: String Quartet, Op. 18, No. 1, I.

^ Basic melody

=^^
t)^

P^
Melody

? ^ * m
^
Exercises

For more detailed assignments see Materials and Structure of Music I, Workbook, Chapter 7.

1. Select a number of melodies six to eight measures in length (collection of sight-singing

melodies, violin sonatas, songs, etc.). Copy each melody on manuscript paper, leaving
one blank below each
staff line of melody. On the blank staff plot the basic pitches for
the accompanying melody.
2. Make up several basic-melodies, assigning one pitch to each
measure of any meter.
Using framework as a basic guide, add other pitches in a variety of rhythms which
this
make a full and logical melody that you can sing or play. Be sure that the basic pitches
are preserved as the dominating elements in each measure.
3. Follow the same procedure as in but improvise (by singing or playing) the patterns
2,
around the selected basic pitches. Be sure to keep a steady tempo in your performances.
4. Abstract basic pitches from any melody or use basic pitches from melodies shown in this
chapter and create new melodies which use these as a basis.
5. Write a melody that corresponds to each of the following basic contours. Use any key,
meter, and scale desired.

(a)

(b)

(c)

Make up other contour patterns to be used as guides for melodies, and analyze the con-
tours of melodies found in literature.
6. Find several melodies which clearly incorporate a step-progression (or step-progressions)
as a main feature of organization.
7. Have a friend play a melody for you. Measure off the number of bars contained in the
melody and plot the basic pitches of the whole pattern. Don't try to get every pitch at
first; begin with the first and the last pitches, proceed to the highest and lowest, and then
fill in other pitches as they become known.
 Melodic
Elaboration
8

In the previous chapter we saw that reduction to basic melody

reveals the pitch organization in its simplest form. Few melodies exist in such bare
outline. In most melodies the skeletal structure is a support for the distinguishing
pitch activity by which we recognize melodic individuality. The pitches that are
the overlay of the melodic skeleton are elaborative; they decorate and link together
the basic pitches. Distinct melodic patterns are created by the linking activity of
these decorative pitches, and various types are identifiable by their particular
relationship to the basic melody.
The basic pitches of marjy melodies (particularly those of the Classical period)
are decorated by disjunct tonal activity, such as successive thirds. In Ex. 8-1, f^-JIat

and b-Jlat are the basic pitches. Because of their metric positions and lesser dura-
tions, the notes marked * decorate the basic e-JIat. In this example both g and b-

Jlat share e-fiat as root; thus, they create the effect of extending the duration of
the basic e-flat.

Ex. 8-1. Beethoven: Symphony No. 3, Op. 55, I.

^ ;z=

f
^m
Basic melody

Decorative pitches such as those in Ex. 8-1 are basic associates;. th.ty elaborate
by skipping and from a basic pitch. The basic associates often occur in weak
to
metric positions, and they generally are shorter in duration than the basic pitch
with which they are associated.
The simplest form of melodic elaboration is created by repeating a note. In Ex,
700
MELODIC ELABORATION 101

8-2 the repetition of g-JIat emphasizes that note; however, its relative duration is

not changed by the rearticulation.

Ex. 8-2. Bartok : Mikrokosmos, No. 131. Copyright 1940 by Hawkes & Son (London) Ltd.
Reprinted by permission of Boosey & Hawkes Inc.

The and repeated pitches are important aspects of melodic

basic associates or-

ganization, but they represent only two types of decorative patterns. Other, less

obvious, decorative patterns are also significant.

The sequential phrase shown in Ex. 8-3 uses two different types of melodic
elaboration.

Ex. 8-3. by Edition Russe de Musique, Re-

Stravinsky: Octet, Sinfonia. Copyright 1924
newed 1952. Copyright & Renewal assigned to Boosey & Hawkes inc. Revised
Edition Copyright 1952 by Boosey & Hawkes Inc. Reprinted by permission.

^ n rln\^ 2 > .3
m [r;

'if; \ \
i i^
s^

fe
TT tot
:
O m -o-

Basic pilches
: £1

^
k nx tat

Basic pitches and associates

-Q_ -O-
-©-

3X tnt
J xr ^ 331
U^
Basic pitches, basic associates, and their decorative pitches

In measures 3-6 the first note of each measure is a basic pitch because of its metric
position. As can be seen, the predominant pitch activity is a sequence of thirds.
The upper note of each third is a basic associate. In the descending motion to the
last note of each pattern the third is filled in. This filler tone smooths out the

disjunct motion of the sequential pattern and at the same time embellishes each

basic pitch. The decorative notes (shown as J in the sketch) participate in a

step-progression that links a basic associate to a basic pitch.

Decorative pitches can embellish a basic melody with either of two diflferent

types of tonal activity: (1) the decorative pitch exceeds the range of two basic pitches
or a basic pitch and a basic associate (as in Ex. 8-4a and Ex. 8-4b) ; or (2) the de-
102 MELODIC ELABORATION

corative pitch remains within the range of two basic pitches or a basic pitch and
a basic associate (as in Ex. 8-4c). In Ex. 8-4, and in all subsequent examples of this

chapter, the basic pitches are represented by o , the basic associates by • , and

the decorative pitches by J .

Ex. 8-4.

J^^
^^ xn J. 33= 331 J-

Decorative pitches have names that describe clearly the role they play. For
example, since most melodies use a preponderance of steps, decorative pitches
called ^sing tones appear frequently. This is an apt description, because passing
tones connect two different basic pitches (or a basic pitch and its associate), as in
Ex. 8-5.

Ex. 8-5.

/Ml W

^m ^
-o-
^^
Passing tones are often shorter in duration than the pitches they connect, and they
appear in both accented and unaccented positions. Since accented tones tend to
impress us as more important than unaccented, thejunaccented passing tone is

more common.
Ex. 8-6a and Ex. 8-6b show both types. The d-natural in measure 4 of Ex. 8-6c
is a chromatic passing tone. Note that the diatonic passing tones (notes belonging
to one diatonic scale) link two notes a third apart; chromatic passing tones generally
link two notes a major second apart.

Ex.

£t^ ^
8-6a. Beethoven -.
String Quartet, Op. 74, IV

j),n KyJ^JJ^ |

^mX s

S ^ i 331 ^ ia=
^^ ^
31 i
MELODIC ELABORATION 103

P^ ^
Ex. 8-6b.

m ^m i

ma 33:
F^
^ te TI"
^
U^^'iigii'

Beethoven: Piano Sonata, Op. 110,

^m ^
Ex. 8-6c. I.

^^
'^^^

^ pCJI^j-^p p
t^ t"> " ( # )" ^^ J l>o trrr
1>V xc ^

In highly ornamental melodies several tones sometimes link structural pitches

that are more than a third apart. Generally these linking notes are of short dura-
tion, playing the same decorative role as a single passing tone. For this reason they
also are referred to as passing tones (bracketed in Ex. 8-7).

Ex. 8-7. Bach : "Gigue" from Liffle Notebook of Anno Magdalena Bach.

JJ^JJJ^
-(r&h f> It
^
Another decorative pitch that appears frequently is the neighbor tone} Like the
passing tone, this type of embellishment can be found in both accented and unac-
cented positions. Step motion is again involved, the neighbor moving away (either
up or down) from a basic pitch and returning to it. Neighbor tones also may be
diatonic or chromatic. Since neighbor tones embellish a single tone, delayed repeti-
tion is involved. This emphasizes the repeated tone, creating a more interesting
pattern than simple rearticulation.

In Ex. 8-8 the neighbor tones are indicated by J . The neighbors {f-sharp in

measure 9, a-sharp in measure 1 1) in Ex. 8-8b are chromatic.

• Sometimes called auxiliary tone or returning note.

104 MELODIC ELABORATION

Ex. 8-8a. Mozart: Piano Sonata, K. 576, III.

If' 'i
UIU ^ i *5
I

it -e- nc m: J.. J ..
I

i
Ex. 8-8b. Beethoven : Piano Sonata, Op. 90,

^ ^^ nU'J J' l /^ii^

-&-
331
s xn

Chromatic passing tones and neighbor tones do not change the tonal center.
Because of their brevity, the emphasis they produce is insufficient for the creation
of a new focal point. If their duration were increased, a new tonal focus might
result. Therefore, even if a note has the appearance of a new leading tone, duration

determines the amount of influence it will exert and distinguishes a chromatic

decorative pitch from a chromatic structural pitch.

The frequent use of passing tones and neighbor tones does not make them more
significant than other kinds of decorative pitches. As a matter of fact, their repeated
occurrence only indicates that the conditions for their particular decorative role
are often present. Thus, in those melodies containing structural pitches that are
a third apart, passing tones smooth the line by filling in melodic gaps, thereby
bringing the structural pitches into closer relationship. Similarly, if repeated tones
play an important part in the structure of a melody (as in Ex. 8-2), the effect of such
repetition is intensified by the incorporation of neighbor tones.

Both the passing tone and the neighbor tone are approached and followed by
step. Although motion by step is a factor in most decorative patterns, certain types
do not use this step-step configuration. Sometimes a decorative tone is given greater
emphasis because it is either approached or left by skip. This added emphasis
directs attention to the decorative tone; consequently, decorative patterns con-
taining skips other than between a basic pitch and a basic associate appear in-
 MELODIC ELABORATION 105

frequently. Two different decorative pitches can be classified in this way: the
leaning tone^ and the escape tone^.

Leaning tones are approached by skip and then move to a structural pitch by
step. Since skips tend to create emphasis, the leaning tone directs attention to the
note of arrival by delaying it momentarily. Furthermore, the motion by step to
the embellished tone creates the impression of "leaning," which explains the use
of this particular descriptive term.

Ex. 8-9.

* za

Tnr
i 33:
=QI
f
X-eaning tones appear in both accented and unaccented metric positions. They
are usually shorter in duration than the notes they embellish, and the motion to
the subsequent basic pitch is frequently in the opposite direction from the skip
that introduces the leaning tone. In all cases it follows the pattern of skip (either
up or down)^tep.
In Ex. 8-10 the leaning tone in measure 1 is easily recognized because its relative
duration is clearly indicated by the notation. This literal representation of a leaning
tone is common.

Ex. 8-10. Mozart: Piano Sonata, K. 284, III (Variation XII).

^I:u_
^
zaz
^ 1-&- JOO

If this type of notation is not used, the duration of the leaning tone is designated
the same way as the other notes. In Ex. 8-1 1 the leaning tones are not set apart by
notation, but are notated as part of the total fabric of the phrase. In this example
the basic pitches create an ascending step progression.

' Sometimes called an a^jjwggMtura.

' Sometimes called an ecfm^^.
106 MELODIC ELABORATION

Ex. 8-11. Beethoven: Piano Sonata, Op. 27, No. 2,

:
(iV-'^
•>
( . P ^ «« '
*
* * m m m m J:J
.JJ..'-J -SZ_ZSZI2I
|

^4^
s -^•^
xt.> *F o =fc|P3=

Sometimes the leaning tone and the pitch it embeUishes have the same duration.
\Vhen this occurs it can be difficult to difTerentiate between decorative and struc-
tural notes. However, in Ex. 8-12 the leaning tone is also the leading tone of the
key, and it embellishes the tonic note.

Ex. 8-12. Mendelssohn: Midsummer Nighi's Dream, Intermezzo.

XH
-?*-

rrsz
XE
iM
^
331
'iij^'j

xc
331
r r-

In Ex. 8-13 the chromatic leaning tones emphasize the second and third scale
steps, while the diatonic leaning tones emphasize the tonic and the subdominant.
Notice that the duration of the structural pitches varies, and the half-step relations
create a strong motion to the structural tones.

Ex. 8-13. Beethoven: Piano Sonata, Op. 14, No. 2, I.

jO^
i :^Mz ^i=^

^^Sc ^=o= y^=^ "cr

331
"cr
f i" f
A more complex situation is illustrated in Ex. 8-14.
Here the duration of the lean-
ing tone is greater than that of the embellished note. In measure 3, a is a basic
associate o{ f-sharp therefore, even though g-sharp receives greater stress because
;

of its duration, its melodic role is decorative.

MELODIC ELABORATION 107

Ex. 8-14. Carter: Woodwind Quintet, I. (C) 1952 by Associated Music Publishers, Inc.,

New York. Reprinted by permissior.

The melodic opposite of the leaning tone, the escape tone, moves to a basic pitch
or a basic associate by skip, while the motion preceding it is by step. Although it

can be found in both accented and unaccented positions, it is usually an unac-

cented elaboration. ,{:^^ ^l^-«lO
yfcjP /sl^- Ji-

^/^
Ex. 8-15.

rin h \ } s 32

i=^ i 31
i 3X 33:

Like the leaning tone, the motion away from an escape tone usually involves
a change of direction, as shown below. In both examples the decorative note "es-
capes" away from one important tone before moving to the next.

Ex. 8-1 6a. Chopin: Piano Sonata, Op. 58, I.

r
i^<"ll^\,\ r r i
L^^^utnr p

xn
i i^

Ex. 8-1 6b. Bach: St. John Passion, Chorus No. 23.

^^ ^^ ^ ^
m ^ ^S O I
'm
108 MELODIC ELABORATION

Sometimes, however, the motion continues in the same direction, as in Ex. 8-17.
We can still recognize this as a variation of the more common pattern which
changes direction.

Ex. 8-17. Beethoven: Piano Sonata, Op. 101, I.

Whichever direction it moves, the escape tone is usually of shorter duration than
the tones surrounding it. If not, it normally appears in a less prominent metric
position.
The decorative patterns discussed in the preceding sections involve only one
embellishing tone, with the exception of a group of passing tones used to fill in
an interval larger than a third, or a third with chromatic activity. The figure called
a neighbor group always involves two decorative tones that embellish a single basic
pitch. Both decorative notes are neighbors to the basic tone, one located a step
above, the other a step below; a skip occurs between the two neighbor tones, the
resulting pitch pattern forming a step-skip-step sequence. Often one of these
decorative tones is unaccented, the other accented.
The neighbor groups in Ex. 8-18 embellish the cadence pitch. Since the repeated
cadence tone is in evidence for a relatively long period of time, the neighbor groups
in this excerpt create greater tonal activity and variety.

Ex. 8-18. Haydn: String Quartet, Op. 74, No. 2, I.

r» !

i
r
''
i

rrr
. .r i r rr
m r?lf f rrif r
|

331
XE 33:

$ zee

f ^. ^^EEi^
rrruf rrrLj r^r' iri i

^ ^*
#
331 ^ ~cr
^ U3I -Q-
 MELODIC ELABORATION 109

In Ex. 8-19 the neighbor groups extend the duration of the basic pitches. Notice
how closely the decorative activity of this figure resembles the neighbor tone
figure.

Ex. 8-19. Mozart: String Quartet, No. 18, K. 464, I.

m
fct

«4 -tTTT
^ ri
i
i. 331
^ -O-
's"
i ^ -O-
331
t
Another type of decorative preannounces the appearance
pitch, the anticipation,
of a basic pitch. It is by nature an unaccented pattern, almost always of lesser
duration than the pitches surrounding it. The pitch motion is generally step-re-
articulation, as in Ex. 8-20.

Ex. 8-20. J. S. Bach : Two-Part Invention, No. 2.

fi.i,MLrr££gC/^ 331

_Q_
SE
=^^t -e-
i 3X1

Sometimes the motion preceding the anticipation is by skip, resulting in a skip-

rearticulation pattern. Generally when this variation of the more common pattern
occurs, disjunct basic associates are also present. Therefore, the anticipation an-
nounces one of the notes that is contained in the disjunct line, as can be seen in the
opening of Ex. 8-21.

Ex. 8-21. Beethoven: Piano Sonata, Op. 31, No. 3, III.

$
t=
B S ^
a -^rr
xn

The suspension is established by a basic pitch that passes to another basic pitch
or to a decorative pitch by step, usually down. In this passing process the first
770 MELODIC ELABORATION

basic pitch, extends beyond a metric or rhythmic accent by means of a tie or

rearticulation. This delays the appearance of the second basic pitch and makes
the middle note of the pattern fall in an unaccented position.

Ex. 8-22.

^ i

^ ^
The suspension figure is characterized by the following: (1) a basic pitch is pro-
longed by means of a tie or rearticulation; (2) this basic pitch extends past a metric
or rhythmic accent; and (3) this suspended basic pitch moves to an unaccented
basic pitch or decorative pitch by step.
In Ex. 8-23 a suspension appears on the first beat of measure 3. Here the sus-
pension is created by the tied basic /. The result is an elaboration of the phrase
rhythm. In addition, the entire process emphasizes the basic pitch more than if
the suspension had not occurred.

Ex. 8-23. Hindemith: Mathis der Maler, I. (C) 1934 by B. Schott's Soehne, Mainz. Re-
newed 1961. Reprinted by permission.

_Ol
^m i i
XL

In Ex. 8-24 the duration of the basic g is extended by its rearticulation on the
first beat of measure 4. This delays the anticipated appearance of a different pitch

on an accented first beat. The rearticulated suspension creates an effect similar to

that of the tied suspension.

Ex. 8-24. Tchaikovsky: Symphony No. 5,

m 5

33:
•e- — "cr
MELODIC ELABORATION lU

Sometimes the motion of the suspended basic pitch to the second note of the
pattern is "interrupted" by the interpolation of a decorative pitch, as in Ex. 8-25.
Here the two tones of the suspension figure are separated by the interpolated lean-
ing tones.

Ex 8-25. Bach : Arf of the Fugue.

$ ^ e ri r i
j
r i
CjT cjf
I r 1

^1

5SX ^ i 031 -O- -n" "TV

i ^ r
If melody alone is considered, it sometimes is difficult to distinguish between
basic pitches and decorative pitches. Most melodies occur in association with other
parts, such as other melodies or chords. When all factors are weighed, the distinc-
tion becomes more apparent.
Outline of Decorative Pitches

Pitch Rhythmic
Type Pitch Characteristics
Motion Characteristics

Passing Step-step Appears between two different Accented or

Tone basic pitches or a basic pitch unaccented
and a basic associate

Neighbor Step-step Elaborates one basic pitch Accented or

Tone un accen ted
Leaning Skip-step Appears between two different Accented or .u^iJpnQai^tlUL
Tone basic pitches or a basic pitch unaccented
and a basic associate

Escape Step-skip Appears between two different Usually j^jJy:ufnJLJL

Tone basic pitches or a basic pitch unaccented
and a basic associate

Neighbor Step-skip- Two different neighbor tones Accented or

Group step elaborating one basic pitch unaccented

Anticipation Step-reartic- Appears between two different Unaccented

ulation ; or pitches, the last of which is

skip-reartic- a basic pitch

ulation

Suspension Step Involves only two pitches, the Accented nJflUAhO (X

first of which is a basic pitch

c
^ n
772 MELODIC ELABORATION

Exercises

For more detailed assignments see Materials and Structure of Music I, Workbook, Chapter 8.

1. Determine the basic pitches of familiar melodies. Then use these basic melodies as the
pitch framework for melodies that you write.
2. Use the phrase patterns from any example as the rhythmic basis for melodies that you
write. Before writing, sketch in a pitch framework.
3. Create "new" melodies by elaborating the basic melodies of any of the examples in this
chapter.
4. Create an original basic melody. Then elaborate this framework, using the same basic
melody for melodies in simple and compound meters.

5. Describe all of the decorative pitches not identified in the analyses given in this chapter.
6. Analyze melodies selected from the following: Bartok, Mikrokosmos, Volumes I and II;
Bach, English Suites; Mozart, Piano Sonatas; Beethoven, Piano Sonatas; Stravinsky, Sonata
for Two Pianos; etc. Reduce each of the melodies selected to its basic pitches; then identify
the role of each of the decorative pitches.
 ;

Two-Voice
Combinations
9

Our study thus far has dealt with melody. Although we usually
associate melody with a prominent voice or instrument (as it is quite natural
single
to do), it is how melody exists in one way or another in each
essential that we see
voice or part of a composition, and how features of melodic organization are pres-
ent in varying degrees in different styles, forms and textures of music.

Texture

Texture is a word that, as used by musicians, has taken on several different

meanings. It refers to the number of voices or parts in a composition or section,
but it also denotes the relationships of parts toeach other. For instance, our next
area of study will deal with two-voice textures, i.e. two-part music. But in addition,
the texture of two-part compositions is often contrapuntal. Contrapuntal texture,
that is, co unlerpoint, results from the si multaneo us o ccurrenc e of two or more mel-
odies, both o f whicjunajntain somejjegree of ind.ep£rideiice.
A more general distinction can be made among three basic kinds of textures
monophonic, r,omprising_ajs ingle vo ire; homophonic, in which a predominant melody
is_supported by an essentially chordal arrompaniment^ and polyphonic, whk hjiter-
ally means "many voices ." Contrapuntal music is necessarily polyphonic, but the
polyphony is heard as the result of rhythmically independent voices.

Rhythmic Association

The possibilities of rhythmic association for two combined voices are enormous,
but several basic observations can be made. A
comparative study of the examples
in this section will reveal several different kinds of rhythmic combinations, each
of which represents a common treatment of two relatively independent parts.
?J3
 * ^

114 TWO-VOICE COMBINATIONS

Ex. 9-1. Leonin (12th centur y): Orflonum/ilMX^ J^Ajm [crt

t£Uj^\^CrUr&

^ ^ ^^ s ^ ^
^^ o 1 1 r i,C< c ^

P
m ^^ -i^ —5
fe^ ^^ i i3
A (
i
Ex. 9-1 contains two voices of contrasting rhythms organized in % meter. The
upper part clearly predominates because of its greater activity and pitch variety.
Both parts are unified through the use of recurrent patterns. This is a rudimentary
kind of rhythmic association.

A relationship of 2 to 1
(

f ) is established in Ex. 9-2.

Ex. 9-2. Handel: Suite VII for Keyboard, Allegro.

A more and more interesting upper line is accompanied by a slower paced

active
lower voice, which by itself is somewhat dull, since it consists mainly of continuous
eighth notes, outlining broken chords. However, it is a logical foil for the more
active part, providing a solid tonal-rhythmic basis for the upper voice. In the second
measure the lower voice momentarily assumes a leading role.
A more smoothly fashioned supporting part is seen in Ex. 9-3. Here the two voices
are completely independent rhythmically, and each makes a perfectly acceptable
melody.

Ex. 9-3. Marini : Sonata for Violin and Organ (two outer parts).

Vln

rP#=^ ^S ^ ^

^ 33=
-iS^
XE
 — —

rWO-VO/CE COMBINATIONS 115

^m^ f

P ^ i P
In contrast with the excerpt of Ex. 9-2, the lower voice stands out as a more Hnear
associate of the top part, while providing a solid foundation for the activity and
tonal motion in the upper line. The rhythmic contrast between voices is perhaps
the most engaging feature of the example.
More equality of movement occurs in Ex. 9-4, and the distinction between upper
voice and accompaniment is less obvious than in Ex. 9-1 and Ex. 9-2.

Ex. 9-4. Haydn : Piano Sonata in E-f)at, III.

/Ts^-l
'^^—1» P — ^ —r -f

'hK I
[ J [J I [^ Li

Both phrases are begun by the upper part alone, and its rhythmic diversity estab-
lishes it as the more interesting. In the second phrase, however, the voices are

treated imitatively, and the lower part matches the upper in activity and design
for two measures. The close of the second phrase restores the original relationship
of leader and subordinate associate by contrast of rhythm and design.
Two equally active parts compete for attention in Ex. 9-5. Such competition is

infrequent in two-voice textures, since the capabilities of our own hearing almost
rule out the clear perception oftwo equally active voices. Although we can shift
attention from one voice to another to understand essentially what is going on,
the problems of doing so when both parts are equally active are many, particularly
if such activity is maintained for very long.
776

Ex. 9-5. Ockeghem :

\^
Agnus
V Dei.
^iiiJ"^'-

teidAj>-vu-
TWO-VOICE COMBINATIONS

m ^ ^ ^^^^
si 3Z
^ i
^ ^ *-n^^

m ^^ ^m 0-m-0
m
«- *
p I

V- J j r^
^
J
fj^^^^ r ^ s
In contrast to Ex. 9-5 by Ockeghem, a clear rhythmic distinction between two
#-^

interesting independent voices can be easily perceived in Ex. 9-6.Both parts re-
veal individual contours and remain rhythmically independent. Although the lower
(piano) voice clearly provides a strong tonal framework [a minor) for the upper,
its rhythmic individuality makes it equally important.

Ex. 9-6. Piston: Sonata for Violin and Piano, III. (C) 1940 by Associated Music Publishers,
Inc., New York. Reprinted by permission.

Viol
lolin
^ ^ -0 0- N—— I
r^
t
^
• I
F

M ^ m w^
'lano
'
P^h
~
Col sva
m m m
_f _

^s ^ ^
i
^ m ^ ^ ^ ^i 5
^
ffs
7WO-VO;CE COMBINATIONS 117

In Ex. 9-6 the rhythmic separation of parts (

ir ) enables the listener to grasp

more readily the activity of both voices. The_recogniti on and perc eption ., of
equally impo rtant, simultaneou sly heard melodies is made most clear when the
voices have contrasting durations. When identical rhythms occur simultaneously,
independence is minimized, and other factors, particularly pitch association, direc-

tion, and contour determine the degree of independence between parts.

Ex. 9-7 contains a rather equal distribution of the same kinds of activity between
parts. The listener is drawn from voice to voice, so to speak, by the give and take
relationship which establishes the lower part as an imitator, derivative, or "bor-
rower" from the upper. The lower voice systematically echoes the opening motive
of the top voice and punctuates the movement of the continuous upper voice with
octave leaps in eighth notes, followed by rests.

Ex. 9-7. Bach : Invention in E Minor.

.uv;

JJ^J[/ l-i It^^Mf- f :^tm^^^ \ \

'}h;^i 1^ ^^ T=^ m ^^T

^

The cadences of this excerpt are clearly marked with eighth notes in both voices
and are always placed so that they coincide with metric strength. Perhaps the
most interesting feature of rhythm in the example is the way Bach leads the voices
to a rhythmic climax at measure 5. In measure 4, the lower voice, as if pulled
along by the activity in the upper part, joins in the movement established by the
178 TWO-VO;C£ COMBINATIONS

top part to produce a logical and convincing rhythmic peak. Longer durations are
introduced in the lower voice in measure 6, approaching the cadence at measure
7, and natural relaxation of activity.
thus affecting a coherent
The opening of Bartok's First String Quartet, shown in Ex. 9-8, contains a
rhythmic association somewhat comparable to the Bach excerpt discussed pre-
viously. It affords an excellent study of two-voice association in contemporary
music and illustrates several of the basic principles noted in this chapter.

Ex. 9-8. Bartok : String Quartet No. 1 (opening). Reprinted by permission of Boosey &
Hawkes Inc. Sole agents for " Koitura " (Hungarian Trading Company) in the
U. S. A.

Lento, ^"=50
1st =tssjf
Violin

2nd
Violin is ^ p
c.
# n n m s

Vioh
m
Cello ^

Wehave surveyed three basic rhythmic associations thus far ( 1 ) a predorninant :

meloLdy., supported by a much less engaging associate; (2) a combination, fi£.tWO

rhythmically independent parts, each of which makes acceptable melody wit h
one understood as a leading voice, creating a give and take relationship; and (3),
two equally active parts which move in different durations. Jmitation may occur
in any kind of rhythmic association, but it is most commonly found where-the
voices operate in a give and take, or leader-follower plan, or where both parts are
of equal interest and importance, as in the first five measures of Ex. 9-8. \Vhen t wo
voices employ identical durations (note against note style), the upper part usually
TWO-VOICE COMBINATIONS ??9

prevails,and independence of parts depends on factors such as nnelodic direction,

contour, and pitch associatio n in gener aL-

Combination of Basic Melodies; the Two-Voice Framework

Earlier we noted that most melodies are unified in terms of pitch structure by
a simple tonality frame. This frame is formed by prominent pitches which are
tonic or are strong relatives of tonic. The addition o[ a. second voice generally further
clarifies the tonahty of any single lipe, and the two voices frequently create vertical
intervalswhich emphasize the same strong intervals, particularly octaves, fifths,
and thirds which-are-oorjaally lound in the tonality frame of a single melody^as
in Ex. 9-9.

Ex. 9-9a. Handel: Gavotte

irr- ff
•--'

[['
-^^.^.H^:,S
tr- tr.
r-F" ^"-^
y r
S^
1

f=f=|

-^—. —i— ^ r ^
^

A reduction of this Gavotte's first section to a tonality frame is shown below in

Ex. 9-9b.

Ex. 9-9b. Reduction of Ex. 9-9a to tonality frame (See same in Chapter 2.).

Ck
—• ^ ^
1

O
fpN^ It
r»
-•
11
It

CI
l-» 1 1
O-J
•
-©-
XT
1 1 1
720 TWO-VOICE COMBINATIONS

Both voices clearly move through the tonality frame of C major. The upper
voice spans the 1 1 th (perfect 4th + an octave) from dominant to tonic, while the

lower part outlines virtually the same tonality pattern. Furthermore, the two
and major thirds involving members of the same
voices often form octaves, fifths
C major frame. Both phrases begin, and the second phrase closes, on members of
the tonality frame.
Not all melodies are as clearly and simply organized around an easily percepti-
ble tonality frame as those shown in Ex. 9-9. Ho%\ever, a second voice frequently
clarifies or confirms the tonality of a less clear upper (or lower) part by creating
relations to tonic that are not explicit in the activity of the single voice. In Ex. 9-10,
the tonality of the upper voice, sounded alone, seems to hang precariously between
e minor and G major; however, with the addition of the lower part, and its e to
e' tonality frame, the upper part is clearly heard in e minor.

Ex. 9-10. Bach: Partita, from the Little Notebook

In Chapter 6 we dealt with the fundamental outlines of melody: basic melody.

Two-voice textures can be studied by reducing the total pitch structure of each
part to its basic melody. Basic melody reductions of two voices yield a two-voice
framework; this framework, or "structural outline," provides a simple point of
departure for the analysis, perception, and the composition of two-voice textures.
The two-voice framework of Ex. 9-11, noted earlier, is shown below in Ex. 9-1 lb.

Ex. 9-1 la. Handel: Gavotte (keyboard).

 121
TWO-VOICE COMBINATIONS

Ex. 9-1 lb. Two-voice framework of Ex. 9-1 la.

A comparison of the example with its reduction shows that the rhythmic ratio
of the prevailing upper part to the lower voice is 2 : 1 (two eighths — quarter) rhythm.
It involves the elaboration of essentially stepwise basic pitches. The intervals formed
by coinciding basic pitches are mostly thirds. The rhythmic independence of the
parts contrasts with the essentially similar rise and fall of the simultaneous step-
progressions occurring in the two parts. The dual step progression found in the lower
part in measures 5 and 6 reflects the predominance of leaps in that voice, in con-
trast to the prevailing step motion in the upper. The high and low basic pitches of
both parts are almost identical with those of the tonality frame; although this is
typical of the simplicity of structure and tonal content of this excerpt, it is by no
means the rule.
The lower part of a two-voice texture frequently acts as a tonal support or
foundation for a more active top voice, and often creates considerably less melodic
interest than the upper line.

In Ex. 9-12, the bass and violin parts of a sonata for violin and organ are shown,
followed by a two-voice reduction. Despite the contrast of activity between the
two parts, both are organized on a simple tonal plan, and the movement to basic

pitches frequently occurs simultaneously in both parts.

Ex. 9-1 2a. Marini : Sonata for Violin and Organ.

Violin ^^ y-U^
m P fT it-

^ r ^^ p-rrp-

?
^
Organ I

^ 331
P ^^ xn P

m^m^
s^ i ?f=p
 122 TWO-VOICE COMBINATIONS

Ex. 9-1 2b. Two-voice framework of Ex. 9-1 2a.

331
TT"
XC

xn
m 331
laz
33:
331 -©- ty

331
jdl
TT"
^^ TT-

^^ -&-
xc
XE

While the bass Hne is an acceptable melody, it is overshadowed by the activity

above. Most of the pitches in the bass are basic, while a far greater number in the
violin part are elaborative. The contrast is obvious, as is the role of the bass as
a solid underpinning for the violin. This example is typical of many in which the
lower voice is hardly more than a framework — unelaborated, clear, and melodic-
ally sufficient —which provides a solid support for the activity in an upper part.
The reduction not only shows how the violin line has been fashioned from a
fairly simple succession of basic pitches, elaborated by scales, sequences and
figurative patterns, but also reveals a succession of intervals between the parts
which are essentially stable, e.g., octaves, fifths and thirds. Furthermore, contrasts
of basic contour between the parts, as in measures 1-4 and 11-13, which are in-
digenous to good counterpoint, stand out clearly as structural features of the piece.
The tonality of the sonata, A (aeolian), is clearly confirmed cadentially, by lead-
ing-tone to tonic and dominant to tonic movement in the bass in measures 12-
13.

Ex. 9-13 contrasts with Ex. 9-12 in that both voices adhere to similar basic
melodies.

Ex. 9-1 3a. Haydn: Piano Sonata in E-flat, Finale.

^^ i ^ ^^ ^
^^
I ^i^ ^ ^ /

^ ^ i
^\. I ,
V
'
I* I*

^
 — 1 M —

TWO-VO;C£ COMBINATIONS 723

Ex. 9-1 3b. Two-voice reduction of Ex. 9-1 3a.

^
Although the upper part somewhat more elaborate than the lower, the two
is

voices, treated imitatively, compete for attention on a more equal footing. Both
parts have similar contours and an equal number of step-progressions. Notice that
the lower step-progressions of the two parts occur successively, about two beats
apart. The syncopated treatment of the upper line, in the first phrase, establishes
its rhythmic identity and individuality, but a comparison of both basic melodies
will show how much the two voices mirror one another. Unity of two-voice design
results when both parts are fashioned from essentially alike basic melodies. Two-
voice frames such as this are common to many two-part contrapuntal textures.
The texture of Ex. 9-14 involves considerable rhythmic independence of the
two parts (with the exception of the latter half of measure 8). The rhythmic in-
dependence, however, is balanced by an agreement of contour between the voices,
seen in the prevailing descent of both parts. Although cadences are avoided in
favor of continuous activity throughout the excerpt, rhythmically strong assertions
of members of the tonality frame occur in measures 3, 4, 9 and 10. Sing the ex-
ample, then study the reduction in Ex. 9- 14b.

Ex. 9-14a. Ockeghem : Agnus Dei.

—rf—
J-^ [f^
J — Uj
r-&^ 1

If
— p#..
^-^
1

-^^^ ^ —L 0^ p\ =V
'
—— —^
r^ -^ --'m P n
U r
J
\-*^
J
—^-^
1
jij]

S^ ^ f r <s»-

^m ^ nn
 —

124 TWO-VOICE COMBINATIONS

Ex. 9-14b. Two-voice reduction of Ex. 9-14a.

^• O ()# '
— —-^ 5
^ ^,.
1 9
1

i>
1
'

*^
^1
S^
1

•).
/
•„ • i~

1 1
~l1
1

iV A
1 1 1
1 1
' 1
1

m
1

*)• i 1
• • • m ^ *
/ » m •^ * « iJ

The tonal variety of the two parts is reflected (in the reduction) by an absence
of coinciding basic pitches which are members of the tonaHty frame. The disjunct
motion of the first five measures in the bass is indicative of the leaps formed by
basic pitches in the same measures, but note that the leaps are comprised mostly
of members of the tonality frame, a and e, and are quite stable. Step-progressions
are present (but somewhat obscured) in the latter half of the example in both
voices, and these contrast with the more disjunct beginning. However, the con-
tours of the step- progressions show an essentially diflferent direction in the two
parts, since the upper line comprises a basic ascent from / to a, while the bass
descends a fifth from 6" to .4.

These factors, plus others (as a study of the different forms of elaboration of basic
pitches in both melodies will show), result in a two-part texture whose voices are
independent, while unified by tonality {A), adherence to common pitch materials
(aeolian mode), and similar kinds of durations.
The two-voice framework, like basic melody in one line, provides a basis for ap-
praising the structure of each voice and its relationship to the other in textures in
which both parts, to a greater or lesser degree, participate in the creation of a
cohesive and intelligible musical product. As we have seen, the framework is useful
for pinpointing those features of the parts which are structural, rather than dec-
orative, and it also enables us to view those elements of the texture which hold it
together.

Pitch Material

A glance at any of the preceding musical examples will confirm the fact that
most two-voice textures employ the same key or mode in both voices. We have
also seen that the addition of a second part often clarifies the tonic in a melody
whose key or tonic ambiguous. Comparing Ex. 9-15 and Ex. 9-16, we find that
is

the tonic {A-Jlat) is strongly asserted by both voices in Ex. 9-15, but only by the
lower part in Ex. 9-16. The upper voice of the latter example is apparently in E-
flat (considered as a separate line), while the lower clearly establishes A-Jiat (the
actual tonic of the combined parts).

Ex. 9-15. Bach: V/ell-fempered Clavier, Fugue No. 17.

TWO-VOICE COMBINATIONS 125

Ex. 9-16. Bach: Well-tempered Clavier, Prelude No. 17.

i ^^'
^n ., f;rrrr rT jJj ^
Although both parts any discussion of tonic, key or mode,
must be considered in

the loweiLYQic e, because it is the to nal foundation for most two-voice works, often
exerts mor e tonal force than the upper. This is well illustrated in Ex. 9-16, which is
heard in A-JIat primarily because of the pull towards A-JIat created by the lower
voice.
Two voices which possess the same tonicmay use conflicting variants of the same
note. This is particularly true in the minor mode with its different scale patterns.
In Ex. 9-17, D-flat in the upper part conflicts with the lower part's D-natural.

Ex. 9-17. Bach: Invention in F Minor.

D-natural in the lower voice is explained by the ascent of the line and the avoidance
of the augmented second which would were not altered. result if D-Jlat

Considerable variety of pitch resources has been used in two melodically in-
dependent parts in Ex. 9-18. The tonality is D, but it incorporates all twelve tones
of a chromatic scale, rather than a seven tone mode.

Ex. 9-18. Hindemith : Ludus Tonoiis, Fugue in E. (C) 1943 by Schott & Co., Ltd., London.
Reprinted by permission.

Rhythm pattern

m 6-

^^
'

Tonic
V s

i p t ^ ^
jerr ^ ^^^
^
^i
^): y
-
Hf

sequence
1
;^ =^
p ? ^ \^p \,
726 TWO-VOICE COMBINATIONS

Repeated rhythm patterns and melodic sequences create unity, and melodic in-
terest is sustained by avoiding the simultaneous use of identical durations in both
parts. Both lines reach a climactic point about a third of the way through the
excerpt, and then begin a general stepwise descent to the cadence.
Some composers of the twentieth century have created further independence of
lines by employing two tonalities or keys simultaneously, as in Ex. 9-19.

Ex. 9-19. Bi-Tonality.

Allegro

Ex. 9-20 contains a section of a canon by Josquin des Pres, a fifteenth century
composer. The most significant feature of this example, from the standpoint of
pitch organization, is that the two canonic voices consistently cadence on different
tonics. The result is that, although the two parts are highly unified through the use
of identical melodic material, they are delineated tonally through their adherence
to different tonics, D and G.

Ex. 9-20. Josquin des Pres : Chanson.

P ft ^ r f f
^m
^ P-
m^
i
'y-L rrr
^ #-
m^
^m
m
TWO-VOICE COMBINATIONS 127

P^
P ^ ^
^^Ff m m m f Id
-& ^

The tonal separation of voices in Ex. 9-20 illustrates the common practice of
bringing in each contrapuntal voice in a different key, or by centering the pitch
motion of successive entrieson different notes of one key, such as tonic and domi-
nant. We shall see the importance of such a technique in our subsequent study of
fugue and other contrapuntal forms.

Vertical Considerations in Two Voices ; Consonance and Dissonance

We have been concerned thus far with the horizontal aspects of pitches in
melody. But if we are to combine melodies, there must exist a basis for the selection
of the harmonic intervals that they will create. A glance at any two-voice composi-
show a variety of vertical combinations, and further study will reveal that
tion will
composers employ systematic techniques for organizing harmonic intervals and
successions of interval roots.
In Chapter 2 interval roots were discussed, and their relationship to the harmonic
series was established. It is entirely logical that those intervals which are ^riost
st able, octaves, fi fth s and most often found as
third s^ are the beginning and caden-
tial^ harmonic intervals in two-voice textures. These intervals are essentially stable,

or consonant, and because of the role that they have played as basic combinations
in music are described as cadential or basic consonances. It is only in recent times that
composers have accepted the possibility of beginning or closing on less stable inter-
vals.
The perfect fourth and major and minor sixths seldom occur as cadential inter-
vals in two voices. Because of their consonant but non-cadential role in musical
practice, these intervals are regarded as decorative consonances, and their use in two-
voice textures is subject to many considerations of contrapuntal technique. The
perfect fourth in particular is generally afforded a special kind of preparation and
resolution.
We should not conclude from composers' general neglect of certain intervals
for cadence that these combinations have no significant part to play in the organiza-
tion of two-voice music. However, because of the tension-resolution tendency and
 — — 1

728 TWO-VOICE COMBINATIONS

the feeling of instability that their use creates, them as dissotiances. We

we refer to
shall see various ways composers have used dissonance during the history of West-
ern music.
All musical intervals have been grouped below according to three main clas-
sifications. It is essential that this grouping of vertical sonorities be committed to
memory.

Interval Classification.

Beginning and Cadential Consonances Decorative Consonances Dissonances

{Basic Consonances)
Unison Perfect Fourth Minor Second
Perfect Octave Major Sixth Major Second
Perfect Fifth Minor Sixth Tritone (+4 and °5)
Major Third Minor Seventh
Minor Third Major Seventh
All Augmented &
Diminished Inter-
vals.

The two-voice composition shown as Ex. 9-21 affords a simple point of departure
for a study of the interplay between consonance and dissonance.

Ex. 9-21. Guillaume de Machaut: Virelais.

—•
C
3 - •>

.
"^ J T
^
|-# r
Tenor ||>):ytFrr 1 0ff] h
1
1

Bass 'y.2
^^4 P n
c r. ^^Lprr 7 f
1* m

m^ V- ''
m m
$
\ TSL

mm ^
15

m^
^ p i m ^
^jt,
fe^
•0 25 ,

[|.>: r r 1
1
# f 1 Iff
r ff 1
3 ^=

y 7 /
M .
a'
« P
3
^ = —
t^4=J
.^e-T-"

•
M
""*
i»
 — — — — ^

TWO-VO/CE COMBINATIONS 129

-?'
?:3C
¥r
:?: '
:

f^
[|0: f—l -|S»
5

h Eff^ ffffrtfrf-\
^ r

-p >— ^^ V * ?

« ^^
—
—
f
f—
V r 1
-f9
^ h
1* Ti
i
h

ll. 4U la. ^ _^ 1

M^—f^
• P-
r#¥|
p.
^ ^^ T^'^44-p-

f
— -* —9 -p — « V ^
-4^ /:

Our main consideration here is the interplay between consonance and disso-

nance, both of which figure significantly in the organization of this two-part tex-
ture. Let us examine first the vertical combinations at cadences. These occur in
measures 4, 9, 16, 22, 27, 32, 36, 39 and 43. An analysis of the cadential intervals
used is shown below.
Cadential Intervals in Ex. 9-21.
Measure Number Cadential Interval Between Voices
4 Perfect Octave
9 l{^r<>T Minor Third
16 Perfect Octave
22 Minor Third
27 Unison
32 PerfectOctave
36 —
Minor Third Unison
39 Perfect Octave
43 Perfect Octave
The beginning intervals of each phrase are:
Measure Number Beginning Interval Between Voices
6 Perfect Fifth
13 Perfect Fifth
^t^'T-h'^yJi
17 Major Third
24 Perfect Fifth
29 Perfect Octave
33 Major Sixth
37 Major Third !
/ ni, q v^'TK\r(\
We may conclude from the above analysis that phrase beginnings and closes are
generally made with cadential consonances, although decorative consonances are
occasionally found at phrase beginnings or phrase endings. We shall see later how
730 TWO-VOICE COMBINATIONS

dissonances too may be used in a similar way. Now reexamine the Bach e minor
Invention, Ex. 9-7, and note that Bach appHes a similar use of the same intervals.

Vocal Ranges and Spacing,

Throughout the first sixteen hundred years of Western music the organization
of melody depended most upon the vocal forms that dominated that broad
time span. In these early forms, e.g., Gregorian Chant, Secular Song, Motets,
Chansons, and Masses, our predecessors established and developed techniques of
melodic composition that exploited the capabilities of the human voice. Instru-
mental melody had its origin in vocal music of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.
During these years vocal works were often transcribed for small instrumental
groups, or vocal parts were sometimes doubled by instruments. Many of the me-
lodic patterns we have come to know through instrumental performance are of
vocal origin.
In our beginning two-voice studies we shall limit our writing to the human voice,
laterexpanding our study to include instrumental combinations. The necessity of
performing all musical exercises and illustrations cannot be overstressed.
Consistent with most vocal compositions, we shall employ the following as prac-
tical voice ranges:

Soprano

Alt
°
$
Tenor /' ti"

Bass ^=^
Each voice is granted a potential range of a twelfth. Needless to say, consider-
able care should be taken in approaching the extremities of any voice range. The
low areas of any voice is lost when overused, and average
effectiveness of the high or
singers are not "at home" with melodies that remain in extreme lows or highs for
long periods. The highest note {g') for the tenor in the Machaut composition,
Ex. 9-21, occurs only once during forty-four measures of melody, while the lowest
note of our given tenor range (c) is never used. Low tones in the bass, like high
notes in the soprano, are often thin and lack definition. Great care should be given
to their use.
The distances betweentwo parts will depend partially on the particular voices
used. For example, the widest gap that might occur between alto and soprano (in
two-voice writing) would be a perfect fifteenth, considering the given ranges of
 —

rWO-VO/CE COMBINATIONS 131

both voices. Although possibly effective in isolated cases, such a wide space between
two adjacent, unsupported voices would be rare indeed. On the other hand, uni-
sons represent the smallest distance (or relationship) and are quite common caden-
tially. The usual limit for two adjacent voices is the octave with tenths
, and even
twelfths as rare possibilities.
Less common two-voice combinations such as tenor and soprano, or alto and
bass, may exploit wider spacings because of the natural separation of the individual
registers. In these cases the interval of a twelfth should be regarded as normal,
with two octaves as a usual limit of separation. Common two-voice spacings are
shown in Ex. 9-22, Ex. 9-23, and Ex. 9-24.

Ex. 9-22. Palestrina : Motet: Sicut cervus.

Soprano te

^
^ ^ i ^ zz:
?S txj

Alto i
cat
m ^-* 22

Ex. 9-23. Josquin des Pres : Motet : Tu pauperum refugium.

Tenor ^^ — w
1 ^
U
Bass ')'
(i ('

$ m p
J 'W L
^ zz:

Ex. 9-24.

The principles for two-voice spacing that have been outlined here can be sum-
marized as follows: adjacent voices seldom exceed the octave, while non-adjacent
pairs (such as soprano and tenor, or alto and bass) may move as far apart as two
octaves. These principles will generally apply even when more than two parts are
 .

132 TWO-VOICE COMBINATIONS

present. For the time being these principles may be used as a reference for instru-
mental textures as well as vocal. A more detailed discussion of instrumental spacings
will occur in Chapter 15.

Exercises

For more detailed assignments see Materials and Structure of Music I, Workbook, Chapter 9.

1 Organize two-voice rhythmic phrases of eight measures, choosing rhythm patterns from
Ex. 9-2 or Ex. 9-3 as a basis for unifying repetition.
2. Make two-voice reductions of Ex. 9-2 and Ex. 9-7.
3. Locate all cadential consonances in Ex. 9-1 3a.
4. Locate all decorative consonances in Ex. 9-15 and Ex. 9-16.
5. Locate all dissonant intervals in Ex. 9-22, Ex. 9-23, and Ex. 9-24 and note the resolu-
tion of each.
6. Build cadential and decorative consonances above g and/!
c', e', b,

7. Build five dissonances above d', labeling each interval and spacing them for alto and
soprano.
8. Add a tenor part above the bass-line in Ex. 9-12 a, using only cadential or decorative
consonances. Use predominately stepwise motion, writing in the same rhythm (note
against note) as the bass. Plan cadences carefully, and avoid using successive fifths or oc-
tavesbetween parts. Try to use a wide variety of cadential or decorative consonances.
Analyze each harmonic interval used, and circle its root.
9. Make a two-voice reduction of the preceding exercise, indicating any important step-
progressions (as shown in this chapter).
 Two -Voice
Combinotions;
70
Decorative

Pitch es

Decorative Pitches

Decorative patterns frequently produce harmonic intervals that

otherwise are avoided. In this chapter we shall study dissonances, or unstable
pitches,and describe some of the procedures that composers have developed for
—
manipulating decorative pitches those that connect and embellish basic melody
in the two-voice texture.
We saw inChapter 8 how passing tones create conjunct (step) activity, often
"filling in" the interval of a third between two basic pitches of a single melodic
line. When a second voice is added to the texture, a new dimension is created in

the form of harmonic intervals. Thus our perception of basic and decorative pitches
in two-voice combinations is affected by both melodic and harmonic elements.
Usually the addition of a second part will confirm an appraisal of basic or dec-
orative activity in a single line. This is exemplified by the following pattern in
which decorative pitches in the melody (a),

j^r icii;
m
are heard as unstable in association with the supporting voice in (b)

analysis of (a)
i=.==i

^mm ^
P. t. p. t. p. t.
e. t.

m
733
 ;

134 TWO-VOICE COMBINATIONS; DECORATIVE PITCHES

In some examples, however, the greater weight of two voices will result in an
interpretation of basicand decorative patterns on the basis of stable intervals (con-
sonances). In other words, consonant relations between voices may well effect a
stability not apparent in the single melodic line. In the pattern which follows,
basic pitches (apparently) occur on the beat, as shown in the analysis following the

pattern: (c)
f 'i ^n U
analysis of (c) (jki> o J J ^ J J 1
"-^-" J

However, with the addition of a lower voice (d), the on-the-beat pitches become
unstable, creating momentary dissonances, and the after-beat pitches represent
brief points of relaxation or stability, and are therefore regarded as basic pitches

(d)
.fly^^|J|,^-pl^^

analysis of (d)
^^ r
^^ Jl Jo J
ffi

Passing tones frequently result in fleeting dissonances, as on the second half of

beat three of measure 1 in Ex. 10-1. Kpn

a
Ex. 10-1. Bach: Invention in E Minor.

.fiM^^^ CJ-
jpr ^s o-^r..fl'
: ^ g

'y-u^^i vQ'c^
^ 1=^^ ^ i^ m i

A passing tone a^ is also found in the top voice on the first beat of the first measure.
It is perceived as an unstable pitch, filling in the gap between two structural
 TWO-VOICE COMBINATIONS; DECORATIVE PITCHES 135

pitches, b^ and g^. But a^ is not a dissonance; it creates a decorative consonance, a

perfect fourth. It is perceived as unstable in this context because it connects two
cadential consonances, b^ and g^. (g^ actually sounds alone, but will be associated
with the previous bass note E.) As is more often the case, both of the passing tones
in Ex. 10-1 are unaccented, and their effect as dissonances is negligible, since they
have so little duration. Their effect is best described as melodic decoration.
Some of the most characteristic uses of passing tones are shown in Ex. 10-2.
They may occur in either voice, and in some instances occur simultaneously in
both parts, as in Example 10-2. Both diatonic and chromatic forms occur, filling
in distances as small as the major second and as wide as the perfect fourth.

10-2. Illustration of passing tones.

^
Ex.

^m ^
A B
JCOEM
?
^ ^ ^ a
^ffi^M m ^
s

^m ^ ^ ^ %

Play Ex. 10-3, and notice all passing tones. Consider both voices.

Ex. 10-3. Frescobaldi : Canzona dopo I'Epistola.

m^^^ '- S J » J-
i
^ m r t O"
 :

736 TWO-VOICE COMBINATIONS ; DECORATIVE PITCHES

The e' after the first beat of measure 3, top voice, is obviously a passing tone. It is,

however, consonant with the lower voice a, since it creates a perfect fifth with it.

The e' connects two basic pitches,/' and on the third beat of the
d', as does the e'

same measure. The/' is a basic pitch both because of its metric position and be-
cause it forms a strong step progression with the preceding g' and the e' of the next
measure. The importance of relating decorative pitches to basic pitches, rather than
simply singHng out dissonances, is illustrated in Ex. 10-3.

Neighbor Tones. Neighbor tones, together with passing tones, comprise

another common type of melodic decoration. Like the passing tone, the neighbor
represents the intermediary step of a three note figure. Thus, in the figure

(a)
^=i £ is a dissonant lower neighbor to F, while in

F
(b)
$T , G embellishes the to which it returns, as an upper neighbor

tone. Although neighbors appear most often as unaccented embellishments, they

may

In
be in an accented position

fulfilling its role of

$fm r
melodic decoration, the upper or lower neighbor, like the
passing tone,

ir ^ may occur without actually creating dissonance. For example

does not form a dissonance with the lower

here c" is obviously a melodic neighbor tone to

e'.
b', but it

It is essential to understand, then, that passing tones and neighbors are both
embellishments that are present in melody and controlled by the activity of the
single line. In other words, these are figurative elements which comprise horizontal
aspects first, vertical relationships second. We are often aware of these decorative
pitch relationships even when hearing a single strand of melody.
The neighbor tone, which may occur chromatic or diatonic embellishment,
as a
is a most useful figure for developing activity while focusing attention on one pitch.
In two-part writing the neighbor, like the passing tone, is most eflfectively balanced
by relative inactivity in the opposite voice. Just as melodic activity in two-part
textures is generally divided between voices, so decorative activity is often dis-
tributed between parts, rather than centered in one. Some typical illustrations of
neighbor tones are shown in Ex. 10-4. The figure formed by successive occurrences
of both upper and lower neighbors is called a neighbor group. It is shown in the last
two measures of Ex. 1 0-4.
 _

TWO-VOICE COMBINATIONS ; DECORATIVE PITCHES 137

Ex. 10-4. Illustration of neighbor tones.

%^^ ^S (a) (b) (c)

^^
(dl

^m 2
^
Both neighbor and passing tones occur in Ex. 10-5.

^^m
Contrapuntal Motion Between Parts and Approaches to Structural Intervals

An important consideration in counterpoint is the directional relationship formed

by the moving voices. When the parts proceed in opposite directions they produce
and thus they assume an independence that is denied when they
contrary motion,

move in tandem, up or down. Contrary motion is an important feature of the ca-

dence in two-voice textures, and it is often found in the interior areas of a phrase
as well.
Contrary motion is generally balanced by other types of relations similar, parallel,
:

and oblique motion. Any two-voice work will reveal a variety of motion types. Those
obtainable are illustrated in Ex. 10-6a, Ex. 10-6b, Ex. 10-6c and Ex. 10-6d.

Ex. 10-6a. Illustration of contrary motion.

(a)

^ : t ir)- -s>
A
f
 738 TWO-VOICE COMBINATIONS ; DECORATIVE PITCHES

Parallel motion occurs when both voices move in the same direction while maintain-
ing the same intervallic distance.

Ex. 10-6b. Illustration of parallel motion.

^Ori " rr^. IrX^A-)
(b)

i ^^tttf ^^ i«=^ w ^»
f 3

Similar motion resuks from movements in the same direction but which involve
changing interval combinations.

Ex. 10-6c. Illustration of similar motion.

(C)
* « » m _
i^' S
• — • — V % ^«
m— •* m 1
*/•
^7^
1

/L
" 1

u
'
»
~ m 1

VU
f(r>
m m <
- m m
• 1

•J m m-
II

Oblique motion is produced by movement in one voice combined with a stationary

second voice. (Repetition of the same tone is considered to be stationary movement
as well as uninterrupted sound.)

Ex. 10-6d. Illustration of oblique motion.

I r
(d)

E it
TT'

r CJT r
i
M^ i f-DT
r
^
TT

Study the counterpoint in Ex. 10-7, having first performed the music. Locate
the various types of motion that are employed.

Ex. 10-7. Johann Christoph Bach: Chorale Prelude: In dieh hab ieh gehoffef, Herr.

i& i
—^-^

i ^m ^
>
feS
^m ^
( mi s
,/?<V^
^ i ^ # 10

J: 3:

Cp :£:
#^^ r r f p g
 rWO-VO/C£ COMBINATIONS i DECORATIVE PITCHES 139

A further consideration regarding contrapuntal motion concerns the approach

or movement to cadential consonances, particularly the octave, fifth, and unison.
Since these intervals produce a feeling of stability and relative repose, it is alto-
gether logical that they have been much used as the basis for achieving tonal stability.
Howeverj when these intervals are used in uninterrupted succession, they produce
an effect of mutual dependence and inactivity that opposes the very nature of
counterpoint, melodic independence. For these reasons (coupled with the desire
to avoid monotonous repetition) composers have generally avoided consecutive
fifths, octaves, and unisons in contrapuntal writing.

Furthermore, the movement to these intervals is usually by contrary motion, with

at least one voice (or both) moving by step. This principle is evident in measures
4, 5 and 10 of Ex. 10-7. Movement in contrary motion to basic intervals (such as
octaves, fifths and unisons) is more often found where these intervals fall on strong
beats, or strong parts of the beat, as in Ex. 10-8.

Ex. 10-8. Zachau : Chorale Prelude: Vom Himmel hoch, da komm ich her.

cadence

^^
y-h>'.
vtrrr f#^

It is clear in Ex. 10-8 that the composer has used a wide variety of consonances
as basic intervals, and that unstable intervals, which further contribute to a variety
of sonority, are the result of decorative patterns. The choice of intervals used and,
to a large degree, the way in which they are treated, differ somewhat in individual
musical However, the proportion of
styles. thirds and sixths usually outweighs_
fifths, octaves, unisons, and fourths.

A comparison of Ex. 10-9 with Ex. 10-10 will illustrate the intervallic variety
possible in two-voice writing.
740 TWO-VOICE COMBINATIONS; DECORATIVE PITCHES

Ex. 10-9. Bach: Invention in D Minor.

Ex. 10-10. Hindemith: Morienleben. (C) 1924 by B. Schott's Soehne, Mainz. Renewed 1951,
Reprinted by permission.

Consecutive

r^ ^
fifths in contrary motion

^ m m
1 £
J J
-S>-

Oblique
fifth

In Ex. 10-9 Bach has relied upon thirds and sixths, primarily, as on-the-beat
sonorities. Not until the cadence to .4 is a prominent octave heard. It is approached
by contrary motion. The excerpt by Hindemith, Ex. 10-10, reveals considerably
more intervallic variety, but it shows a kinship in the way fifths and octaves are
approached by contrary motion.
Rhythm also determines vertical relationships. Fifths and octaves that fall on
strong beats naturally attract more attention than those occurring on weak beats,
and so the approach to these cadential intervals should be viewed in relation to
metric position. Again, contrary and oblique motion are usually found in the ap-
proach to fifths, octaves, or unisons on strong beats. Similar motion, on the other
hand, is not uncommon at cadences to the octave. In such cases the upper voice
most often moves by step, while the lower voice skips up or down. As in Ex. 10-1 la,
and Ex. 10-1 lb cadential finality can be emphasized by directional agreement.
Final cadences to the perfect fifth (which are quite rare) are almost never approach-
ed by similar motion (direct fifth).
 *

TWO-VOICE COMBINATIONS; DECORATIVE PITCHES 141

Ex. 10-1 la. Bach: Invention in G Major.

f*rt ^ ^t± ^
^^^"[ur*' I

jjj
— m 0^

Ex. 10-1 lb. Bach: Invention in D Minor.

^^
s p^
^i
Contrapuntal Treatments of Other Consonances.

The perfect fourth we know, a

is, as non-cadential interval. Two-voice cadences
to the fourth are uncommon, nor is the fourth often formed by the two basic pitches
which approach a cadence. Its use is confined primarily to the interior areas of
the phrase. A typical appearance of the fourth in two-voice writing occurs in
measure 2 of Ex. 10-12.

Ex. 10-12. Bach: Suite in 6 Minor, Allemande.

^ ^^m ? m
m ^ ^ ^
wm m Jtv #itv#

^^t^m-
^
\n ^
^
742 TWO-VOICE COMBINATIONS; DECORATIVE PITCHES

The example involve either a step approach, step resolu-

fourths found in this
tion, or both. Like fifths, most accented fourths are reached by contrary motion,
seldom by parallel or similar motion in two-voice textures and examples of both
;

voices moving in similar motion by skips to a fourth are extremely rare. As we shall
see, fourths, especially when accented, usually resolve to thirds.
When parallel fourthsdo occur, they generally involve durations of less than
the prevailing basic duration. An example of movement in parallel fourths occurs
in measure 1 of the excerpt in d minor by Bach (Ex. 10- lib.) Here the parallel
motion in consecutive fourths is the result of movement around the basic pitch A.
D", the upper member of the first fourth moves to a lower neighbor, c"-sharp,
while a passing tone g connects the lower a with f. The prominence of these
fourths is negligible, since they fall on a weak beat.
Thirds and sixths are used more freely in two-voice writing. Thirds, of course,
occur cadentially, while sixths are seldom found as cadential intervals, never in
final cadences in two voices. Like other intervals, thirds and sixths represent only

a part of a well-balanced contrapuntal formula. In contrast with other consonances,

these intervals are oftenapproached by similar and parallel, as well as by con-
trary and oblique motion. As a rule, composers avoid more than three parallel
thirds or sixths moving consecutively. When these do occur, they are generally a
mixture of major and minor thirds, rather than three major or three minor thirds.
Parallel motion in any identical intervals destroys melodic independence and
undermines tonality.
The degree to which intervallic variety and treatment contribute to interesting
counterpoint is apparent in the Mozart illustration of Ex. 10-13.

Ex. 10-13. Mozart: Quartet in D Major.

Viola [b'»«) jr ^ W^
Cello
m fE ^
^ i

m^
^ ' ^ 1^
1 ^ P
im w—w

While subject to exceptions, the following principles of intervallic succession and

melodic movement are upheld in most two-voice writing. Their application to our
study of two-voice counterpoint should be adopted, and these concepts applied in
all written assignments.
 —

TWO-VOICE COMBINATIONS ; DECORATIVE PITCHES 143

Summation of Principles of Melodic Movement and Intervallic Succession

Metrically strong (stressed) open consonances (octaves, fifths, fourths and

unisons) are usually approached in contrary motion.
Successive fifths, octaves and unisons are generally avoided.
Any succession of parallel thirds or sixths should include a mixture of both major
and minor thirds or sixths. For example, a major third will most often be fol-
lowed by a minor third, or a minor sixth will generally follow a major sixth.
Skips in either voice are generally balanced by steps in the other.
Simultaneous leaps in both voices are rare, and when they occur, they will
generally be in contrary motion.
Leaps are usually followed by step motion or opposite leaps.
Melodic or harmonic tritones, like most augmented or diminished intervals, are
generally resolved by step.

Perform and analyze the illustrations shown below.

Ex. 10-14a. Approaching Open Consonances.

i
J
¥
10-14b. Parallel Fifths (avoid).

^^
Ex.

^U^r r
a^fs
r
f d ^ t
Ex. 10-14c. Parallel Octaves (avoid).

fV^ . '.;
H-^^~-
'^'1'.^

^ r~r
-J \

'
i
ls ^'

Ex. 10-14d. Consecutive Fifths (avoid).

^ n ^
r
-r
-i J

r £££

Ex. 10-14e. Consecutive Octaves (avoid).

144 TWO-VOICE COMBINATIONS ; DECORATIVE PITCHES

Ex. 10-14f. Parallel Thirds or Sixths (common).

## O . I iJ 1

Ex. 10-14g. Skips balanced by steps.

POJ:: 1
fe
Fr.ff.i... t
f^ i
m V
i

Ex. 10-14h. Leaps resolved.

*
r
Basic Contrapuntal Treatments of Unstable Intervals

We are familiar with the unstable and ambiguous quality of the melodic tritone,
and the problems attendant to vocal performances of it. It is this same unstable
characteristic that, on the other hand, gives the tritone its special quality of ex-
pressiveness which many composers have exploited, as in Ex. 10-15.

Ex. 10-1 5a. Wagner: Tristan und Isolde, Act. II.

k'' i
>j r -^'

U3
pt^ ^U W IP

Ex. 10-1 5b. Tritones in Major — Minor Scales.

XT. T.T. XT.

^
. 1

zee
-0=0- 3x:
31 1^ 331
"cr ~o~
T.T. T.T.
TWO-VOICE COMBINATIONS; DECORATIVE PITCHES 145

The tritone is perhaps most prominent in major — minor music where it occurs
between the subdominant and the leading tone (4-7). This relationship occurs
both melodically and harmonically in two-voice counterpoint, and is quite effec-
tive in developing melodic or harmonic tension and in building strong "resolution
tendencies." We shall see in subsequent study that the tritone figures significantly
in two-voice cadences.
There are predictable treatments of melodic and harmonic tritones which are
basic to much music, and which can easily be related to our notational practices.
Some of their more common treatments are shown below.
1. Skips up or down an augnieh''^je«HrduVm are usually followed by stepwise motion
in thesame direction as the leap. This is true with a// augmented intervals.
2. Like skips of an augmented fourth, skip/l<^ ^n ascending or descending di-
minished fifth are normally succeeded by stepwise motion, but generally in the
opposite direction from the leap. This is true with all diminished intervals.
3. Tritone leaps occur more often as unaccented leaps, often in the course of repeti-
tive patterns whose main feature is rhythm. Stepwise resolutions are usually
found here too.

4. Tritone skips, like most leaps, are most often approached by step, generally in
the opposite direction from the leap.
5. Leaps that follow melodic tritones usually take the opposite direction and fre-
quently resolve to pitches that form step progressions with members of the
tritone.
6. Harmonic tritones formed by the movement of two contrapuntal voices usually
resolve by the same kinds of stepwise movement associated with melodic
tritones. Augmented fourths will "expand" by step, while diminished fifths will
contract.

Locate all melodic and harmonic tritones in Ex. 10- 16a and Ex. 10- 16b. Then
compare the appearance of each with the various principles described above.

Ex. 10-16a. Bach: Courante.

Ex. 10-16b. Haydn: Sonata in E-flat : Menuet.

P.T. (VT)
146 TWO-VOICE COMBINATIONS ; DECORATIVE PITCHES

Ex. 10-1 6c. Bach: Minuet.

Most of the tri tones in Ex. 10-16 are the result of decorative patterns. Both mem-
bers of a harmonic tritone are seldom basic pitches. Furthermore, the tritones
illustrated in Ex. 10- 16a and Ex. 10- 16b involve the 4-7 scale degree relationship,
as is most often the case in —
major minor music, while the tritones in Ex. 10- 16c
occur in a modulator^' passage which closes with a progressive cadence in g minor.
In later study we shall deal with the treatment of tritones as more structural pitches,
particularly as members of fuller harmonic textures.

Other Unstable Intervals

The treatment of other unstable intervals, such as seconds, sevenths, and aug-
mented and diminished intervals, is similar to that of the tritone; they are generally
decorative, and they move by step. (Important exceptions to this will be dealt with
inChapter 12 in connection with other forms of decorative activity.)
Unaccented passing tones in the upper voice create a variety of dissonances in
Ex. 10-17. They clearly decorate basic pitches which form consonances.

Ex. 10-17. Sweelinck : Fantasia (for organ).

'hi'.i r r ^ r r r r m
Considerable tonal movement and much decorative activity can be found in
Ex. 10-18. \'irtually all of the unstable pitches, producing a great variety of
melodic and harmonic intervals, are treated in stepwise motion. Passing and
neighbor tones prevail.
 TWO-VOICE COMBINATIONS; DECORATIVE PITCHES 147

Ex. 10-18. Bach: Well-fempered Clavier, Book 2, Prelude in A-flat Major.

m^4U^ ^
^ ^^
In this chapter we have some of the basic ways of organizing pitch
outlined
motion involving both consonances and decorative pitches. At this point we have
established a framework for continued study of pitch relations in two-voice tex-
tures. In the next two chapters we shall see how these same patterns of movement,
and others, provide a basis for the structure of the phrase, for the creation of points
of movement and relaxation, and for the further elaboration of the two-voice
frame.

Exercises

For more detailed assignments see Materials and Structure of Music I, Workbook, Chapter 10.
1. Using the lower voice of 10-7, add a new upper part in prevailing quarter notes intro-
ducing passing and neighbor tones to create decorative eighths.
2. Write your own versions of the example for aural identification of basic consonances and
decorative pitches.
3. Analyze aurally the different types of motionin Ex. 10-17.
4. Play the lower part of Ex. 10-16a, Ex. 10-16b and Ex. 10-16c on the piano and sing the
upper part. Then reverse the process.
5. Use the pitches in the lower voice of Ex. 10-16b as basic pitches, one to each measure.
Then add an upper part that is entirely consonant, demonstrating the principles of con-
trapuntal treatment of consonances discussed in this chapter. Write nine measures in
simple triple meter.
6. Sight-sing Ex. 10-8. Analyze all decorative pitches in the excerpt.
7. Play the patterns in Ex. 10-14 for identification of parallel or consecutive intervals.-
 Continuation
if
77
Two -Voice
Combinations

Cadences

One of the most significant areas of a musical work, regardless of its texture or
form, is is here that both tonal and
the final cadence, also called the close. It
rhythmic elements must be drawn to a convincing and satisfying conclusion.
We shall concern ourselves first with final cadences in two-voice music, although
it should be understood that a study of cadences which delineate phrases and

sections must also lie within the scope of any study of musical construction.
Despite the diflfering cadential characteristics of diverse musical styles, three
principles of cadence construction are basic to music in general: (1) a slackening
of motion, usually evidenced by long note values; (2) the confirmation of a tonal
center; and (3) consonant intervallic relations between the parts.
The illustrations of cadences in Ex. 11-1, Ex. 1 1-2 and Ex. 1 1-3, although prod-
ucts of musical styles separated by hundreds of years, clearly adhere to the princi-
ples described above.

Ex. 11-1. Josquin des Pres : Chanson.

^ ^ ^^ » m

i ^ ^^ ^ % -niz

148
CONTINUATION OF TWO-VOICE COMBINATIONS 149

Ex. 11-2. Bach: Two-Part Invention.

Ex. 11-3. Bartok Mikrokosmos, Copyright 1940 by Hawkes

: & Son (London) Ltd. Reprinted
by permission of Boosey & Hawkes Inc.

1 ^ i
>^''^ J J
#
'>
'i r (SJ
fcfc=4
m ^

In each case (Ex. 11-1, Ex. 11-2, and Ex. 11-3), cadential to nes occ ur on strong
heats. C adences on weak beats or weak parts of the beat (sometimes called
that fall

"feminine endings") are exceptions. A_certain prominence is assured caderiliaL

t ones because ctf th eir duration (usually more than one beat), by their strong metric^

loc ation, and through their obvious importance as the last tones of a melodic pat-
t ern. Furthermore, this rhythmic-metric prominence is often made more evident

by broadening or slowing down the melodic pace with longer note values intro-
duced in the approach to the actual cadence. Such is the case in each of the excerpts
of Ex. 11-1, Ex. 11-2 and Ex. 11-3. The importance of these and other rhythmic
aspects of the cadence and its approach cannot be overstressed.
Composers sometimes prolong activity in one voice after the cadential tone has
been clearly arrived at in both parts. Through such an extension, each voice main-
tains its individuality and independence into the cadence proper. In Ex. 1-4, the 1

lower voice asserts the tonic A, while the upper voice, having touched upon a',
continues down by a series of leaps to the octave a.

Ex. 11-4. Bach: Invention in A Minor.

'50 CONTINUATION OF TWO-VOICE COMBINATIONS

A codetta is an extension of musical activity that prolongs the cadence area.

Ex. 11-5. Sweelinck : Organ Toccata (cadence).

• J * J Jj ^ JJJJi ^J^*v ^gr

^ zuz
33:

Cadenfial Intervals Formed in Two-Voice Textures. Anv_ cadential conso-

nance (unison, octave, fifth, third) may occur asthe final sonority of a tw o-voice
work. The same applies generally (but by no means always) to internal cadences,
^gardless of the interval, the tonic pitch is always the lower tone at a final c aden ce.
(It may also be in the upper part if the cadential interval is an octave or unison.)

Final cadences to intervals other than cadential consonances, though possible and
sometimes found in contemporary music, are tonally ambiguous and must be re-
garded as exceptional.
The particular choice of cadential interval is determined by the prevailing tonal-
ity, the kind of melodic activity that reaches its fulfillment in the cadence, and the
composer's choice of sonority. The octave is common as a closing sonority, and with
the unison it represents the strongest, in terms of stability. It is perhaps less in-

teresting as a sonority than the third or fifth; The perfect fifth, though a strong
tonal relationship, is not found as often in two-voice cadences as octaves, unisons
or thirds. Both major and minor thirds, the choice of which is determined primarily
by the mode of the work, occur frequently. Any cadential consonance that con-
firms the tonality of the piece or its closing section may be employed.
The cadential interval is often called the ultimate and the interval that
interval,

immediately precedes it is called the approach interval. Cadence patterns are formed
by the movement from an approach to an ultimate (or final) interval. Some of
the most common two-voice cadence patterns are shown in Ex. 11-6.
CONTINUATION OF TWO-VOICE COMBINATIONS 151

Ex. 11-6. Basic Cadences in Two-Voices (Approach and Ultimate Intervals).

(a) Stepwise contrary motion.

xir

* ~cr
zcn

^ ^^
^«-
~cr
zaz

l^ -ee-
^o-
V^ W -ee-

* e=
-e-
=w %==^
-e- 331
^^^ To^
o n
^^ ^
-&- in
n
(b) Contrary motion, one voice moving by step.

=g=
XT
-e-
tu>
^ HX
xn ^^
XT ^»^ ^ ^ '
te

i b^ ^
xr
=
^_
^ ^
^^
'
-»
-
" "^^
-o-

XT
-e-
-e-

(c) Similar or parallel motion.

-e- "TT- :fe: 321

I -e- 3X 33:
ij .g. » ^^

1 ^8 ^ b » t^^ s -e-
s -e-
Direct fifths

(d) Skips in contrary motion.

331

I^ ^ -»
- ^-^
S 331
S JOZ
—
33:
-©-

^ 331 -e-
-o-
^r - ^^
 :

152 CONTINUATION OF TWO-VOICE COMBINATIONS

Various forms of scales are implicit in the different patterns. These patterns are
often labelled according to the melodic movement of the voices in their relation
For instance, the first pattern in Ex.
to tonic (the root of the cadential interval).
11 -6awould be indicated as 2-1 and the first pattern under Ex. 11 -6b would be
written as 5-1 The numbers 7-8 indicate step-movement from the leading tone
(or subtonic) to tonic, whereas 2-1 indicates a step descent from supertonic to
tonic. These patterns represent an intervallic framework that results from melodic
movement at the cadence. However, any of these basic pitches could be decorated
with a variety of embellishment involving passing tones, neighbors or other elabora-
tive pitches.
Two voices moving in similar motion to a perfect fifth produce the direct fiftho£_

covered fifth. This effect has been generally avoided in two-voice cadential practice.
Direct octaves, on the other hand, are quite common, if the upper voice moves by
ascending or descending step.
It is approach intervals of the basic patterns shown in Ex.
significant that the
11-6 are allcomprised of cadential and decorative consonances. Perfect fourths do
not occur frequently as approach intervals in two-voice writing, nor do tritones.

Modal Cadences Two Voices. We are familiar with some of the char-
in

acteristics associated with modal melodies, and the group of scales known as
modes

Ex. 11-7.

JbuxiiiA ?^-> ^
.^4<^ ^' ^^
m Dorian

ti o zcn
331
Phrygi

ice:
i» o 3x:

JcnjocuA
Lydian ac..u)ci i
Mixolydian
^
-^e- _Q_
m: O i. " " 3r o '^
n o

( Natural minor
Aeolian )

«» O HSZ
3i: -o-
*
Just as modal melodies exploit certain characteristic interval relationships, so two-
voice combinations adhere to a group of basic cadence patterns that incorporate
modal patterns. It is significant also that many of these patterns, some of which
are shown in Ex. 1 1-8, are by no means limited in use to modal melodies; they can
also be found in compositions oriented around major-minor scales and more
chromatic works. All of these patterns, associated with two-voice textures, involve

the basic pattern r,"i or its inversion, fr..

 •

CONTINUATION OF TWO-VOICE COMBINATIONS 153

7 8
Ex. 11-8. »", Two-voice Modal Cadences.

J-
Phrygian 2-
Dorian and Aeolian 2^
_Q_
xn 3a:
331 o -e- nr
$ ~&- "D"
t»

TT -e-
HE
J.
l5_po

Lydian Mixolydian 2^
^
^ fl o t»
O
11

.DR v-v
tK>
l» ^
^ tl
n j'^j'^
'^^
11

II

>^ v.^
IJ L-S- 1
1

Ex. 11 -8a. Willaert.

P
S?
^ r'

i
'Lc£; |
r pr r i
^rtrrir'^
=^ £
^
y I g
3r*^ — 7-8
2 - 1

Ex. 11 -8b. Giovanni da Florentia.

'Y 2 fr r r M 1
r ^ f9
=] fl

"^^
a f
— P ^ A ^ ii

iLfr r
1
1

2 1
7 8

Ex. 11 -8c. Josquin des Pres.

^
^'
J J^^=^ ^ST^ i
^^ DCH

7 - -
-e-

8
2 - - 1

Dorian and Aeolian mode compositions, as shown in Ex. 11-8, usually employ
cadences that approach tonic from the whole step below and the whole step above,
while Phrygian cadences approach tonic from the whole step below and the half
step above. Cadences in the Lydian mode, as in major and minor, involve a lead-
ing-tone to tonic ascent while the other voice (usually the lower) moves by a de-
scending whole step from 2-1. Mixolydian cadences, like Dorian and Aeolian, con-
tain no half step, and tonic is approached from the whole step below and above
154 CONTINUATION OF TWO-VOICE COMBINATIONS

tonic. All of these patterns deal

with cadences to the octave or unison, reached by
contrary motion. Other patterns can be found in two-voice textures employing
modal melodies. However, those which employ the octave or unison as an ultimate
interval are most common.

Two-Voice Cadences in Major and Minor Keys

Ex. 11-9. Obrecht: Missa Sine Nomine, Agnus Dei.

i$ ^^ ^ m J
m^
s
P- i9-

m gf^ I ^
SI

" -#
ijjjJ.' ^ -&^

^
)^ r r r f r iii^ # zsn

In Ex. 11-9, a cadential/'j-Aar/) has been introduced to create a leading tone to

tonic, thereby emphasizing G as a point of focus. The resulting scale structure of
the whole example is a mixture of G Mixolydian and G major. With the gradual
incorporation of leading tones, first cadentially only, then into melody as a whole,
the major-minor scales became established, and a group of cadences reflecting the
use of leading tones developed. As we shall see, some of these cadential patterns
still embody features of modal cadences.
Terminal Cadences. The most common final cadential pattern of music
written during the past 500 years isdescribed as the V-I cadence. It is comprised,
usually, of the following features : melodic movement in the lower (less often up-
per) part up a perfect fourth or down a perfect fifth; and a succession of two con-
sonant intervals whose roots are a perfect fourth or perfect fifth apart; that is, G to
C, F to B-flat, A
D, or D-Jiat to G-flat. The roots of the intervals that form the
to
V-I pattern correspond to the dominant and tonic degrees of the prevailing tonal-
ity. Several illustrations of the V-I pattern are shown in Ex. 11-10.

Ex. ll-10a. Bach.

Roots
Roots ^m V I

Dominant Tonic
 :

CONTINUATION OF TWO-VOICE COMBINATIONS 155

Ex. 11-lOb. Handel.

Pi wt
S ^ i

Roots

V I
Dominant Tonic

In contrast with the ascending leap of a fourth (or descending fifth) that is

found most often in the lower part, the upper voice usually moves by step from 7-8
(leading tone to tonic), or from 2-1 (supertonic to tonic).

fc:
znz
* 3E ini

-
"O"
1
-1

As shown in Ex. 1 1-lOa and Ex. 1 1 -10b, the melodic movement of both voices can
be indicated by numbers which represent the horizontal movement of the voices.
Several basic V-I patterns are shown in Ex. 11-11.

Ex. 11-11. V-I Cadences.

-p
/r i> It
i&i ^-\ C) 7t> *' *»>
ysu ~
o ^^ It
/-» *-» 1

hnt *'
J
-e- e- -e- -e-
r\-
•/•
^
'-' t> o
^-k ^-k i~\

'/ n LI

7-8 2 - 1 5-3 5-3 2 - 3 2-3 7-8

5 - 1 5 - 1 7-8 5 - 1 5 - 1 5 - 1 5 - 1

The following principles apply to the handling of V-I cadences in two-voice

textures
1 . The lower voice moves by ascending perfect fourth or descending perfect
usually
fifth, while the upper part moves from 2-1 or 7-8, generally in contrary motion
with the lower.
156 CONTINUATION OF TWO-VOICE COMBINATIONS

Ex. 11-12.

m i
'j-^i r r r 5?z:

2. The inversion of the above, with 7-8 movement in the lower voice and a leap
up a fourth or down a fifth, although possible, is an unusual exception in final
two-voice cadences. 2-1 movement in the lower part is virtually never found
when the upper part moves by a leap.

Ex. 11-13.

^^ i f d • ^

^ P
3. Contrary motion prevails, although direct octaves may be found when the
upper voice moves by step.

Ex. 11-14.

s Tnr^^ m
uT-
4. 7-8 movement most often involves the leading tone to tonic, but 7-8 motion by
a whole step (subtonic to tonic) may be found. (Leading tones in minor keys
must be indicated by accidentals.)

^^^ ^
Ex. 11-15.

:nj
j^'' \l'ii i

^
i
I J J

^ ^ -O-izz

'fjfsm:
'CONTINUATION OF TWO-VOICE COMBINATIONS 157

5. V-I cadences create root relations up a perfect fourth (or down a perfect fifth).
The roots of these two intervals always correspond with dominant and tonic at
final cadences.

Ex. 11-16.

V I

6. The cadential interval usually falls in a strong metric position.

Ex. 11-17.

^ LJlI ^=J

7. V-I cadences are often embellished by decorative pitches. Codettas frequently

occur as extensions of these basic patterns.

Ex. 11-18.

I codetta

Progressive Cadences. Composers have employed a great variety of patterns

to terminate phrases and larger sections of two-voice compositions. The types fall

into two principle groups: progressive and transient-terminal cadences.

The possibilities for creating progressive cadences are enormous. .Several basic
observations can be made: (1) tonic will not be the root of the cadential interval,
(although there are some progressive cadences which do include tonic) (2) acjive^
;

pitche s, such a s the leading tone or subdominantj usual!) will form part of tlie

cadential interval; (3) decorative consonances as well as cadential consonances

may be found, and even dissonances may occur as cadential intervals of progressive
758 CONTINUATION OF TWO-VOICE COMBINATIONS

cadences and (4) rhythmic activity may be maintained

; in one or even both voices,
thus weakening the cadential effect.
In Ex. 1 1-19, a progressive cadence in the key of ^ minor occurs in measure 6.

^^^ ^m ^ m
Ex. 11-19. Handel: Fughetta.

^m
^ ^
IV

The cadential major third is formed by the leading tone A-sharp and F-sharp.
The root of this interval, F-sharp, is the dominant of ^ minor; "more to follow" is
strongly implied by the absence of tonic, and by the presence of the leading tone.
Progressiv e c adences to intervals^ whose roots- are._th£.jiominant-ar£_ traditjo na ly 1

called half cadences.

Another form of progressive cadence involves root movement from the dominant
to the submediant (V to VI). This pattern, often used to avoid the sense of finality
associated with movement to a tonic root, is generally introduced by ascending
step motion in the lower voice, accompanied in the upper part by parallel or con-
trary motion to tonic, or contrary motion to the mediant. The resulting effect is
called deceptive, (deceptive cadence), because anticipated movement to a tonic
root is evaded. Bach has employed a deceptive cadence in measure 4 of Ex. 1 1-20.

Ex. 11-20. Bach: Two-Part Invention in D Major. V S-

Anticipatedmovement to d, in the lower part, is replaced by movement to b, the

submediant. The root progression is up a major second. The root of the approach
interval in the deceptive cadence is usually the dominant (V), producing the root
progression V-VI. (Deceptive cadences involving other root progressions are a
possibility, as we shall see in later study.)
CONTINUATION OF TWO-VOICE COMBINATIONS 759

Several other types of progressive cadences are shown in Ex. 11-21,

Ex. 11-21. Progressive Cadence Patterns.

I
I f
fe
s zaz
-e- s 33=
331
~n:

f r

3 4 e 5
r
^ 33:
f -o-

^ Deceptive

T T
zaz -e- ^
T
3jr.

Although "modal cadences" are not indigenous to major-minor music, they do

occur frequently at interior cadences —particularly progressive cadences — as a
comparison of Ex. 11-6 and Ex. 11-21 will show. The tritone, although not used
often as a basic harmonic interval in final cadences, can be found as the approach
interval in both progressive and transient-terminal cadences. Cadential uses of
tritones are usually the product of decorative activity in one or both voices.
A study of the cadences discussed in this chapter will show that most cadences
involve root movement in ascending or descending perfect fourths, or ascending or
descending major or minor seconds. Root movement in thirds is infrequent.

Other Interior Cadence Patterns

Cadences which confirm or imply changes of tonal center are an important means
of creating tonal variety, and help to delineate melodic form. These cadences, occur-
7-8
ring at phrase or sectional closes, are often of the V-I group, although <-,'. cadences

and any cadences which are terminal in effect may be found. As in final cadences,
the root of the cadential interval is generally in the lower voice.
The opening eleven measures of Bach's G Minor Invention contain a terminal ca-
dence to G, a transient-terminal cadence and a modulation to d minor. All
to B-Jlat,
of the cadences are basic V-I patterns, elaborated by various forms of decorative
activity. Each cadence marks the close of a phrase and is signaled by the introduc-
tion of longer durations in one of the voices. Melodic activity continues the other
voice, however, thus diminishing the rhythmic effect of cadence. The cadential
pitches inevitably occur on strong beats.
760 CONTINUATION OF TWO-VOICE COMBINATIONS

Ex. 11-22. Bach: Invention in G Minor.

i 2^ ^^jP^m Szm

^y^ ^ ^ S

Measures and 6 contain a modulatory sequence, which represents a patterned

5
means of effecting a change of key from g minor, through its relative major, B-flat,
to d minor. Two shifts of tonality, each up a third and each punctuated by a ca-
dence, bring about the change.
Dominant — tonic cadences to F are heard in bars 3 and 5 of Ex. 1 1-23. The first

is transient-terminal, since B-flat has been established as tonic in the music preceding
the cadence. F momentarily emphasized, by the leading tone e'-natural, which
is

with c" forms a V-I pattern. We anticipate a return to the Bflat tonic. This is
denied, however, and F is developed in the subsequent phrase as a continuing
point of focus. The cadence in bar 5 confirms Fas a new tonality. As in the example
by Bach quoted as Ex. 11-22, the change of key represents a modulation to the
dominant key. The interplay of tonic and dominant keys is the most common tonality
CONTINUATION OF TWO-VOICE COMBINATIONS 161

relationship in Western music. Most transient-terminal cadences occur as a means

of effecting this significant relationship.

Ex. 11-23. Handel: Keyboard Suite, Allemande.

Tonal Function Within the Phrase; Root Relations in the Two-Voice Frame.

The melodic and harmonic action of the cadence has been described in terms
of the root relations of cadential patterns such as V-I, V-VI, I-V, and so forth.
Any cadential pattern can be described with Roman numerals representing the
roots of basic intervals. This procedure is equally applicable to an entire phrase or
composition. In other words, having discovered the basic harmonic intervals and
their roots, one can represent their relationship to tonic by using a Roman numeral
for each scale degree, regardless of the type of key or mode dealt with.
The passage of Ex. 11-24 consists o{ basic harmonic movement I-VI-II-V-I, as

an analysis of the accompanying reduction will show.

Ex. 11-24.

When a change of tonality occurs, the same procedure can be adapted to the dif-

ferent degrees of the new key, as shown in Ex. 1 1-25. This analytical set of symbols
762 CONTINUATION OF TWO-VOICE COMBINATIONS

will be discussed extensively in subsequent chapters. It is a convenient method for

both planning and analyzing the harmonic interval roots of two-voice writing.

Ex. 11-25. Handel: Suite for Keyboard, Allemande.

m
(Articulated Pedal)

^m M^ *i_*
^
^ £
m mm
*»•=
^5
F:V IV V

^ ^^ ^^ ^^
I

^m^ 'Tf rfJ

^S mt ab^

^^ ^^ ~
fe =t= ?
* ^
nV V

^
IV I B^:I IV II

LllJ
:^
> r •
^F./l ^ ^ :zi ^ 1*—y^
^
^^
C£[fr
^
p
^ ^^ ^
^ ^ -e-

Organization of Two-Voice Phrases.^

The contoural relationship of both voices is a basic consideration in organizing

a two- voice phrase. If one voice is a mere follower, reaching high and low peaks
simultaneously with the other, its interest is diminished in the same way that rhyth-
mic duplication minimizes the independence of parts.
In Ex. 1 1-26 the lower voice is essentially accompanimental. Its contour, like the
upper part, is primarily descending, so its importance as an independent voice
is minimized.

' Basic rhythmic associations of two-voice textures were discussed in the beginning of Chapter 9.
A rev iew of this information is appropriate at this time.
CONTINUATION OF TWO-VOICE COMBINATIONS 163

Ex. 11-26. Haydn: Piano Sonata in A Major.

Adagio

^m n^ j ^
i ar
l -'-Mi! i^lr J ^ m
Two voices of more equal rhythmic interest are shown in Ex. 11-27. Again,
however, both voices outline similar contours, and the low and high points of both
occur at about the same points in the phrase, although not simultaneously. The
accompanying reduction to basic pitches shows the similarity of contour in a skeletal
form.

Ex. 11-27.

P
^ s
if^
^m
3=*
m ^ t
s«
p ~&

T21

^
s -JX-
XE

JQI
IC

^ ztn

The by their parallel step progressions,

similar contours of these lines, as evidenced
is obvious. The lower part retains some rhythmic individuality through the use of

decorative sixteenths, but linear independence is greatly minimized because of the

duplication of basic contours.
In contrast to Ex. 11-26 and Ex. 11-27, the voices in Ex. 11-28 have more in-

dependent melodic curves. Here the voices take turns as predominant parts, but
164 CONTINUATION OF TWO-VOICE COMBINATIONS

even so, they outline basic pitches in essentially contrary motion, and the high and
low points of succeeding motives occur one after the other, rather than simulta-
neously.

Ex. 11-28. Bach: Invention in D Major.

Contrapuntal interest can be achieved, as in Ex. 1 1-28, not only through an equal
distribution of activity, but also through variety of melodic contours.
Two equal voices compete imitatively in Ex. 1 1-29. Although they use identical
melodic materials, successively, the two voices are delineated effectively by two
simple processes: Each successive basic interval is approached through contrary
motion, which is continued right up to the last interval. The highest note of the
upper with the lowest note in the bottom part. Furthermore, each basic
line occurs
pitch, as shown in the reduction, is approached in contrary motion. An organiza-
tional pattern such as this can easily become as dull as any other procedure, if
overdone. The effectiveness of the example, however, illustrates the degree to
which contrasting contours can contribute to melodic interest and independence,
even when other factors are virtually equal.
 )

CONTINUATION OF TWO-VOICE COMBINATIONS 165

Ex. 11-29. C. P. E. Bach: Keyboard Sonata.

Repetitive Factors in Phrase Organization.

In earlier study of melody (Chapters 1-8) several repetitive processes such as

motive repetition and sequence were discussed. These same processes are equally
fundamental to phrase and sectional organization in two-voice textures.
Both voices in Ex. 11-30 make acceptable melodies if performed separately.
Both use repetitions of a short motive.

Ex. 11-30. Handel: Suite for Keyboard, Allemande.

j'''^
-^LLLr P 7 P f^ m ^ ^^ m _ m

S ^ ^ P
0^0
(Art]cu]ated_ Pedal

:^
^m
m^ feS ^^ ^
The motive between the two parts, creating continuous eighth-note
fluctuates
activity to the cadence. Both voices are punctuated by rests, and the relative in-
activity in one voice makes it easy for the listener to shift attention to the other
part. This kind of rhythmic exchange, based on repetitions of one basic motive
treated in two parts, is a fundamental principle of two-part writing.
766 CONTINUATION OF TWO-VOICE COMBINATIONS

A different kind of repetition organizes Ex. 11-31. The upper line unfolds en-
tirely through successive patterns of three eighths. The less active lower part, which
is essentially accompanimental, is differentiated from the upper line by quarter
notes. The prevailing contrary motion further contrasts the two voices.

Ex. 11-31. Bach: Invention in G Major.

4''<^^^UsaJ ^^ w~7^:
^
"^'iii i PUj' "Usr J)

Although both voices are unified through repeated eighth-note activity, they are
at the same time clearly contrasted rhythmically and move independently of each
other.
A example of motive organization is shown in Ex. 11-32, which contains
final
two independent voices, each unfolding through sequential repetition of a motive.
The brackets, indicate that it is entirely possible to perceive the beginning of each
repetition at several points. This is true because the successive melodic units are
alike, seem to overlap, and are not separated by rests or contrasting durations.

Ex. 11-32. Beethoven: Piano Sonata, Op. 110, Fugue.

Sequence.

Sequential activity in one voice ismatched by a corresponding sequence

usually
in the other. Ex. 11-33 shows three statements of a one measure pattern in the
CONTINUATION OF TWO-VOICE COMBINATIONS 167

upper accompanied by a sequential lower part. The lower voice accompanies

part,
with a twice-stated pattern which is also repeated a second lower.

Ex. 11-33. Bach: Invention in D Major.

A similar sequential organization occurs in exact form three times and then
modified a fourth time in Ex. 1 1-34.

Ex. 11-34. HIndemith : Ludus Tonalis, Fugue in E. (C) 1943 by Schott & Co., Ltd., London.
Reprinted by permission.

-/

^ ^ \'j
i,

^ m^ ^
§ i I P m^ P

uJ
i*^ l
l,J^^t^ m
Roots
"^

As one might expect, the step relations of the voice movement create a stepwise
succession of harmonic roots.
Successive phrases are frequently built out of a pattern that is treated in the
first phrase as an exact sequence and then "borrowed," so to speak, as a point of
departure for a contrasting or "answering" phrase. The listener is led into the
second phrase with material which is derivative from the first but not maintained
to its termination. Such a technique of smooth phrase delineation is seen in Ex. 1 1-

35.
 '*^®
CONTINUATION OF TWO-VOICE COMBINATIONS

Ex. 11-35. Corelli: Sonata da camera for Violin, Sarabanda.

A A Vlnl

B^ i ^^
g
S ^M P P P V
ff'

55^1 131
Roots g
P ^

Roots

The second phrase, which begins at measure 5, is not actually part of the sequence.
—
Both the sequential root pattern (up a fourth down a fifth) and the step progres-
sion formed by basic pitches in both voices is broken. However, the second phrase
clearly begins with a restatement of the first half of the two-measure motive that
has occurred sequentially in the upper part.
Turn to Ex. 11-22. Study both parts separately, paying particular attention to
the amount of sequencing that occurs in them. Note where Bach has treated both
voices sequentially at the time, and also notice where he has not. A careful
same
study of this work shows that sequential repetition is one of the most continuously
applied techniques in the unfolding and development of this Invention. Together
with imitation, which will be discussed later in this book, sequence is indigenous to
contrapuntal writing, and represents a common technique for unifying a two-phrase
organization.

Exercises

For more detailed assignments see Materials and Structure of Music I, Workbook, Chapter II.

1. Illustrate ten basic cadences in two voices to the tonics F, 5-flat and D. Play the lower
voice of each pattern and sing the upper, then reverse the process. Use some of the same
examples for class dictation and recognition.
2. Use the same patterns as basic pitches and write short two-voice elaborations of them,
using passing and neighbor tones to create rhythmic play. Sing or play these patterns and
use them for dictation. Vary the meters that you choose for elaborating the patterns, and
limit them to two or three measures' duration.
CONTINUATION OF TWO-VOICE COMBINATIONS 169

3. Analyze the sequences in Ex. 11-26 and Ex. 1 1-27. How do they differ?
1-
4. Write a four-measure two-voice phrase, based on motivic treatment of measure 1, Ex. 1

14.

5. Continue Ex. 11-13 for five more measures, using two measures as the basis for
the first

7—8
a sequence that occurs two more times, followed by a ^ cadence to G. Use the ex-
,

ample for sight-singing and two-voice dictation.

 :

Conclusion

.f
72
Two-Voice
Combinations

Suspensions

In Chapter 8 we described the suspension as a decorative pattern involving a

kind of melodic "delaying action," in which a basic pitch or basic associate is

sustained through a subsequent strong beat, and resolved by step on the following
weak beat to another basic pitch. Syncopation often results from suspension
patterns, and the three elements which comprise the suspension figure

weak beat strong weak beat

preparation suspension and resolution

basic pitch decoration basic pitch

W W
are shown in the following: i^ ^
Preparation Susp- resolution
( basic pitch) (decor) (basic pitch)

The addition of a second voice generally involves the treatment of the suspended
tone as an unstable pitch, as shown in the figure that follows

s, w

$
The suspension pattern in two-voice textures, then, creates a tiny cycle of melodic-
harmonic movement comprised of stability-instability-stability, and the addition

170
 .

CONCLUSION OF TWO-VOICE COMBINATIONS 171

of a second part simply clarifies and delineates (harmonically) an essentially me-

lodic configuration.
Although the suspension figure is by no means limited to the cadence, we shall
study first its use as a cadential embellishment.
7-8
Two versions of a n'l cadence to ^ are shown in Ex. 12- la and Ex. 12- lb.

Ex. 12-la. Basic Cadence to g.

^
^&
^
W
*i

Ex. 12-1b. Elaborated with Susoension.

^ ^ iM

^ •)-(.

In the second version the step movement

upper part, from g^ to f^-sharp,
in the
has been delayed, or suspended, and g^ forms a dissonance of a minor seventh with
the a in the lower voice. Several observations pertinent to the approach and resolu-
tion of the suspended g^ should be made:

1. g' was first heard as a consonant pitch, having been prepared as a consonance
(upper member of a minor third), on the last beat of measure 1

2. g' was sustained into the next strong beat so that it created a dissonance (minor
seventh) with the lower voice.
3. g' resolved by descending step tof 'sharp — a consonance (major sixth) —on the
subsequent weak beat.
The suspension, g', is actually heard as the middle member of a figure of three
parts: preparation, suspension and resolution.

Preparation, then, refers to the point at which the suspended pitch {g') is in-
troduced as part of a consonant vertical relationship. Syncopation, a common
feature of the suspension figure, results when the preparation occurs on the weak I!»

beat, or the weak part of any beat preceding a tied suspension.

772 CONCLUSION OF TWO-VOICE COMBINATIONS

The preparation is usually as long as the suspension (dissonance) itself. In Ex.

12-2, the preparations are of differing lengths.

Ex. 12-2. Suspensions.

/\ a. Syncopation

Pt ^&
Prep. Sus. Res. S R

g
m
i i ^^ 19

Syncopation

m ^ S
-&
R
i&^

s (21

Syncopation

^
b.

^ m ^ R

S ^^ i P

^ ^ ^
^ ?
S R S R

In Ex. 12-2a, the preparations are at least as long as the prevailing beat (a
quarter note or more), and they are of no less duration than the suspension itself

These represent the most common preparations. Less typical preparations occur in
Ex. 12-2b, where the preparations are less than one beat's duration and, in most
instances, of less duration than the suspended tone.
Rearticulated suspensions are shown in the first and last examples of Ex. 12-2b.
Although the suspended pitch is generally sustained, a rearticulation after the prep-
aration is common.
Different Forms of Suspensions. In Ex. 12-2a and Ex. 12-2b, the suspended
tone formed a minor seventh with the lower voice. Though it is common to refer
CONCLUSION OF TWO-VOICE COMBINATIONS 173

to the suspension as a dissonance, all suspensions in two voices do not form dis-
sonant intervals. However, they do create relative instability, and the mterval
of resolution will always be a cadential or decorative consonance. Furthermore,
the resolution is usually to a basic pitch.
Suspensions are described by referring to the intervallic distance between the
two voices at the point of instability (or dissonance), followed by the interval of
resolution. For instance, in Ex. 12-3, a seventh is created by suspending/, which
in turn forms a sixth when it resolves by step to e.

LH r^
Ex. 12-3. Suspensions.

J J ^
*
,.

i
r r r T ?
The resulting pattern is called a "7-6 suspension." The interval of preparation is

not usually included in the analysis, although it is taken for granted to be con-
sonant. The 7-6, then, describes one basic form of suspension. There are four other
types: 4-3, 6-5, 9-8 and 2-3. All of these patterns, except the 2-3, have one impor-
tant common feature : the suspension pitch is in the upper voice. Although occasional
exceptions can be found, the 7-6, 4-3 6-5 and 9-8 are suspensions in the top voice,
,

whose resolutions occur by descending step movement to a more basic pitch.

Ex. 12-4. Suspensions,

Mi
a.

J- r ^ i
^p
R

^>Mi r ^'J
^ m :zz

The and non-cadential quality of the perfect fourth is best illustrated

instability
by its frequent treatment as a suspension, resolving to a major or minor third. We
have already noted that fourths are usually surrounded by step motion in two-voice
writing. In Ex. 12-4, a V-I cadence has been rewritten to incorporate a 4-3 sus-
pension. The suspended tone, d, was prepared as a consonance on the second
(weak) beat of measure 1. It was then sustained through the following strong beat,
creating a perfect fourth with the bass, then resolved by descending step to c^-
sharp. By rewriting the passage in different keys, we see how both augmented
and diminished fourths also may be treated as 4-3 suspensions:
174 CONCLUSION OF TWO-VOICE COMBINATIONS

Ex. 12-5. Suspensions.

^^
a. b.

4-3^ P
4-3

^^ ^i^^ tfd

^^ P ?^
tit
-#
,

^ ^ tf^

^ 4-3
tts^
4-3

WhexL used cadentially, the 4-3 suspension most often resolves by a descending-—
minor second to the leading tone (7) of a V-I cadence pattern.
Analyze the 4-3 suspensions in the excerpts shown in Ex. 12-6.

Ex. 12-6. 4-3 Suspensions.

^ ^ ^ ^^ ^
<->
r J

%f-#^

l^^ P m ^ i^ e

P r r P " <=

5^^P=5 ^ te
^
^^f?^ ^ g ^
•-3-
r ^pr
t-3-i
^
L3J
p

The suspension figure also occurs as 6-5, involving a decorative consonance

resolving to a cadential consonance. The effect of this pattern in two-voice writing

is mild, and the interval of resolution often sounds more strongly related to the
prevailing tonality, than to an anticipated point of arrival.
CONCLUSION OF TWO-VOICE COMBINATIONS 175

Ex.

^m ^
12-7. 6-5 Suspensions.

f
The 6-5 suspensions o ccur frequently in approaches to V-I cadences, as seen in
Ex, 12-8. Note that the movement constituting the resolution of the sixth continues
a descending melodic line, and this contributes to our expectation of descending
resolution (6-5).

Ex. 12-8. 6-5 Suspensions.

^^ # f lef

^^ m-m-ft

6-5
JOO
1 -e-
-e-

6-5
"TV

6-5
-&-

6-5 W TT

^
1 ^=^ £ S

^m ^ ^ m
7-6 7-6 4-3 6-5
i ^

9-8 Suspensions. 9-8 suspensions are rare in two- voice writing, especially
at cadences. They are more common to threeand four voice music. Although
they occasionally occur within a phrase, as shown below, they represent unusual
exceptions in two-voice practice.

^
Ex. 12-9. 9-8 Suspensions.

^=pt
m
u> i!
r ^ r
7- 6
^ 9-8 7-6
m ^^
 —

776 CONCLUSION OF TWO-VOICE COMBINATIONS

An extremely common
suspension in two-voice music has the suspension figure
in the lower part. This suspension, the 2-3 (or 9-10), is used both cadentially and
within interior areas of the phrase like the others. It is not often found in final
cadences, however, but more often in sectional or phrase endings.

Ex. 12-10. 2-3 Suspensions.

b.

4^ ^ J »
^^ i

i rJ 0_ P -^ §
^ ^ 2-3

Ornamental Resolutions.
X t^'^
M
Whenone or more pitches are interpolated between the suspension and its note
of resolution, the resolution is called ornamental. In most instances decorations of
the suspension involve step movement. However, movement to basic associates
may an embellishment of the suspended tone. The suspensions in
also occur as
Ex. 12-1 la, measures 3 and 4, have been rewritten in Ex. 12-1 lb, ornamented.
The d^ in measure 3 is reached by step and creates an escape tone, while the a^ in
measure 4 is a basic associate.

Ex. 12-1 la. Ornamental Resolutions.

^m rzi

—
^ P ^=^
^^ i
m * (^
i
7-6
i
7-6 i
. ^jtf I

Ex. 12-1 lb. Ornamental Resolutions.

m^ ^
#
^ wm ^^
® f^^p
i

1
I54=?i: m

7-6
n 7-6 s
CONCLUSION OF TWO-VOICE COMBINATIONS 177

Several ornamental resolutions of a 7-6 suspension are shown in Ex. 12-1 Ic.

Ex. 12-llc. Ornamental Resolutions of a 7-6 Suspension.

r-U'X Pr zaz
^ 7-6
32:

J < y*
7 -
-o- ^« 1
m £ nx
fe^^^ m

As we know, suspensions usually resolve to basic pitches. This applies to orna-

mental resolutions as well. Furthermore, the note of resolution is usually equal to
the duration of the dissonance, although exceptions to this principle showing re-
solutions of both more or less duration than the dissonance are not uncommon.
In measure 7 of Ex. 12-12 the basic pitch movement of the upper voice involves
a^ — —
c^ b^. The ornamented by the interpolation of two
suspension resolution is

sixteenth notes {b^, which anticipates the note of resolution, and a^, which is a neigh-
bor to b'^), but the resolution occurs with the arrival of the quarter note b^ on the
fourth beat of the measure, and so corresponds with movement to a basic pitch.

Ex. 12-12. Praetorius: Chorale Prelude, Ein fesfe Burg ist unser Goft.

i
^
r r r m m^ pp &

m
^ s
^ m
^m f f
-
f
6
^
778 CONCLUSION OF TWO-VOICE COMBINATIONS

The note of resolution of a suspension may be more pronounced because it forms

part of a step progression than because it is the resolution of a dissonance. In Ex.

12-13 the g^ of measure four forms the resolution of the suspended a^ heard on the
first beat of measure three. Five notes of an ascending pattern intervene between

the suspension and its anticipated resolution. The step progression formed by the
two basic pitches, a and g, is another factor that causes g to be heard as a natural
point of arrival of a.

Ex. 12-13. Bach: Invention in D Major.

*l W J V
i»^^
=^ m
^m m ?itF«rf

A similar delayed resolution occurs in Ex. 12-14. Locate it and analyze the
suspension.

Ex. 12-14. Bach: Invention in D Major.

The Change of Bass Resolution

One of the most interesting techniques associated with the suspension is the so-
called "change of bass."
CONCLUSION OF TWO-VOICE COM6INATIONS 179

Ex. 12-15. The Change of Bass Resolution.

In this type of suspension the lower voice, which normally remains stationary
as the suspension in the upper part is resolved, moves by an ascending perfect
fourth to another pitch. The
formed at the point of resolution of the
interval
suspended seventh is a third, and the resulting pattern is described as 7-3. Note
that the anticipated stepwise resolution of the suspension to a consonance still
takes place. The 7-3 figure is common as an approach to the V-I cadence. It
is also common within the phrase.
T he change of ba_s s (or lower voice), or change of soprano (or upper voice) jm ay
hejnun^ in any suspe nsion figure, although it is most commonly found as 7-3. In
general, the bass may move to any pitch that is consonant with the resolution of
the suspension. Ho wever, it usually m oves in contrary motion with, the top voice^
The illustrations of Ex. 12-16 illustrate change of bass patterns found in con-
junction with all of the suspensions that we have studied.

Ex. 12-16. Suspensions with Changes of Bass (or Soprano).

Basic Pattern With chang£ of.bass

I
^ ^^ f
"0~
''
^ "r f'r
njz
^ r r r

V-.- f
^7-6 3i:
^^ 7-3
331

j" ^ r P^ 331
^^ -Q"

^? JClL
p ^
4-6

§ ' ^ r ^
nx
^m ZUl

^
2-3 2-5
780 CONCLUSION OF TWO-VOICE COMBINATIONS

Ex. 12-16. continued.

p ^ /?

'^
^ n r
ini
^^
iE
/•-^
s p6-3
6-5
P s e
i ft=i^ ^^ ^^ ini

^)-lI',
g-tr-^
<' r a ^
9-8 9-6

ij " ^ f r r
nx:
^^ lai

^E^^
^ 7-6
33=
i ^^
7-5
33:

The name retardation is sometimes given to suspensions which resolve by ascending

step. These patterns occur most often in association with unstable intervals that
normally resolve by "expanding" to a consonance. These include the augmented
second, augmented fourth, augmented fifth, augmented sixth, and major seventh
(particularly when the leading tone occurs in the upper voice). The "normal
resolutions" of these intervals were discussed in Chapter 9. Their treatment, when
they are a result of a suspension, does not differ, except that the upper member of
the interval will have been prepared melodically.

Ex. 12-17. Retardations.

m^ U
•r-i <t
m

#
^ m i
m
m
i
9-10
(2 - 3)

^
^ ^
? ^
-p-i

4-5
 :

CONCLUSION OF TWO-VOICE COMBINATIONS 181

^rijim
^^ 7-8

The various forms of the suspension clearly constitute an important facet of two-
voice counterpoint. Like other contrapuntal and organizational techniques, the
suspension figure is found in varying degrees in most musical styles, representing
another type of patterned movement that establishes an interdependent relation-
ship between basic pitches in two musical lines.
A summary of the foregoing study of the suspension should recall the following
principles

1. The suspension figure in a two-voice texture usually involves a dissonance or

relatively unstable tone, most often in the form of a syncopated pattern, in the
upper part, prepared as a consonance on the preceding weak beat or weak part
of the beat, and resolved on a weak beat by descending step. The suspension
pitch, in contrast with its preparation and resolution, occurs on a strong beat
or strong part of a beat.

2. The three steps that comprise the figure are: Preparation, Suspension and
Resolution, abbreviated P.-S.-R.

3. Suspensions are usually, but not always of the same duration as the prevailing
basic duration.

4. The preparation is usually equal (or greater) in duration to the suspended tone.
The duration of the resolution may be equal to or less than the suspended note.
5. Suspensions are described according to the vertical intervals formed at the
suspension and its resoluton; they include the 7-6, 4-3, 9-8 (rare in two parts)
and 6-5^ and 2-3.

* Further discussion of the suspension figure and resolutions will be found in Chapter 15.
 — —

782 CONCLUSION OF TWO-VOICE COMBINATIONS

6. Suspensions occur cadentially and within phrases.

7. Suspensions which resolve by ascending step motion are sometimes called
retardations.

8. Series of suspensions which form a sequence are called chain suspensions.

9. Ornamental resolutions result from the interpolation of one or more pitches

between the suspension and its resolution. Such interpolated pitches, usually
no more than two, are often called changing tones.
10. The resolution of the suspension may coincide with the introduction of a new
tone in the bass (or soprano)The change of bass generally occurs in contrary
.

motion with the upper voice, and forms a consonance with the tone of resolu-
tion.

Despite the diversity of style reflected in these works, the principles of the sus-
pension that we have discussed are incorporated in Ex. 12-18, Ex. 12-19, and
Ex. 12-20.

Ex. 12-18.

\fiMr 1
r*i — 9^ —— P*h
«-J- J-
m
f
— -P ^
-n
^
M
—

3 ^ m p
J\ ^Tf^K,
')-| /^ }
^ J
IT,
g
L-e)
*"»

vt
Ex. 12-19.

?t I
P ^ ^=^ *-H J* f
?F
m
'hm f r
^^ ^
^i3 "m
^' ^^

W ^^ r Pr p^
l-L

f
^
^^ ^
\

pp rn^J^
u
Ex. 12-20. Obrecht : Missa Sine Nomine, Agnus Dei.

j> i J- ,
=
# ^^ f^^^
m -*-^
m iP^ ^^^
CONCLUSION OF TWO-VOICE COMBINATIONS 183

m^ *-*-#
mm ^ -t»^

p ^m
yr^ Vc^
jn=

}(^
^
V4
i » icn

Imitation

Imitatio n results from the stat ement of a melodic pattern by one voice, and the
a nswer of the same pattern (e xact or modified) by another voice. The pattern
imitated (usually a motive) is often heard first as a solo statement, thus underlining
its an imitated subject. Compositions of two or mor e voices which employ
role as
strict mitation are called canons. Other types of compositions which employ imita-
i
'^

tive sections interspersed with non-imitative (free) sections include fugues, inven-
tions, chorale preludes, ricercares, motets, canzonas, and others. We are con-

cerned here with the principle of imitation, rather than the study of large musical
forms in which imitation is found.
Shostakovitch has employed imitation at the octave in Ex. 12-21. The time
lapse between statements is quite close, one beat.

Ex. 12-21. Shostakovitch: Symphony No. 5, Op. 47, I. (C) Copyright MCMXLV by Leeds
Music Corporation, New York, N. Y. Used by Permission. All rights reserved.

^^
'^'<'
1
1^ m.

Although the imitating voice may enter at any pitch-interval above or below
the initial statement of a pattern, im itation at the unison (beginning the imitative)
answer on the same pitch as the first statement), octave, fifth or fourth, xepresents,
the norm. Furthermore, the imitation of a melodic unit may be strict, the answer
duplicating the first statement in rhythm and interval, or it may be modified
rhythmically or intervallicly. Three kinds of imitation are shown in Ex. 12-22,
Ex. 12-23, and Ex. 12-24.

- The term canon refers to "law," in this case denoting the "laws" of one voice dictating activity
in the other.
 784 CONCLUSION OF TWO-VOICE COMBINATIONS

Ex. 12-22. Frescobaldi : Organ Ricercare.

^ ^E^ zn
i.

^ a- P
^
^i^ p mI

pff^f p^
^

Ex. 12-23. Mendelssohn: String Quartet in D major.

Co! era

i^ V
loco
"^^i^ ^

m^^
Ex.
^
12-24. Shostakovitch:
I ^^-4^
rgfS^
^^
Symphony No. 1,
=^
m
Op. 10,
i

II.
s
as«

(C)
^
Copyright
^te:
;i^

MCMXLVI by Leeds
Music Corporation, New York, N. Y. Used by permission. All rights reserved.

I Solo

Oboe
i
Clarinet in A ^^^i

Fagotto g rnnn^ ^ ^ ^ lE^^

0Pm

Violin I
*
Violin n
t
Viola
i
Violoncello g -^
J' ^ J' <
,S>
^
ll
^M
ContraBass

1^ fMi
CONCLUSION OF TWO-VOICt COMBINATIONS IBS

^^ ^=^
n Solo
^ /
fc± i r jfli ^ ^r^ I

-
p tJg J) '

i
s ^ ^# 7 J) 7 .J) ^ h^ '^ J)
^^
3 ^m
Imitation need not be limited to the opening of a composition, but may occur
at any point in the unfolding of a work. In fact it is often effective in later portions
of a piece, where contrast and changes of texture intensify and heighten develop-
ment. In other instances, a piece that begins imitatively may continue without
subsequent imitative entries.
The excerpt from a two-voice composition by Lasso, Ex. 12-25, affords an ex-
cellent opportunity to see how some of the structural elements that we have been
studying are integrated into larger sections of pieces.

Ex. 12-25. Lasso: Sequentur Cantiones (first part).

o |> - t»
^=s fg

#
im ^ 2t=^ P P m
w ^P^ p ^ ^
^
-S-
P ^ 'j^^'
^ ^m p p ^^i fj p ^
 :

786 CONCLUSION OF TWO-VOICE COMBINATIONS

Ex. 12-25. continued.

^ ^ *=iF»
» P^ i m
I ^3E
? P ? i ^ 3x:

The texture of this passage, written in the key of G Dorian, is contrapuntal, and
free imitation maintained throughout. The music of both voices is developed,
is

with rhythmic variations, out of the two motives heard first in the lower voice

1 12
;i2
^ . o
The second motive is a modified

repetition of the first, transposed a perfect fifth above.

These motives are transformed rhythmically, through syncopation, augmenta-
tion, and diminution, to produce continuous motion distributed betw'een two equal

parts. Despite the similar melodic content of both parts, contrapuntal independence
is maintained by staggering the entrances and avoiding the simultaneous use of

identical durations. Not until the final cadence of the excerpt do the two voices
converge rhythmically.
Even though no strong cadence occurs until measure 14, the music "breathes,"
because the voices rest at Thus the piece takes on shape, and
staggered locations.
the parts are more independent than they would be if they moved continuously
from opening to close.
Sing through the piece, then analyze the structure, paying particular attention
to: melodic motion and treatment of skips, the occurrence of dissonance, vertical
combinations, and imitation.

Other Forms of Melodic Decoration : Anticipation, Leaning Tone and Escape Tone

As melodic which occur in two-voice textures sometimes

patterns, anticipations
form dissonances with the other voice, sometimes they do not. Several anticipations
occur in Ex. 12-26 and Ex. 12-27.

Ex. 12-26. Bach: Chorale, Christ lag in Todesbanden (outer voices).

4L

^ ^
g ^^
i^'r

me^Lh
 — —

CONCLUSION OF TWO-VOICE COMBINATIONS 187

Ex. 12-27. Bach: Well-fempered Clavier, Book 1, Fugue in D Minor.

In Ex. 12-26, the tonic (e) occurs as a rhythmically weak anticipation of the
cadential basic pitch (e). The anticipation, of course, involves pitch repetition,
and is effective where a relaxation of movement is desired, as in the cadence.
When anticipations occur at the beginning or within the phrase, they generally
form segments of characteristic motives, often treated sequentially, rather than
mere pitch repetitions. A sequential treatment of anticipations can be seen in Ex.
12-27. Another example of a patterned use of anticipations is shown in Ex. 12-28.

^
Ex. 12-28. Binchois : Rondeau, De plus en plus.

^^ P S^ X X
W—JZMZ
¥

^& ^ ZSl
^^ 331

Tied anticipations create syncopations, not unlike those often found in suspen-
sions. In the example by Stravinsky, (Ex. 12-29) f-sharp in measures 2-3 is intro-
duced as a tied anticipation.

Ex. 12-29. Stravinsky: Octet for Winds, Hi. Copyright 1924 by Edition Russe de Musique ;

Renewed & Renewal assigned to Boosey & Hawkes Inc. Revised

1952. Copyright
Edition Copyright 1952 by Boosey & Hawkes Inc. Reprinted by permission.

9-
-
-4)i-9 2_. -^^ —
'-\rrf- iiip
-^ ^ ^
ff.-.
Y—l II

,
1^^
jJT3
leaning Tones.
1 —
-0 *

The
J—« N
use of the leaning tone in two-voice writing
J J ^ W^ is limited
almost entirely to the upper part, as illustrated in Ex. 12-30.
788 CONCLUSION OF TV/OVOICE COMBINATIONS

Ex. 12-30. C. P. E. Bach: Prussian Sonata

* <^~)

m 6
T* m fcss
FS
^5 ^
^ £ S

The leaning tone has been regarded as a particularly expressive melodic ele-
ment, and its appearance is a predictable feature of many full-textured works of
the nineteenth century. Most leaning tones create harmonic interval patterns
similar to those of suspensions: 4-3, 7-6, 6-5, 9-8 and 7-8. When the pattern creates
augmented or diminished intervals, it usually resolves in a way consistent with the
resolutions of those intervals noted earlier.

Ex. 12-31. Leaning Tones.

m ^ fei^ ^ ^ ^
^g p ^

SS
s * d • i '
r p
© ^
®
f^^ P i^

^1^ s ^
 CONCLUSION OF TWO-VOICE COMBINATIONS 769

(Two- voice reduction)

t± I t'
p' r T ^ m m
a i P
Like most other decorative patterns, leaning tones may be accented or unac-
cented. Unaccented leaning tones occur in Ex. 12-32.

Ex. 12-32. Bach: Well-fempered Clavier, Book 1, Prelude in D Major.

fc
te m (^J ^
(
i ^
ig'^ J ^
^n\ <'
^) ^
p fe p ^ J)
-^
P
Pedal

Escape Tones. Escape-tones, approached by step and left by leap, are usual-
ly unaccented and occur most often within the phrase, rather than cadentially.
Like leaning tones, escape tones are generally found in the upper of two voices,
as seen in Ex. 33 and 34.

Ex. 12-33. Barret: Keyboard Sonata.

Escape Tones

j¥ -j
r C-fi ^
'):tiji '4
rJ r m
Ex. 12-34. Bach: Invention in E Minor.

fe =e=^ # J *
f^=U

fc^ ±
m^ f-r

^
 ^

790 CONCLUSION OF TWO-VOICE COMBINATIONS

Structural Aspects of Melodic Dissonance

Wehave seen in this and earlier chapters how decorative pitches connect and
embelUsh basic pitches of a melodic line. Pitches that form unstable intervals with
a second part may be a part of the basic melody, thereby assuming a more
structural role. One of the main considerations is metric placement and duration.
In Ex. 12-35a dissonance is formed by pitches which are related to a recurrent
basic pitch that is established by its repetition and metric placement.

Ex. 12-35a. Haydn: Piano Sonata in E-flat, AAinuet.

^^ r^?rr; f r? irLT i f^jyi^

3— TTT^

'y-^'..
i } I :*=t T^ J ' J>
I

The tone e^-JIat occurs throughout the passage, except in measure 7, as the lower
member of an accompanimental pattern in the lower part. In the second measure
it upper line. This conflict continues
creates a persistent dissonance with d- in the
through measure 3, and is finally resolved in measure 4. There is nothing decorative
about the continued presence of the e-JIat throughout the example, so it must be
regarded as a pitch of considerable structural importance. Its role is that oi^ a. pedal
(or ground), that produces a strong tonal reference for the melodic activity above.
Two voices are implicit in the accompanimental pattern, as the reduction to basic
pitches shows (Ex. 12-35b).
A b^-natural occurs three times in the upper voice in measure 5 of Ex. 12-35a.
Again, although we anticipate a resolution of this pitch to c^, it is heard as a basic
pitch, and therefore a fundamental element in the design of the melody. Notice
that its duration is considerably longer than that of its note of resolution, c"^.

^ Whether they are sustained or rearticulated, pitches which create similar effects are called
pedal points Although more common
. to homophonic music, pedal points may be found in two-voice
compositions as well.
CONCLUSION OF TWO-VOICE COMBINATIONS 191

Ex. 12-35b. Reduction of Ex. 12-35a.

t±
m ^
e.t.
4^-)-

i
P.t.

^
^"^-V^I1
j %
4 ^
^ ^
t i
i
p;
r r
lA

?^
a -i*4-

^
(#)

P ^^
i
ip.t

15>^
(^)
-J)u.n.
^
i
<9-

f f
The four-measure excerpt from Bach's A minor Invention, Ex. 12-36, contains
a predominance of disjunct motion. This activity, associated with the melodic
oudining (horizontalization) of chords, suggests analysis which takes chordal im-
plications into account. These procedures will be discussed in later chapters deal-
ing with thicker textures.
Two shown as Ex. 12-36b and Ex. 12-36c.
reductions of this Bach invention, are
In reduction (I), the melodic lines are shown as the chords which they outline.
Reduction (II) eliminates decorative pitches and shows the addition of a third
voice in measures 1 and 2, that is suggested by the activity on two levels that forms
the lower voice.

Ex. 12-36a. Bach: Invention in A Minor.

itJ J U^ '^

\)' (;
^
^^ ^
rr-n ea--a'^
\l ^.rrrrr^^r^rrTrr .r n

TTM
1

H- ri 1
ri fri i f ri

-^ ^
— frr: ,
— )

J
1
U,.^^^ M^
B 1

'^4i '^ "

 r

192 CONCLUSION OF TWO-VOICE COMBINATIONS

^^
Ex. 12-36b. Reduction (I).

4^?
j j j 3
t •eM g= z;

') f^,)
p.t. '
^te
i=
^^ *w^
i
Ex. 12-36c. Reduction (II).

—
I n ^
r

is
$ ^ S'

J J ^^
m J ii

Even in this more complex and chord oriented counterpoint, resolutions of dis-
sonances associated with melodic embellishment are still applied. The D in the
lower voice, measure 1, acts as a passing tone between e and c. Its progress is inter-
rupted by leaps to and a reiteration of d. Then d'^, e'^, f^ and g^ are
b and g-sharp,
heard as a step progression in the upper voice, beginning with the third beat of
measure 1 and continuing to the third beat of measure 2. As members of a sequence,
,

based on an ascending chord pattern, each of these pitches may be regarded as an

unaccented leaning tone with the "middle voice," (see reduction II).

Cross Relation

Gross relation (sometimes cdAXtd false relation) results when variants of the same
note occur on successive beats (or beat divisions) between different voices. In Ex.
12-37 a., /-natural in the lower part is followed by anf-sharp in the upper. A cross
relation results, although the melodic effect of each voice is perfectly satisfactory.
In the approach to the cadence of the same passage, b-natural and b-fiat are cross
related, producing the effect of a change of mode. Ex. 12-37b contains three cross
relations,and creates an inconsistency of mode, (modal conflict), by pitting A
major in the upper voice against a minor in the lower. Simultaneous cross relation
occurs when different note variants occur at the same time, rather than successively,
as in Ex. 12-37c.

^sssssti.
 CONCLUSION OF TWO-VOICE COMBINATIONS 193

Ex. 12-37. Cross Relations.

^m
, a -^"^
^m
h

yTOr
^^^m. ^M ^ ^
^^ 1
i
t
m p
m:
7
^
Ef^ ^

An interesting use of cross relation can be found in Ex. 12-35. The b-mtural, on
the first beat of measure 3, creates a cross relation with the b-fat just heard in
measure 2 in the lower voice. This colorful effect is created by the use of the lowered
supertonic in the bottom part. The lowered supertonic often occurs before ca-
dences, and somewhat jarring effect makes the establishment of tonic even more
its

effective. Ex. 12-38 and Ex. 12-39 also illustrate cross relations.

Ex. 12-38. Bach: Well-fempered Clavier, Book 1, Fugue in E Minor.

Ex. 12-39. Stravinsky: Symphony in Three Movements, I, (piano part). (C) 1946 by Schott
& Co., Ltd., London. Reprinted by permission.

m W m m

-3*^
-^

^m t
1
$ i

^ 3
¥ ^ w. ^ W ^ te
^
 ' :

194 CONCLUSION OF TWO-VOICE COMBINATIONS

Several generalizations pertinent to the use of cross relations can be made

I. Ascending movement in one part in contrast with descending movement in the
other frequently creates acceptable cross relations, as in Ex. 12-40, which
involves the ascending and descending forms of a melodic minor scale.

Ex. 12-40. Treatments of Cross Relation in Two Voices.

(^
<'
^-^J^' J^r
Cf r jgr J

^^TTT-fT^
LLLT^J
2. Cross relations occur naturally from combinations of essentially diatonic move-
ment in one part with chromatic alterations in another. Chromatic alterations,
such as those in measure 1 of Ex. 12-38, and those in Ex. 12-41 are essentially
decorative, rather than basic pitches. Basic pitches seldom create cross relations.

Ex. 12-41. Cross Relation.

^
^1'''

1
'
f

^£Q'»^^^
ijUi^J^
^^ ^^
^
^
-

j fTf

3. Mutation (a change of mode) as found in Ex. 12-42, with a clear change of

mode from minor to major, frequently results in cross relation.

Ex. 12-42. Cross Relation.

b^
t±
m- m m m
*'
i -
k
^P d ' S
C Minor
:
—^i —
\^ '^^'^^^
^ \^^^
i
te
m i
fct

C :

(Mutation)
Major
j
^*
Wj ^ ^:

^
f^i^^SHh
CONCLUSION OF TWO-VOICE COMBINATIONS 195

Cross relation has had a variety of treatments in the course of Western music.
It seldom arbitrarily used, and in most works it is either a logical outgrowth of
is

independent melodic movement, or, as we shall see in later study, an inseparable

element of certain established harmonic patterns. The treatments illustrated in
Ex. 12-40, Ex. 12-41, and Ex. 12-42 show what occurrences of cross relation might
be encountered in written exercises or analysis of two -voice counterpoint.

Exercises.

For more detailed assignments see Materials and Structure of Music I, Workbook, Chapter 12.

1. Use the examples in the section dealing with suspension for sight reading and aural
recognition of suspension figures.
2. Using the two motives from Ex. 12-25 which appear in the text (p. 194) follow the
example as a lower voice and add a new upper part which incorporates suspensions. Ex-
tend the second motive so that it ends with a cadence on G.
3. Analyze all forms of decorative activity in Ex. 12-13 and Ex. 12-14.
4. Make up framework of four measures in C time. Write two basic pitches per
a two-voice
measure and close with a V-I cadence in the key of E-flat major. Elaborate both voices
with all forms of decorative activity studied in this chapter. Label each decorative
pitch.
5. Add a new lower part for Ex. 12-14. Use an imitative entry for the added part.
6. Make up short two-voice examples (no more than two measures long) illustrating a dif-
ferent type of suspension with achange of bass in each. Label each step (P.S.R.).
7. Rewrite Ex. 12-19, keeping the upper line as it appears, but using a different accompani-
ment and transposing the example to E-flat.
8. Work out a keyboard setting of the upper voice in Ex. 12-12 that begins with an imitative
entry in measure 2. Accompany the upper voice so that suspensions occur in measures 5
and 6. Close with a cadential 4-3 suspension.
9. Make up short illustrations of all forms of decorative pitches that have been dealt with in
the book. Use basic cadences as a framework for the illustrations.
 Three-Voice

Combinotions
13

Our study of two-voice textures dealt with principles of organization

that can be expanded any number of parts. Adding more voices creates new
to
problems of spacing, part-clarity, and harmonic logic, but the linear basis for
effective three-part combinations — articulate melodic structure — is not different
from that of two parts. Except for the introduction of the chord as a potential new
structural unit, the vertical alignment of three voices likewise poses no drastically
new problems.

Rhythmic Association

The degree of individuality displayed by the separate parts of a three-voice tex-

ture can vary from total dependence to total independence. The term ho mophone
is usually reserved for combinations in which a single part can be regarde d as a^
principal melody, the remaining parts accompanimental. Whereas the slow-moving
lines in Ex. 13-1 represent the most unobtrusive kind of homophonic association,

the active parts of Ex. 13-2 are so thoroughly enmeshed with the motion of the top
line that they, too, represent a form of homophonic texture.

Ex. 13-1. Schubert: Morgengruss, "Die schone Miillerin."

^5 M^ ^1 s
f ?
^m^ 1S2

196
THREE-VOICE COMBINATIONS 197

Ex. 13-2. Mendelssohn: Op. 19.

P^ m^ s fr r
i
^ < ^^ tj) . J j)

^ ^^
^ r r tF
i

m ^ s i ip ^

The Mendelssohn excerpt of Ex. 13-2 contains brief suggestions of part in-
dividuality, the rhythmic separation of the middle voice in measures two and three,
and the independent contour of the bass at several points. But on the whole, all

three voices are relatively unified in pitch contour and rhythmic play : a minimum
kind of counterpoint present.
is
"
To justify the description contrapuntal." a three-voir.p r.om V»ma|jr>n piii<;t rr>n-

tain_parts that have Qme

s. degree of individuality ; and yet, all three must coalesce
into a u nified as sociation. In fulfilling these basic requirements the parts can he
combined into one of the three following dispositions:

Type 1: One voice dominating; remaining voices aligned as accompanying parts,

varying one from the other only to an extent that preserves their separate iden-
tities.

Ex. 13-3. Bach: 3-Part Invention in E Major.

ph^ '^-

* dominating voice

Ex. 13-4. Hindemith, Ludus Tonalis, Fugue in E, No. 4. (C) 1943 by Schott & Co., Ltd.,
London. Reprinted by permission.

i
s
J .

^^
m "h^
u 1
^ i
f
#
* dominating voice
f
Even two examples of the one basic type, a latitude of linear interest is
in these
displayed by the separate "subordinate" parts. The upper parts of the Bach ex-
798 THREE-VOICE COMBINATIONS

cerpt form a simple foil for the greater melodic interest of the bass through the
first three measures (the roles of the middle and bottom voices are switched in
measure four). The upper parts of the Hindemith excerpt are less subordinate in
character, for they move in faster relative note values and cut more interesting lines
in contrary motion to the bass.

Type 2: Two voices of about equal interest; a third voice decidedly subordinate.

Ex. 13-5. Franck, Symphony in D Minor, I.

,j J i^i ;J
$ ^m
i
r ^r=r r
J

E^
i
r
w |)iJ. J)
^
1^
^frffi^
P^i #
Ex. 13-6. William Schuman, Symphony No. 3, Fugue. Reprinted by permission of Copy-
right owner, G. Schirmer, Inc.

^^^m s^^
• S i» \?
mi
*^
g¥
i
r=""*=f
^ Iffl ^
In the Franck excerpt of Ex. 13-5, the two outer parts dominate because of
greater rhythmic interest and imitation of patterns (the bass of measure two and
three imitate the soprano of measures one and two). The Schuman example is

similar, for the disposition of melodic interest again is in the outer voices. But here
the lower part does not contain imitative statements, nor is it quite as active as
the top part.

Type 3: Three voices of approximately equal interest, each sharing the listen-

er's attention in a "give-and-take" succession; frequently an imitative relation-

ship.

Ex. 13-7. Handel: Clavier Suite No. 3, Fugue

n /l,^
^m^M^S^ ^-^
^ P^ r
i !

^ffi m ^^ a n^ j
 r

THREE-VOICE COMBINATIONS 199

Ex. 13-8. Lasso Penitential Psalm No.

^^
:

j'^'UJ ^
yr^ f rr
^
Wf^
i
rt —i
ss

f ^ f=r=^ rrrf i ^^
fT^ frr
"N
3 ^^ ^ i

Both the Handel and the Lasso textures use imitation. In Ex. 13-7 the bass line
imitates the top (beginning in the last half of measure two), and the top imitates
the bass (beginning in measure three). During this exchange the middle voice
winds through its own separate and quite individual motion. Ex. 13-8 contains
imitative statements among all three voices at various points.
Almost any contrapuntal texture of three parts can be fitted into one of these
three categories, but music does not normally remain set in a single disposition for
long. The composer is free to shift or vary textural relationships. Consequently, it
is often futile to describe an entire composition or large section by any one of these

types.
Within a three-voice comVjination one line can dominate the other two by
virtue of its more interesting rhythmic pattern. But faster motion alone does not
ensure melodic domination over slower moving lines, unless this faster motion is
couched in rhythmic patterns that are diversified enough to be interesting. The
comparatively rapid motion of the "continuous basses" in many compositions of
the Baroque era recedes into a subordinate "background" role because it also
happens to move in rigidly uniform patterns.

Ex. 13-9. Handel: Trio Sonata, Op. 5. No. 4, Passocaiile.

^^
'y-Hi) f P f ii
^^^
f^ r f
rJ
^ J.

r-
^^ r
p
r ^
 ^ —

200 THREE-VOICE COMBINATIONS

Both of the upper voices in Ex. 1 3-9 are marked by rhythmic diversity. This
sets them off as conspicuous in comparison with the continuous eighths of the bass
hne. When rhythmic diversity is present in all three parts, the pattern of faster
articulation usually dominates the texture.^
An exception to these rhythmic "rules of thumb" can occur when a melody
that has been firmly established in the listener's mind is sounded in slower motion
than its accompanying parts. For instance, the tune that serves as the melodic
basis for forms in which variations occur simultaneously with the known melody
since it has the advantage of familiarity —
may be accorded more attention than
voices of considerably greater rhythmic interest.
The chorale prelude uses a pre-existent melody which, in many settings by com-
posers, employs this contrasting relationship of slow voice accompanied by busy
rhythms in remaining voices. In spite of its less interesting motion, its familiarity,
coupled with emphasis of registration or instrumention in performance, may still
focus our attention on it as the dominating voice.

Ex. 13-10. Schiedt: Chorale Prelude on Gefobef se/sf du, Jesu Christ, Verse 4.

^ rr ^^M ^ r ^r p
4
n f
fm
9^^
Chorale melody-

Rhythmic Unity

The rhythms of the separate voices normally are related so that they complement
one another, avoiding extremes of pattern contrasts that could thwart the associa-
tion of the three as compatable parts. For this reason, voices normally share the
same set of rhythmic divisions, though these divisions are not always articulated
simultaneously. In many three-voice textures the separate patterns, though dif-
ferent, when added together produce a periodic splitting of the meter's basic dura-

tion. In this way the combined rhythms of Ex. 13-11 divide the basic duration (
d )

into a continuous stream of quarters, while Ex. 13-12 contains divisions into six-
teenths. The result of these combinations is a continuity of flow for the whole tex-
ture.

^All other factors being equal, we are prone to regard the highest voice of a combination as the
—
most important as the "melody".
2 In organ chorale preludes the "melody" is frequently reinforced by octave couplings to strength-
en its prominence.
 .

THREE-VOICE COMBINATIONS 201

Ex. 13-11. Beethoven: String Quartet, Op. 131, I.

J I J^j h i J

Combined motion: f T f f f f f T f f f f f f f f f f T

Ex. 13-12. Bach: Well-tempered Clavier, Book II, Prelude No. 9.

^,2 ii ?^^^
J'"'''l\'g f
P ^^W f

-^^
nh a) r C
^ r :
i !^

Although all part combinations do not consistently divide the metric basis into
a set division, the separate voices often use the same (or closely related) patterns.
Ex. 13-13 shows a less constant division of the basic duration. The result is a some-
what less-driving rhythmic propulsion than the passages of Ex. 13-11 and Ex.
13-12.

Ex. 13-13. Handel: Clavier Suite No. 4, Sarabande.

Allegretto

^^ ^ PP?
{.'ip}
tr

n . :
^^---^ J :

M
f=^
^^^
%^

^^ m ^
Combined
motions: c/ r [_&• f p r r r c/ r
1

l;
^
r r r p

Infrequently, the several parts move in identical rhythms, and separation of

lines is achieved solely by individual pitch contours. This unusual way of main-
taining line identity does not occur often in contrapuntal music. It will be discussed
later as a possible means of pitch organization.
Voice individuality is most commonly achieved by contrasted note durations.
Three parts composed of mixed long and short values offer the simplest and surest
202 THREE-VOICE COMBINATIONS

way of creating part separation. Combinations of three equally active voices usually
incorporate a broad diversity of motion, in this way accentuating further the in-
dividuahty of each part. The section shown in Ex. 13-14 contains parts whose
rhythms typify this kind of individuality.

Ex. 13-14. Frescobaldi

f
'
. h
ici^

«?' i
J- Jt^

i
4
W^
^^
^ -o-

i
"s

Here each voice moves in its own individual rhythm, the occasional sixteenths
acting as a minimum rhythmic bond between the two upper parts, but with no
closer hint of kinship in evidence. Passages of this kind are infrequent in music of
three parts, for most textures rely on a closer rhythmic union between at least two
of the lines.

Stretches of a three-voice combination are comprised often of parts, each of

which represents a different division of the basic duration or the value of the basic
duration itself The Bach excerpt of Ex. 13-15 divides the quarter note into eighths
(bass voice) and sixteenths (middle voice) in a continuous relationship, while the
top voice provides articulations of the basic duration.

Ex. 13-15. Bach: We//-fempered Clavier, Book I, Fugue in E.

The uniformity of each pattern adds up to a rhythmic thrust that is absent in

music whose lines are formed by a greater variety of note durations (but each line
is also less interesting rhythmically as a result). It is this simple 1 to 2 to 4 ratio of

articulations ( J "
J J •
J J J J ) that blends the three different parts together into

such tightly unified association.

Aside from diversity of patterns created by fluctuating note values, individuality
of parts also can be obtained by contradictory divisions of the basic duration.
Duplet patterns in one voice combined with triplet patterns in another creates
THREE-VOICE COMBINATIONS 203

a more severe separation of parts than two versions of a single metric division.
When the contrast is prolonged it is difficult for the listener to determine the funda-
mental metric division unless a third part reinforces one of the patterns.
In addition to contrasting or contradictory beat divisions, the displacement of
accents in one part, by syncopation, forcibly differentiates that line from its as-
sociates. The ties across bars in Ex. 13-16 contribute to the clear rhythmic defini-
tion of each of the parts, as well as to the harmonic interest.

Ex. 13-16. Bach: Art of the Fugue, Contrapunctus IX.

i ^ 5=^=?^
m
^
J
*„ I

r- r^^
I J ^ ^ i^ 1
^ ^ p
i ^
r i

ni^f,.
r
'itf^[(j I

The degree of unity of voices in a three-voice texture is also determined by the

coincidence or non-coincidence of cadences in the separate lines. In general, a
predominating voice establishes the pattern of cadence for all associated voices.
Thus a chordal texture in which one voice dominates will display a uniformity of
phrase length among the constituent parts, these lengths governed by the "mel-
ody's" cadences, as in the next example.

Ex. 13-17. Bach: Chorale harmonization, Vafer unser in Himmelreich.

m ^
rmf # 1
i
/7\

# .3^
f^ =Qff

^^ ^ mr^ W^ 1 ij
i
J j/i
g
^hJflUj
w ?
On the other hand, textures of greater contrapuntal interest do not always dis-
play this singularity of cadential form; individual parts sometimes create their
own phrase lengths and cadences separately. This condition avoids rhythmic
stagnation by allowing continued motion in at least one voice while another pauses
at its own formal junction. Ex. 13-19 is bracketed to show the phrase structure of
each part, thereby revealing the variety of cadence locations that create a con-
stantly mobile texture. Only in the sixth measure do all of the voices combine in
a halt that creates a strong cadential effect. The imitation between the three voices
further enhances this high degree of motion.
 Z —

204 THREE-VOICE COMBINATIONS

Ex. 13-18. Lasso: Penitential Psalm III.

Voices
/

a^^^
rT=^ rfff
:a ^ ^
f ^r- ffT
^f
rrrr
S £f^ i
ZZI

li^ f
^ f
rfff
^^
ff rW
TTf
f^
^m
r

>
m m m m m^ i
In less imitative combinations, momentum is sustained at some phrase endings
by continued articulation in only one part. This singular movement reduces the
conspicuous pause of the cadence, and it throws the active voice into stark relief
against the inactive.

Ex. 13-19. Mozart: Sonata for Violin and Piano, K 376, II.

Andante
^^
Violin
i -^
jjjjJi^J -^^ > >!^
-? ' J fi
-9
i
1 f mf WB
Piano

^m
'
j''
U^jU^U^^. w^
m
— a
^jlm J,nm
lm^ycf^
If_^_

Cadence
f*4-

±?±:

VBfi^^
THREE-VOICE COMBINATIONS 205

Pitch Association of Three Ports

The introduction of a third voice to the musical fabric creates the possibility of
a new reference unit of harmonic structure, the chord. Up until this time we have
gauged pitch associations by their intervallic content without relating them to

chord structure.
We shall defer discussion of the chord until Chapter 14, for the present dealing
only with the melodic principles that are pertinent to combinations of three rela-
tively independent parts.
It is helpful to view a three-voice texture as a two-voice basis to which a third
complementary part has been added. This added part forms a two-voice counter-
point with each of the original voices, and these two new associations follow closely
the principles discussed for two-voice textures in Chapters 9, 10, 11, and 12. These
contrapuntal relations of three voices are represented in Ex. 1 3-2 by brackets where ;

in a two-voice combination there is only one set of vertical relations, there are three
sets in a three-voice texture.

Ex. 13-20. Three contrapuntal relations.

Top voice

Middle voice

Bottom voice

Since the two outer voices of a three-part texture form the structural pitch limits
— the —
"top" and the "bottom" they constitute the vertical framework for the
combination. For this reason, the success of a three-part union depends strongly
upon the compatability of the outer voices.
The middle part in some combinations serves as a rhythmic and harmonic
"cushion," filling in where outer parts take momentary pause or where they,
alone, do not complete the desired sonority.

Ex. 13-21. Handel: Clavier Suite, No. IV, Courante

Pt
m . I J

f
.

S 5^ i m m r
g^^ I
206 THREE-VOICE COMBINATIONS

In addition to rhythmic diversity (discussed on page 199), pitch contour is

another melodic factor capable of arresting the attention of the listener. A contour
of greater breadth will dominate another Hne that moves within a limited pitch
range, unless the narrower voice has a more engaging rhythm.
A voice of limited contour, however, usually moves in slower, less diversified
patterns, thus ensuring its less important, more accompanimental role. Ex. 13-22
and Ex. 13-23 show two passages, each having one subordinate voice. It is true
that the less obtrusive Hne in Ex. 13-22 is articulated in relatively brief values, but
its durational patterns are the sums of the time between articulations, as well as the

actual note values alone, thereby producing a slower motion in relation to the other
voices.

Ex. 13-22. Bach: Well-tempered Clavier, Book I, Fugue No. II.

Ex. 13-23. Shostakovitch : Quartet, Op. 49, I. Used by permission of MCA Music, a division
of MCA Inc., New York, N.Y. All rights reserved.

^ jmji jmji nu g.
m^ I tfe
s
'^
m ^ w
^ 'P-
f^f^
Wf ^ ^> Ff
T-
'-^p^
n Jjgji juoj juajg
W^
r-
p^ P^ r-
»»?-

The Shostakovitch passage in Ex. 13-23 is noteworthy because it represents a kind

of "bare minimum" counterpoint; its two lower lines lack interesting melodic
contour and rhythmic diversity. The middle voice is, of course, pedal figure, and a.

thus represents the ultimate in static pitch contour. The bass is itself relatively static,
for it consists of an ostinato pattern of the most rudimentary shape.
Individuality of pitch contour determines to a certain extent, then, the equality
or inequality of linear interest discussed earlier. Three voices that form quite dif-
ferent pitch outlines, their rises and falls occurring at separate locations, create the
greatest degree of contour separation. Most
do not incorporate parts so
textures
individually contoured, but a texture of three interesting parts will have lines
w^hose highs and lows occur separately as often as together.
Ex. 1 3-24 shows a three-part texture in which each line is rhythmically unique,
separated from its associates by virtue of individual contour.
THREE-VOICE COMBINATIONS 207

Ex. 13-24. Bach: Well-tempered Clavier, Book I, Fugue No. 15.

The two outer parts of a three-voice texture can be regarded as a framework that
follows the same organizing principles developed in earlier sections devoted to two-
voice textures. The potential cadence formulae remain identical, and the inter-
vallic relations between the two lines retain cadential consonances except when
decorative patterns form dissonances.
The middle voice forms a two-part union with each of the outer voices, as we
illustrated with Ex. 13-20. Its relations with each of these parts is also that of a
two-part texture, but a few extenuating circumstances create some notable dif-
ferences when the three parts sound together.
For instance, the perfect fourth, which does not appear frequently as a basic
interval in two-voice textures, appears commonly between the upper voices of
three-voice combinations. The tonal instability of this interval precludes its oc-
currence between the lower two parts as a cadential consonance formed ; when it is

between the two upper parts it is normally accompanied by a major or minor third
or a perfect fifth between the lower two parts.

Ex. 13-25.

® and and
»** ^^"^^f
* =P4=&
fe
lJm3I H«
V^ V^T^
3=E

A style of writing that makes extensive successive use of the interval combination
shown in Ex. 13-25 can be found in the works of composers from many different
periods of music history. Its effect is so striking when it occurs within a generally
contrapuntal texture that it has been assigned the special mime faux bourdon ("false
bass"). As we shall see in the following chapter, a more apt name might be sixth-
chord style, because of the sixth formed between the outer parts.

Ex. 13-26. Angelus ad V/rg/nem (Anon).

fauxbourdon

^1 t iw
T$ r
m zpz
^
 208 THREE-VOICE COMBINATIONS

The octave, fifth, thirds, and

dominate the structural points of vertical
sixths
alliance between three voices, with the fourth as a possibility between the two upper
parts. Ex, 13-27 and Ex. 13-28 show two three-part combinations which, when
reduced to their basic outlines, reveal this use of basic intervals and decorative
patterns.

Ex. 13-27. Handel: Clavier Suite, No. 4, Gigue.

'y-Hmr pr

Reduction
r '^pr pp
jl^
n^r^r^^
parr py
r

p ? ^f=^
r
5

^,p} rP J J J hm .-,

^ P
gf
8-63-53-53-3
M^'l l

^
--6
^
r r »r F-

4^
P f
r
^^
Intervals
1.
2.
3.
6
3
--6
--5 --5
3 6
4
3
8
6
3
536
3

685
3 3

^
Ex. 13-28. Landini: Ballata.

»^ ^^ ^ fe i

3
jJ ^^ J^
P fM-^ d=bi^
P
J
P 5-5
?^

-33 -34
1 8 3 6 8
2 4 - 5 1

3 5 3 5

The most common as the pitch frame-

interval combinations in Ex. 13-29 are
work around which a three-voice union might be formed. The intervals are all
reduced to a single octave compass for ease of reference compound versions of ;

each relation are just as possible.

THREE-VOICE COMBINATIONS 209

Ex. 13-29.

citi 33=
Unis
i^tKi
. (D
nr
(i)
It
(I)
H
f ti

* ^ Cadential Consonances

(i) (1) (I)

t s o-
tl
Decorative Consonances
^=s
All other interval combinations which include seconds or sevenths, or which
have fourths or tritones between the lowest and either of the other parts, usually
arise from a decorative pattern of some kind. We shall deal with some of these
matters in greater detail in Chapter 14, where we will discuss chord structure for
the first time.

Sparial Distribution of Parts

The distances maintained by the voice pairs of a three-voice texture,and the

overall pitch range enclosed by these combinations, are both determined by the
particular sound desired by the composer and the relative contours of the in-
dividual lines. Two outer parts that move in predominantly contrary motion in-
evitably will lead to a fluctuating texture that varies from "narrower" to "wider."
Similarly, lines of highly individual melodic contours render a tight uniformity of
spacing impossible. The very nature of counterpoint dictates that any three-voice
texture will normally encompass at least a full octave range, thus making individual
part motion possible without constant impingement on the pitch territory of another
voice. Three-voice combinations with very active lines usually cover more than
this bare minimum.
In general, a particular section will maintain a relatively uniform spacing that
further unifies texture. As basic types, two distributions of pitch levels to the various
parts are common:
Type 1: Generally equidistant parts, no consistent couplings of any two of the
three in evidence. Such a disposition will usually reveal considerable individuality
of lines as far as pitch contour and rhythm are concerned.

Ex. 13-30. Bach: Three-part Invention No. 12.

^
»#-^ti)-p- ^ t ^^
270 THREE-VOICE COMBINATIONS

In Ex. 13-30, each of the three parts remains within a clearly delineated range
of activity, maintaining its unique patterns within its assigned region. An abstrac-

tion of the spacing characteristics in this passage shows more clearly the distribu-
tion of pitch activity within the three lines, all of which cover a total span of two
octaves and a fifth.

Ex. 13-31. Spacing of parts in Ex. 13-30.

'

Q (. Top voic e plac e men t

^1 Mi ddl e vo ice placement

Bott om voice placement

N
m

Textures of this type cannot remain for long in a single relationship of parts
unless similar motion prevails, the individual part contours assuming approximate-
ly the same shapes.
Type 2: Two parts coupled in close range, the third part separated by approx-
imately an octave (or more). (The coupling can obtain between the two upper
or the two lower voices.)

Ex. 13-32. Schumann: Op. 60, No. 1.

Ex. 13-33. Bach: V/ el I -tempered Clavier, Book I, Fugue No. 6.

ju-irf^^jffi\jn^im \
m^^4
^
MiK^I
'

fl i
\;'^l I

These two excerpts show the coupling possibilities in three parts, in terms of
register. In the Schumann sample the upper parts are combined within close
THREE-VOICE COMBINATIONS 211

proximity, while the bottom part winds through a range approximately two octaves
below the middle voice. The Bach excerpt is a reversal of the Schumann, for here
the upper part is separated from the coupled pair of lower parts. In both instances,
the separate part is more conspicuous by virtue of its highly contrasted octave
position in the combination.
Features other than spacing can serve to emphasize a particular voice. Although
the two upper parts in Ex. 1 3-34 are coupled in range as distinct from the bottom
part, the longer durations of the upper line make it a distinct pattern from the
other two. Here rhythm, not spatial coupling, is the distinguishing factor.

Ex. 13-34. Telemann : Chorale prelude, Chrisfus, der uns selig macht.

^^
^^ ^ wt ^^^ ^^
D^ erf mr f mw
'h^W) [J i ^ ^ ** -e-

In addition to the specific musical effect desired by the composer, voice distribu-
tion in a texture depends upon the instrument or instruments that play them. A
distribution such as that in Ex. 13-35 is impractical for a piano because some of the
spacings would be clumsy for the right hand. Ex. 13-36 would be ineffectual for
the piano, but for different reasons; here the problem would be clear articulation
and separation of individual melodic strands. The constant voice crossings can be
clear when played by flute and two violins (or by any combination of single-line
instruments), but the articulation difficulties for the pianist would be ticklish.
Added to this purely physical problem would be the lack of tonal contrast between
the three separate voices, and the combination of objections make such a spacing
most improbable for piano.

Ex. 13-35. Copland: Appalachian Spring, 1945 by Hawkes & Son

Bride's Dance. Copyright
(London) Ltd., Copyright assigned to Aaron Copland, Copyright Owner, and
Boosey & Hawkes Inc., Sole Licensees.

trnttCT
1^p-m m»0»m»mm pp mp mpmm -m-^^mmppp
^^m ^
^ p'mm pdm^ i^P

^^
 .

272 THREE-VOICE COMBINATIONS

Ex, 13-36. Bach: Suite No. 2, Rondeau.

Flute
^^
s
^ P
i#
Violins
n ffhM4
\

¥
'fil
r^i ^ ^^^
f
P^
r=T
In general, gapped spacings that contain no couplings of any
heterogeneous, or
kind are associated with highly contrapuntal textures in which individuality of
parts is paramount. In more homophonic {homogeneous) combinations a closer
spatial alliance of parts becomes essential. The effect of harmony is most readily
achieved when parts are close enough to make them fuse into a block of sound.
A simple experiment will demonstrate the differences of spacings. If the com-
binations of Ex. 13-37 are played by separate instruments, the more unified, com-
pact effect of (a) contrasts discernably with the more disparate sound of combina-
tion (b).

Ex. 13-37.

a.

Flute or Clar. i ^
Clar. or Trpt.
4''i i
r-f
DI
rT xc
Clar. or Trb.
i

^^ L^
Flute or Clar.
P ^=T 1
^^
Clar. or Trpt.

Bassoon
or
Trombone
^
"n P

Aside from the differences of tone quality produced by the register changes for the
top and bottom parts in (b), the wider separation alone reduces the effect of tonal
fusion that is more apparent in the closer-knit alliance of (a)
7HRff-VO/C£ COMBINATIONS 213

Exercises

For more detailed assignments see Materials and Structure of Music I, Workbook, Chapter 1 3.

1. Plan a three-part rhythmic texture for percussion (clapped hands will suffice for perform-
ance if necessary) that consists of three complementary patterns.

Model

ire- m.j- ;)j J J- j>,j J J J ,j- ^;)

-3-e- r I

f r ^ci/ i

f r ^ai ^

r pr pt r p

I r I r I r i r r r irr n :mp
2. Look through piano, choral, orchestral, and chamber music to find passages of rhythmic
association which correspond to one of the types discussed early in this chapter.
3. Find two parts (or extract them from a composition) which will serve as an outer frame-
work for a three-part texture. Add a third part in complementary pitch and rhythm
patterns.
4. Write an eight to ten measure passage in which the top voice dominates, the two lower
voices are relatively subordinate and are coupled together in register. Write another
passage in which the bass dominates and the two upper voices are coupled.
5. Analyze a number of contrapuntal textures (Bach, Handel, Mozart) for basic pitches in
three separate voices. Construct a three-voice basic framework as an abstraction of the
texture. Then decorate the resultant framework to create a different composition.
 Chord
Structure
14

\Vith the addition of another part to a two-voice texture we can

recognize a new unit, the chord, as a basis of pitch organization. This will not
represent a major change in method, for chords are collections of intervals, and
they are classified by the kinds of intervals they contain, by sonority types. The
relative stability of a chord is determined by the intervals which comprise it and
by the relation it bears to other chords surrounding it.

In Chapter 2 we discussed the relative stability and instability, the relative con-
sonance and dissonance of intervals. As a general rule, a consonant,chord is stable
one that contains only consonant intervals, while a dissonant chord contains one
or more dissonant intervals.
Ex. 14-1 shows four different chords, the last three of which are considerably
more dissonant than the first. Note that each of these last three contains at least
one unstable interval.

Ex. 14-1. Chords.

-mS-
i aita:
Consonant
n i^?3=
3:^5= ^ *Ll M2
-M3-
dissonant
-m^
^^ «5-
-i-]p4
dissonant
m^
V
[¥¥f-
fi-

dissonant

The more complicated the total interval structure within a chord, the greater
the chord's dissonance. Thus we could make a scaling of harmonic sonority that
would extend from the most consonant sound combination, the octave, to the most
dissonant, in which all twelve pitches of the chromatic scale might sound together
in a biting combination.

214
CHORD STRUCTURE 275

Ex. 14-2. Chords,

m
pt
b

^
^m
Not only is chord (b) more dissonant than chord (a), its many different pitches
(and thus many different intervals as well) also impart to it a high degree of density
(in this particular spacing) that a few-toned chord would not have.
Between these two sonorities of Ex. 14-2 lies the gamut of chord types that are
found in most music. The bulk of our musical heritage has used a restricted har-
monic palette that lies closer to the I sonority of Ex. 14-2a than to Ex. 14-2b, but
composers since the beginning of our century have considerably broadened the
possibilities toward the dissonant side of the scale. One of the recognizable trade-

marks for any composer is the chord combinations to be found in his music and the
way these sonorities are linked together into harmonic successions. Many of our
subsequent discussions in this book will be concerned with the recognition and
classification of chord types.
Any chord that can be reduced to no more nor less than three different notes is
called a triad. That is, even a chord made up of five different tones might still be
reduceable to a triadic basis if two of the five pitches are octave replicas of two
others.
t^oitttLcAid^ MuAjJxMj^ - tmWiwtXui tl X J

Ex. 14-3. Triads.

1 $
triadic
chord chord triadic
reduction reduction

m w

~tT"
ZC^
triadic

*Q_
321
33=
chord reduction

^ W3
chord triadic
reduction
276 CHORD STRUCTURE

Western music is unique in its development of a concept of chords the "ver- —

tical" plane of sound in music —
in addition to the purely melodic or "horizontal"
plane. In non-Western cultures the simultaneous soundings of different tones are
regarded (if at all) only as the result of coincidences between the several strands
of melody. Some of the "chords" of the Siamese music show^n in Ex. 14-4 "just
happen," for they are not derived from any manner of predetermined chord pro-
gression, and the musicians who perform such music make no effort to plan their
improvisations so that particular tones coincide at all vertical combinations. A
similar result sometimes can be heard in the improvised web of lines created by
jazz musicians as each instrumentalist contributes his own melodic strand to the
total result.

Ex. 14-4. Siamese Orchestral Piece: Kham Horn (Sweet Words), Hisforical Anthology of
Music, Volume 1; Copyright by Harvard University Press. Reprinted by per-

mission.

But in our composed music, harmonic motion pervades musical structure,

adding another dimension The simplest units of harmonic
to tonal organization.
structure are triads of relatively consonant quality. They are the only chords which
consist of intervals no less stable than major and minor thirds, so they are among
the most stable chords. These are the major and minor triads, each of which consists
of a perfect fifth divided by a third.

Ex. 14-5. Triads.

±5z L
2
i» 3
m3
M3 4^ n 1=W5=
] m3
major triad minor triad
 ; ;

CHORD STRUCTURE 217

It is the location of the constituent thirds that determines major or minor

quahty in triads: when the first third above the root is major, a major triad results;

when the first third above the root is minor, a minor triad results.

Two other of the simpler triad types are known as diminished and augmented.
These designations are derived from the interval that encompasses their outer
tones, the diminished and the augmented fifths respectively.

Ex. 14-6. Triads.

5 m
^f^ 3
'

6
§ ^'^ll^Wi
-M-8-
ITl3

diminished augmented
triad (°5) triad (+5)

Both of these triads are relatively unstable, for they lack the intervallic simplicity
that creates a clear root effect. Neither contains a perfect fifth or fourth, and the
diminished triad contains the relatively unstable tritone. Since both the aug-
mented and diminished triads involve equal-sized intervals (minor thirds in the
diminished triad, major thirds in the augmented), they are slightly ambiguous and
lack the clarity of tonal focus that is required of a cadential consonance.
Major and minor triads are more stable, and so they are more important to our
present study. Furthermore, they will form the basis of many other chords that will
be discussed Note that major and minor
later. scales yield more major and minor
triads than diminished and augmented.

')
Ex. 14-7. -k^MUT

Major
scale
W
M
^ II,
M M
I III
,m

H i i
o

i ^ 3
1
major
diminished
; 3 minor

m o M m m M ^^
Nat 3 major ; 3 minor ;

m inor t'|
j t^f I >» '
scale
^ | 1 diminished

m o + m M M o
Hai 2 major 2 minor
^1 »i ^i lit ^^' ; ;

mir'„"Tai: ^1 »i diminished; 1 augmented

j ; 2

m m + M M o °
Melodi
iij \i
'^ 2 major ;2 minor
1,,
minor seal i Hi ii»
diminished 1 augmented
I",!, t 2

Each of the chords of Ex. 14-7 is a "diatonic" chord for the particular scale it

is built within. Thus the triad g-b-d is diatonic to D major, but it is non-diatonic
278 CHORD STRUCTURE

for (^-natural minor; and the triad B-flat-D-F is a diatonic chord of F major, non-
diatonic for C major.
Although the major, minor (and less so the diminished and augmented) triads
are the harmonic staples of music of the past eleven hundred years, any three dif-
ferent pitches must be regarded as potential triad material. The chord succession
in Ex. 14-8 shows six three-note chords, or triads, only the last of which is similar
to one of the four types we have been discussing. The remaining five triads are
relatively dissonant combinations which are essentially products of the linear
motion of the three lines.

Ex. 14-8. Hindemith ludui Tonalis, Fugue No. 4

: in E. (C) 1943 by Schott & Co., Ltd.,
London. Reprinted by permission.

^
f
^ ^ ^^ i
/?\

m i^
T^r-
^ r f^
m
In addition to sonority type — major, minor, diminished, or augmented, of the
classified forms — another vital bit of information about a chord concerns its rela-
tion to other chords in its proximity. That is, chords are like people in that they
"behave" or reflect their own identities only in relation to other chords, and these
familial relationships within a tonality are a necessary aspect of chordal descrip-
tion.
The individual chord's relation to the tonic pitch is denoted by the Roman
numeral that represents the scale position of the chord's root. If we build a triad
on each degree of the major or minor scale, we can number the resultant chords
according to their relationships to tonic within that scale.

Ex. 14-9. Chord Nomenclature in Relation to Tonic.

a ^^ ffi
A
f Major:
U t 1)

i li iil I\' V VI , \1l° (I)

tonic super- mediant sub- dominant sub- leading-
tonic dominant mediant tone

A Minor: ;
U ^
m
"
IV
^^ VI vn
ffi
(i)
 '

CHORD STRUCTURE 219

The two essential facts to be known about a particular triad within a tonality are
and
its sonority its tonal function. Therefore, it is important that a distinction be made
here between and lower case Roman numerals, for these, in conjunction
capital
with the sign for diminished and the + sign for augmented, are concise ways
°

to indicate the two basic facts about any diatonic triad:

Jejvbodj
Numeral Type (capital or lower case, plus ° or + when applicable) shows basic
sonority.
Thus V or IV denotes major triad
vi or ii denotes minor triad
ii° or iv° denotes diminished triad
III 4- or 11+ denotes augmented triad

Numeral Value shows scalar degree relationship to tonic pitch.

Thus V (or v) denotes a root tone that is a perfect fifth above (or perfect fourth
below) tonic.
I (or i) indicates the triad built on the tonic pitch.

Chord Succession.

Within a tonality, the most important chord is the tonic (I or i, depending upon
major or minor sonority), for it is the only chord that can render total stability
within a progression. Just as almost all melodies end with their tonic pitch, so almost
all multi-part music ends with a tonic chord; it is the sonority that can best produce

the relaxation of tension normally associated with musical termination.

Aside from the tonic, any other stable triad (of major or minor sonority) is a
potential tonic, for if emphasized enough, another chord can gain the ascendency
and supersede a former tonic as the center of pitch focus: modulation takes place.
The next most important chord within a tonality is the dominant (V), because in
the traditional key schemes of major and minor and in some modes this triad
coembodies the important dominant and leading tone melodic relationships. The
combination of these two pitches in the same sonority creates the simplest chord
relationship in a key scheme; it is this chord in conjunction with a tonic chord
that most clearly delineates an intended tonality. When the two are combined in
a weak-strong metric relation there can be little doubt about intended tonal focus.

Ex. 14-10. V to I Chord Progressions.

/L I* m ^' •
m C •
m r. •

U-- i i'

9
'1: (.
C •
1
d — c •

V I
220 CHORD STRUCTURE

This simplicity of tonality pattern formed by the tonic-dominant relationship (or

its reverse, V-I) causes it to serve as the basis for a great portion of the harmony in

the music of our Western tradition. This basic two-chord association has been
used to accompany every conceivable kind of melody, from the modest child's song
to art works of considerable complexity.

^
Ex. 14-1 la. Childrens Song: Hove you Ever Seen a Lassie.

^ ma ^ ^
^m u u u u u
F F

Ex. 14-1 lb. Beethoven: Donee.

P^m #
m _ m
'

)--h 1 f r

"^ —f p
r r # V
•

J-'
— —
— — inr^-rf
r- —0 f~irf
F
ttII
T
w r 1 r 1
a
I I I

Any digression from the tonic chord is, in a restricted sense, a weakening of
tonality. However, the root of the dominant chord does not contradict the role of
the tonic pitch as tonic, for the root of their melodic relationship lends emphasis to
the tonic pitch. This can be illustrated if we note in Ex. 14-12 that the interval
formed between the two roots is a fifth or fourth, and the root of both of these
intervals is the same pitch, the root of the tonic chord.

Ex. 14-12. V to I Chord Progressions.

P5
P4

«m
It
ffi^
T
V^ root root
 CHORD STRUCTURE 221

The change when one chord gives way to another is called harmonic
that occurs
succession or harmonic progression. The motion of chordal change imparts another

element of psychological movement to musical tones; the change away from the
tonic chord establishes a certain degree of expectation and tension; the eventual
return to tonic promises fulfillment and relaxation of movement.
If the harmonic structure of a composition remained solidly imbedded in only
the tonic chord, no effect of harmonic tension could result, and the important feel-
ing of completion that results from departure and eventual return to a tonic would
be missing. The total effect would be dull and static if significant rhythmic or me-
lodic or textural contrasts did not compensate for this harmonic sameness. Viewed
as melodies, bugle calls suffer from this severe harmonic limitation, for they are
the mere spinning-out of a single chord pattern that is based on the instrument's
harmonic series.

Ex. 14-13. Bugle Call: Reveille.

f^TH^W^ ^Pii hinp npinn rt^

i

£_---
A major: _.---.

A similar negation of harmonic motion might be desired for particular kinds of

music that serve distinctive functions within a musical or social setting. One way
of emphasizing the implied motion of one musical section is to precede it by a sec-
tion that lacks harmonic changes. The excerpt of Ex. 14-14, from a Toccata by
Monteverdi, illustrates the avoidance of forward propulsion that can result from
such a solidly grounded texture.

Ex. 14-14. Monteverdi: Toccata.

Clarino
quinto
^ i
m im
•/
iTTi]
Aire e basso
vulgano habso ^S ]
 —

222 CHORD STRUCTURE

Ex. 14-14. Continued.

L^ J J i ii.
Sa
P^^^r r
rr
xn J: 331
XT
J i

Most music incorporates harmonic successions of one kind or another. In some

textures the chord structure is organized in vertical blocks of combined tones, each
of which moves to another, thus achieving direct harmonic change, as in Ex. 14-
I5a. But in other textures the chords might appear in melodic outlines, the arpeg-
giated patterns adding up to particular chords (as in Ex. 14- 15b).

Ex. 14-1 5a. Bach:

h.J^ J J
^
^ ru^
Chorale Setting, AUe Menschen miissen sterben.

fTr?
I7\

^^^ D.
r

I
r

^
vi
r

[
I
r

r
rv
T
;:j
r
j

r r
j
m II
f
I

I
m
II V I

Ex. 14-1 5b. Schubert: Der Miiller und der Bach.

Voice
fjDMEJ-P' na-rrs- i

f ^piM^- M^r

Piano
^ * iw -d- * *^* *~^^ m^m

§53l|^ * .&

Chords t t w
V
CHORD STRUCTURE 223

In order to understand better the harmonic content of a piece of music, it is

customary to analyze the various chords that constitute the harmonic successions
and to plot this data in graphic form. The Roman numerals mentioned earlier are

indispensable for denoting sonority types and root relations within a tonality. Ex.
14-16 shows a simple analysis of a musical phrase.

Ex. 14-16. Haydn: Piano Sonata No. 18, I.

mmm
II I II V VI (iv) wi"

In some patterns of music, as in Ex. 14-16, it is impossible to assign a chord

name with absolute assurance, either because the constituent pitches are so brief,
or because there is more than one possibility of analysis. Measure five is subject to
interpretation because the highly mobile top line of the first two beats might imply
a iv or a i chord. If we return to the guide of basic melody analysis, e is revealed
as the most important pitch, so the iv chord is a most likely interpretation of im-
plied harmony. In ways such as this, basic melody analysis and harmonic analysis
are mutually complementary techniques for gaining musical insight.

Chord Position.

The structural names for the various parts of triadic chords are derived from the
intervals they contain. Thus the three parts are called root,^ third, and fifth. These
terms are meaningful as designations when derived from the simple or fundamental
position of the triad, all notes in their closest relations, as illustrated in Ex. 14-17.

' With the exception of rootless chords which will be discussed on pages 226.
224 CHORD STRUCTURE

Ex. 14-17. Structural Chord Names.

Chord (D Chord Chord

-p^
m ^ t
:^Eti:
^ ^m
fundamental fundamental fundamental
position position position

Even when the position of a chord changes, the individual parts are still named
according to their unexpanded relations in the fundamental triadic representation.
Each of the chords in Ex. 14-18 consists of the same root [E-flat), the same third
(G) and the same fifth {B-fiat), even though vastly different chordal textures are
present.

Ex. 14-18.

1
m ^
T
•>•

^
''F-i l
W.
'?-i
T
^
Even when more than three pitches make up the chord, some are duplications
if

of triad notes, then the basic structure is still xhc fundamental triad. Thus the chord
type remains the same although voicing and texture change.

Ex. 14-19.

21

^ ii=
w
^
y ^^
^
w
;

9-S-

Chord Inversion.

The simpler chord types (major and minor triads and limited derivatives from
these)can be turned upside down and internally reordered without appreciably
changing their basic sonority. This is corroborated by the fact that these topsy-
CHORD STRUCTURE 225

turvy arrangements do not alter root effects in any appreciable way. We can see
that any redistribution of the notes of a major triad not only yields decorative con-
sonances, but also the same harmonic root is retained.

Ex. 14-20. Chord Inversion,

basic interval root basic interval root basic interval

^ a t
I
root

For the reasons illustrated above, any distribution of tones is known by the
name of its fundamental (simplest) reduced form. Thus both chords in Ex. 14-21
are F major triads, even though/is not at the bass position in either arrangement.

Ex. 14-21. Inverted Chords,

a b

1^^ ^
s s

Chord (a) is in first inversion, while chord (b) is These denota-

in second inversion.
tions refer to the number of note shufflings away from the fundamental root position
that are required to achieve the particular chord form. That is, beginning with the
simple root position, the first inversion requires one redistribution of notes, the second
inversion requires two.

Ex. 14-22. Inverted Chords.

* m
root first second
position inversion inversion

Another explanation for the three possible triad positions would recognize the
root as lowest member in a root position chord; the third as lowest member in a first
inversion; and the fifth as lowest member in second inversion.

The representation of chords in analysis usually indicates the internal distribu-

226 CHORD STRUCTURE

tion of chord members. This is done by appending Arabic numerals to the Roman
designation of root tone; these numerals denote interval distances above the bass
note. A complete representation would be as follows:

?
1(1) IV| V 6
m)

It important to note that these numerical designations are derived from the
is inter-
vals above the bass as if the chord were all contained within a single octave.

$ C:
3Q
But :

V(|,

This system of chord symbolization is usually abbreviated. When no Arabic numerals

accompany a chord designation, it is assumed that the sonority is in root position,
or f in structure. And the designation ® is normally simplified into just "6", which,
in most cases, ^ can also be taken to mean "first inversion triad." The full designa-
tion I is necessary, of course, for the second inversion triad, in order to distinguish
itfrom the first inversion.
Diminished and augmented triads lack the simple perfect fifth (or fourth) and
the unequal thirds that create the root effect of major and minor triads, but the
theory of inversion is normally extended to these sonorities also.^ The principle that
governs chord invertability is derived from the notation of musical tones in stacked
third relationshps. In other words, a chord is in root, or prime position when all of
its members can be stacked one above the other in successive relations of thirds of
any form, major, minor, augmented, or diminished. Therefore, chords la, 2a, and
3a in Ex. 14-23 are not in fundamental (root) position, but their rearrangements
in lb, 2b, and 3b reveal their "non-inverted" forms.

Ex. 14-23. Inverted Chords.

la lb 2a 2b 3a 3b

i a *
(°5)
3

^ This method of symbolization breaks down with some more complex chords which are not dis-
cussed until Book II, Chapter 5.
^ In subsequent discussions, we shall adopt the term prime for the fundamental pitch of chords
which do not possess simple roots.
 CHORD STRUCTURE 227

We shall study other principles of chord structure later when our harmonic
material includes more than the simple triad. But for the present, the principle of
inversion is helpful in that it simplifies the problem of chord classification according
to structure.
To
determine the structural type of any chord, one must first locate the root of
the combined intervals. With major and minor chords this process can be simplified
by a search for perfect fifths or fourths or, when these more powerful intervals are
missing, thirds or sixths; the root pitch of either of these combinations will be the
root for the whole chord. Lacking any of the above evidence (as in diminished and
augmented triads when two equally plausible choices of thirds or sixths are availa-
ble), the principle of superposed thirds produces a workable answer. The process
is illustrated below.

Ex. 14-24. Locating Roots of Chords.

i=: 1^3^*:
•\
root
* »T=-
P4
root #
P5 m3
xn
¥
^root
root
g^ .£>_ -&f-
S S ^i
?&
,^
S ^Me^ prime

When a three-pitch chord does not contain a Jifth or fourth, the next simplest
interval, the major or minor third (or sixth) determines the root. Many three-voice
textures contain these non-triadic structures because individual voice motion rules
out the simultaneous occurrence of three different chord members. Notice that
Ex. 14-25 ends with a two-note sonority (or diad) because the composer demanded
certain resolutions of the melodic tendencies already established.

^
Ex. 14-25. Lutheran Chorale: Wer weiss, wie nohe mir.

^ m
=P^^^ i
r rn^ rr ^ ^m rf f rrr T
^^f
Chord analysis
^ ^
r

^P
i
^^f^ 3

* l''' tjl
'*'
l tj l" J f'll^' ii j'i'
\ * i i^#
m*

Tonality: g i V I V \i ir V (V) V m iv i \i i V i
 228 CHORD STRUCTURE

Melodic-Harmonic Synthesis

Few compositions of any scope reveal the simplicity of chord structure and voice
movement found in Ex. 14-25. In much music our cognizance of chords is so related
to and affected by melodic elements that melody and chords form an inseparable
synthesis of tonal pattern, each reflecting the other, each delineating and clari-
fying the other. In other words, chords and melodies do not operate in music as
mutually exclusive properties. Because examples such as the following
this is true,
which exemplifies a remarkable synthesis of harmonic and melodic elements,
cannot be explained in purely harmonic or melodic terms alone.

Ex. 14-26. Beethoven: Opus 18 No. 1, I

( mod. fast)

{ V7) prolonged

J J-
J

At first glance, and in consideration of the allegro tempo, one is taken by the
apparent complexity of this example. If we attempt to isolate chords by simply
noting the sonorities formed by the tones heard simultaneously on each beat, we
shall have acknowledge some chord types (as on the first beats of measures
to
2, 3 and 4) that have little bearing on the style and idiom of this composition

and its composer. Secondly, by trying to reconcile both the b-naturals and b-flals
sounded simultaneously in measures 1 3 and 4 to a single chord we produce an
,

equally inaccurate and misleading appraisal of the tonal organization of the

passage.

H>'.'
CHORD STRUCTURE 229

Actually the passage consists of a single melodically animated chord:

stated on the first beat of measure 1 and reiterated in measure 5. But it is through
essentially melodic means that the opening chord is projected and prolonged in
such a way as to take on meaning in the structure of the piece and importance as
a simple point of departure for musical development.
The top voice unfolds the upper three notes of the chord {e, g and b-Jlat) while
spanning two octaves. Rhythmic interest is created by syncopating the first three
articulations of ^, g, and b-JIat. The tenor part (viola) is rhythmically coupled with
the top voice and melodically reiterates the three lower notes of the chord in pairs
{c, e, and g). The technique used in these two voices is, of course, arpeggiation of

basic associates, or the melodic spinning out of a chord.

The technique used to organize the other voices (second violin, and cello) is

quite different, more explicitly melodic. Both voices establish a give-and-take as-
sociation and both span a C — C octave, filled in with a series of pitches which, in
effect, pass from one C to another. The b-naturals are simply part of the passing
groups that embellish Cs, and can be regarded as brief leading tones, which, in,

view of their duration, are hardly heard as conflicting with the basic b-fiat's sound-
ing above. Furthermore, C is the root of the chord prolonged throughout the exam-
ple, and one can see that it is partly due to the continuing reemphasis of c in the
two voices under consideration that the harmonic function (V7) in F and the
structural weight of C is made most clear.
Chord in this example can be described as a vertical group of notes that frames
and channels the passage; it is through essentially melodic means, however, that
the chord is prolonged.
The excerpt shown in Ex. 14-27 appears to involve a change of harmony on each
successive eighth note.

Ex. 14-27. Beethoven; Missa Solemnis.

(fast)

V IV9 vi4 vii8

 :

230 CHORD STRUCTURE

Again, an explanation of such a passage can only be made by acknowledging

contrapuntal elements as means for prolonging a single harmonic "meaning," in
this case —
dominant -tonic in E major.
Note that the upper voice spans a ninth from leading tone to tonic, while the
alto reiterates b^ before passing by step up to tonic, melodically expressing a simple
5-1 relation. The two lower parts are coupled and move by step in parallel thirds,
spanning a ninth in contrary motion with the upper voice. Each voice forms a
melodically satisfying approach to the closing tonic chord, and each voice (or
coupling) displays an essentially melodic character, step movement. The listener
is swept up by the movement of parts from the beginning to the close of the pas-

sage, its basic pitches the sonorities created by the moving voices, grouped around
;

the repeated b^ in the alto, contribute to the momentum and expectancy of the
dominant effect without replacing it in any way. The passage is a contrapuntal
—
elaboration of dominant tonic movement, prolonged by stepwise (passing) move-
ment and a repeated (upper pedal) dominant pitch. The "chords" which occur
as each voice carries out a stepwise elaboration of the dominant pattern should be
viewed as chords of melodic importance, passing chords, and are neither heard nor
generally viewed as a significant part of the basic harmonic structure. The mean-
inglessness of a detailed description of each of the "chords" that occur in the exam-
ple, as shown on the music, can be best understood by listening to the passage.
Contrapuntal elements are not always as significant or prominent as in the two
examples just cited. However, any analysis of chord, or music in general, must
acknowledge the coordinate relationship between melody and harmony and the
way in which they interact in making musical structure more comprehensible.

Exercises

See Chapter 14 o( Materials and Structure of Music I, Workbook for more detailed exercises.
1. Practice spelling major, minor, diminished, and augmented triads from a given note as

root or prime. Think through the component intervals of each chord before spelling with
note names. For example:
B-Jlat augmented triad:
Augmented triad = augmented fifth

major third
major third
' —F-sharp augmented
B-fiat fifth
—D major third
B-flat
{D —F sharp major third
Spelling: B-flat— D—F-sharp
2. Analyze a passage chosen by the instructor, denoting each chord by its proper symbol.
Sample

Schumann:

M
T r

G major:
£
V
^e4
VI
^I IV6 I| V
3J=
 :

CHORD STRUCTURE 231

3. In class or informally with a friend, listen to major, minor, diminished, and augmented
triads played on the piano or organ and identify as to sonority.

a. Identify which member of the major or minor triad is in the top of the chord.

b. Identify which member of the major or minor triad is in the bass of the chord.
4. Using a three-voice texture, write a passage that is based on the following chord pro-
framework first, add the middle voice, then elaborate each
gression. Write the outer basic
basic melody to create an effective but simple contrapuntal texture.
Gmajor: I / !« /V/vi / Vg /I / V / I //

5. Plot a simple chord progression of about four measures length, one chord per measure.
Using an instrument (or voice), improvise a simple melody that corresponds to the selected
chords. Use a simple repeated rhythm for all pitch patterns.

Example

Progression VI V h II

Rhythm: J. J>J

''i
I

J. ^i
I vi

J.
J'Jij. j,jU
^. ^^
u^
VI
 :

Conclusion

f
15
Three-Voice

Combinations

Spacing.

In Chapter 13 we dealt with some basic aspects of spacing in three-part writing.

Let us now turn our attention to the formulation of more specific guides to the
spatial distribution of three-voice vocal writing.
The overtone series is a useful point of reference for the spacing of three voices

m uai m: i. jto °

The similarity between the natural interv^allic arrangement of the series, (widest

intervals at the bottom), and the most common arrangement of vocal parts, (greater
distances betvveen lower voices), is evidence of still another relationship between
musical practice and the inherent properties of musical sound.

Ex. 15-1. Luca Marenzio : Madrigal (3 voices).

wm
^5?
'. '4 'I
7"

az
J
j^
t ^ f i t
^ ^ ^ 4 #
i

1Z2
CONCLUSION OF THREE-VOICE COMBINATIONS 233

mm
^^
"V
^m ^^ W
rr
-.a

i=i ^-p
^
i
[£[f
"
r p
r "
i
r
-oe-

In the madrigal shown in Ex. 15-1 we find a typical distribution of parts. The
upper voices lie generally within an octave of each other, while the two lower
parts are occasionally as far apart as two octaves. The upper parts move as close
together as a unison, and while not illustrated in this example, the same relation-
ship also occurs between the lower voices, particularly when they are coupled.
While subject to individual vocal ranges and melodic contour, the outer voices
seldom ^re farthex .a part than two octaves and a fifth, as mentioned earlier in
Chapter 13. Two octaves is a much more common limit. An interesting exception
to this rule of thumb can be seen in measure 2. Here the soprano and alto move in
contrary motion to the interval of a minor tenth. This exception to the rule is the
logical result of a primarily contrapuntal association involving contrary motion.
Most three-voice works reveal considerable variety of spacing procedures. This
can be seen by comparing the first and second phrases (measures 1-2 and 5-7) of
the Marenzio example. Throughout the first phrase the voices are deployed so
that different intervals occur between voices on nearly every beat. The second
phrase begins with parallel movement in all voices, thus establishing a contrasting
textural relationship between two successive phrases. The rhythmic association
between parts, however, is basically the same in both phrases, since identical dura-
tions generally occur motion in triads, as in
in all parts simultaneously. Parallel

measure 5, is seldom found in three-voice writing. The effect is of melodic duplica-

tion of one voice in two accompanying voices, rather than independent contra-
puntal movement. The example illustrates a texture in which one voice
predominates, with the other voices serving as accompanying parts.
In spacing three voices, one must take into consideration the ranges of the voices
involved, for different combinations demand different spacings. In Ex. 15-2, a C
major triad has been spaced for several different three-voice combinations. As can
be seen, some of the spacings are performable by only one or two combinations of
three-voice groups, because of range limits.

Ex. 15-2. Three-voice distribution of a C major triad (Root position and first inversion).

A
Soprano \0 M , • ^ • # ~m~
Alto

Tenor S
 — —

234 CONCLUSION OF THREE-VOICE COMBINATIONS

Ex. 15-2. continued.

B
_• *_
Soprano
Alto < f

Bass W^
Alto U— — —— — — —
4)
•J
. . : i i
"
:

:
:

;
1

• 1
'
1

———
'i
' ', ',

^
Tenor
Bass
^. \ \
— —
• '

\
—.—
-f *
!

I
'

:
i

D
Soprano '^^
* *
Tenor
Bass ^^
Exceptional spacings sometimes occur as the result of decorative pitches. These
unusual separations occur most often in weak metric positions, and they do not
attract the same attention or create the sense of imbalance that would result from
their use in accented positions or longer durations. Several examples of more ex-
ceptional spacings which result from melodic decorative activity are in Ex. 15-3.

Ex. 15-3. Exceptional three-voice distribution.

3C\ S. A.

Soprano
Alto

Tenor
^m
The principles of spacing three voices should not be taken as absolute rules, but
rather as guides to the intervallic distribution of melodic movement between parts.

These principles are useful in achieving a clarity and balance of pitch relationships.
CONCLUSION OF THREE-VOICE COMBINATIONS 235

1. The upper voices usually lie an octave or less from each other.
2. The lower voices may move as far apart as required by melodic considerations.
3. As in the overtone series, wider intervals are more often found between lower
parts; smaller intervals separate the upper voices.

4. A variety of spacings should be employed; parallel movement, if prolonged,

negates melodic independence of parts.
5. Decorative activity may create abnormally wide or narrow spacing momentari-
ly-

6. Outer voices are seldom separated by more than two octaves.

7. Systematic coupling of a pair of the voices, particularly at the interval of a third,
may bring about unusually wide separations from the third voice.

Crossing Voices.

An interesting contrapuntal effect is often achieved in both instrumental and

vocal textures by crossing voices, that by the momentary exchange of the range
is,

positions of tv^^o parts. If the alto moves above the soprano or below the tenor, for
example, the voices involved in the high-low exchange are said to have crossed.
Crossing most often occurs between adjacent parts, and it is usually the result of
the fulfillment of a particular melodic pattern.
Voice crossing most often occurs within a phrase, although cadences involving
crossed parts, or phrase beginnings using this procedure can be found. A typical
example of crossing is seen in Ex. 15-4.

^^
Ex. 15-4. William Byrd Madrigal.

m
:

^ i ^
$ rr

^m ^

Contrapuntal and Homophonic Textures.

The possibilities for organizing three voices, vocal or instrumental, are, as we

have seen, almost unlimited. No two works are identical, nor do any two derive
their musical interest from identically developed compositional techniques, no
matter how similar their outer surfaces may appear. Nonetheless, just as the most
complex contrapuntal activity will adhere to certain harmonic formations, so even
the most simply developed homophony will rely on rudimentary principles of
counterpoint, if only because they are implicit in the most basic aspects of musical
organization.
Ex. 15-5a illustrates an unadorned homophonic texture.
236 CONCLUSION OF THREE-VOICE COMBINATIONS

Ex. 15-5a. Domenico Scarlatti: Keyboard Sonata in C major.

i^
1 ^EEi m f^ t
^ ^Em" fcit*
i ^

^^ ^ £^ ^ ^ ^ ^ r
r f
^

A predominant upper part is accompanied by repeated pedal c's in the left hand
and a middle voice is developed entirely out of motion from e^ to its upper neighbor
/' and back to e'. The harmonic activity, featuring a harmonic rhythm of one chord
per measure, consists of three chords: tonic, subdominant and a tritone, all or-
ganized above a tonic pedal. The contrapuntal resolution of the tritone occurs in
measures 5 and 8, while each voice maintains at least some degree of rhythmic in-
dependence. It is, in fact, through the incorporation of decorative activity that the
work derives its minimum contrapuntal motion. Stripped of these decorative ele-
ments, the piece would appear as in Ex. 15-5b.

Ex. 15-5b. Reduction of Ex. 15-5a.

a^ ^ i i ^
T f f T r P f f
i i i ^ # B t i

The point is that even the simplest homophonic texture may reveal elements of
organization that reflect contrapuntal relationships, however mild and unpre-
possessing.
Contrapuntal writing dominates the texture of Ex. 15-6a.

^
Ex. 15-6a. J. G. Walther : Chorale Prelude for Organ.

1 2 3 4

^^ i 5

^ ^ ^
^ ^ w
i-
f

^
 CONCLUSION OF THREE-VOICE COMBINATIONS 237

Not only does each voice maintain rhythmic independence, by successive

set off
imitative entries, but each also participates in an exchange of melodic material
:>
that consists of three contrasting elements: dotted or plain quarter notes, syncopa-
tion, and continuous by conjunct motion.
sixteenths. All three parts are unified
Cadences, occurring at bars 4, 8 and 12, are weakened by continuous motion in
one or more voices, so that the effect of the example is of one broad, continuously
unfolding contrapuntal section, that reaches a terminal cadence in measure 12.
Despite the continuity and flow of the separate three voices, harmonic relation-
ships are much in evidence in this music. Harmonic rhythm, too, contributes to
the forward motion of the counterpoint. It is, as a matter of fact, primarily through
deceleration of harmonic rhythm {from two chords per measure to one chord per measure) that
the cadences and phrase endings are distinguished in measures 4, 8-9 and 12.
Ex. 15-6b shows a simple reduction of the Walther excerpt. becomes clear
It
through a study of the reduction how harmonic relationships, here in the form of
triads and diads (two-note combinations), form a framework for melodic activity.
Note also that the principles of three-voice spacing discussed earlier are evident in
this keyboard composition.

Ex.

12
15-6b. Harmonic reduction of Ex.

3
15-6a.

4 5

i
m
s
« J. n
^ -0—^ \-

11 12

i i
;«•)
y i W t*rr
%
^ X
^
J
^ r
238 CONCLUSION OF THREE-VOICE COMBINATIONS

Doubling in Three Voices.

The harmonic result of the vertical alignment of three contrapuntal voices at

any one instant is not always a complete triad, even though triads represent the
core unit of harmonic organization. In many instances melodic movement de-
mands the doubling of one note in another voice, often an octave or two removed
in register. Such doublings are seen in the Frescobaldi Toccata (Ex. 15-7).

Ex. 15-7. Frescobaldi: Organ Toccata

s
Adagio

/
^ p
rlJlrJ- ^ n j-^;i
'
I
fDomi nant /T:s;
r
'r-i'.- T' p
P m
Where doubling occurs in a three-voice chord, the resulting sonority is usually
a decorative or cadential consonance, with one member of the interval duplicated.
Several such combinations are shown in Ex. 15-8.

Ex. 15-8. Doubling in three-voice chords.

$
331 :xsz
•-e-
331
s ^ ini Tl"

:fe
^
w ~n~ -nr

S 331 IT" 331 "TT~ ZCSl 331 331 331 331 331

Although either note of a consonant interval may be^ doubled, it is most fre-
quently the root. Doubling of the interval root usually occurs in cadential con-
sonances whose roots are members of the tonality frame, particularly tonic and
dominant. By doubling these pitches the composer emphasizes and helps to clarify
the prevailing tonality.
More freedom has been exercised in doubling members of decorative conso-
nances, whose roots, as we have described, are less evident. Either member of a
decorative consonance may be doubled the choice is usually determined by me-
;

lodic considerations. However, where major or minor sixths contain members of.tlie_^
tonality frame, particularly tonic or dominant, the pitch corresponding to tonic or
dominant will more often be doubled.
Common doubling procedures are illustrated in Ex. 15-9. The piece is in ^ minor,
CONCLUSION OF THKEEVOICE COMBINATIONS 239

and both of the endings opening section of the sonata (which is repeated)
for the
are achieved through transient-terminal cadences to the dominant. In both in-
stances the cadential pitch a, the dominant, has been tripled.

Ex. 15-9. Corelli : Keyboard Sonata, Giga (Allegro).

^ ^rr^m m ^ is m ^
^^1
r
^
7yF
^
s p ^ m ^^ p ^ ^
7
_
y y ff I

m ^ ^^ ^ i.
,Mt^^^¥-
^
fi
i

'n r ^r p
r yyl^ ^ ^^
^gVj^
P
s ±± fc ±±: I
^m ^ ^^ 5

*
J

m
f-^-^

^^
j)yr}

^m ^ ±3z
f
^^ S^
^^
XJ^
1.

>^HHh

m- m
J
J-

»•
y y

It important to point out that leading tones, pitches that form tritones, dec-
is

orative pitches, and altered tones generally are not doubled in three-voice tex-
tures. In other words, pitches which suggest continued movement and create
instability are not reinforced. When exceptions to this basic consideration occur,
they are usually located in weak metric positions, thus attracting less attention.
Two exceptional doublings, involving the interval of the fourth above the bass,
are seen in Ex. 15-10. Here the doubling of a fourth results from simultaneous use
of decorative tones which coincide on weak portions of the beat.
240 CONCLUSION OF THREE-VOICE COMBINATIONS

Ex. 15-10. Doubling.

X I
^
-/ -
J rni J J J
"
r r ^ T r
S'r=f
pS i

Decorative Patterns.

Decorative activity in three voices is consistent with and in proportion to the

rhythmic activity of parts. It may
be located primarily in one prevailing part, as
in Ex. 15-11, distributed between two coupled voices, as in Ex. 15-12, or it may
be couched in voices of equal activity, as seen in Ex. 15-13 by Hindemith.

Ex. 15-11. Beethoven: Op. 59, No. 1.

^
^S ^ # «
#
f «
JJZ
t

^^
m

Ex.
m
15-12. Buxtehude: Organ Prelude.
w ^ m•r f

^Pi
^^
fe g^ 'g^ i
?: ^^>^;^^
CONCLUSION OF THREE-VOICE COMBINATIONS 241

Ex. 15-13. Hindemith: Ludus Tonalis, Fugue, No. 8. (C) 1943 by Schoft & Co., Ltd., London.

^ ^ *^ ^ ^ r— cfcj • i
F
^
^
J

J''i:,, ^^ '

SJ n.^
r r Cj>
*

r
H J

r
')^ > V
P U'm i
^^
In some instances, such as Ex. 15-14, decorative patterns may represent a color-
ful aspect of the organization of voices whose function is mainly accompanimental.

Ex. 15-14. Mozart: Piano Concerto in C Minor.

f ^ i J J ^^^ m ^^^
^
^^ ^m
^
J- ^Tj. i Jii J-

BP ? i

A study of the preceding illustrations by Beethoven (Ex. 15-11) and Buxtehude

and neighbor tones
(Ex. 15-12) will reveal that, as in two-voice textures, passing
comprise the most common forms of melodic embellishment. That such a state-
ment applies to a vast amount of music may be deduced by analyzing the excerpt
by Hindemith (Ex. 15-13). Here, despite a more complex rhythmic and harmonic
fabric, decorative pitches are approached or resolved by step. Each independent
voice forms a cohesive and meaningful musical line, and the three parts fit har-
monically into an intelligible tonal whole. The importance of the tonality frame,
—
d—f-sharp a, as the primary points of pitch focus, can be heard clearly.
The importance of passing and neighbor tones in melodic patterns such as the
sequence and imitation cannot be overstressed. An interesting sequential use of
passing tones is found in Ex. 15-15 from a motet by Ockeghem.
242 CONCLUSION OF THREE-VOICE COMBINATIONS

Ex. 15-15. Ockeghem : Motet, Ut hermita solus.

^
s rn f7] „i J

UJtS'-^M' i * rdA PL
"FCS^
, I

^ f^ # T ^^ r

Double passing tones in thirds occur on the second half of beat three in measure
1. At the same point, the bass, moving in contrary motion, ascends through a pas-
sing figure to a. Consecutive dissonances are heard on both parts of the beat, but
each dissonance is resolved by step to a member of the prevailing harmony, a d
minor triad. A similar treatment of passing tones is heard in measure 2, organized
around an a minor triad.
Syncopated upper neighbors, moving in parallel tenths, form an entirely con-
sonant embellishment of the prevailing d minor sonority in Ex. 15-16. The im-
portance of members of the tonality frame, here d^ and a, as doubled tones in
three-voice writing, is significant.

Ex. 15-16. Ockeghem: Motet.

s rT^jTj m ^ ^m
^ CJUUS-U^ ^ ^
r
I
r r

Note that g^ and b-JIat are upper neighbors to the basic pitches/^ and a^, despite
their triadic agreement with d^, because of their short duration. The root progres-

sion of the entire example could be expressed as V' o . This is a good

example of how a composer may organize an extended contrapuntal passage

around a simple harmonic framework.

Ex. 15-17. Obrecht : Motet, O vos omnes.

Alto
m ? ^ ^ m
L^
Tenor
Bass
N
a i^
f^
J
^
U'
T
-J J
P I ^ i
 ^

CONCLUSION OF THREE-VOICE COMBINATIONS 243

r^ ^^
i- ^n n
^
1
^
i
%
*
^p f=T P f
An interesting analytical problem is encountered in Ex. 15-18:

Ex.

^
''
15-18. Neighbor chord.

> rjr

Here three voices employ neighbor tones simultaneously in a homophonic texture.

However, considered vertically, the sixteenths, /-^Aar/), d-sharp and a, form a di-
minished triad in first The duration of this chord is so brief that we are
inversion.
hardly aware of a change of sonority. None of the members of the chord is a basic
pitch. This type of harmonic agreement of several non-basic pitches (in this case
neighbor tones) is usually called a neighbor chord. As we have seen, its relationship
to context is decorative.
In general, chords (or intervals) of less duration than the prevailing beat unit,
all of whose members can be understood as decorative pitches, are regarded as
of essentially melodic importance, rather than as significant changes of harmony.
Such sonorities have virtually no
on root relationships or tonal function, ex-
effect
cept in extremely slow tempi, or where they occur as part of a consistent harmonic
rhythm. This matter will be discussed more extensively in subsequent chapters.
Simultaneous passing tones may also create decorative passing chords, as in Ex.
15-19.
-*-

Ex. 15-19.

k;,. J.— 1
J ijJj m J

ft^
^
r p[j>rc£f-

^^ # ^^ #!•
d^'ii'
244 CONCLUSION OF THREE-VOICE COMBINATIONS

The role of decorative pitches in Ex. 15-19 can be studied by comparing Ex. 15-19
with its reduction (Ex. 15-20).

Ex. 15-20. Reduction of Ex. 15-19.

f^¥?
±^
f^=T -« :zt

^ jh isn
T^ f'

^
r
i
tfo-.

When all three voices move in parallel motion, contrapuntal interest is denied
in favor of harmonic color, and we tend to hear as basic those sonorities that occur
in strong metric positions. See Ex. 15-21.

Ex. 15-21. Three-voice parallel motion.

Two factors are generally present in sonorities whose roles are primarily decora-
tive: melodic motion by step^ and short —weak duration and metric placement.
These "chords" may be viewed as one views pitches of a single strand of melody
which, although not part of the basic melody, fill in and connect more structural
points in the line. Their role in the construction of a "finished product" is nonethe-
less essential.

Suspensions in Three-Voice Textures.

Suspension figures account for a great variety of on-the-beat dissonance in three-

voice writing. All of the types of suspensions found in two parts occur in three-
voice music, but some, such as the 9-8, are more common in three voices than in
two.

Ex. 15-22.

st^ ^-^^ ^ i i rzi

Krrnr r r f-f rrv nrr r

'n^i> I - ^ J J. M
9-8
(7 - 6)
7-6
^9-3
(2-3)
i^
2-3
 " )

CONCLUSION OF THREE-VOICE COMBINATIONS 245

The excerpt in Ex. 15-23 contains several suspensions. Perform the example,
paying particular attention to the way the music is impelled forward by the suspen-
sions, whose resolutions coincide with the intioduction of a new voice.

Ex. 15-23. Fischer: Fugue for Organ.

12
J. C.

3 4

')% '^
lOI

^
^_l J J
icc:

17 18 19 20 21 22 23

^^
,

r r n
fe

ZUE -0-
r
-o-

_J:
O
±j-K
xn

At measure 1 1 a 4-3 suspension occurs in the middle part. The top voice is con-
sonant with the bass. However, the instability created at this point (in measure 1
1

is not solely a product of the perfect fourth between the bass and middle voice.
On the contrary, it results from the 2-3 suspension created between the middle and
upper voices. Although it is common to identify this typical configuration of three
parts as a 4-3 suspension, it is equally important to be aware of the double nature,
so to speak, of this and other suspension figures. The voice above the bass that does
not participate in the suspension figure usually forms a consonance with the bass
(or lowest sounding part). This aspect of the suspension in three voices is clearly
illustrated in measures 9, 11, 12, 15, 19, 20 and 21 of Ex. 15-23.
We noted in our study of two-voice combinations that the lower voice sometimes
changes pitch while an upper voice suspension resolves. The "change of bass" is a
common feature of suspensions in three-voice textures too.
 246 CONCLUSION Of THREE-VOICE COMBINATIONS

Ex. 15-24a. Haydn: Piano Sonata No. 7,

( ^M
1

i I 7p
nr
m^
^ 2M ^^U
^
^
i

=nz;
^ J
—
8

J J J
I

~rn]i-i J I
11

The reduction in Ex. 15-24b reveals the importance of suspensions in the excerpt.

Ex.

12^
15-24b. Reduction of Ex. 15-24a.

')7u
T!^^=t

a
^ ^^i r
rrr
^
^ fiU
rt=f P
^
^E^
f

P
7-3
11

j—-!^
^m
f f
^-v ^
rf P ^
j-fj J H-J
P
J

^ J

^^ #
§sfit
^ P

The "change of bass" pattern is a prominent feature of most of the suspensions

in the excerpt. In measure 2, for example, the bass moves from : to/as the seventh
{B'-flat) resolves to a^. Since the bass moves to another pitch that forms a con-
sonance with a}, (just as the c that formed the dissonant seventh would), the resolu-
tion of the suspended dissonance is completed. Changes of bass most often occur
in contrarymotion with the resolution of the suspension. They involve motion to
pitches which create a consonance with the resolution of the upper voice. The
CONCLUSION OF THREE-VOICE COMBINATIONS 247

intervals created by the suspension pattern in measure 2 would be represented

by 7-3.

Ornamental Resolutions of Suspensions.

Resolutions of suspensions are frequently elaborated through the interpolation

of pitches which prolong or embellish the dissonance. In bar one of Ex. 15-25, the
resolution of the suspended e^ has been decorated by motion to two interpolated
pitches, a^ and/^ sharp. D^ is the note of resolution of the dissonance, but its arrival
has been delayed by the intervening activity. Decorative pitches, consonant or
dissonant, which enhance the resolution of a suspension are frequently called chang-
ing tones. Ornamental activity, such as the type seen in Ex. 15-25, is not basic to
the suspension pattern and need not be included in an intervallic analysis.

Ex. 15-25. Mozart: Piano Concerto No. 23 in

p^ ^#^
A major.

T
m r^^
^
^ fl

6 7-6 7-6 2-3 7 (3)

A variety of suspension patterns enhance the illustration by Walther shown as

Ex. 15-26.

Ex. 15-26. Walther: Organ Prelude.

I I
rzs^ E E^r
ni
l£ ^^'^ m
248 CONCLUSION OF THREE-VOICE COMBINATIONS

The following summary of principles which characterize the use of suspensions

should be noted:
1. 4-3, 7-6, 6-5, 9-8 and 2-3 figures occur in three-voice compositions.
2. Secondary- suspensions often occur between the two upper voices in conjunction
with suspensions above the bass.
3. The note of resolution is not generally sounded against the dissonance on the
same level as the dissonance. It frequently occurs in a different octave. This is

always true with 9-8 suspensions, sometimes in 7-6 patterns.

4. Suspended tones are not doubled.
5. Change of bass may occur with the suspension.
6. Suspensions are frequently ornamented by the interpolation of changing tones,
which constitute elaborations of the suspension figure.

7. Suspensions may occur as diatonic or as altered pitches.

In the hands of some composers (such as Beethoven, example) the suspension

for
has been more freely treated. Ex. 15-27 incorporates several unusual suspensions
in an interesting three-voice texture.

Ex. 15-27. Beethoven: Op. 110, Fugue.

Other Forms of Pitch Decoration.

The escape tone, the leaning tone, and the anticipation are less frequent forms
of melodic embellishment in three-voice compositions. The techniques associated
with their use do not differ significantly in three-voice writing from their treatment
in two voices. The same dissonant to consonant intervallic movement formed by
CONCLUSION OF THREE-VOICE COMBINATIONS 249

the suspension, i.e., 9-8, 7-6, 6-5, 4-3, is created by leaning tones, although they
occur more rarely than suspensions. Accented unprepared dissonances are un-
common until the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, although they can be located
in scattered instances before the nineteenth century. Escape tones, anticipations,
and leaning tones are illustrated in a variety of musical styles in Ex. 15-28. A further
similarity between two and three-voice procedures lies in the fact that examples
of these forms of decoration occur most often in the top voice.

^
Ex. 15-28a. Binchois : Rondeau, De plus en plui.

^
e.t. ant. e.t.

?
X

5
^m X

JM
X

5 5

^m i
J.

^^
i-
LM^p
Ex. 15-28b. Bach: Sinfonia in E-flaf.

»'•'-
?hS-ffl
Ln.t
X

m
in.'i\*r '^; ^

Ex. 15-28c. Bach: Fugue in G minor, Well-tempered Clavier, Book I.

unaccented
leaning tone susp.
X 7-6 « X ace. p.t.

f'^'M-^J j *^
n. tones

m
*\
-e-
tonic pedal
250 CONCLUSION OF THREE-VOICE COMBINATIONS

Ex. 15-28d. Beethoven: Opus 18, No. 2.

d p.t.
X

S » ^
ga m
Ln.t
Ln.t •,
X
X
iE^ ^
^
i
n^ r r
f^ ^
^ ^ r »f

*^=F^

The tone of resolution is usually not sounded along with the leaning tone, there-
fore, the sequence in Ex. 15-29 will almost never be found.

Ex. 15-29.

#%^-i^ 'S

Exercises.

See Chapter 15 of Materials and Structure of Music I, Workbook, for more detailed exercises.

1. Write ten different spacings of the D major triad for each of three different combinations
of three voices, such as soprano, alto and tenor.
2. Use examples in this chapter for sight reading vocally and at the piano.
3. Analyze all decorative patterns in Ex. 15-6a.
4. Transpose the tenor (middle) part of Ex. 15-6a up a whole step; then add an upper and
lower part in the style of Ex. 15-6, using appropriate decorative patterns. Analyze your
work, accounting for chord roots and decorative pitches.
5. Use Ex. 15-28 for aural recognition of decorative pitches.
6. Add two voices above the bass line in Ex. 15-19. Include examples of every type of sus-
pension in the setting. Transpose the bass down a major second before beginning the
setting.

7. Make a homophonic keyboard setting of the upper line in Ex. 15-19.

8. Write a contrapuntal setting (in three equal voices) based on the harmonic reduction in
Ex. 15-5b. Use imitative entries in each part.
 Ho mophonic Textures
of Four Voices;
16
No n-Chord
Tones

In our consideration of musical organization to this point our em-

phasis has been on combinations of individual voices. We have seen how linear
patterns may be combined and how, in three-voice writing, these combinations
produce chords.
All music is not conceived as combinations of independent melodic lines in ; much
music one line is prominent, while subordinate lines (often in corresponding
rhythms) produce an accompanying harmony. Such textures are called homo-
phonic. We shall consider this term as the opposite of contrapuntal, since the latter
describes music in which the separate parts are of relatively equal melodic inter-
est.

The following example homophonic there is one dominating melody and the
is ;

remaining texture forms a chordal background that complements the important

top voice. Notice that the two-voice framework is still a significant structural fea-
ture of the total texture.

Ex. 16-1. Schubert: Schwanengesang.

3 I 3
252 HOMOPHONIC TEXTURES; NON-CHORD TONES

Even when one voice is of decided prominence, the other lines certainly may be
"melodic," in the sense that they contain some elements of rhythmic or contoural
independence. In textures such as the following the overall effect is not exclusively
that of counterpoint or of pure homophony; the result is rather that of a succession
of block harmonies interwoven with some isolated rhythmic activity and lines of
simple melodic distinctiveness.

Ex. 16-2. Palestrina : Adoramus fe Chrisfe.

^^ m -Q- 331

nrr
m
m ^^ 8 fc
3X
* o
jOlL

jOO
^ ^r:
nn 331

S 33: 32:
33:
33:

Example 1 6-3 shows still another kind of homophonic texture, this one achieved
through only two which are rhythmically differentiated. The lower part
lines
outlines simple chords, while the melody unfolds with simple decorative patterns
(upper neighbors) around a basic pitch line that belongs to the chords of the lower
part.^

Ex. 16-3. Beethoven: Sonata Op. 79, III.

I P
m
i ^
i ^¥
^ The accompanimental figuration of this passage is typical of classic-period works, both as piano
and string patterns. It is called an Alberli bass, after the composer Domenico Alberti, who apparently
pioneered its use.
 HOMOPHONIC TEXTURES; NON-CHORD TONES 253

It is homophonic textures vary from clear-cut combinations of

clear, then, that
a melody with block-chord accompaniment to less obvious examples in which
contrapuntal elements are present, mainly as isolated spurts of rhythmic inde-
pendence one or more of the subordinate voices. The common elemen t of all is
in

a singularity of melodic interest and, frequent!)-, a oinnion bond of rhytluaic (

motior

Textural Considerations

In earlier chapters we discussed fundamental principles that govern contrapuntal

For the present we shall be concerned with tones related as blocks of
associations.
harmony rather than as combined horizontal lines which, as may happen, produce
discernable chords. It will be apparent that many of the principles related to the
connection of chords have their basis in principles discussed earlier in terms of
voice motion. It would be fallacious to regard the ground rules of harmony as
unrelated to principles of counterpoint. We shall begin with principles of a gener-
alized nature and proceed to more specific matters that are determined by par-
ticular circumstances.

Voice Ranges. It is customary to designate the four parts of a texture accord-

ing to the voice names of choral music, even when human voices are not involved.
Thus four parts are named, from top to bottom, Soprano, Alto, Tenor, and Bass. (See
page 130 of Chapter 9 for the usual ranges of these voice parts in the chorus.)

Notation. In notating parts for any combination of four voices, choral or

instrumental, the score can be "closed," in that it consists of all parts written togeth-
er on two staves, soprano and alto combined in the treble clef, tenor and bass
combined in the bass clef, as shown in Ex. 16-4.

Ex. 16-4. Closed Scoring.

Soprano
s ^E^y TTrr
Alto
P^ f
Tenor
Bass
^-^
P^ ^^^ ^ ^^^ i

Observe that the stems of individual parts indicate which voice the particular note
belongs to. Even when parts cross, this expedient shows the proper orientation of
the lines.

Doubling of Pitches. If we limit our harmonic resources to triads for the

present, a four-voice texture necessitates the duplication of one member of each
triad, and in some instances (because of linear factors or the desire for a particular
sonority) one member might even be tripled or quadrupled. This doubling can be
accomplished at the octave, double octave, etc., as well as at the unison.
254 HOMOPHONIC TEXTURES; NON-CHORD TONES

Ex. 16-5. Pitch Doubling in Triads.

^ ii ^ ^ i
1^
r r T
^ doubled
root
^
tripled
root
*
doubled
root
T-

^
doubled
fifth
doubled
root
4
doubled
third

At best, rules of doubling represent the practice of a particular composer,

the "norm" of an era of composition, or merely the unique sonority desired by
the composer at a particular moment. Furthermore, individual voice motion
frequently determines the constituent members of any particular sonority. However,
when sonority alone is the determining factor, the following can be regarded
as general guides:

Triads in Root Position

(a) Major root doubled
(b) Minor root doubled (or third)
(c) Diminished third doubled (°5 seldom occurs)
3
(d) Augmented third doubled (seldom occurs in any form)
Triads in First Inversion

(a) Major root doubled

(b) Minor third doubled (or root)
(c) Diminished third doubled (or fifth)
(d) Augmented third doubled (seldom occurs)

Triads in Second Inversion

(a) Major fifth doubled (bass pitch)
(b) Minor fifth doubled
(c) Diminished third doubled (or fifth)
(d) Augmented fifth doubled (or third)

Doubling the root of a major or minor triad emphasizes that chord's stability.
In the case of tonic, subdominant, and dominant triads, this doubling procedure
also reinforces an important scale degree, 1, 4, or 5. Since these tones remain con-
stant (do not vary with change of mode), they act as the fixed tonal elements of any
key. As a consequence, they are often doubled within a four-pitch chord rather than
some other tone.
As can be deduced from the chart above, certain duplications are generally
avoided. For example, we expect the leading tone of a key (when that key has been
established) to resolve by step upward. To double this tone in a chord would exag-
gerate this expectation. And in chords containing a tritone (the diatonic chords
ii° in minor, vii° in major and in melodic and harmonic minor) the member
that is not a part of the tritone, the third, is usually doubled.
 \
HOMOPHONIC TEXTURES; NON-CHORD TONES 2J5

Ex. 16-6. Doubling in tritone chords.

M i J
^
a f
i erd-

r
3rd 3rd
!
s fe
^ i •
"ii°6 D: ii»6
VII a: ii

In homophonic textures the principles of doubling just cited can be overruled

if the linear progression of a particular voice would be hampered. In Ex. 16-7 the
sixth chord {a major triad) contains a doubled third, even though this third also
is the leading tone of the key. The extenuating factors are the melody's dip to e
in the subsequent chord (thus not resolving its g-sharp leading tone) and the more
graceful line created in the tenor voice by the step ascension of /-sharp —g-sharp —
a. Note that the cadential tonic chord measure 2 contains the doubling of its
in
root, a, but notice further that the third measure contains the V chord again with
the doubled third. Once more the circumstances are evident, for both of the ^-
sharps are a result of motion in the soprano and tenor lines.

Ex. 16-7. Praetorius : Ich dank dir, Lieber Herre.

Spacing of Four-voice Textures

The same voice distributions apply to four-voice combinations that were dis-
cussed in relation to three voices in Chapters 13 and 14. However, the addition of
another part makes possible a greater variety of voices, as well as a fuller texture.
As we noted wider intervals appear more frequently at the bottom of a
earlier,
texture than between the upper voices, except when lower voice couplings are
used. Intervals greater than an octave are found often between the bass and tenor;
they do not appear as frequently between adjacent upper voices, alto soprano, —
tenor — alto.
Two basic types of spacing traditionally have been applied to the dispositions of
256 HOMOPHON/C TEXTURES, NON-CHORD TONES

four voices: the term "close" applies to any arrangement in which the three upper
members of a chord are in their closest possible positions. In such arrangements the
soprano and tenor voices normally lie no more than an octave apart.

Ex. 16-8. Close Spacing.

The term open is used to denote distributions in which the three upper parts are
not arranged in their closest possible relations. In such arrangements the soprano
and tenor notes will usually (though not always) lie more than an octave apart.

Ex. 16-9. Open Spacing.

u
ffef^ H^ If:

rr^
'y-hk r. iP '^
"trrr

r
The designations of^ close and open are helpful, but they are such general descrip-
tions that many kinds of spacing are not adequately identifiable by them. We can
add the term homogeneous to apply to any distribution, close or open, that makes
use of approximately equal intervals between the adjacent parts of a texture.

Ex. 16-10. Homogeneous spacing.

vrj»i^>>:
HOMOPHONIC TEXTURES; NON-CHORD TONES 257

The opposite of homogeneous, heterogeneous, refers to any chord in which the

members are^aced with unequal gaps between them. Notice that most hetero-
geneous spacings are automatically also open.

Ex. 16-11. Heterogeneous Spacing.

J3
A ^
10
59:
i
r 11
r
J i
¥ i 3=51
$
33:
f
r

A which separate pairs of adjacent voices are coupled to-

four-voice texture in
gether (as described in the discussion of spacing in Chapter 1 3) would be a hetero-
geneous spacing. These kinds of arrangements are more typical of instrumental tex-
tures than of vocal. The use of certain heterogeneous distributions depends upon
the available pitch range covered by participating instruments; obviously a com-
bination of piccolo, clarinet, trumpet, and tuba possesses greater potentiality for
heterogeneous spacings than do the soprano, alto, tenor, and bass vocal choir.
Ex. 16-12 contains six different settings of the first phrase of America. Each pas-
sage has been written to illustrate a particular distribution of voices in close, open-
homogeneous and heterogeneous spacings. would be pointless to judge the rela-
It

tive merits of the six settings, for the value of any one type could be decided only
in terms of its fulfillment of a particular musical need. Examples (a) and (b) are
similar to choral textures used for this kind of communal song however,
; the re-
maining settings might be more appropriate for other uses. Each version should
be played or sung several times, followed by a detailed discussion of the various
factors that contribute to its general musical effect.

Ex. 16-12. Six Settings of America.

(a) Open homogenenus: common chorda! distribution

rrj T
^ f f
 258 HOMOPHONIC TEXTURES; NON-CHORD TONES

Ex. 16-12. continued.

(b) Close homogeneous; emphasis on brilliance of sonority

(c) Heterogeneous coupling; sop -alto; tenor - bass

'^m d s

^
/|i
T /i' ii' i' i' ii' $ f
^ If

i id.
i M i
r
(d)

^
Heterogeneous coupling; soprano; alto-tenor, bass

^ i^U
P^
i^ ^ i
r
^^ J A J.

pr ^ r
J:

r
J.

r »pr
;)J

V r r
1
^"

(e)

tm^
rrr
Homogeneous; emphasis on low

^ g ^^^ register (somber timbre)

rrr ^^^
5
r
^^ ^ ^1
•\
-l£ ^ L

r r
'

r I? $ ^ #
i
r^ r=r^

^^
<llll (f ) Open, homogeneous: emphasis on breadth of sonority, fullness of timbre

m ^TT il i 'iJ J J iE^ J J J ,J

f
^ ^J^U
rr
f=7f
i i J 1. J)A
HOMOPHONIC TEXTURES; NON-CHORD TONES 259

Composers control the spacing properties of their music with the same care
lavished on chord structure, melodic pattern, and rhythmic motion; the appro-
priate chord could be inappropriate if its spacing were not matched with the desired
effect. In this respect, spacing, individual voice range, and dynamics are insepara-

ble factors. Example 16-13 shows a passage in which all three of these factors are
combined in a complementary union that creates a sense of placid solemnity. Note
that all four voices lie within the lower reaches of their respective ranges, that the
spacing is generally homogeneous, and that the dynamic level is piano.

Ex. 16-13. Beethoven: Missa Solemnis, Gloria.

Soprano
P

pax
-0
ho -
—a
mi -
^
ni -
-^
bus, ho - mi ni
m
-
I m
bus
m bo

P
Alto i
^ ^5^ * «•
pax ho - mi ni - bus, ho - mi ni - bus bo -nae.

Tenor
P
^ ? i ^^
pa X ho - mi - ni - bus , ho - mi - n I
- bus b(5 -nae,

u
^
t^'tt \
>
B ass //•fttt
I'll X
•
It r^ *
<u .
r^ •
« i r. i 1 i II

pax ho - mi - ni - bus bo -nae.

The excerpt in Ex. 16-14 illustrates the way a single musical phrase might shift
quickly from one kind of distribution to another. Here the upper and the lower
pairs of voices are coupled ; after a beginning that is open, the couplings move to-

gether into a tight formation.

Ex. 16-14. Dello Joio Song of Affirmation, Part

: I. Copyright 1953 by Carl Fischer, Inc.

Reprinted by permission.

Soprano
Alto
iJ 'i'
i' 'i' i'

Tenor
Bass
\y- i
I

'f
r p i
toll them out like bells
 260 HOMOPHONIC TEXTURES; NON-CHORD TONES

The opposite condition, a close spacing moving progressively to an open, could

be equally appropriate in another musical situation. Furthermore, abrupt shifts
from one spacing to another are most appropriate when the nature of the passage
demands variety rather than unity for its intended effect. In general, a single kind
of vertical distribution prevails within any musical phrase or passage.

Harmonic Succession

In homophonic textures chord structure is the main organizational determinant,

while in contrapuntal combinations the melodic logic of individual lines emerges
as most significant. added emphasis on the vertical harmonic unit,
Because of this
the way in which chords are juxtaposed becomes an important issue. In some
passages the rate of chord change is conspicuously periodic, thereby lending an
effect of simplicity to the whole texture.

Ex. 16-15. Schubert: Impromptu, Op. 90.

Allegretto

In some works this consistency of harmonic change joins with other elements
to create a tightly-knit structure. The compositions from which the passages in
Ex. 16-16 are extracted are almost totally organized upon the rate of harmonic
change established in their initial measures.

Ex. 16-16a. Bach: Well-tempered Clavier, Book I, Preludium I.

Moderate # = 112

Chord
changes: .
 i

HOMOPHONIC TEXTURES; NON-CHORD TONES 261

¥
i' 'rn'M gffl^E
W.

j^^ Ifeffl
?J).-^ !>-i ?Jr-J ?>-[ ^ir-i ?iri
S^ r " r ^^=^^
X 5W
^^
VI

j
•''

M.'' i
iffi- la/ffl
^^S
SbEgSa

^ 2i).-i

Si
zr
ik-1 lyi
g
iiw
J
?>J
i L
?i)nJ
i
Ex. 16-16b. Mendelssohn: Op. 102, No. 3.

Presto

^ r r r j
'

i-j)
-^

s
Chord
changes:
L. I I L.
feii
I 1
1^i

^^
^
^^ ^^ %X%
P I I
I I L I 1 I
m I
iJMi -^^^
I I

Nonetheless, strict uniformity is not always the case. In most works (or at least
sections) a generally uniform pattern of chord change is retained, but deviations
from this norm occur, in some cases to fit particular melodic patterns, in other cases
to intensify climactic sections through an acceleration of harmonic rhythm.
The passage in Ex. 16-17 is typical of simple and orderly phrases of the classical

period; it displays a deviation from an established norm, but this deviation itself
becomes another norm. Observe that the rate of change of the second phrase is

twice that of the first, thus producing a kind of "harmonic accelerando."

262 HOMOPHONIC TEXTURES, NON-CHORD TONES

Ex. 16-17. Mozart: Symphony in G minor, K. 550, III.

i
rJ ms
-\ r

t ^
T'T rn
f
^^ g:
^ ^
m "S t R

^4 &
T r

> rnm w^ ^
i T r f
^ri
^m f W*" ^

When the rate of harmonic change is rapid (relative to the rhythms ot'participat-
ing voices), a feeling of greater momentum is imparted to the whole texture. On
the other hand, a relatively plodding rate of change effects relaxation.

Contrapuntal Considerations (Voice leading)

Although linear matters are not paramount in homophonic textures, the joining
of one chord with another is normally achieved by means of predictable motion
from one chord tone to the next. The individual chord members are links in separate
unfolding chains of lines, even if those lines are sometimes of negligible melodic
interest. In this sense, linear considerations are pertinent.

Except for unique instances, all lines of a four-voice texture do not move in
parallel motion, and it is obviously impossible for all voices in such a texture to
move in contrary or oblique motion in relation to one another. In the usual four-
voice homophonic texture a general balance of all of these possible relationships is

maintained in a balanced union.

In achieving this balance the following principles hold true:
1. Consecutive (parallel) fifths and octaves usually do not occur between any two
voices, particularly between the outer voices.
 —

HOMOPHONIC TEXTURES; NON-CHORD TONES 263

Ex. 16-18. Parallel Motion.

^m#4^
k=^
^
i
J
3
i^^
f
i
r
1
^^
I*
S^ I
r
i
r

g
Parallel octaves
f
Parallel fifths Contrary octaves

2. Fifths and octaves usually are not approached by similar motion in the same
voices, particularly in the outer voices. This occurs occasionally at cadences,
but even here one voice almost always moves by step^to the cadential sonority.

Ex. 16-19. Similar Octaves and Fifths.

m
^^rf
hb^
¥
1 A
m m
B

gg f
J
i
T
t
a
?^

T r
Similar 8x'es, both voices Similar 8ves, upper voice Bk: ii« I

skipping { avoided) stepping ( common, particularly 5ths approached by

at cadences) similar motion (rare
between outer voices)

3. A tritone created by two voices normally resolves in the manner established

earlier, i.e., the °5 contracts, the +4 expands.

Ex. 16-20. Resolution of Tritones.

°5 (contracts) +4 (expands) But also: +4- p4

st xc ^TT~ ^
r T
^
or o5 P5 and
^- :
^^^ m
>-o
jOZ

a mmor ifoO
vu 5
f f
vii" 18
f
264 HOMOPHONIC TEXTURES; NON-CHORD TONES

4. Voices usually maintain their range identities by not overlapping immediately

into the range of adjacent voices.

Ex. 16-21. Overlapping Voices.

5. The outer voices of a texture create an effective two-voice counterpoint; the

inner voices are in many instances reduced to subsidiary lines.

Ex.

'$
16-22.

*
Schumann: Freue

r
^
dich,

f
O meine See/e (Album for the Young, Op.

r If
j-
f
J
68).

m^& P SI
4

O'

Reduction
^ A ii

Basic outer framework

^^ /7s

m i ^
f 'o

6. When linear considerations do not preclude it, every vertical point contains a
full complement of chord tones, root (or prime), third, and fifth. When this pos-

sibility is overruled, a simpler sonority might well result diad, unison, or octave
:

doubling, etc. (The composer's desire for a particular sonority also can overrule
this norm of the complete chord.)
7. W'hen two successive chords contain one note that is common to both (or in
some instance more than one), this note is retained in the same voice part unless
melodic considerations demand another mode of linkage.

f
HOMOPHONIC TEXTURES; NON-CHORD TONES 265

Ex. 16-23. Common tones between chords.

la) (b) (c)

*
^ i: > J .1

1
me^
Bb: V
f Bb: IV Bb: lii

A step-by-step working procedure for the homophonic setting of a given melody

is shown in Ex. 16-24. The result is only one of many possible solutions to the given
problem. These settings are planned as simple choral arrangements without re-
course to any procedures which would create more forceful musical statements.
The chordal resources deliberately have been limited to diatonic traids.

Ex. 16-24. Working Procedure for Setting of Melody.

^
(A)

(B)
Melody

Added
^
7SZ

^
basic pitches for bass voice
^m m
ftfp^ ~=^- p¥=^ -^ m- ^•
^y^ ^'
M
-J ^- 2 m
A
1 ~i~l Y-

m -• • —
s ^m^ •
-• -• -• -•

(C) Bass voice completed ( + = decorative pitch)

^
m ±^ -^ ii h^ i i

s W
Implied
chords:
I V Nli" I (16) lie (ii) lii vi^ iii
Wivsys I ii v i

(D) Basic pitches for middle voices added

i^ =f=^
•Q
^ ^ i^ •
^
?

^ ^
 266 HOMOPHONIC TEXTURES; NON-CHORD TONES

Ex. 16-24. continued.

(E) Completion of middle voices

(F) Decorative patterns added for more contrapuntal texture

Non-chord Tones

The decorative patterns discussed in earlier chapters play an important role in

homophonic —or "chordal" — textures. They are better illustrated in such contexts
by the name non-chord tones. It will be apparent that no basic differences separate
the treatment of the decorative tones in two-and three-voice contrapuntal com-
binations from the same kinds of patterns in relation to a particular chord ; a pass-
ing tone is still a passing tone, a suspension is still a suspension. But we can now
consider decorative patterns from two standpoints: their melodic (horizontal)
structure and accompanying chord (vertical). Generally
their relationship to the
these two facets coincide, patterns which form a decorative melodic pattern creat-
ing a harmonic relation with accompanying tones that can be distinguished as
"non-chordal."
W^e can now regard the passing tone as a non-chord tone that is approached by step
from a chord member and resolves to another chord member by step in the same
direction. The intervallic progression is still basically the same as in contrapuntal
textures, forming a series o{ stable — unstable — stable, but the actual members of each
successive chord must be known in order to separate the non-chord from chord
members.

m
HOMOPHONIC TEXTURES ; NON-CHORD TONES 267

Ex. 16-25. Passing Tones.

VI

Neighbor tones fulfill a similar role in relation to a chord they are non-chord tones
:

approached by step from a chord member which return to the same chord mem-
ber.

Ex. 16-26. Neighbor tones.

*
m i^ i
¥ ^ E 3
r

D:
J.

I5
J.

r
V7
I
^r J.

IV

The escape tone is a non-chord tone (usually approached by

unaccented), that is

step from a chord member and is left by leap. As described first in Chapter 8, it
may be left by leap in either direction, but a change of direction occurs most fre-
quently. The leaning tone, on the other hand, is a non-chord tone approached by
leap from a chord tone, but left by step. Again the direction of resolution is vari-
able, but a change from the approach is most frequent.

Ex. 16-27. Escape and Leaning Tones,

te i
te

r ^ T ^

IV6
^ C : ill ii» 16
 .

268 HOMOPHONIC TEXTURES; NON-CHORD TONES

To continue our review and slight redefinition of decorative patterns, we can

say that the anticipation is a non-chord
tone that immediately precedes its repetition
as a chord tone, usually just before a strong beat.

^
Ex. 16-28. Anticipation.

^
m r
A i
r
S
E minor :
i

V
1.

C
m^
55?^

major: V
13

The following excerpts should be studied in terms of their use of the non-chord
tones discussed thus far.

Ex. 16-29. Mozart: Marriage of Figaro, " Deh vieni, non tardar."
c

JMip I

f
f J p I J J^r^ l J J)^ y l

fi J)J^'f
|
^
^
Deh, vieni,

E
non tar

^
- dar

t
^i
I
-^
^ rr
^

s
Ex.
J.

16-30. Mozart: Variations on a

"1
m
_t-^ :!7. ^')

Menuet by Duport, Var.

h^m
J

I.
1'
HOMOPHONIC TEXTURES; NON-CHORD TONES 269

Ex. 16-31. Weber: Overture to Euryanfhe.

The suspension presents a slightly different set of considerations in the light of

our review of decorative patterns in homophonic contexts. In two-and three-voice
textures we described suspensions by noting the intervals formed between the
suspended tone and the other voices. With more complex textures, however, it is
no longer necessary to determine all of the intervallic relationships. Instead, we
shall refer to most types of suspensions only by measuring the suspended tone and
its resolution from what appears to be the characteristic dissonance-consonance
pattern formed. The following types, two of which are illustrated in Ex. 16-32, are
among the most common: 4 — 3, 9 — 8; 7 — 6, and 2 — 3. In many instances this
characteristic pattern will be formed between the suspension voice and the lowest
part of the texture.

Ex. 16-32. Brahms: Violin Sonato in G major, I.

f^^ ^ ^-» ^m^

^ (»•
:2-

^ 35:

Dissonances often are formed between the suspended note and members of the
chord other than the bass. In measure three of the above example a 7-6 suspen-
sion occurs between the highest note in the piano part and a lower voice, in addi-
tion to the 9-8 suspension formed with the bass.
 270 HOMOPHONIC TEXTURES, NON-CHORD TONES

Suspensions formed by the lowest voice are measured as before: from the sus-
pended note and its resolution to the upper member of the chord that forms the
characteristic dissonance. This type of suspension, illustrated in Ex. 16-33, is one
of the most frequent. A complete description of the intervals present within this

suspension would be 2\- For simplicity we can reduce this figuration to 2-3

alone.

7 Ex. 16-33. Pachelbel : Nun lasst oni Cott, dem Herren.

^^ r r

J J i
r r

^^
t^^^E^
J. i)frn J
^^^^
,

I
3x:

As a rule, composers have avoided doubling the resolution tone of a suspension

pattern. This principle applies more to certain types of suspensions than other
because of their particular harmonic context. Where the resolution pitch is a lead-
ing tone (as in many 4-3, 7-6, and 2-3 suspensions) composers have rarely doubled
this tone in another part.

Pedal Point

Pedal point —sometimes just "pedal" or "organ point" — is an excellent example

of a technique that composers have used extensively, a technique that is not peculiar
to any single musical style. In its simplest form a pedal figure consists of a tone that
is sustained through a succession of chords. It usually occurs in the lowest voice but
it found occasionally in the highest or an inner part. The term itself implies,
is

however, that its most frequent use is in the bass, for the "pedal" actuates the bass
notes of the organ.
An example of this technique is the Perotin excerpt shown below. The
early
lowest voice merely sustains a single pitch, above which the other two voices move
in a strictly measured rhythm.

Ex. 16-34. Perotin: Three-voice Organum, Alleluia.

^^ ^j:
^^ ^j iJ : ^J JJ ^-.
f I'l/
i

;i
^ ii-

m
HOMOPHONIC TEXTURES; NON-CHORD TONES 271

The tone that forms the pedal may or may not be a member of the successive
chords that occur above it. In the following it is the tonic; as such it is a member
of both the tonic and subdominant triads, but it is foreign to the dominant (as in

measure 4).

^
Ex. 16-35. Haydn: Quartet Op. 64, No. 2, IV.

m w ^m
m
g ^
J)

A i
sr r r

Pedal tones are not always sustained. Rearticulated pitches produce the same
harmonic effect in a slightly "busier" way, as in Ex. 16-36.

^^
Ex. 16-36. Haydn: Quartet Op. 50, No. 6, I

S 122
^ fe

7
#
m ^ ^
^m «: ^ 3JZ

DiJQi] u^nn ^nii n^an

VT
?

The and dominant pitches serve the pedal function most frequently, par-
tonic
ticularly in music of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Whatever pitch is
used, the pedal tone becomes a kind of static pillar of reference, the associated
chordal weavings acting as decorative patterns which prolong motion but do not
effect real changes in the harmonic structure of the passage.
The tonic pedal often appears near the beginning of a movement (as in the pre-
vious example by Haydn) or near the end. B^th are locations in which the com-
poser usually wishes to solidly establish the tonic. An examination of the Preludes
and Fugues of Bach's Well-tempered Clavier will disclose his fondness for the closing
tonic pedal. Used in this manner the pedal gives the impression that the harmonic
progress of the composition is closing, the moving voices are merely elaborating
previous material in a prolongation of the cadential pattern.
272 HOMOPHONIC TEXTURES; NON-CHORD TONES

Ex. 16-37. Bach: Well-fempered Clavier, Book I, Fugue II.

On the other hand, the dominant pedal is used with telUng effect as a signal of
the return of the tonic key. For obvious reasons, this is often found in compositions
just prior to a closing section. The following passage contains a pedal on the dom-
inant.

Ex. 16-38. Reger : Toccata in D minor.

^ I

sempre M.I
^ ff M
'

Gt.
^ it w^ £

^H J^
*ttJ* 2Z

More than one pitch may act as a pedal. Sometimes the tonic and dominant are
combined, as in the following example.

Ex. 16-39. Schubert: Der Leirmann (W/nferreise cycle).

m
^^ ^^
^LLiir ^m ps
tS>-=-

In determining the structure of the decorative chords which accompany a pedal,

it is necessary to disregard the pitch of the pedal itself, except at those points where
HOMOPHONIC TEXTURES; NON-CHORD TONES 273

it is clearly functioning as a member of the chord. One of the main tonal fascina-
tions of the pedal is the way in which quite foreign chords (in relation to the pedal
pitch) can be sounded with it and yet retain a sense of tonal stability. In this sense
chords which move over a pedal are decorative chords (passing chords, neighbor
chords, etc.), and as such they prolong the harmonic significance of the pedal
pitch itself.

Even more complicated uses of the same basic technique occur. Ex. 16-40 con-
tains a passage in which two violins arpeggiate a C major triad through three
measures, under which viola and cello move in parallel minor sevenths. Note again
that it is the unchanging triad arpeggiation, the pedal, that provides the stable
element; the moving sevenths form a decorative motion.

Ex. 16-40. Shosfakovifch : Quartet, Op. 49, By permission of the International Music
Company, New York.

Violins i.
S ^
^^ ^:
Viola ^
^¥^
Cello
w
Sinnultaneous Non-chord Tones

Non-chord tones do not always occur singularly. A great degree of harmonic

mobility can be created when two decorative patterns occur together, particularly
when they are articulated simultaneously. The simple combination of an anticipa-
tion along with the resolution of a suspension, for example, produces a sharp dis-
sonance colorfully known as the "Corelli clash." (In spite of the name, it was used
by other Baroque composers as well!)

Ex. 16-41. Corelli: Sonata Op. 2, No. 4.

f 4 g»
T
i m
r
^ r
S p e

"Tj
m f
Other non-chord tones are frequently combined, particularly when they are of
of the same type —
double passing tones, double neighboring tones, etc. Example
16-42 contains a double suspension. This type of pattern is particularly common
when two lines are moving in parallel thirds or sixths.
 27A HOMOPHONIC TEXTURES; NON-CHORD TONES

Ex. 16-42. Mozart: Motet, Ave verom corpus.

-7 ^^A?*.*^
^ m rrt
^ ^
J

^
1
^^ ^
A more complex combination occurs when an entire chord issuspended above
a foreign bass note. In Ex. 16-43 the first beat of the final measure contains a
diminished triad suspended over an arpeggiated tonic chord. The third tone (the
g'), unprepared in the previous chord, is added to the upper parts to form a more
complete sonority.

Ex. 16-43. Mozart: Sonata in D major, K. 311, I.

t^
^^ f
A non-chord figure containing a so-called free tone (which in terms of melodic
analysis would be merely a basic-associate) occurs when a pitch that is clearly
foreign to the prevailing chord is approached and resolved by skip. The cadence
shown example actually is similar to the bi-chordal effect illustrated
in the following
in Ex. 16-43; the lower line is merely an arpeggiated tonic triad, part of which
forms dissonant relations with the chord in the upper voices.

Ex. 16-44. Free tone.

^
^W^ ^
In some musical passages it is not easy to make an absolute judgment about what
is "chordal" and what is "non-chordal." We can note such a passage from an
earlier example, shown again below for our present purposes.
 — —

HOMOPHONIC TEXTURES; NON-CHORD TONES 275

Ex. 16-45. Schumann: Einsame S/umen (Waldszenen).

We might ask what is the chordal basis (or bases) for measure
f1
3. Is the progression
here VI —
with the c" of the top voice a leaning tone? Or is the whole measure
iv,

best described as founded in IV, the b flat' and a' functioning as successive passing
tones between the basic-associates c" and g'? The answer to this problem is best
sought through a basic-melody analysis, as well as attention to the total set of
melodic/harmonic patterns. The two lower parts, through skips, outline the IV
—
chord (C e-flat g). The boundary tones of the melody are easily accommodated
into this chordal unit, for they are the root and fifth (C G). As a consequence, the
entire measure can be described most accurately as a IV chord over which two
consecutive passing tones add melodic interest.
In some instances the total set of voices will not favor one interpretation of
harmonic structure over another. When this occurs, the simplest explanation should
be chosen if a choice must be made. The potentiality of a dual (or even triple) analysis
indicates the probability of an ambiguous passage, in terms of harmonic structure,
thus making a precise analytical distinction irrelevant anyway. The essential pur-
pose of analysis, after all, is to support and to intensify our understanding of musical
organization as an aural experience.

Exercises

For more detailed assignments see Materials and Structure of Music I, Workbook, Chapter 16.

1. Find several examples to illustrate each of the following homophonic textures:

a) a dominating melody with a chordal accompaniment;
b) block harmonies with isolated rhythm activity;
c) two-line texture, the lower outlining chords (similar to Ex. 16-3);
d) a texture in which contrapuntal and homophonic elements are blended.
2. Using the harmonic progression of Ex. 16-22 as a harmonic basis, create piano settings
illustrating homophonic textures a), c), and d) of Ex. 1 above.
3. Taking an F major triad as a harmonic unit, see how many different four-part arrange-
ments you can devise using customary vocal ranges, doublings, and spacings; do the same
with a d minor triad in first inversion.
4. Using the chord progression of Ex. 16-2 as a harmonic basis, write two different four-part
vocal phrases (SATB) according to the guides given for spacing, doubling, and voice
leading.
5. Choose passages from music you know from which to describe the patterns of harmonic
rhythm.
6. Perform each of the versions of America appearing in Ex. 16-14 by singing the chords
in arpeggiated form (bass up) making suitable octave transpositions in order to fit your
own vocal range.
 Tonic, Dominant, and
Subdominant Chords in Root
17
Position and First Inversion;

Dominant Seventh Chord

In this chapter we
examine some of the relationships that are
shall

formed by successive chords and the tonal center of a composition. We saw in

Chapter 14 that each scale degree may function as the root of a chord, and that
a chord may be identified by the scale step used as its actual root or prime. Descrip-
tive labels, such as tonic, subdominant, and dominant, are convenient to designate
chords without naming specific pitches. In this way identical harmonic relations
can be described with the same set of terms even though the actual pitches are
different. For the present we shall study some of the relations that are formed when
the chords whose roots are the first, fourth, or fifth scale steps are a part of the
musical fabric.

The Root Position and First Inversion Tonic Chord.

The tonic triad (I or i) is an important harmonic unit in a key. It serves the

same purpose in a harmonic context as does the tonal center of a melodic line:
it acts as a harmonic focal point. For this reason, the tonic chord appropriately

functions as a beginning and concluding harmony; a sensation of inconclusiveness

results if final resolution to the tonic is absent.
In the following example the harmonic activity is concluded in two different
—
ways once with the tonic and once with another diatonic triad. A performance
of each of these endings will demonstrate the inconclusiveness resulting from the
delay or absence of the tonic.

276
TONIC. DOMINANT. AND SUBDOMINANT CHORDS; DOMINANT SEVENTH CHORD 277

Ex.

i
Wr^
^ 17-1. Mozart: Trio

i
^
in E Major, K. 542,

* *s

I
I (adapted)

or

m i
i mw
S
-0-

V^ V7 IV

Compositions frequently begin with the tonic chord. This procedure, illustrated
in Ex. 17-2, establishes the tonic immediately. (At times a delay in the initial
appearance of the tonic may produce a desirable effect of expectation for the
listener.)

Ex. 17-2. Haydn: String Quartet, Op. 20, No.

M
6, I.

1^ 33
^^

The structural significance of the tonic chord is often intensified by being

preceded by root movement of a descending perfect fifth (or ascending perfect
fourth). Such root motions (as in measures 1-2 of Ex. 17-1, and in Ex. 17-2) tend
to emphasize the second of the two roots, if rhythmic or dynamic considerations
do not indicate otherwise. The impression of harmonic intensity can be heightened
or diminished by the nature of the chords thems^^lves. Generally, the more com-
plex or the more dissonant the first chord, the more conclusive the effect of the
second.
Inversions of the tonic triad do not produce exacdy the same effect as the root
position. Part of this difference exists because inverted chords only have decorative
consonances between the bass and upper parts, whereas root position chords only
have cadential consonances between the bass and upper parts.
The first inversion of the tonic chord (Ig or ig) often appears directly after a root
position tonic, creating the effect of prolonging the tonic harmony even though
278 TON/C, DOMINANT, AND SUBDOMINANT CHORDS; DOMINANT SEVENTH CHORD

the bass changes. This can be seen in measures 1-2 of Ex. 17-3; here the bass out-
lines the tonic chord, with all chords except the second in root position. The Ig
chord is recognized because no change of root
heard between the first two is

chords, and the second chord contains a decorative consonance between the bass
and another part.

Ex. 17-3. Haydn: Symphony No. 86, I.

V f t f^-^
m
ijRf* -^-^ f=f ^ i

^ I
^ h-

16 V7
f ^
1 1 i

16 I\-
r

Because the tempo of the preceding example is Adagio, the motion I —^Ig is

easily perceived. Sometimes a rapid tempo makes it unlikely that the listener will
clearly perceive a change of position, as in Ex. 17-4. In this instance the motion to
E-flat in measure 2 adds to the illusion of motion created by the bass line.

Ex. 17-4. Purcell : Dido ond Aeneas, "Shake the Cloud."

^ u
w
^^-t^
rrrf
a
nK (i J
-6h
V
^^ S is i

The impression of prolonging the tonic chord i^ also present in Ex. 17-5. Here
the ig chord is associated with the beginning of step motion in the bass that leads
to the dominant note.

Ex. 17-5, Haydn: Symphony No. 95, Menuetto

j^^
^
I
r
^
^
J
^1 ife=t
W'' Hi'' '.6
* IV
TONIC, DOMINANT. AND SUiDOMINANT CHORDS; DOMINANT SEVENTH CHORD 279

Although Ig (ig) often follows I (i), this does not indicate the use of Ig as a cadence
chord. As a fin al cadential chord the most stable form is the r oot position triad.

The Root Position and First Inversion Dominant Chord.

The dominant triad is often directly involved in clearly establishing a tonic

chord as a harmonic focal point. There are two essential features involved in the
motion from dominant to tonic: (1) the root relationship of a descending perfect
fifth (oran ascending perfect fourth) and (2) the presence of the leading tone (the
diatonic seventh scale degree in major keys and the raised seventh degree in minor).
Both root movement down a perfect fifth and the leading tone-to-tonic relation
are illustrated in measure 1 of Ex. 17-6.

Ex. 17-6. Beethoven: Piano Concerto No. 5, Op. 73,

Adagio un poco moto

M^^ :s:

i r^^
h
1 fcn ?i^
" '" •
;

^L
X ^
-XI
-X IT 'M* T 1^4 -L

In major keys the dominant triad is, of course, major. In minor keys, however, '

Aatidhi /i]uiun
a wider range of possibilities exists. The diatonic dominant triad in minor is minor.
Although attractive and (to our ears) somewhat exotic when used in a cadence,
the minor dominant chord is not found as frequently in simple tonal music as a
major dominant. The latter requires a scale alteration the raised seventh degree. ,

Despite the required alteration, the leading tone should not be regarded as an
"altered" tone, since it is common property of the melodic and harmonic minor
scales. The effect of the minor dominant (v) is effectively demonstrated in Ex. 17-7.

Ex. 17-7. Vaughan Williams: Mass in G Minor, Kyrie. Reprinted by permission of the
copyright owner, G. Schirmer, Inc.

^^
i^
i
=? i 1
r f
i i
16 V
280 TONIC, DOMINANT. AND SUBDOMINANT CHORDS; DOMINANT SEVENTH CHORD

The Vg is more stereotyped in terms of occurrence in musical context than Ig,

chiefly because of the tendencies present in the bass Hne in the form of the leading
tone. When the leading tone is exposed in one of the outer voices, it is usually
resolved up by a half step. If the leading tone appears in an inner part, however,
it is often resolved with greater freedom. This may be stated another way: harmonic
considerations often govern the movement of inner parts (doublings, spacings, etcTJ;
linear considerations most frequently govern the motion of the outer voices which_
constitute the basic framework of the texture. Since the leading tone is the bass
note of the Vg chord, the chord of resolution usually will have the tonic note in
the bass, a result of ascending half step motion.
Example Vg both preceded and followed by tonic. As is often
1 7-8 illustrates
the case, the first inversion of the dominant is associated with step motion in the
bass. This example also contains a shift of texture from the two-voice imitative
writing in the first two bars to the chordal texture of the last two measures. Despite
the thinness of the texture the chord root in measures and 2 is clearly e. 1

Ex. 17-8. Rameau : Rigaudon.

ms ^ ^^ i i
e=t fe^
rr
^^ g f-g-r

V
^i V6 i V

An exception to the preceding occurs when Vg is followed by V. In such a case

the leading tone is moved x6 the root of the chord m- another chord member. This
does not mean that the resolution of the leading tone is ignored ; it is simply de-
layed or is heard in another voice.

Ex. 17-9. Handel: Judas Maccabaeus, Rejoice, O Judah.

S^
^
^^ m

^ra
T^
tt
ititz
/*

y^i
^ p^^
ii
m
m
I V6 V I 16 I IV
^^ V|I
TON/C, DOMINANT. AND SUiDOMINANT CHORDS, DOMINANT SEVENTH CHORD 281

An effective use of Vg occurs at the opening of Beethoven's Quartet, Op. 59,

No. 2, shown in Ex. 17-10. Although a measure of silence interrupts the harmonic
motion, the leading tone is eventually resolved to the tonic.

Ex. 17-10. Beethoven: Quartet in E Minor, Op. 59, No. 2, I.

The Root Position and First Inversion Subdominant Chord.

The subdominant triad is often encountered preceding the

dominant in the
terminal cadence. In this common progression the subdominant note directs
motion toward the dominant, approaching it by step from below. The melodic
cadential line of 4-5-1 occurs frequently in bass lines and is demonstrated in Ex.
17-11.

Ex. 17-11. Melodic 4-5-1 in bass line.

The subdominant triad, however, does not appear only as an approach chord
to the dominant: it also precedes the tonic directly at cadences or elsewhere in
a phrase.
A wider variability in the triad quality is one of the characteristics of the sub-
dominant. Ajt^hpugh tonic and dominant triads are relatively consistent as to their
quality in a major or minor context, the two forms of the subdominant (IV or iv)
appear music with considerable interchangeability. Conditions influencing this
in
usage undoubtedly include the melodic use of the raised sixth scale degree in minor
keys (necessitating a major triad when harmonized by the subdominant) and the
frequent nineteenth-century practice of lowering the sixth scale degree (by a
semitone) in major keys.
282 TONIC, DOMINANT. AND SUBDOMINANT CHORDS; DOMINANT SEVENTH CHORD

Ex. 17-12. Brahms: Sehnsuchf.

.h=^
m fi J' j^
" i# «i

^ ?
r

^
IV V7

Ex. 17-13. Schumann: Symphony No. 2, Finale.

S 211 :2i
E
s
-&- l^^^=d=4
i
')^<i I
J
f

5 ^ S
J J J i
331
^
IV (6) V7 V7 I

In its first subdominant chord appears in much the same context

inversion the
as Ig —
in connection with an ascending or descending diatonic scale line in the
bass or an arpeggiated bass Hne. Ex. 17-14 illustrates the first of these procedures.

Ex. 17-14. Handel: Concerto Grosso, Op. 6, No. 1, I.

Allegro

fe^ fQ A nnip
-•
±E
r^ fc rrs

i^ f
J
i)

g^ i
C\
13^i
§ S P=»
^^ ?^^
I IV6V7IV6V6 I

A more complicated treatment of ivg is seen in Ex. 17-15, the complexity due in
part to the elaborate use of suspensions. The essential harmonic progression of this
excerpt, shown in Ex. 17-16, is merely a weak terminal cadence from ivg to i^.
This basic progression, however, is elaborated and prolonged for several measures
before it settles on the cadential i^ before the fermata.
TONIC. DOMINANT. AND SUBDOMINANT CHORDS; DOMINANT SEVENTH CHORD 283

Ex. 17-15. Mozart: Concerto in C minor, K. 491, I.

M^\ <SPfl
r p-

>t-
j^f-r 'f i ff i
' 1^
^^ ^ o
n^ a! J r '^
?
ivo iv iv iv6 JV6
'S

Ex. 17-16. Basic harmonic progression on Ex. 17-15.

^ 9^

^ 1*^

IV' i
'
6
4

If the bass pitch of the ivg does not move by step, it often moves to a root position
subdominant chord, as in Ex. 17-17.

Ex. 17-17. Schumann: Quintet in E-flat Major, Op. 44, II.

i
V\, (f,
j) ^m ^ ^ ^^^ i #
^BS ^ # i XTQ- i
f
iv6
)
I.
IV
)

The resolution of IVg upwards toVg can be seen in Ex. 17-18. The ultimate
melodic goal of this bass line is the tonic, which in this case is somewhat delayed.

Ex. 17-18. Schubert:

^
Sonata in A Major, Rondo.

^
a^f -0 0- 1
~ma-

IV' V^ 16
284 TONIC. DOMINANT. AND SUBDOMINANT CHORDS; DOMINANT SEVENTH CHORD

The harmonic structure of the last measure in Ex. 17-19 can be interpreted in
two different ways: it can be interpreted as a IVg, or the c" (the "root") can be
interpreted as a delayed accented passing tone (which makes e the root). Me-
lodically, the latter analysis seems more musical.

Ex. 17-19. Bruckner: Mass in F Minor, Qui cum Patre.

m r
i ^^h^ 1. I' r2 ^M=#
f
S f
4
r (IV6) VI

In Example 1 7-20 both ivg and IVg are juxtaposed in a texture with considerable
contrapuntal independence. (It should be remembered that on the organ pedal
stop would be employed which would double this line an octave below.)

Ex. 17-20. J. S. Bach: Chorale Prelude, Ach, w/e fluchtig.

Manual
^^
Pedal
'
^
Y^i* J . I

iV 6
s=^
P
jy6
^
V6
i^
£

Although most of the examples shown thus far in this chapter are excerpts from
approximately 1650-1900, we should not infer that the harmonic relations illus-
trated are an exclusive property of this period. Much contemporary music, as the
following example demonstrates, reveals similar harmonic organization.
 t

TONIC, DOMINANT, AND SUBDOMINANT CHORDS; DOMINANT SEVENTH CHORD 285

Ex. 17-21. Copland: Sonata for Violin and Piano. (C) 1944 by Aaron Copland, copyright
owner, and Boosey & Hawkes Inc., Sole Licensees. Reprinted by permission.

$ P
jn
t -9 — ^^- M
s
1E3
^T-r 'SL
I ^i
IV V I IV V I

The following phrase, dating from the middle of the sixteenth century, is

clearly in d minor. The final cadence emphasizes D as the tonic, and the other
chords — all root position triads — belong to the diatonic materials of this key and,
in their total effect, affirm the tonality.

Ex. 17-22. Palestrina : Ven/, Sancfe Spiritus.

m ^
J
331

i: A
P¥
A J J
m

9tFpg i 19 1*

)V :i\
iy V "X ,1

Example 17-23 presents a picture more typical of sixteenth century compositions

in a chordal style. Here the choice of one key
although e minor is the
is difficult,
most Complicating factors appear, however, in the second and third mea-
likely.

sures the use of the minor dominant and the emphasis upon G and C suggest other
;

alternatives. It seems clear, though, that the cadence, viewed against all that pre-
cedes i-V rather than

^
it, is iv-I.

Ex. 17-23. Ingegneri : £cce quomodo.

i -r
f fr ^fW-ff^ * tBT

55??
§ s 331 J^k^^sU. a
r^ f^
286 TONIC, DOMINANT. AND SUBDOMINANT CHORDS; DOMINANT SEVENTH CHORD

The Dominant Seventh Chord.

Together with major and minor triads, other more complex sonorities also have
the dominant seems apparent that if the triad may be described as
as root. It
consisting of the piling up of two thirds, the process may be carried one step further
to produce a four-tone sonority known as a "seventh chord". In this section we
shall concern ourselves with but one of these, the dominant seventh (V,), a "major-
minor" seventh chord type which we will abbreviate as Mm,.
The final measure of Ex. 1 7-24 contains a dominant seventh in block form. From
this arrangement we can readily see the reason for its name. It has as its basis the
— —
major triad on the dominant D F-sharp A to this is added the minor seventh C
;

above the root D. Hence, the term "major-minor" (Mm) seventh, the first factor
referring to the quality of the triad, the second to the type of seventh. When this
seventh chord is found on the dominant, we shall refer to it as V,.

Ex. 17-24. Mozart: Concerto in G Major, K. 453, I.

•»•» #
i£ 4 i J j- ^ Ji
y<'^ 1
^^
«R »^ 1 e£

^E^ H
^ ^
The seventh of the Mm, in the previous example is introduced without melodic
preparation. Often, however, the seventh of the chord is melodically prepared.
In addition, the resolution of the seventh down by step is directly related to
the decorative (non-chord) character of the harmonic seventh.
Early occurrences of recognizable Mm, chords are found when the seventh
is introduced as a passing tone above a dominant root. The introduction of the
seventh with the dominant triad intensifies the motion to tonic because the
seventh forms a tritone with the third of the dominant chord (notated as a
diminished fifth in Ex. 17-25). It is the subsequent resolution of the tritone that
creates the effect of increased melodic activity.

Ex. 17-25. Tye : Come, Holy Ghost.

^ f^
ifiv
f ^
i
^ p
TON/C, DOMINANT. AND SUBDOMINANT CHORDS; DOMINANT SEVENTH CHORD 287

In addition to passing tones, the seventh of the dominant seventh often results
from a suspension. Such an introduction of the seventh, by preparation in the same
voice, demonstrates the traditional treatment of the dissonant seventh: approached
by step motion or prepared in the same voice, and resolved by descending step.

^ Hoh
Ex. 17-26. Scheldt: Chorale Prelude, Allein Goft in der sei Ehr.

L
S
f r P w
^-
^^ ^^
i J ~rr
-&-

X .Ka
-1 J.^

In Ex. 17-27 the dominant seventh is introduced in such a way that the chord's
seventh must be regarded as a chord member rather than as a result of linear
activity. Its metric location, duration, and approach (by leap) confirm the fact
that the seventh is an integral member of the chord and not merely the result of
linear impulse.

Ex. 17-27. Monteverdi: Ohime, je fanto awafe.

'J i,'/i'ii"i'i' : ~a

^ A
m
J. J -.

t
jJ' ^^
i-~r |i

The resolution of the major-minor seventh chord

is governed largely by the me-

lodic treatment of members. Perhaps the most important result of this is the
its

tritone formed by its third and seventh, the leading tone and fourth scale degrees
respectively. When the tritone is notated as an augmented fourth, it usually re-
solves by expanding to a sixth; when the tritone is spelled as a diminished fifth, it
usually contracts to a third. This results in the upward
resolution of t he leading-
tone and t he downward resolution of the chord seventh, both by step.
288 rON/C, DOMINANT, AND SUBDOMINANT CHORDS; DOMINANT SEVENTH CHORD

Ex. 17-28. Resolution of the V7.

o5 >• 3rd
6th

Bt: V7 Bk V7

This resolution pattern is sometimes not adhered

Often a composer will to.

resolve the leading tone downward to the fifth of the tonic chord in order to obtain
a complete triad on the resolution chord. This is seldom done, however, when the
leading tone is in an exposed melodic position.

Ex. 17-29. Variant resolution of the Diminished Fifth in the V7 Chord.

o5

Harmonic Cadences.

Harmonic progression is but one of the means by which the composer can
create the feeling of conclusiveness that he desires at the cadence. We observed
earlier that a single melodic line can attain a convincing and satisfying cadence
through certain manipulations of pitch and duration, and these same factors
produce similar effects in two and three voices. We noted also that merely a cessa-
tion of motion can produce a cadential efTect.
In recognizing cadences in harmonic texture it is important to remember that
chordal succession alone cannot produce a cadence it must be coupled with other
;

factors — reduced motion, metric placement, etc. — to achieve this condition. We

will attempt now, however, to identify various types of cadences with greater pre-
cision than before (as, for example, in melodic cadences), since we are now con-
cerned with the entire harmonic content of the music.
Cadences that we designated as terminal abound in the music of the seventeenth,
eighteenth, and nineteenth centuries but in several subvarieties. One of the most
frequent of these is the authentic cadence, a cadence produced by movement from
dominant to tonic. This rather general description leaves a great deal of variety
in the exact procedure used by composers. Possible variants exist in the type of
dominant sonority (V, V7), the soprano line (including such cadence lines as 7-8,
 — — r

TONIC, DOMINANT, AND SUBDOMINANT CHORDS; DOMINANT SEVENTH CHORD 289

2-1, 2-3, 5-8, etc.), and the bass line (including 7-8, 2-1, 5-8, etc.). The following
examples illustrate various approaches to the authentic cadence.

Ex. 17-30. Beethoven: Septet, Op. 20, Menuetto I.

^
VI
^
Ex. 17-31. Mendelssohn: Symphony in A Minor (Scotch), I.

LJ t^ 1^.
f t^
P ,t: tf'
p I
Hfl^f ^^ is^ p V^
#—
V^ I

Ex. 17-32. Mozart: Symphony in A Major, K. 114, Menuetto.

^ ip^p^ ^ m
Z ,
1 m m
^ p
It
^m
^
Ex. 17-33. Mozart: Requiem, Offertory, Domme ieiu Chrisfe.

^
i
-* * r

^ tit
"\
Do - mi - ne Je - su Chri

~J^
- ste

X
 290 TONIC, DOMINANT. AND SUBDOMINANT CHORDS; DOMINANT SEVENTH CHORD
(^
1 Ex. 17-34. Buxtehude : Instrumental Sonata, Jesu, Meine Freude.

o
^ff^ yg=^i -iHi

f
^^ J.

f
J il

M.

A second type of terminal cadence isknown asplagal, which is produced by move-

ment from subdominant to tonic. The downward root relation of a perfect fourth
is characteristic of the plagal cadence and may clearly be recognized in the typical
"Amen" following many hymns. In its effect the plagal cadence is fully as con-
clusive as the authentic cadence, often following an authentic cadence at the con-
clusion of a movement or composition. Ex. 17-35 clearly demonstrates a plagal
cadence concluding a composition.

Ex. 17-35. Brahms: Alto Rhapsody.

fe n r^
Sein Herz.

^^ :xjl:
f7\

331

IV I

Occasionally the tonal center is not clear at the end of a composition as in Ex.
17-36. The final root movement suggests a plagal cadence, but there are indica-
tions that A is the tonic.

Ex. 17-36. Bach: Cantata No. 161, My inmost Heart doth Yearn.

i7\

',:-<''
TONIC. DOMINANT, AND SUBDOMINANT CHORDS; DOMINANT SEVENTH CHORD 291

Progressive cadences may also be classified more precisely into different types,
suggesting continued motion in a number of different ways. A frequent manifesta-
tion of this is which the final chord is the dominant. Since
the half cadence, in
composers have approached the dominant in any number of ways, there are count-
less varieties of half cadences. In Ex. 17-37 the cadence is little more than the

reverse of the familiar authentic cadence V— i.

Ex. 17-37. Mozart: Mass in C Minor, K. 427, Dom/ne Deus.

\%
^ mm^
^
» f tr

fejgp^

1
ij ^
p r
?

Other diatonic (or even chromatic) chords may precede the final dominant
chord, however, as in the following.

Ex. 17-38. Schubert: Winterreise, Der Wegweiser.

fcm
m^ $ f
f="

^^ ^ w ?
iV6
mV

The ivg commonly occurs in a particular species of half cadence^ that is known
as the "Phrygian cadence." Its name stems from the typical cadential melodic line
of 2 — 1 found in the Phrygian mode. The characteristic features of this cadence,
illustrated in Ex. 1 7-39, are first the chordal progression ivg (or iv) to V, and second
the contrary motion between the outer voices, expanding or contracting to the
octave of the dominant. This cadence is common in minor keys, less frequent in
major.

* Another kind of progressive cadence, the deceptive, is discussed in Chapter 21.

292 TONIC. DOMINANT, AND SUBDOMINANT CHORDS, DOMINANT SEVENTH CHORD

Ex. 17-39. Handel: Concerto Grosso, Op. 6, No. 2.

jJK! 1 tf^i ^^m J- j'J e

Phrygian cadences are often seen as interior cadences, less often as terminal ca-
dences. Occasionally, however, Baroque composers used Phrygian cadences at the
end of one of the inner movements of their sonatas, concertos, or suites, suggesting
a close harmonic connection with the following movement.

Exercises

For more detailed assignments see Materials and Structure of Music I, Workbook, Chapter 17.

1. Write an eight measure melody in G major which clearly outlines Tonic, Subdominant,
and Dominant chords. Use passing and neighbor tones to decorate basic pitches. Then
apply the same procedure to writing a melody in b minor.
2. Practice spelling I, IV, and V chords in a variety of major and minor keys.
3. Listen to a recording of Friihlingstraum, by Schubert, and identify the I, IV, and V^
chords used in the opening section of the song.
4. Write an eight measure piano piece in A major, using an essentially homophonic tex-
ture. Write in | meter, allegretto, creating two 4 measure phrases, both of which
illustrate the chord sequence I, IV, V, I. (Use V or V^ as desired).

5. Make several settings of a bass line consisting of 4-5-1 in different major and minor
keys. Write for 4 voices in chordal and contrapuntal textures.
6. Practice spelling Mm^ chords on different roots.
7. Write out V^ chords for four voices in at least five different spacings. Resolve each chord
to tonic.
8. Practice writing and identifying V-I and IV-I cadences in different textures.

9. movement of Symphony No. 39 in E-flat, by Mozart. Note particularly

Listen to the slow
subdominant and dominant-seventh chords.
the treatment of
10. Connect the following chords in a major and then in a minor key. Write in \ meter,
SATB.
I-IV-V^-I-iv-I-V-IV-VjI. Use decorative pitches to effect smooth chord connections.
 Inversions

of thi
78
Dominant Seventh;
Harmonic Rhythm

In this chapter we
examine the inversions of the V7 chord,
will
pointing out the characteristics of each and studying their approaches and resolu-
tions. Our concern will be almost entirely with melodic movement, since the use of

different inversions of this chord does not involve any changes in the typical root
progressions. The differences are those of bass motion, approach to and resolution
of the seventh of the chord, and the treatment of certain characteristic intervals in
the chord, especially the tritone.
As with triad inversions, we shall indicate these seventh-chord inversions by
means of figured bass symbols. Since we are dealing with a more complex sonority,
however, the figurations must be more complete. For the four positions of the dom-
inant seventh (and for all seventh chords in general), we will use the following
figured bass symbols.

Ex.

^18-1. Figuration of inversions of the V7.

^ -e-
a
m xt;
331
-o-
331
ISH

V7 V6 V(6) . \J
'S 4
(I)
1.3 s

In Ex. 18-1 the figures in parentheses are unnecessary to the identification of

the chord and, consequently, are generally omitted both from the figured bass
and from the analytical symbols. Note that the numerical relation that represents
the interval of the seventh (or its inversion, the second) is always included — 7_6_4_4
5 3 2

respectively.

293
294 INVERSIONS OF THE DOMINANT SEVENTH; HARMONIC RHYTHM

In the resolutions of these inversions, two melodic factors governing voice motion
are important. We discussed in earlier chapters the tendency of the members of
the tritone to resolve by step, and the intensification of this tendency when found
in an outer voice — soprano or bass. This same tendency is present in the dominant
seventh chord, in root position and inversions.
The seventh is a dissonance. It is dissonant not only with the root of the chord
but with the third as well, even though these relations are mild by contemporary
standards.
The seventh of the V7 is approached in a limited number of ways, and its resolu-
tion is virtually restricted (with a few exceptions noted later in this section) to a
downward step. In this descending resolution, the seventh possesses an active
tendency as strong as the leading tone.
The interval formed by these prominent "tendency tones" is significant in itself,
since it is the tritone —
the most unstable of intervals and the one that most urgently
suggests resolution. The harmonic context
typical resolution of this interval in a
may be observed in Ex. 18-3 in "x" and "y," the two voices moving in contrary
motion by step according to their tendencies. An exceptional resolution of the same
interval (in similar motion) occurs at "z."

Ex. 18-2. Beethoven: Violin Sonata in C Minor, Scherzo.

P^ 3m
tr-

^
^ ^ ^^ ^
? "27 j|
J J^

^
v

Several patterns are possible in the approach to (or "preparation" of) the
seventh. In Ex. 18-2 one of these is illustrated — by step from below. In addition
to this, the seventh is often approached by step from above,
by leap (usually from
below), or it may appear as a suspension from the previous chord. These approaches
will be illustrated later in this section. Certain inversions are seen more frequently
with one or another particular approach; these will be noted as we proceed.
We will not dwell at length on the V7, since its use has been amply illustrated in
an earlier chapter. One characteristic, however, should be noted unlike its inver- :

sions, which are almost invariably found in complete form, the V, appears occa-

sionally with the fifth missing. In four- voice textures composers have doubled the
root in such cases. Authentic cadences in four voices that employ V7 fall into one
of the following categories If both the leading tone and seventh resolve according
:

to their tendencies, either the V7 or the I will be incomplete. Composers some-

times sacrifice this melodic convention to achieve complete chords, as in the final
progression. In cadencing upon an incomplete tonic triad, most composers have
omitted the fifth and tripled the root, as in the second progression shown in Ex.
18-3.
INVERSIONS Of THE DOM/NANT SEVENTH; HARMONIC RHYTHM 295

Ex. 18-3. Four-voice authentic cadences, complete ond incomplete.

±
a
"X"

^^
Incomplete "Y"

i
T
Incomplete

1
"Z" Both Complete

J I 4-
a ffi ^
f f
The Ve Chord
5

In its approach and resolution, the Ve is similar to V,,. Here, however, the resolu-
tion possibilities are more limited, since the leading tone (in the bass) and seventh
generally resolve by step according to their tendencies. Thus, the only frequent
chord of resolution is the tonic, as illustrated in Ex. 18-4. In this example we see
the characteristic tritone between the outer voices.

^ r—f ^
Ex. 18-4. Haydn: Quartet Op. 50, No. 6, I.

n» ^ .. J-

i -e-
T
m^ -&-
-e-
(» # i»

P
v|
^ f=T
Since this resolution is standard, most of the differences in the use of Ve appear
in the approach is often preceded by l\\, a progression suggested
to this chord. It
by the 6-7-8-scale line in the bass, as in Ex. 18-5. (This also allows the seventh
to be prepared in the same voice in the previous chord, thus introducing the dis-
sonance smoothly.)

Ex. 18-5. R. Strauss: " Breit ijber mein Haupt."

( 7th prepared )
296 INVERSIONS OF THE DOMINANT SEVENTH; HARMONIC RHYTHM

One of the most frequent uses of Ve

chord" between two
is as a "neighboring
tonic triads often the two outer voices move in contrary motion in and out of the
;

tritone as in Ex. 18-6.

Ex. 18-6. Tschaikovsky : Violin Concerto, I.

P ^ra
f 3=« i

^
^^ ^
J

V8
J

I
J

Occasionally Ve does not move directly to the chord of resolution but suspends
one or more of its members as in Ex. 18-7. The chord change is still on the first

beat of the last measure, but the resolution of the individual voices is staggered
rather than simultaneous.

Ex. 18-7. Haydn: Quartet Op. 54, No. 2, II.

m r^^ f « t^ ^
i
rr^
^^ nrr ^^ ^ J
^
vS
==j

(i) i'

When the leading tone is approached by leap from above, as in Ex. 18-8, a par-

ticularly strong emphasis is placed upon its resolution. This type of approach is

less common than the preceding examples, but it is extremely effective.

Ex. 18-8. Bruckner: Symphony No. 7, II.

Skip to l.t.
INVERSIONS OF THE DOMINANT SEVENTH; HARMONIC RHYTHM 297

An obvious exception to the upward resolution of the leading tone occurs when
Ve is followed by V7. In this case the bass note moves down to the dominant and
then resolves instead of resolving directly. This is not actually an irregular resolu-
tion, since there has been no change of harmony; the resolution is merely delayed.

^
Ex.

^m ^^^
18-9.

^m
Delayed resolution of Vb chord.

$ ^
i-
=i

j=^
^
V| (V?)
T

The V4 Chord
3

The \'^4 is perhaps the least frequent of the inversions of the dominant seventh.
We shall see, in later chapters, that the second inversion in general is the least
common position for both triads and seventh chords. One of the most typical uses
of V4 is as dt. passing chord between I and Ig (and vice versa).

Ex. 18-10. Mozart: Quintet, K. 516, III.

I V|I6V4 I«

Some unusual voice-leading procedures appear occasionally in connection with

V4. We most circumstances composers have chosen to resolve the
have seen that in
7th downward by step. When resolving V4, however, this procedure often has been
abandoned in favor of a stepwise upward resolution, as in Ex. 18-11. This produces
a resolution of the tritone in similar motion, which is seldom found. Here the
sequential melodic pattern precludes the more usual resolution.
298 INVERSIONS OF THE DOMINANT SEVENTH; HARMONIC RHYTHM

Ex.

'h
18-11.

^UJ
Schumann: Piano Concerto, Op.

F Ur pt.45
54,

i
^ d5 to p5

31 t"
In both Ex. 18-10 and Ex. 18-11 note that the common tone between V| and I
(the root of the V chord) is kept in the same inner voice; this feature is character-
istic of this progression, although
it is not always present.

In Ex. 18-12 a different use of V| occurs. Here it is the concluding chord in an

unusual type of half cadence (iii -Vl). —

Ex. 18-12. Haydn: Quartet, Op. 64, No. 4, I.

The V^ Chord

In our discussion of V^, the third inversion of the dominant seventh, we will note
four types of preparation of the seventh. In resolving this chord the presence of the
seventh in the bass virtually dictates that the chord of resolution be Ig or another
sonority that allows for the step resolution of the seventh. In this way the bass line
carries out its strong melodic tendency. There are no other common treatments
of V| its resolution
; is extremely stereotyped. We may now turn our attention to
the manner in which the chord is approached.
Ex. 18-13 illustrates one of the most frequent seventh preparations: from below
by step. Inmelodic context the seventh appears to be treated like an upper
this
neighboring tone. For this reason, when the chord seventh is approached stepwise
from below and resolves to the same tone, it is said to be prepared by the "neigh-
boring tone figure." The melodic interest of the middle parts in this example is

particularly noteworthy.
INVERSIONS OF THE DOMINANT SEVENTH; HARMONIC RHYTHM 299

Ex. 18-13. Brahms: Symphony No. 3, I.

m ^^ ±=^
r tfr r r tfr r

^
s ^E^ ^^
.B^^ 4 aj=^
I« v| 16

Another frequent type of preparation occurs when the seventh is approached by

—
leap from below in Ex. 18-14 from the tonic. The seventh here takes on the charac-
ter of the leaning tone, since it is approached by leap and resolved by step.

Ex. 18-14. Beethoven: Coriolan Overture.

W^ z:

^ ^ ? ^
1^^ mrm r=T^
V
mnv .^
rr"^
rnfm
r i
16
* 2

Still another approach to V^ is illustrated in Ex. 18-15. The seventh here is

treated as a suspension, prepared

by the bass note of the preceding chord. In this
way the dissonance of the seventh is subtly and smoothly introduced. Obviously
the chord of preparation must contain the fourth scale degree in the bass if this
type of preparation is used.

Ex. 18-15. Pachelbel: An Wasserflussen Babylon.

 —

300 INVERSIONS OF THE DOMINANT SEVENTH; HARMONIC RHYTHM

The fourth type of preparation is by step from above. Here the seventh acts as a
passing tone between V and Ig, as illustrated in Ex. 18-16. In this example a further
exception to the usual resolution procedure of the V7 occurs. The seventh is trans-
ferred to another voice (in this case the bass line) before resolving. Since no change
of chord occurs, the listener is not conscious of an unresolved dissonance.

Ex. 18-16. Wagner: Lohengrin, "Ha! Dieser Stolz."

s ^m
m^ ^
i-^-i u
f=
V7 ^ 2 18

A characteristic feature of the resolution of the V| is the upward leap of a perfect

fourth in one of the upper voices, usually the highest.

Ex. 18-17. Beethoven: Piano Sonata, Op. 13, III.

^^ f Til t
32
ciP^ =^

'y-^\ (^ I i
I*

We —
have noted three ways other than downward by step in which the seventh —
of the V7 or one of its inversions resolves when it actually resolves upward as in
: ( 1 )

the resolution of V^ (see Ex. 11); (2) when the resolution is delayed by some type
of suspension pattern (see Ex. 18-7) and (3) when it is transferred to another voice
;

(see Ex. 18-16).

another exception to the usual resolution occurs when the resolution is
Still

ornamental. The upper line of Ex. 18-18 leaps away from the seventh to a leaning
tone E-sharp on the first beat of the next measure before returning to the expected
resolution tone F-sharp. This procedure is similar to No. 3 in that it is merely
a decoration of the predictable resolution.
INVERSIONS OF THE DOMINANT SEVENTH; HARMONIC RHYTHM 301

Ex. 18-18. Beethoven: Quartet Op. 18, No. 3, I.

V|

The viifi Chord

The diminished triad on the leading tone bears a marked resemblance to the
dominant seventh chord, since all of its members are also members ofV,. Walter
Piston and others have argued that it is actually a dominant chord, and that its
root is missing (this root would be the dominant). One cannot deny the similarities
between vii° and V,, but we must regard this triad as a separate chord in its own
right. As discussed in Chapter 14, we shall regard the lowest member of this chord
as its prime, for the sonority does not possess a root.
Like most diminished triads, vii° rar ely appears in any inversion other than
first. The bass thus is not a member of the prominent tritone that characterizes this
chord. A typical progression involving viig is shown in Ex. 18-19.

Ex. 18-19. Brahms: Violin Sonata in A Major, I.

^^ J
y-¥^
M:tf i :
I —
-(•
m
T
(•-
i

f P -^
viie 18
302 INVERSIONS OF THE DOMINANT SEVENTH; HARMONIC RHYTHM

This chord is used frequently as a passing chord between I and Ig in Ex. 18-19.
The obvious between vii| and V^ account for their frequent inter-
similarities
changeability. Their sound is virtually identical, creating an aural problem in dis-
tinguishing the one from the other. In most contexts viig and V| are equally
appropriate, for they create the same aural expectations.
Ex. 18-20 and Ex. 18-21 illustrate customary doubling practices in the vii|.
These procedures, however, apply equally to any diminished triads, \ yhen either
r oot or third is in the soprano, composers have^preferred to double the thirdj^lhe
one member that is not a part of the tritone) . The fifth of the chord, ho wever, is

customarily doubled when it is in the soprano. Obviously, melodic considerations

caiTprecIude one or the other of these procedures.

Ex. 18-20. Pachelbel: Aus iiefer Not.

s m
^ 1
r
i I
r

r
vns

Ex. 18-21. Buxtehude : Herzlieh fhut mich ver/ongen.

S^ S i
-J ;-;J
^^ •s

r r
XT
r
V* 16

In writing the vii|, particular care should be taken not to double the chord's
prime — the leading tone — mentioned many times in previous chapters.
for reasons
Despite the similarities between the vii° triad and the various inversions of
V,, composers have preferred to use the dominant seventh in all but one inversion.
Ex. 18-22 illustrates the various possibilities and the general preference. Surprisingly
INVERSIONS OF THE DOMINANT SEVENTH ; HARMONIC RHYTHM 303

enough, there are very few exceptions to these conclusions. It seems hkely that the
exposed tritone in both vii° and
was a decisive factor, as well as the greater
vii^

functional stability of the chord when the dominant tone is present.

Ex. 18-22. Comparison of dominant seventh and vii° inversions.

s s =8= 331

r or
f Preferred to Preferred to

-I i
m icn
-e-
lOI

Vii°6
n
v1 n VM" V| vir

Harmonic Rhythm — Further Study

In studying the harmonic movement more is involved than merely

of a piece,
selecting the roots of each chord and placing them within the key to determine
their function. This process is important, but it does not consider the relative rate
of speed with which the harmony changes. Since this factor involves the temporal
as well as the harmonic aspect of music, it is aptly called the "harmonic rhythm."
It can be defined simply as the rate of harmonic change.
The
next two examples represent diifereni stages in the harmonic rhythm from
the same movement. In Ex. 18-23 the rate of change is extremely slow, since the
same basic chord structure — the tonic triad — is prolonged for 4^ measures in an
adagio tempo. Ex. 18-24 is in complete contrast to this with perceptible harmonic
changes occurring much more rapidly.

Ex. 18-23. Brahms: Violin Concerto, II.

16 V
304 INVERSIONS OF THE DOMINANT SEVENTH, HARMONIC RHYTHM

Ex. 18-24. Brahms: Violin Concerto, II.

Ex. 18-25. Harmonic reduction of Ex. 20-24 (solo line omitted).

'P ^j '1 ^ h^/1 (

^ •
I

W |
,j
,H ^
^

In this latter passage (Ex. 18-25) Brahms

an accelerated harmonic rhythm
uses
to heighten the intensity and excitement, along with the increased rhythmic activity
of the various voices and the dynamic crescendo. All three elements combine to pro-
pel the music toward the climax. These examples also demonstrate the extremes
of variability in harmonic rhythm that can occur within a single composition.
Further study of this movement from the score will prove valuable.
Such a harmonic simplification is helpful in plotting the harmonic rhythm of
complex passages. The reader should practice making similar reductions from
other examples in this chapter.
Examples can be found of compositions which demonstrate even faster and
slower harmonic rhythms than those of Ex. 18-23 and Ex. 18-24. When a single
underlying chord is prolonged for an extended period of time, harmonic rhythm
as such ceases to exist. The harmonic flow is static. On the other hand, when the
harmonic rhythm becomes as rapid as in Ex. 18-26, the harmonic changes may
cease to be separately audible. This can produce the effect of a harmonic "blur"
in which the separate chords are used not as "functional" progression but as pass-
ing chords. It is often possible, as is the case here, to detect a simple harmonic
background in this rapid shifting of chords.
INVERSIONS OF THE DOMINANT SEVENTH; HARMONIC RHYTHM 305

Ex. 18-26. Reger : Kyrie e/eison.

Molto agitato

A common rate of change is illustrated in Ex. 18-27 which is typical of composi-

tions in moderate tempi.

Ex. 18-27. Viotti : Violin Concerto in A Minor, I.

^i ^m ^^ ^
TTTr
i
rr
J-i
m^ ^
/7S

d
z:
F^ ri

Tempo of performance is always an important factor in harmonic rhythm. It

enters into the problem in at least two ways: harmonic structures that would be
dismissed as "passing chords" at a rapid tempo must be considered as basic units
in the harmonic scheme at a slower tempo. If, for example, the harmonic changes
of Ex. 18-26 occurred in still slower tempo or in longer note values, their effect
would be considerably different, and their harmonic separation as individual
chords would be more apparent to the listener.
Tempo can also influence the rate of harmonic change in another way: extremely
slow tempi often seem to demand a faster harmonic rhythm than faster tempi in
order to sustain the motion of the music. Conversely, fast tempi often necessitate
 306 INVERSIONS OF THE DOMINANT SEVENTH; HARMONIC RHYTHM

a slower harmonic rhythm so that the separate chord changes will remain distinct
(to say nothing of the convenience to the performer). Thus harmonic rhythm
creates an analytical problem for the listener and a practical one for the composer.
The use of pedal point is a further consideration when studying harmonic
rhvthm. Not onlv does its use render the inversion of a chord meaninarless, but it

can also "camouflage" the harmonic rhythm. Our ears depend upon the bass so
much in identifying a harmonic progression, that the basic harmonic framework
is obscured when a pedal is present. The "pedal fugue" of Brahms' A German
Requiem is a prime example. This composition employs a rich and varied harmonic
vocabulary —
however, over a tonic pedal sustained throughout the movement
all,

by the bass instruments. The beginning of this movement is quoted in Ex. 18-28.

Ex. 18-28. Brahms: A German Requiem.

Tenors
ulTjf prJpr

When the predominant harmonic rhythm of a particular composition has been

established, one may draw some conclusions regarding its use as a creative techni-
que. We have already seen that an increase in the rate of harmonic change can be
used to produce a crescendo of harmonic activity as effective as a dynamicor textural
crescendo. It is not surprising to note that the speed of harmonic rhyth in rn ost m
compositions increases when ap>proaching a cadence, Ex. 18-29, Ex. 18-30, Ex.
18-31 and Ex. 18-32, each from a different era of music history, demonstrate this

technique. Ex. 18-29 and Ex. 18-31 illustrate a cross-section of harmonic rhythm
from interior passages in the respective compositions. Ex. 18-30 and Ex. 18-32
reveal a faster rate of harmonic rhvthm at cadences in the same movements.

Ex. 18-29. J. G. Walther : Concerto in B Minor (interior).

^^
^
INVERSIONS OF THE DOMINANT SEVENTH; HARMONIC RHYTHM 307

Ex. 18-30. J. G. Walther : Concerto in B Minor (cadence

^m fc^ ^
T ^ rr
^^^=^

i ^y- ^-^ 1
aa pT^ p f
.VT
r
IV ,V7-

^^
Ex. 18-31. Franck : Symphony in D Minor, I (interior).

i
P^
• V 121

J L.
f J L
^m J U

Ex. 18-32. Franck: Symphony in D Minor, I (cadence).

^i^
iiJ
^ ^^
n.
taz
J J.J
^ .
h<i

)-ll|i (! ' ^ «^

J L

We
can make other observations about the use of harmonic rhythm as a deter-
minant of musical form. Its rate is noticeably faster in formal sections that are de-
velopmental rather than expository. Likewise, sections that display an uncertain
or unstable tonality often make use of a relatively rapid harmonic rhythm. A com-
poser frequently differentiates between his thematic materials in a composition
by setting them in differing rates of harmonic motion.
In contrast to these procedures, a composer often chooses a slow harmonic
rhythm for sections in which a theme is stated as a whole or in which a single key
is emphasized. Obviously it is harmonic changes
easier to reinforce a tonality if the
are relatively slow. Thus harmonic rhythm can be an agent of form in music and
can influence both thematic and tonal aspects.
 :

308 INVERSIONS OF THE DOMINANT SEVENTH; HARMONIC RHYTHM

Melodic motion is another element that can influence or be influenced by har-

monic rhythm. When the melodic element is prominent or very active in a com-
position, a slower harmonic rhythm is often present. The reasons for this are clear:
a too rapid harmonic change would obscure the melodic patterns and might in-
hibit the choice of melodic tones. Conversely, sections in a fast harmonic rhythm
rarely display a strong melodic element. These problems emphasize the fact that
melodic and harmonic interest within a single section are rarely of equal signifi-
cance; one or the other usually predominates.

Exercises

For more detailed assignments see Materials and Structure of Music I, Workbook, Chapter 20.

1. In textures of four parts, resolve various root pxjsition and inverted versions of dominant
sevenths to appropriate versions of the tonic chord.
2. Select from music several passages that contain examples of dominant seventh chords
in root position and inverted. Study these, noting chord of resolution and melodic-
motion of resolution in each voice. If the texture in question has less than four voices,
what chord member has been omitted? If more than four voices, what member has been
doubled?
3. Write an original passage of three phrases in which the two interior cadences occur
on inversions of the dominant seventh chord.
4. Examine the harmonic rhythm of Beethoven's Sonata for Piano, Op. 2 no. 2, Scherzo
and Trio. What (if any) differences exist in the harmonic rhythms of the Scherzo and
its Trio? Do the harmonic changes coincide with the metric accents throughout? Com-

pare measures 1-4 and 17-20 of the Trio. Does harmonic rhythm differ?
5. Practice playing \^, \"|, \\, in both major and minor keys. Play in four voices with any
member in the soprano, then resolve with appropriate voice motion to the tonic chord.
6. To the two-chord progressions of (5) above, add a preparaton,- chord which makes it

possible to precede the dominant chord with one of the following figures:
a. Passing tone
b. Suspension
c. Neighboring tone
d. Leaning tone
7. Using the following progression as a guide, improvise a melody of simple rhythmic prop-
erties that arpeggiates the given chords
^ 3 is iv/i6/ V^ /i

Make up similar progressions in major and minor keys for the same practice.
8. Continue the aural practice suggested in recent chapters, concentrating upon recogni-
tion of the dominant se\enth chord in root and inverted positions. Learn to identify these
both as isolated sonorities and within progressions.
9. Melodies for sight singing and melodic dictation should incorjKtrate the outlined Y.
chord.
10 and hearing of intervals, concentrating on
Drill in the spelling, writing, relations found
in the dominant seventh chord.
 Second-Inversion

Triad I
19

The student of music literature will notice that triads appear less

often in second inversion than in either root position or first inversion. A probable
reason for this exists in the intervallic structure of the chord : major and minor
triads in root position and first inversion contain at least one cadential consonance
between the bass and upper parts (specifically, root position contains both a perfect
fifth and a third; first-inversion triads contain a third and one decorative con-

—
sonance a sixth). Only the second inversion contains no cadential consonances
above the bass; it is constructed entirely of decorative consonances (the sixth and
the perfect fourth). Hence it is a less stable sonority.

The perfect fourth, in particular, sets this inversion apart. The fourth has been
treated as an unstable interval throughout much of music history and normally
has not been used above the bass without some special treatment to cushion its

effect (introduction by step motion, resolution as a suspension, etc.).

Whatever the reasons behind this practice, we find relatively few second-inver-
sion triads in contrast to a profusion of root position and first-inversion sonorities.
When second inversions are used, they are generally the product of non-chord
tones. The three uses of six-four chords we will examine are the "cadential" six-
four (I5), the "passing" six-fours (V| and I^), and the "embellishing" six-four
(IVS).

The Cadential 1^

By far themost frequent use of any second-inversion triad is as a preparation for

an authentic cadence; hence the label "cadential." In this context the tonic is the
only chord found in the ^ position. Its approach and resolution demonstrate the
restrictions composers have placed upon its use. This harmonic cliche is illustrated
in Ex. 19-1.

309
310 SECOND-INVERSION TRIADS

Ex. 19-1. Mozart: Violin Sonata in E Minor, K. 304, I.

This example of can easily be interpreted as a combination of non-chord

i^

tones: the E suspended from the previous chord and the G an accented passing
tone. To continue this line of reasoning we could logically conclude that this is

merely an embellished \^, that the "real" harmonic progression is from ivg — —\'
i.

Examples such as this have led some musicians to deny that this usage of the six-

four chord produces a tonic function at all.

However, not all examples of the cadential I| are as easily explained. Ex. 19-1
illustrates, though, the salient features found in virtually every occurrence of the
cadential I^. One of the most significant of these is the metrical placement of the
six-four — usually on a strong beat, resolving immediately to \' on the next beat.
The and the fourth generally resolve, as
notes that form the intervals of the sixth
they do here, down by step to the nearest tones of V. Another chracteristic is the
doubling of the bass note (the dominant) in another part. These same features are
present in Ex. 2.

Ex. 19-2. Haydn: Quartet Op- 9, No. 2, Menuet.

^ rnsT^pi
•?—

P
rfy
3

J:

J i
r-
i

^m £
*
i
16 15
f=
V
^ ^
r
2

This example also demonstrates the metrical placement of the I^ in triple meters.

Since the resolution is directly to V (found customarily on the third beat of the
measure), I^ often occurs on beat 2. It can be found on the first beat as well.
Ex. 19-3 illustrates the cadential i^ in an unusually thick texture of six voices.
This example should be analyzed carefully to determine whether the same princi-
 "

SECOND-INVERSION TRIADS 377

pies of doubling and melodic motion apply under conditions of greater textural
density. Aside from this, however, the characteristic features of our previous exam-
ples may be seen.

Ex. 19-3. Bach: Six-voice Ricercar, "The Musical Offering.

K »
» ^
t J J- i njz

^ r
i|
ft'' !>

r
rft=g

i=a
[^^^ #
12
r
ffi

Ex. 19-4 illustrates the If in a more homophonic texture. The high registers used
in thisexample (in the flute, strings, and tenor soloist) increase the effect of the

progression and emphasize the ethereal mood suggested by the text.

Ex. 19-4. Berlioz: Requiem Mass, Sonctus.

m^
n - a tu -
P

a
f m

glo
^^ri - a, glo - ri -
»

a
I g

tu -
l7\

iea=

Vr- =5^
z^
S
v

The previous examples have illustrated the standard resolution from \\ to V.

Ex. 19-5 contains an unusual treatment of \% in which it occurs at the culmination
of a prolonged pedal point on the dominant, (during which there are several other
examples of l\), and resolves to I without first proceeding to V. The voicing of
the parts is also interesting: the dominant pedal appears only in the orchestral
parts. A further unusual feature is the complete absence of leading tones in both
the choral and orchestral parts.
 :

312 SECOND-INVERSION TRIADS

Ex. 19-5. Beethoven: Missa Solemnis, Kyrie.

Soprano
Alto

Tenor
Bass

Orchestra<

n i
i^i ^^
n V n

The following summary of the characteristics of the cadential I| should be

helpful

1. Usually occurs in a strong metric location.

2. Has the dominant tone in the bass.

3. Resolves to \' or \\.

4. The bass is doubled in an upper part in a texture of four or more parts.
5. The upper voices, other than the doubled note, usually resolve down by step.

Passing Six-four Chords

The second-inversion triad is sometimes formed as a link between two more basic
chords (basic because of their duration, metric location, or other factors) or in
extended examples of similar motion. In cases such as this, as in Ex. 19-6, the
entire sonority may be viewed as an aggregate of non-chord tones or as a decorative
chord. It is frequently of very short duration. In plotting the harmonic rhythm,
however, it is helpful to recognize that a separate harmonic unit has been formed.
Passing six-four chords are found on the tonic and, less frequently, on the dominant.

Ex. 19-6. Stamitz Sinfonia in E-flat Major.

^
:

i
^ fe
r r ^^ i
rr *—H^
f
#

IS iv« i|
SECOND-INVERSION TRIADS 313

Ex. 19-7 also illustrates a typical passing I5. In contrast to cadential six-four
chords, passing six-fours occur most frequently in "weak" (metrically unaccented)
locations.

^^
Ex. 19-7. Corelli : Concerto Grojso, Op. 6, No. 11, " Sarabande."

m
^
4^£U ^

5 6 6 6
^
6
4

Ex. 19-8 is less obvious because of the presence of many accented non-chord
tones, but the passing six-four is similar in all other respects to the earlier examples.

Ex. 19-8. Handel: Concerto Grosso, Op. 6, No. 4.

rij^ls
Mm^m
W
^ff?^-n^
LJ
a
r
n n ^ n
^s 6
^6
4
cj- c-'r
It 6
rj;
6 7 6
p

Examples of V^ used in passing are rare. The following, however, illustrate the
typical procedure: V^ appears
from Ig to I or vice versa. In most similar
in passing
circumstances composers prefer harmonizing the ascending second scale degree
with V^ or viig. The reader should experiment with these three sonorities to dis-
cover their relative tonal effects. Examples of V^ are not numerous enough to
justify detailed conclusions about their doubling, etc., but the general melodic
principles governing the use of six-four chords usually apply effectively.

Ex. 19-9. Haydn: Quartet, Op. 74, No. 3,

m
III.

p r r r
^
9^ V6
4
3M SECOND-INVERSION TRIADS

Ex. 19-10. Beethoven: Piano Sonata, Op. 2, No. 3.

m^^^^^
^^ ^ ^^^
^ s^

V| l«

Embellishing Six-four Chords

A third frequent type of six-four treatment an "embellishing" chord, or,

is as
described from a melodic viewpoint, as a double neighboring tone grouped over
a stationary bass tone. In this context IV| is the only chord that appears with any
frequency. As in the final cadence of Ex. 19-1 1, it is used to prolong the final tonic
chord.

Ex. 19-11. Embellishing Six-four chord.

16 I\' vflS I (lV|) I

Numerous examples of IV^ can be found in works from the Classical period. In
many of these the chord occurs virtually at the beginning of the movement, as in
Ex. 19-12. In this context it helps to focus attention on the tonic note and thus
tends to establish solidly the key of the movement. In an obvious sense, it functions
as a pedal figure on the tonic pitch.

1^ ^ ^^
Ex. 19-12. Haydn: Symphony No. 102, IV.

M1
g rr^
m iv»
U
 , ;

SECOND-INVERSION TRIADS 315

A similar, yet more example appears in Ex. 19-13. The IV5 occurs
elaborate,
briefly in the first measure and again in a more prominent and extended role in
measure three.

m
Ex. 19-13. Cannabich : Sinfonia in B-flat Major, II.

fei w ^

^ r
m^k^
r^
fe:

Other Uses of Six-four Chords

Music thoroughly embedded major-minor tonal system has sometimes

in the
used the suspenseful effect of the I^ as a preparation for the c adenza in instrumental
concertos. The orchestral interlude that precedes the cadenza customarily ends
with a I^ sustained by a fermata, as in Ex. 19-14.

Ex. 19-14. Beethoven: Piano Concerto No. 4, I.

CN

$Sr ^—n-l v ^ h

f
2:
(O

')-it n r 21 z:

+ <SPfl
u
^i
The harmonic progression interrupted by the cadenza is resumed at the end of
the cadenza. The soloist usually ends with a trill or some other prolongation of V
thjs resolves with the entrance of the orchestra on the I chord. There are, of course,
some striking exceptions to this procedure,^ but they are in the minority.
The appearance of six-four chords can be a useful aid in harmonic analysis,
especially in the sometimes difficult problem of determining the key. Since they
are relatively infrequent, a six-four chord of even a beat's duration usually appears
within a context of tonal stability and often points unmistakably to the dominant
of the key. In the absence of other evidence, it seems most logical to interpret an
isolated six-four chord as I^, unless the context clearly contradicts this analysis.

1 Sec Beethoveiis Piano Concerto No. 3, I, bar 481 for a brilliant and unusual exception.
376 S£cond-;nv£rs;on triads

Cadences ending with a six-four chord are not common in music of any period.
An unusual example of such a cadence occurs in Ex. 19-15 (the cadence is, of course,
an interior one) The cadence appears to be the result of the extended dominant
.

pedal point in measures 4-6.

Ex. 19-15. Verdi: Aida, " Ritorna Vincitor."

In Ex. 19-16 a six-four chord appears as the structural climax of a section. Al-
though the overall tonality of this excerpt is not as clear as eighteenth and nine-
teenth century standards would demand, the relationships between the individual
chords are, for the most part, the most traditional of all root relationships the —
perfect fifth, and the chords are mostly major and minor triads. The enharmonic
spelling of the six-four chord {g-sharp — a-flat; d-sharp — e-flat) appears to be for the
convenience of the eye in its organization of the melodic line.

Ex. 19-16. Bartok : Concerto for Orchestra. Copyright 1946 by Hawkes & Son (London)
Ltd. Reprinted by permission of Boosey & Hawkes Inc.

i
+

sm
8^a

f^
^p m i
p BZZ
i Q
izg:
i t**-"
^

m s ^m \, mfr I 't

i
¥i t

^ ^ toeJ

S =a
M^^W^
Vm
ES z:

In Ex. 19-17, \\ is again used as a cadential chord; its major quality comes as
a surprise after the minor implications of the B flats in the previous measure. Al-

"^^m
SECOND-INVERSION TRIADS 317

though the chords in this excerpt are more complex than the diatonic triads we
have been studying, the cadence on the G major six-four chord clearly confirms
G as the tonal center.

Ex. 19-17. Barber: Hermit Songs, "The Desire for Hermitage." Reprinted by permission
of the copyright owner, G. Schirmer, Inc.

^''i> JM^iiJ- J^iJBJ- J'JiJ' l

^iiJ- J^LW-'J- ^
y \ , 7 ^m
fY
m ^m
fY
^
W^^ 5 5 -o-

^; = ^ ^

Parallel Six-four Chords

motion in similar sonorities is a favorite device of many late nineteenth

Parallel
century and early twentieth century composers. We find six-four chords used in
this manner, along with triads in other inversions and more complex chords. An

obvious example of this technique occurs in Ex. 19-18, in which the motion is

chromatic.

Ex. 19-18. Debussy: A4ar/oneffes.

^m i A
%

A different purpose seems to have motivated the inclusion of parallel six-four

chords in Ex. 19-19. The disjunct character of this excerpt suggests that the melodic
linewas provided with an accompaniment of six-four chords. The spelling of the
individual chords (most of which are major) testifies that they were conceived as
blocks of sonority rather than as the results of three separate melodic strands.
 — :

378 SECOND-INVERSION TRIADS

Ex. 19-19. Bloch : Sche/omo. Reprinted by permission of the copyright owner, G. Schirmer,
Inc.

(Celesta doubled by flutes 8^0 sopra)

j -i
grj \

h wa ^^
mm^ .

Renaissance composers sometimes used six-four chords with complete freedom.

Ex. 19-20 shows a passage in which the three upper voices form parallel six-four
chords over an intermittent pedal in the lowest voice. As a matter of fact, contrary
motion is entirely absent from this excerpt until the final cadence.

^
Ex. 19-20. Obrecht : Miaa Graecorum.

gE^

Exercises
i'
I'J.'Mi'^ f
jnj
e

For more detailed assignments see Materials and

i
^ Structure of
P
^

Music
j

I,
j -
^ j_^
-o-

Workbook, Chapter 19.

1. In music of various composers, find several examples of the main kinds of second-inver-
sion chords discussed in this chapter {cadential, passing, embellishing). Also find examples
which do not fit the definition of these three types.
2. Write several textural v^ersions based on the cadential pattern shown below. Do these in
major and minor keys and in different meters. Write the two-voice outer framework
first for three- and four-voice examples.

Progression: IV-IB-V^-I // or iig-ie-V^-I // ^

CiQJ^

Write a four-\oice homophonic setting for the following chord progression:

(jr minor : ^,,— — .^ ^ ^

J ij ij' \j>:>\j ij);)|j iJ>;>iJ ij>j>ij

i iv« V iv« IV VJ i iv« iv|

At the piano, play the following progressions in major and minor keys
(a) I-Ii-Ie (b) I-I\-6-I (C) IV,-I6_V,-I
Improvise an arpeggiated melody based on a progression such as the following. Be sure
that the lowest note of each arpeggio pattern corresponds with the given inversion.
Choose keys that make this comfortable for your own voice.
Progression: I /IV« / Ig / \1 / Ig / I //

Sample:

Bp major: lah
SECOND-INVERSION TRIADS 319

Do the same and with your major instrument.

exercise at the piano
6. Ear-training procedures Clontinuc the following drills from previous chapters.
:

a. Recognition of intervals, melodically and harmonically

b. Recognition of triad quality, soprano and bass factors

c. Harmonic dictation for Roman numeral designation and chord inversion

d. Harmonic dictation for Roman numeral designation and one or both of the
outer voices
e. Melodic and rhythmic dictation with continuation of syncopation and increas-
ing complexity of rhythm
f. Intensive drill in rhythmic reading and sight-singing

'O (,

- (p,'+. . n .t 1^
 Ternary
Form ;
20
The Supertonic
Chord

In music, as in all of the arts, various fundamental formal designs

are used, each having its own particular characteristics. The comprehension of
musical design depends largely upon the way some patterns recur within a com-
position. In earlier chapters we saw that repetition is frequently used to unfold
and unify the smaller sections of a melody; this is also true of the larger parts of
most formal structures.
Formal plans can be understood by the ways in which they incorporate repeti-
tion and contrast. One common scheme involv-es a restatement of all or part of an
opening section. Simply stated, such musical structures follow the plan of statement-
contrast-restatement. The trademark of this particular symmetrical structure is "three

parts," two of which are the same or similar. Depending on the length of the total
composition, each part contains at least one or more phrases.
Frequently the return of material appearing earlier serves to "round off" a com-
position rather than give the impression of a distinct section of "return." This
practice can be obser\^ed in many folk melodies and popular songs. In the melody
of Ex. 20-1, the fourth phrase is a slightly altered version of the first. The contrast
of the second phrase is minimized (1) by the similarity of its rhythmic structure to
the first,by the use of a transposed version of the cadential pattern of the first
(2)
phrase, and (3) by the importance assigned to g-sharp and /-sharp in the first two
measures of both phrases. Since these similarities exist, the third phrase resembles
a bridge that links the first two with the last; it does not have an impact compara-
ble to the beginning portion of the melody.

320
TERNARY FORM; THE SUPERTONIC CHORD 321

Ex. 20-1. German Folk Song.

^ i, h

|¥>.r]j. ^iiij:pr
,
'I I n ^ *•

i
<i

-)j
5

i
^
*:*

rjj-JiJjj.
j^
II

ii

t.
2.

j
^f r^^- I
j,^

As is often the case in melodies of this type, the third and fourth phrases actually
balance the first two. Thus, even though the principle of return is present, the
formal design that results two equal parts, a
is ba
divisible into :
|| ||.

A similar design is the basis for Ex. 20-2. However, the interrelationships we
observed in Ex. 20-1 are not as immediately evident because the element of con-
trast is more striking. For example, the phrase that begins on the second beat of
measure 8 brings into play a new rhythm, a wider range, and a change in overall
pitch direction, as well as a change in the established phrase lengths (four beats
instead of eight). However, the accented non-chord tones that appear on the first
beat of nearly every measure are retained, as are the basic accompanimental figure
and the upbeat beginnings of each phrase.

Ex. 20-2. Beethoven: Piano Sonata, Op. "Rondo."

^
7,

^ .^
f f
n-nm
f
-#

^M •
Y f f f f=t

ife *=#
•
F \
f^P r>rr ^ m f
m
^ 0-0-0- 0-M

m
322 TERNARY FORM, THE SUPERTONIC CHORD

Ex. 20-2. continued.

^^m ^1^ p-*^

5

a ^Ek I
«_^
^ ^-0^
a ^
1V
s ?-r¥ 1||«

m
A
^^ |>

two-part design that incorporates a restatement of earlier material in

• 5
^

^
its

second part is the embryonic stage of ternary form. As the name ternary impliesT"
this formal plan involves three distinct sections, instead of the two discussed earlier.
The third section frequently is a full restatement of the opening section, or if not
a literal restatement, it is distinctly separated from the contrasting middle section.
Each of the three parts is more or less equal in length, and the contrasting material
is more than a mere bridge, linking statement with restatement. In contrast to the
similar two-part design with restatement, the middle section in ternary form fre-
quently impresses us, as a definite and separate musical unit, as strongly as does
the initial section. This is particularly true when we listen to compositions in which
several phrases are combined to produce each section.
Ex. 20-3 displays clearly this division into three parts. The change of rhythm
at measure 9 gives the impression of a change of tempo, even though this need
not be the case. Furthermore, the elaborately "decorated" melody of the second
section adds to the contrast, counterbalancing the emphasis given to the rhythmic

motive (J J J ) of the first.

Ex. 20-3. Schumann : Album for fhe Young.

1. a.

m ^ IQ
^
frm Itm W
^W^^ r»
 TERNARY FORM; THE SUPERTONIC CHORD 323

i\

ji ijgrr^fl"l-^> v^-^ k

^^^^^^ ^^ r

I
f ^
^ r eS T^ J i iafr ^ rJ-'V> p-^r? ^
^^ U t^ I*

,
|. ^antfrt jr i

jj^
r ss
— —;a^-fi; ]t=«
f'^j
7
iij "J iij
r=r^
S^ i^^ z:
i :P U •g iS g
^ (
^

^Pl ^ ff n I
^

Even though the increased activity in measure 9 is immediately apparent, other

factors work hand in hand to produce contrast. The entire composition is in D, but
the section beginning at measure 9 major instead of ^ minor. This mutation
is in Z)
produces a significant contrast with the opening section. Since D major is associated
only with the second section, it is another factor that delineates the form when the
measure 17.
initial tonality returns in

Furthermore, the upper part in measures 9-16 uses a larger range than the
preceding, and is characterized by triadic outlining. In this instance the opening
accompanimental figure is used in each section (with some modifications), as in
measures 9 and 17.
The restatement (measures varied by changing the register (measures
1 7-24) is

17-20) and by doubling the melody in octaves (measures 21-24). This heightens
the effectiveness of the return by avoiding the monotony of a literal restatement.
Frequently, however, the third section of a ternary form is a literal repetition
of the first. If this is the case, the restatement need not be written out. On the con-
324 TERNARY FORM; THE SUPERTONIC CHORD

trary, it is often indicated by da capo {D. C.)^ at the end of the second section. Some-
times the indication Dal segno {D. S.)^ is found at the end of the second section, as
in Ex. 20-4. This means that the repetition begins at some indicated point (where
"the sign" appears) rather than at the beginning. The sign usually looks some-

thing like the following: .^*

Even though Ex. 20-4 is longer than Ex. 20-3, its formal design is the same basic
ABA. Similar relationships delineate the larger sections, but there are notable
differences.For example, two distinctive accompanimental patterns are used in
the Chopin. The first, measures 1-16, is distinguished by a durational accent on
the second beat in the inner parts, nullifying the upbeat pattern of the lowest part.
In the second section, measures 1 7-33, the rhythm is distinguished by a downbeat
pattern, as well as a change in the rhythm of the melody. And as a final confirma-
tion of sectioning, tonal contrast between the two sections is achieved by modula-
tion to a new tonal center. In Ex. 20-3 tonal contrast was produced by mutation.

Ex. 20-4. Chopin: Mazurka, Op. 33, No. 2.

m ^
^

^^ ^ r
u-

rr
^
r
^r
f

^ Repeat from the beginning, or "from the head."

^ Repeat "from the sign."
 —
TERNARY FORM; THE SUPERTONIC CHORD 325

^h ^ ^ \
r^,i

rr f
M ^m
^^ m i-
> J^ji
i

Ij-j
r
jj ^^ ^^
r r
P Fine
r r

^
Skt i i ^ g^
^ si m ^
^s f
fei^r
t
f^
^S r
^ 4

st^^^^ ^P T^ =fe
ai^za:
^Itrr^ ^ ?g
^=« *"^ mis
^& ^ i
?i
? t tt
i»—(^

^ i

S^^ P m I P^ 5 fe
a:«
•VJ •• ^
3 1»
a^^ja
Pii^
^I
fct * J vo

i
2-

# I ai
m
f r
D.5. a/ Ftne

Another factor is present in Ex. 20-4 that tends to overshadow the other formal
elements as a determinant of form. This is the change of texture.
The overall texture of both the Schumann and the Chopin examples is homo-
phonic. We noted in Ex. 20-3 that the pitch range increased in the second section.
This increase alters the texture slightly by changing the space between the melody
and its accompaniment. In Ex. 20-4 the textural change in measure 18 is more
pronounced because the accompaniment changes character and is moved to a
different register. The number of parts is essentially the same, but spacing starkly
326 TERNARY FORM; THE SUPERTONIC CHORD

distinguishes the textural "top" from "bottom." The motion in parallel sixths and
thirds (measure 24 and following) represents still another change of texture.
Our discussion has emphasized the overall plan of ternary design, as well as
some of the demarcate or produce contrast between the sectional parts
factors that
of the total form. As a matter of fact, it is very difficult to describe a piece of music
without taking into consideration both the structural plan and the smaller factors
that fill out this plan. Generally speaking, many compositions have a ternary
structural design, just as many buildings are basically rectangles. However, we
know that architects have adapted the rectangular structural principle to many
different situations, and similarly, the ternary principle of statement, contrast,
and return has been used in many quite different compositions.
A cursory examination of Ex. 20-3 and Ex. 20-4 reveals in both cases a basic
ternary plan, but a closer look at the structure of each section shows that the
processes of unfolding are not the same in both pieces. Thematic material, tonality,
rhythm, and total length are obvious differences.
Another difference is the way each section closes and connects with the restate-
ment. The B section of Ex. 20-3 closes with a half cadence that is combined with
a definite rhythmic halt. The listener's demand for a return to the beginning prob-
ably results from the instability of the half cadence and the extreme rhythmic
contrast. In Ex. 20-4 the end of the contrasting section is not signaled as boldly
because the rhythmic activity in the upper parts continues through to the begin-
ning of the restatement. The two sections merge (elide), and it is not until the
return is in progress that we become aware of it. Even though other points of com-
parison and contrast have not been touched, the reader should examine and
compare other design factors of the two contrasting sections.
In summary, ternary design consists of three distinct sections: statementzrzcmz^
trast —restatement Each section may follow a particular formal pattern of its own^
.

and each section usually has a different tonality. The statement frequently closes
with a terminal cadence, as does the contrasting section. Sometimes the contrasting
section closes with a progressive cadence or merges with the restatement. That is,
finality is avoided at this point to enhance further the cons equent retu rn to ateriaL_ m
of an earlier statement.

The Supertonic Chord

In Chapter 14 we learned that triads can appear on any scale degree. We have
also seen in previous chapters that the triads on the first, fourth, and fifth scale
degrees delineate the mode, e.g., in major keys, I, IV, and V are major triads. In
this sense these three triads confirm the scale basis of a composition. The other
triads of the harmonic spectrum can be identified initially by their quality (i.e. as
 —

TERNARY FORM; THE SUPERTONIC CHORD 327

major, minor, etc.). In this chapter we will discuss only one of these, the supertonic?
Our discussion will focus primarily on its appearance in major and minor, even
though its use is not restricted to these two scales.
The supertonic triad is minor in a major key, setting it apart from the major
triads I, IV, and V. In Ex. 20-5 the second scale degree appears as the bass note
in measure 5; it is also the root of the chord. Since G is the tonic of this excerpt,
the minor triad on a is supertonic. However, the relationship of the a minor triad
to the tonal center is not strongly confirmed until the G major triad is heard in
measure 8. Thus, in retrospect, it can be related to G and understood as ii.
The ii chord also contains the fourth and sixth scale degrees, so it can be used to
harmonize either the second, fourth, or sixth scale degree.

Ex. 20-5. Beethoven : Piano Concerto No. 4, Op. 58, III.

m
Vivace

pp
Orchestra

^\
I V
^^

n
^^
I
B f
Ei
P Ff ^

=E3E ^F=n
i*

i
:

^m V m m 9 —w-W • VfV
i=5 £
:•: wt
£
3
'
J-U
I
-^
i
^m & Mzza: t
I
h

<^\

^1
\\
r,

In minor keys the supertonic triad is diminished. In previous chapters we have

seen that the diminished triad is less stable than either the major or the minor
triad, that its characteristic interval, the diminished fifth, is generally resolved
to a smaller interval, and that the fundamental of this chord is a root in only a broad
sense.

Supertonic literally means "above the tonic."

328 TERNARY FORM; THE SUPERTONIC CHORD

In Ex. 20-6, the lowest note, the prime, of the chord is doubled after the resolution
of the leaning tone g in the soprano voice. The diminished fifth {/-sharp c) moves —
to an octave (B —
b) in similar motion, making clear that /-sharp is in fifth relation

with the root b. The characteristic resolution pattern of this interval is not used.
This is often true in minor when the ii° functions in the same way as the ii chord
in major, in root relation of a fifth with the dominant chord.

Ex. 20-6. Carl Loewe : Der Pilgrim vor Si. Just. Op. 99, No. 3.

The second scale degree is frequently the root of a major triad. Because a tritone
is created between the third of this chord and tonic, a major triad on the super-
tonic has a different relation to tonic than its unaltered counterpart. Therefore, its
structural role is often magnified. It will be discussed in detail in Chapter 24.

Ex. 20-7. Bach : Chorale, Ermufre dich, mein schwacher Ceist.

^ $
^ i^ U
f rr
i
f
f
LM L^A
^ i
XV^f
T:

The difference in sonority quality distinguishes ii (or ii°) from I, IV, and V;
however, this does not explain the tonal relationships that can exist between them.
Because of the tones in common, ii (ii°) is related to both the subdominant and the
dominant. It has two tones in common with IV, one tone in common with V.
TERNARY FORM; THE SUPERTONIC CHORD 329

Ex. 20-8. Supertonic chord.

m
C:
'
rd^
Wr¥-
^J
^T5th ^ Sa ?^^ m
c :
|

Another strong relationship can be estabHshed between ii and V, because their

roots form a fifth relationship. This is the same root relation that exists between V
and I. The roots of IV and ii are a third apart, a relationship that is not present
between any paired arrangements of I, IV, and V.
One important structural role of the supertonic chord arises because it has a tone
in common with V and because its root forms a fifth relation with V. Root relations
by fifths tend to define harmonic activity, as in the V-I progression. This is also
true when ii moves to V. If a half cadence is used to demarcate the end of a sec-
tion, the use of ii before V emphasizes the harmonic caesura because of the root
relationship.
Thechord frequently appears in an unaccented metric position when it pre-
ii

cedes V. Consequently, V is emphasized both by the root relationship and by the

rhythmic placement. Both of these factors appear at the end of Ex. 20-9,

Ex. 20-9. Mendelssohn : Song Without Words, Op. 85, No. 5.

P^ a 0-0-
m
• #V
mum
J^
^ 0-0-
s

Ml *

m P
si
»# it
P
t^

IV ii
^I| V

In Ex. 20-9, ii is preceded by IV. Thus ii appears between two different chords,
each of which has at least one tone in common with it. In this sense ii can link IV
to V because it has common elements with both.
Sometimes ii is rhythmically accented. In Ex. 20-10 it precedes V^, but the ac-
tivity of the other parts adds complexities not present in Ex. 20-9. Notice that the
lower two voices move in contrary motion to the upper two, and that the third of
the supertonic is doubled rather than the root.

Ex. 20-10. Bach: An Wosserflossen Babylon.

m ^J n.nj

^^ r r r CJ^ '

ii
r
V^ I
330 TERNARY FORM; THE SUPERTONIC CHORD

An analogous rhythmic formation exists in Ex. 20-11. Both IV and ii have the
same duration, and the duration of V is equal to IV and ii combined. Consequently,
because of duration and because of being preceded by ii, V is emphasized as the
cadential chord.

Ex. 20-11. R. Strauss: Nichfs, Op. 10, No. 2. By permission of the International Music
Company, New York.

Vivace

As its root position form, the first inversion (iig) of the supertonic triad frequently
precedes V. In the three-part illustration (Ex. 20-12), the two lower parts move in
parallel thirds until the dominant is reached (measure 3) in the lowest part. How-
ever, instead of a subdominant root, the fourth scale degree (measure 2) forms the
third of the supertonic chord.
 ^

TERNARY FORM; THE SUPERTONIC CHORD 331

Ex. 20-12. Mozart: String Quartet, K. 464,

^ m m
^ ^ i

^ fct,
^^
^
P IM
P
II 6
g'
<

V7
.

In Ex. 20-13 the upper three parts move motion in measures 1 and 2.
in similar
When the fourth scale degree appears as bass in measure 2 the upper three voices
move in contrary motion, creating a iig chord.

Ex. 20-13. Kuhnau : The Baffle Befween David and Goliafh.

^ ^^ m f
^
f
^ i
f — ^
f
k

^
iis 16

The succession iig —V represents a fusion of the patterns IV—V and —V be- ii

cause the bass motion up a second is characteristic of the root relation between IV
and V, and because the fifth root relation is also present. In this sense,iig and IV

are used interchangeably to harmonize the fourth and sixth scale degrees, and to
precede V. The bass motion up a second is an important melodic factor; the use of
iig instead of IV provides the harmonic element of the fifth relationship, while still

retaining the melodic second of the bass line.

A simple experiment can be performed with Ex. 20-14 to bear out the preceding
discussion. Here '\\% is used in the realization of the keyboard part;
consequently,
a in the violin part (end of measure 4) is a passing tone.
 332 TERNARY FORM; THE SUPERTONIC CHORD

Ex. 20-14. Corelli: Violin Sonata in C Major, III.

i^
\
J i

|
Lir i

i
J r \r frr r .

p^ ^=^
?=T
^=#
^N=^
^f^ rr^
i

^ itF

IV
^
11°
p
V

If we change would be a passing tone. Either chord could be used. How-

ii| to iv, b
ever, iig creates a change in harmonic rhythm that corresponds to measure 3 and
supports the drive to the cadence on V.

Ex. 20-15. Corelli: Violin Sonata in C Major. III.

^^ ^ r Lf r *

^
Vln.
ciJ
i

r I
f

^=^ i
§ i j ^ s
rr ^
^^ ^r^
9

s i?F=

^
IV
p
V

The occurrence of iig (iig) is often characterized by the harmonic sixth between
the two outer voices, placing both the root (or prime) of the chord and the fourth
scale degree in prominent positions. Consequently, instead of the characteristic
harmonic diminished fifth of ii°, an augmented fourth is created between the prime
and some other part.

Ex. 20-16. Brahms: Symphony No. 4, IV.

(rM SI IZ
^ :a^

^ JV« i°6 i
zsb
ini

;.
TERNARY FORM; THE SUPERTONIC CHORD 333

In this excerpt ii| moves to i; therefore, the augmented fourth resolves typically.
The bass motion in measures 2 and 3 outlines 4 — 1, supporting an upper voice
motion 2 — 3. The motion by step in the upper voice balances the motion by skip in
the lower voice.
A ii| chord in a major context is shown in Ex. 20-17. The middle part, because
of its chromatic motion, has considerably more independence than minor if the
supertonic had been used. Notice that the augmented fourths in the upper two
parts (*) move by similar motion to other augmented fourths. Here it is the de-
scending chromatic pattern of the middle voice rather than the iig that makes the
diminished supertonic inevitable.

^
^
Ex.

^
^m
20-17. Chopin: Mazurka, Op. 7, No.

^^
^
T r

^^
f rr
2.

f^^T^
ISZ

¥
SPi ^
r^f

The ii chord's relation to the dominant is one of the important structural roles
it performs. In other contexts the supertonic is frequently decorative in character.
That is, it is used for creating linear harmonic motion rather than as a structural
harmony in conjunction with V and I. This more decorative function is illustrated
vividly in Ex. 20-18. From measures 2-6 all of the chords that appear are in root
position, unfolding the phrase sequentially. The root movement is down by seconds;
consequently ii moves directly to tonic.

Ex. 20-18. Obrecht : Missa Je ne demande (Smijers Ed.).

This excerpt noteworthy because the two-voice outer framework is a suc-

is also
cession of parallel fifths. This relation is subtly nullified because the upper voice
moves down a third before moving in contrary motion to the next harmonic fifth.
Oblique and contrary motion are the prime organizing forces in Ex. 20-19. Be-
ginning in measure 5 the root movement ascends by seconds, leading to I\' in
measure 7. Consequently, ii moves to iii (see Chapter 21).
334 TERNARY FORM; THE SUPERTONIC CHORD

Ex. 20-19. Brahms: Piano Sonata, Op. 5, V.

^m m ?

^m 5"

A similar root relation is illustrated in Ex. 20-20. Each of the chords is in root
position. Tonic does not become clearly defined until measure 3. Since ii is used
to harmonize the sixth scale degree,/, it moves directly to tonic (*) in measure 1.
—
In measure 2 the harmonic succession ii V is formed by the bass part. However,
ii remains in effect in the upper parts. Therefore, the supertonic and the dominant

chords merge.

Ex. 20-20. Debussy : Bruyerei. Permission for reprint granted by Durand et Cie., Paris,
copyright owners, and Elkan-Vogel Co., Inc., Philadelphia, agents.

^m m^n^
^^
^a ^7^-^: u
^7-^^—7-^: f: =: ^:
(iii) ii I

Root movement by seconds is an important organizational factor in Ex. 22-12,

Ex. 22-13, and Ex. 22-14. This type of root activity results in a melodic, rather than
a "harmonic," lower part, Lengthy passages of root motion exclusively by seconds
can create harmonic instability because none of the successive chords have tones
in common. However, other factors, such as duration, may at any point give
sufficient emphasis to one of the chords in such a series to produce stability.
The ii chord also is used to create chordal elaboration, e.g., it may be a neighbor
chord. In Ex. 20-21 parallel tenths become a feature of the vertical ordering that
begins with the second beat of measure 5, and that continues to the first beat of
measure 7. Even though there are only three parts, root movement by seconds is
TERNARY FORM; THE SUPERTONIC CHORD 335

clearly present. The ii chord is syncopated ; therefore, the reappearance of I is on

the unaccented part of a beat. Since similar motion is involved, ii embellishes I as
a neighbor chord. As an embellishing chord, ii plays a prominent role, for it is

rhythmically prominent with a syncopation, and the b'-JIat in the upper and g in
the lower part are the pitch apexes of the phrase.

Ex. 20-21. Obrecht: Missa Forfuna Desperafa, Kyrie.

Ses xn m:

n ii^' ^^ nA
^^ J. J- i> J J
i
f

3t
s ^^ ^

mM
ll
r-
J^
p
UUm ^^ $ ^w^
^J=^ jj J
^
r I II r
Root movement down a second sometimes occurs cadentially, resulting in the
progression ii —
I. Since I is the harmonic goal of this pattern, it is a type of terminal

—
cadence. Furthermore, ii I most closely resembles the plagal cadence, because
the supertonic chord has two tones in common with IV. Therefore, it can be
described as a supertonic plagal cadence, to distinguish it from the usual IV I plagal —
form.

Ex. 20-22. Hindemith : Mafhis der Maler, I. (C) 1934 by B. Schott's Soehne, Mainz. Renewed
1961. Reprinted by permission.

t^ fi- —
-e-
i^
r^ ^^

S2
2^

(m)

The first inversion supertonic, as part of a terminal cadence, also creates the super-
tonic plagal cadence. The plagal nature of the iig I cadence is primarily a result—
336 TERNARY FORM; THE SUPERTONIC CHORD

of the prominence given to the fourth scale degree. This explains why ii — I is also

a supertonic plagal cadence. In both cases this cadential pattern results from the
relationship between the fourth and the first scale degrees. The secundal root rela-
tion modifies the effect of the more common IV I cadence. —
Ex. 20-23. Supertonic plagal cadence.

Er ^
g ^
N
lie

Exercises

For more detailed assignments see Materials and Structure of Music I, Workbook, Chapter 20.

1. Listen to and study through compositions such as the following. Isolate those musical
elements that play a prominent role in creating the ternary design of each work,
a. Schumann: Traumerei
b. Rachmaninoff, Prelude, Op. 3, No. 2
c. Debussy, La fille aux cheveiix de lin

d. Mozart, "E amor un ladroncello" {Cose fan tutte)

2. Spell, write, play, and sing the chords that could appear on the second scale degree of
any diatonic scale.
3. Use the harmonic rhythm of Ex. 20-5 as the basis for a four-part vocal composition.
Write in a contrapuntal texture with or without a text.

4. Write a short three-part (A B A) composition for a combination of four different instru-

ments. Create a middle section that does not rely upon tonality change to provide
contrast.
5. Reduce Ex. 20-12 to a two-voice framework. Then use this framework as the basis for a
six-measure phrase for piano.
6. Write a new melody for all or part of Ex. 20-4. Then create a new accompaniment for the

melody you have written.

 Submediant and
21
MiBdianf Chords;
Chord
Relationships

Several examples in the preceding chapter included chords not

directly related to our discussion. The were either the third
roots of these chords
or sixth scale degrees. They represent the only two diatonic triads, iii and vi, that
we have not yet discussed.
The quality of both the mediant and submediant triads differ, like that of ii

and ii°, from I, IV, and V, making possible an immediate qualitative distinction.
Other distinctions will become apparent as we examine the appearances of iii
and vi in various contexts.

The Submediant Chord

In major the submediant is a minor triad. The submediant chord contains the
sixth, first, and third notes of a scale, and is used to harmonize any of the three.
In Ex. 21-1 the sixth scale degree appears as bass in measures 1 and 3, but it is

a chord root only in measure 1.

Ex. 21-1. Beethoven: Piano Concerto No. 2, Op. 19, II.

IV« V« I

337
 V

338 SUBMEDIANT AND MEDIANT CHORDS; CHORD RELATIONSHIPS

In example the repeated g (the third scale degree) in the upper part is har-
this
monized by both I and vi. The association of the two roots with g results in a
change of harmonic rhythm that would not be present if only the tonic chord had
been used for the first two beats.
In a minor key the submediant triad is major in quality. Like its counterpart in
major, it is frequently associated with melodies that contain successive repetitions
of the tonic note. As a consequence, VI is used frequently to create an active
harmonic rhythm. This is seen in Ex. 21-2, where VI alternates with i in measure
2, even though the voice part remains on the same pitch.

Ex. 21-2. Schumann: Dichterliebe, "Die alten, bosen Lieder."

J^TJ J J J j J J'J^J- II
<j I

f pp I

j j
^ I

^^t } i li ^ 1 I jt

p
/^
^ t J* ^ 44
it.,L
W'
..
K''
[•
i=t
cjl: V M

This between i and VI makes it possible to continue the pattern of harmonic

shift

rhythm begun in the first measure. Furthermore, this relationship is part of the
—
alternating major triad minor triad pattern that begins in measure 1.
The submediant chord shares tones in common with tonic, supertonic, and sub-
dominant, if we include only those triads previously discussed. These tonal relation-
ships are illustrated in Ex. 21-3. In Chapter 20 we did not show the relation of the
supertonic chord to the submediant; here we can see that such a relationship
exists. As a matter of fact, the root relation of vi —
ii, in major, is analogous to ii —
—
and V I. Notice that in minor the root VI and the prime of ii° are a diminished
fifth apart.

Ex. 21-3.

'>
Ti ir^-13 n^-u \ \%\\\i m\AjiVy-h% \

w
3rd
3rd 5th o5th
C: I vi Vi IV vi I VI VI iv vi ii°
SUBMEDIANT AND MEDIANT CHORDS; CHORD RELATIONSHIPS 339

In major or minor the submediant chord is frequently a part of a chord succes-

sion that culminates with the dominant, usually with successive root movements
by fifths. The half cadence that ends the first phrase in Ex. 21-4 gains harmonic
prominence by the preceding root motion. The ii chord is structurally important
because it relates directly to the dominant and in this excerpt vi plays an important
;

structural role because of its root affiliation with ii.

Ex. 21-4. Haydn: The Creation, Part I, No. 3.

iJ^ j^ iEi
rrrr
i^
n Wf ^
U
P^ ?
J 1

^^
11
^
ffff f
V7

Here vi is preceded by I; thus, each of the chords in measures 1-4 is related to the
next with at least one common tone. Furthermore, root relationships by fifth occupy
most of the phrase.
In Ex. 21-5 IV appears between vi and ii, producing root movement in thirds.
Consequently, each chord in measures 1 and 2 has two notes in common with its
immediate predecessor. Notice also that the common tone relationship is not pres-
ent in the supertonic plagal cadence, and that the phrase does not contain any
fifth relationships.

Ex. 21-5.

PU
Wagner:

i
Parsifal.

J'
^
w
s
-o-

^ Ak
a:
^

IV
-a
ii
1
^331

The submediant chord also appears in the role of a neighbor chord, and creates
root movement by a second, thereby omitting the possibility of common tones.
Ex. 21-6 shows vi as a neighbor to V, clearly indicated by its durational relation
to V. Notice that the resultant motion by step in the bass adds variety to the
phrase.
340 SUBMEDIANT AND MEDIANT CHORDS; CHORD RELATIONSHIPS

^
Ex. 21-6.

m
Bach: Ermvfre dich, wein sehwacher Geist.

1^-r
^ I
n r
.^^
S^
G: I
^
IV
r NVi V
f f

In some contexts vi appears to "replace" The melody note marked (*) in

I.

measure 2 of Ex. 23-7 could be harmonized with the I chord. By using vi, however,
the bass line in measure 2 conforms to measure 1, as well as adding a different
harmonic color.

Ex. 21-7. Bach: Aus meines Herzens Grunde.

m r
i ^^^
r r i
^i
$
5

f
s 1
r ?
VI IV
^f
^

^
1

The appearance of vi as a cadential chord creates a particularly striking effect.

Itends the second phrase (measures 5-8) in Ex. 21-8. The earlier harmonic and
melodic activity of this phrase "predicts" that it will probably close on tonic, as
does the first phrase. Furthermore, we have already heard the melodically outlined
V7 move measure 4, so
to tonic in we expect the same resolution of the V7 chord
in measure 8. However, V7 resolves deceptively to vi, rather than to the expected
I chord. Since the expected harmonic pattern is evaded, harmonic deception

results. The cadential succession V —

vi is called a "deceptive cadence," and is one

other type of progressive cadence.

 —*

SUBMEDIANT AND MEDIANT CHORDS; CHORD RELATIONSHIPS 341

Ex. 21-8. Beethoven: Trio. Op. 11, I.

Allegro con brio

f
Clarinet
in Bb rrirriii g fe
J / '/

Cello ''Vi^rTJi'' r'^-^Jj i

I

/ •/

I
te^ nqrz p^ :q-
Z) TS-
^ a
tS
3j:

— fe
a:

Piano

^^5:
tP
/
3:

1^
-e-
^
^ -o-

I« IV V7 VI

More tonal activity leading to the expected tonic chord generally follows the
deceptive cadence. In Ex. 21-9 a cadential vi appears in measure 8. Here the
deception afforded by vi intensifies the eventual appearance of I, as well as en-
hancing the immediate repetition of previous material. Unlike the major-minor
relation formed in major, the deceptive cadence in minor involves two successive
major triads^

Ex. 21-9. Haydn: String Quartet, Op. 76, No. 2, IV.

^ i
^ ^
~?"

^^ m ff=JF
^ P

'^
d:
^
342 SUBMEDIANT AND MEDIANT CHORDS; CHORD RELATIONSHIPS

Ex. 21-9. continued.

^M. i m P f F
I n J ff

^m ^ p f*-

1^^ ? ^ p
% r

v
I

VI
£^
I«
^
Since the root relationship between V and vi is a second, they have no tones in
common. Therefore, V—vi, Hke the succession of all chords whose roots are a
second apart, generally involves considerable contrary motion. The third of the
vi chord (the tonic note) is generally doubled when it is preceded by V or V,;
the root obviously also can be doubled. In minor the root of VI is usually not
doubled when preceded by the dominant, because the leading tone would then
it is

resolve to a tone an augmented second lower. Ex. 21-10 gives the usual doublings
for both major and minor.

Ex. 21-10. Doubling in submedicnf chords.

Root doubled Third doubled

^ ^
f w i $ 1=f
tKl
f
m^
F: V
-e-

vi

Third doubled
W ^V vi
^
-&-

VI
i*:
^^
VI VI

I fe mi
«
te S t±:

m f: \l
^ V VI
-^ 9 y
—
VI VI
SUBMEDIANT AND MEDIANT CHORDS; CHORD RELATIONSHIPS 343

In Ex. 21-11 the vi chord ends the first phrase in harmony with the tonic note.
Here vi is preceded by V'^, which harmonizes the second degree. Since the leading
tone appears in the upper part, it is resolved to tonic. The fifth of the V, is part of
a descending line and also moves to the tonic note. Consequently the third of vi

is doubled.

Ex. 21-11. Schubert: Symphony No. 5,

f± i m^ i
n f7 '
1 i
r^
mM rn g
^
^ m ^^ n
r

rr=r
^
E\>: I \nvi

The Mediant Chord

The mediant is a minor triad in major and a major triad in minor. Since it

contains the third, fifth, and seventh notes of a scale, it has two tones in common
with and V, and one tone in common with VI (vi). In minor keys the mediant
I (i)

is sometimes an augmented triad, when it incorporates the raised seventh degree;

its rare occurrence barely justifies attention.

Ex. 21-12. Mediant Chords.

'): irVt |
p:i „ r):, l
„ iPO i^ I !
^i^
C: I III m^'K I IE V or m or in+

In many respects the harmonic

mediant chord is similar to that of
role of the
the submediant, i.e., it frequently moves to or from the tonic, subdominant, or
dominant chords. In Ex. 21-13 the iii chord appears three times. In measures 1
and 3 it connects I and IV, and in measure 4 it connects V with IV.

Ex. 21-13. Brahms: Symphony No. 4,

3 :*
i

KJ
 —

344 SUBMEDIANT AND MEDIANT CHORDS; CHORD RELATIONSHIPS

The primary organizing principle of Ex. 21-13 is contrary motion. Furthermore,

the lower part in measures 1 and 2 is a mirror of the upper; it has the same inter-
vallic structure. Fewer chords could have been used to support the melodic line,

as shown in Ex. 21-14. The result, however, is quite different; e.g., the harmonic

rhythm of measures 1 and 2 is now J J IJ J

whereas in Ex. 21-13 it is Jin IJ J

In addition, the half step root relationship between iii and IV is eliminated.

Ex. 21-14. Reduction of Ex. 21-13.

^ f^-^i
^ J
.^h
P i :* ^£ ^

m I --. 27 ^:

In Ex. 21-15 the chord is in a prominent metric location; however, it is part

iii

of an upbeat pattern that deemphasizes its location in the measure. Since iii is
used to harmonize the seventh degree, and since the V chord contains the lowered
seventh degree, an alternating major-minor triad pattern is created.

Ex. 21-15. Revel: Trio, IV. Permission for reprint granted by Durcnd et Cie., Paris, copy-
right owners, and Elkan-Vogel Co., Inc. Philadelphia, agents.

Ill IV3 V

In Ex. 21-16 the harmonic rhythm of the second phrase creates a distinctive
contrast with the first. In addition, the appearance of both VI and III produces
a brief skirting of the relative major tonality. Notice that the root movement of
— —
VI III is similar to iv i. Since this similarity exists, we can say that the iv i. —
of measure 3 is a sequential continuation of vi iii; that is, a systematic harmonic
pattern is immediately repeated at a different pitch level.
SUBMEDIANT AND MEDIANT CHORDS, CHORD RELATIONSHIPS 345

Ex. 21-16. Mozart: Requiem, K. 626, No. 8, "Domine Jesus."

i^r]
^ rt ^
f LJU
J-3J
CUT

^u g: I
J i
^^ ^aaj J

V«
J^
VI ffl Vi I

^m ^* J-^ #-=:

^m i
i^^;i J ^ p
The III chord appears between i and V in Ex. 21-17. The melody could have
been harmonized with either i or V. Interpolating III enhances the harmonic
structure, and maintains the harmonic rhythm established in the preceding two

measures (iJJ IJJIJJ IJ J^-v^ ). Notice that the resulting root

movement outlines the tonic chord, thereby confirming the tonality; also note that
each of the chords is related to its successor with at least one common tone.

Ex. 21-17. Brahms: Piono Sonata, Op. 1,

^m
s
^
^
tj m P

a e^ J vf'.
fe:

m i5 V

SRoots:
331
331
33=
331
33=
331

Outline of
33=

tonic triad

Sometimes the iii chord precedes tonic in a cadence. This places root movement
by thirds in the important terminal position. The two tones of the iii chord which
are shared with I (root and third of iii equal third and fifth of I) create a smooth
 —

346 SUBMEDIANT AND MEDIANT CHORDS; CHORD RELATIONSHIPS

relationship that borders on chord repetition. The presence of the leading tone in
the iii chord provides the one factor that makes this relationship progressive.

Ex. 21-18. iii I cadence.

Bl»: iii I

Ex. 21-19 and Ex. 21-20 illustrate terminal cadences involving iii — I. Both
examples are similar in cadential effect, but there is a notable distinction: in Ex,
21-19 the I chord is melodically outlined, whereas in Ex. 21-20 the iii chord is
melodically outlined. Thus, even though the cadential harmonic pattern is the
same in both excerpts, the terminal motion of each melody has a different char-
acter because of the chordal outlining.

Ex. 21-19. R. Strauss: Ein Heldenleben, Op. 40.

fc f -^ ^
cresc.
~o
e
ff *'" " dim.
molto

^^ P I

i9-'
^
Et: (I)
m i
VI
1
III I

Ex. 21-20. Brahms: Intermezzo, Op. 10, No. 3.

^ iAs- i
W'
i^-i
W ^
r^t

4^
^p 5^
'9-.
ifl-S^

9^. Sd.

B:

The augmented mediant (HI) is generally found in positions similar to III.

Any differences that result are produced by the augmented triad's distinctive
SU6MEDIANT AND MEDIANT CHORDS; CHORD RELATIONSHIPS 347

qualityand rootlessness. As we have observed in previous chapters, the inclusion

of augmented or diminished intervals in diatonic tonal structures implies greater
tension, because resolution to a point of stability seems desirable.
Since the leading tone is a member of the triad, IIP generally resolves to chords

that contain the tonic.

Ex.

i
t^
21-21. Augmented mediant.

i
i
i
^
m ^ ^=T m
e: m^ in+6 IV ni+ VI

Furthermore, it has a tonal kinship with i, VI, and V because of the tones they
share in common.

Ex. 21-22. Augmented mediant.

«ll— y Jl
f in+ I
II
lljL

m'
II
l ljl

ni+
¥VI

In Ex. 21-23 111*6 is approached by contrary motion between the two outer
parts. A logical chord at this point would have been Illg, but instead the tenor
moves by step from a to g- sharp in the first measure. This forms the augmented
sonority of the chord, at the same time directing attention to the a that follows
on the second beat. This leading tone action propels the texture of G-sharp — A
forward through iv to the dominant that eventually cadences on tonic.

Ex. 21-23. Bach: Chorale setting, "Herr, ich habe missgehandelt."

I7\

SJ I
J J

r r r r T r
^ i ^ f
a: m+6 IV V ->
i
348 SUBMEDIANT AND MEDIANT CHORDS; CHORD RELATIONSHIPS

As in most unstable triads, the tones doubled are those that do not suggest resolu-
tion. Thus the third of an augmented triad (the note E in Ex. 21-23) is generally
doubled.
The augmented mediant frequently precedes V, producing the effect of an em-
bellishment of that chord. This possibility exists because of its close similarity with
V, and their common bass tone when III"^ is in the first inversion. Without the
passing activity in Ex. 21-24, Ill^g would move directly to tonic.

Ex. 21-24. Chopin: Prelude, Op. 28.

i
^^ ^
ri
f
^^:
S *
ni+6 v^ i

The first inversions of both the vi and the iii chord appear in harmonic situa-
tions that are similar to their root position counterparts. Since the root of the chord
does not appear in the lowest part, the resulting effect of harmonic change is con-
siderably weakened in some contexts. For example, if vig follows tonic, the root
of I remains in the lowest part. Even though there is a root change, the tonic note,
because of its harmonic motion.
tonal predominance, nullifies the effect of the
The result resembles a harmonic embellishment of the I chord rather than a change
of harmonic function. Stated another way, the tonic note resembles a pedal, and
any chordal change above it must be decisive to change the basic pattern of
harmonic rhythm.

Ex. 21-25. I— vie.

=§=

S tf^=^
VI 6
 —

SUBMEDIANT AND MEDIANT CHORDS; CHORD RELATIONSHIPS 349

The first inversions of both iii and vi are often used in passages that unfold the
musical materials sequentially. In Ex. 21-26, and IV.
iiig appears between vi
Its use here coincides with the established pattern that alternates root position and

first inversion chords. Therefore, even though the roots change in every measure,

the harmonic rhythm, because of alternating inversions and root positions, is made

up of greater and lesser accents, 4 J- \ J- I J- IJ- IJ. \ J. I ( J*-)

Ex. 21-26. Mozart: Piano Concerto, K. 413, I.

sTinii J nn-n
/
T
-rri r

i
^ f
F: I VU

'y\ '-^
Analysis 4th 2nd 4th
of roots:

i
^ rt ^^
— m I •

fE^^^^Ur
'f

w^ ^ m/ J 7

iii'
^ f
IV
f 16
r^
_IL
2nd 4th 2nd

Ex. 21-27 has two important features. First is the sequence formed over tonic
and dominant pedals in measures 1 and 2. Superimposed on this strong root rela-
tion of I— V
a kind of "sub-progression" that accompanies
is in harmonic sequence
the melodic sequence of the top voice.
350 SUBMEDIANT AND MEDIANT CHORDS; CHORD RELATIONSHIPS

Ex. 21-27. Massenet: Manon, Act III, Scene I

Notice that the succession of — —

I vii° vi in the first measure is followed by its

sequence at the dominant level of V — IV — iii.

A second feature of Ex. 21-27 is its use of vi and iii as interior cadential chords
which, though terminal in effect, relieve the passage of the monotony that would
result if I had appeared more frequently in their stead.
At times, extended passages of first inversion chords including iiig and vig are
found together with a scalar motion in the lowest part. When this occurs the me-
lodic forces outweigh harmonic progression. This results partly from the root rela-
tions by seconds, the lack of common tone relationships, and the absence of strong
bass progression. Passages such as that of Ex. 21-28 bear a direct relationship to
the practice of fauxbourdon^ in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. In such pas-
sages harmonic relationships that are cadential in character are avoided; there-
fore, this kind of movement extends or lengthens a phrase by sequential patterns.

Ex. 21-28. Mozart: Piano Sonata, K. 279, III.

C: IV8 iiie ije je vii'^ vje ve IVs iije ije je (iv) V

iSee Chapter !3.

SUBMEDIANT AND MEDIANT CHORDS; CHORD RELATIONSHIPS 351

The use of the submediant and mediant triads completes our study of the
diatonic triads. As we have seen, iii (III) and vi (VI) frequently occupy a secondary

harmonic role; in other contexts they contribute a fair share to the structural
aspects of harmony.

Tonal Relationships of the Diatonic Triads

Now that we have studied all of the diatonic triads, we should consider the
numerous tonal relationships existing between them. There are two significant
aspects about the relation between any two chords: the pitches (if any) shared
by both chords, and the kind of root relationship formed between the two. Each
triad of a single scale has at least one tone in common with another triad from
that scale. Any two triads having as many as two tones in common are closely
related. If they have one tone in common, they are less closely related. If there
are no tones in common between a set of two triads, they are not closely related.
Three principal types of root relationships may exist between any two triads.
They are fifth, third, and second. The root relationship of a fourth (like IV I) —
is an inversion of the fifth, just as root relationships of a sixth and a seventh are

inversions of the third and second, respectively. Triads whose roots form a fifth
relationship have one tone in common, such as V I and IV —
I. If the root rela- —
tion is a thirdj_as in ii — —
IV or I vi, there are two tones in common. But if the
root relation is a second, as in V- -vi, there are no tones in common.
-29 sTiows chord refationships to tonic when roots are related by fifths.
The vii° chord is not included because the leading tone does not function as a root,
and the I V is not included because it does not support the tonic as the root of its
relations hip. In minor the ii° chord would precede V. The ii° often is used in the
same manner as ii in major; therefore, in minor keys root succession by fifths
could begin with the iv chord, followed by the VII chord and continued as illustrat-
ed, III VI (ii°) vi.

Ex. 21-29. Chord relationships.

C: ill VI ii V I

The tonal relationships in major of each triad to I by root movement of a third

is shown in Ex. 21-27. The leading tone chord is included in this illustration, even
though the leading tone does not function as a root. The rootlessness of the ii°
chord in minor makes it similar to vii° in major. This should be kept in mind when
relating this illustration to minor keys.
 -

352 SUBMEDIANT AND MEDIANT CHORDS; CHORD RELATIONSHIPS

Ex. 21-30. Chord relationships.

i
Mio~«
3
C: vi IV li (vii°) V I

The summary that follows shows the tonal relationships of each triad in both
major and minor keys. Root relationship by second is omitted because it is created
by the roots of any two adjacent triads, with the exception of vii° in major and ii°
ill minor.
Summary of Tonal Relationships Between the Diatonic Triads
/ Root Relationship
One Tone in Two Tones in
Common Common -sttrn^^ 3rd

Major Minor Major Minor Major Minor Major Minor

Tonic V IV V iv iii vi III VI IV iv iii vi III VI
Supertonic vi V VI V IV vii° iv VII V — IV —
Mediant vii° vi VII VI V I V i vi VI V I V i

Subdomi- I vii° I VII vi ii VI ii° — VII vi ii VI

nant
Dominant ii I ii° i viii° iii VII III I i iii VII III
Submedi- iii ii III ii° I VI i iv ii — I IV i iv
ant
Leading IV iii iv III ii V ii° v — Ill — V
tone or
subtonic

Exercises

For more detailed assignments see Materials and Structure of Music I, Workbook, Chapter 21.

1. Sing and spell the mediant and submediant chords in all diatonic keys.
2. Use the melodic material from measures 1 and 2 of Ex. 21-9 as the motivic basis for a
16-measure piano composition in ternary form.
3. Reduce Ex. 21-11 to a two-voice framework. Then elaborate this basic frame to create
a "new" four-phrase work.
4. Reset the melody of Ex. 21-16 with a "faster" harmonic rhythm. Incorporate all of the
diatonic chords into your setting.
5. Write an experimental composition that uses a preponderance of chords other than
tonic, subdominant, or dominant, Make a formal plan, and sketch in the chordal forms
that will serve as the basis for a phrase or section.
6. Write a three-phrase vocal composition. Use the following plan: first phrase, only root
position chords; second phrase, parallel first inversion chords; third phrase, alternating
root position and first inversion chords. Close the example with a mediant to tonic ter-
minal cadence.
 Through-composed
Form /
22
Mutated Chords,
Harmonic Sequence

Repetition one principle of organization in most musical designs.

is

However, there are compositions in which the repetition of larger formal units,
such as a period or a section, does not occur. Broadly speaking, this means that no
two parts of such a composition are identical in all respects. If this were adhered
to consistently, the composition would be a series of contrasts without any sense
of return or "rounding off" of the whole form.
The creation of a unified musical design depends upon many factors; large scale
repetition is only one of these. Compositions in which each section is essentially
different are sai d to be through-composed^, to distinguish them from repetitive struc-
tural schemes. Through-composed compositions may contain several contrasting
parts or sections; however, total length is ultimately limited by the listener's reten-
tion capacity.
Compositions based on the formal principle of non-repetition generally do not
contain exact restatements. In Ex. 22-1 none of the four phrases is precisely like
another {abed); even so, it is a balanced structure. Each of the phrases is only
externally different; within the separate phrases similarities exist that create unity.

Ex. 22-1.

Slow

inyUl'.P^ \ r^m ^ v^
PC rr i
-^^^-i i

' The German form of this term, durchkomponierl, appears frequently in books that discuss musical
form.

353
354 THROUGH-COMPOSED FORM

AH four phrases have a similar contour, various rhythmic patterns recur, and each
phrase begins with an upbeat. In addition, the tones focus decisively on A as tonic.
Thus, even though this melody does not contain repeated phrases, other factors
help to produce unity.
The through-composed formal design is used also for compositions that are longer
than the melody of Ex. 22-1. Simply stated, the duration of a composition is deter-
mined by the length of each through-composed composition
section. In a longer
each section will comprise several phrases. Within each section repetition of phrases
may occur, creating unifying elements within the section that differ from those
found in all subsequent sections.
In Ex. 22-2 the four sections are clearly delineated by changes in meter, tonality,
accompanimental patterns, texture, and rhythm. These major external differences
make the form (abed) easy to comprehend as through-composed.

Ex. 22-2. Schubert: Der Jungling auf dem HiJgel, Op. 8, No. 1.

Not too slowly

Voice
m
Piano ^^
s a —:fe k
5
¥

*l* *

f ' ^' .g i

r p r p T' ^ ^ 1
^
^r p i
r^r-S
Ein Jijng ling auf dem Hu - gel mit seinem Kummer saB; wohl

"* ^ -^ ^ * -i-
fi^

r pr p
ward der Augen Spiegel
p
ihm
If
triib
P
und tranen
cj'p
-
i

rr
naB,
f' i

^/PC;'^
wohl ward der Augen

^ s
^
M t
4 ^ j J ^
f 7 p
 rr r r # ; r

THROUGH-COMPOSED FORM 355

o
f^rlrr p
'
r p a^ ^

f^r
s
Spie - gel ihm triib unci tranen - naB

fe
t f ri—
MA ^ PP /7\

m f- wi #-= -0 (•
-.
9-"
s
It i-

i
MaBig
^^=^ ^~^
Sah fro
i
r PQ-CT
heL'am-mer spie
:
Z2I

len am
^^ ,>

grii-nen Fel
J^rr ;^
sen

fe^ ^^ p^#
- -

d* * d

Jq^
^ ?=^ i-—^J-—j) ^-'^i^J-''^;)

^^ ^^^ f^
j.—^J,J:-^J)

^ r >
^^ i
fH^- ^^m
i
hang.

^^1^^:
J—^--^
sah fro

#^#^
J.-^jJ.-^;)
- he Bachlein

mm ft^Pi
quil

J^V-'-.j
- len das bun

Jr-;j^
- te_Tal ent

^^ F^^
)
j)

W^^ P^^
i lang;
^m
die Schmet-terlin - ge so - gen am ro -
^m
ten Blii - ten -

S *-*^
#•»
i^i "• ^^T^
I

T — — — —
Jr-jJr^;,
r
J.— ;J—-^ Jr^J J.—
r
i > Jr— j>J.-^i>
r

;i;>;i
^
' i
"r pcj-xJ P l
Lf^^CJ
mund. wie Mor - gentrau-me flo - gen die Wol ken - in dem

fe » » m «— ^^# ±jt

r — r r r r
 — « —

356 THROUGH-COMPOSED FORM

Ex. 22-2. continued.

'jr ' r
1^'
^Liin^ r -pn'' ^m
Rund

^^ ^m
Jr-^J,Jr-^j>
und al

J^ij^i
- les war so mun

^^ mm
Jr—xj^r-^j,
- ter und al -

[p J]
\^ri

J^ij.^-i
les schwammi n

^^^^ ^^^ ^^ ^^
Gliick,
>
C\
^j^
nur
i r P C
Herz hin
*
j^Mcrpp^Y unter sah nicht
p
der
i
i
H
s
:

Freu
*
in sein de

mm
- -

^ £ ^ ^ :#^
$ ^^
^^
zft:
£
^ ;J
1 h

fTS

^^_J
^ UJ) i> J^ I
^'^^

Freu
^
^^
Blick, sah nicht der - de Blick.
r7\

^^ ^
1^
S ^^ 1

^ #
dimin.

IS

•» •«*
3i:

Langsam
' ^j'
#' l
j'.
•'• j'j!
0' m- —ir
rn •
i'p
y
i
^'PP'^'r
^^ 1
w
j'
Ach! dumpfesGrab-ge-lau-te im Dor-fenunerklang,schon

i r r r p 1-^ —r^^ pr r r p

^ i?p

« ^—* • — 4 — «'

f' j'.i'j!
ton-
Jif j'pi^'PP' ^'r
aus derWei-teein kla- gender Gesang; sah nun die Lich-ter scheinen.den
^p i
p-p^P' M P^P
^
te

"^'
^
pr r r p'fpr r r pTpt r r

m. -* 4- ~4 «- 3 <I

-# -# #
THROUGH-COMPOSED FORM 357

f p-
pp-p^r ^pic'p p-pr
schwarzen Lei-chenzug, fing bit- ter an zu wei-nen,weil
pM r
man,
^»p p
well man sein
p

^m^ 4
I I
-V

i ii
crcsc. ^f

i'' T r r? ^ Jun^jurM)
I^^TiJV^iy
-^j'liii^- * S' d d -
'

R6s - chen trug. Jetzt lieB denSarg man nieder, der

tee|. te
w
^^2-p
*!
I #^^ I i ^
sy i?p

iV «i^^^ ^"^ li i J
F *
P^
^ t=^ f)ij).
;>;)j)r j^F'
i^^^g' ^Y 'i^
To- tengraber kam, und gab der Er-de wie-der,was Gott aus sel-ber nahm.und

S ^^ ^ p T rrff f f fi-'' H-4fi

— >—
,-«

ii^ ^^ 5 i » •# r -0

% —y^ 0'
J'J'JT
f!0- S'
gab der Er-de wie-
I
J'P
(T*

der, was
J' P p-

Gott aus sel-ber nahm.

i^f i
a*
'>-^}
^
} f ni E i«^

M#tfl s t
i«

l|J iJ 4 f^^ -0 -0
^
3
Etwas geschwinder

^' '
' p
i

Da schwieg
r~p cjp des Jiinglings
i

r'
Kla
M
ge, und
ic;p
be
^
tend ward sein
p

^^
- -

^ i * g
*' g
PP

^
Hi* .
M
^-^
J i>J ^ ^
r
358 THROUGH-COMPOSED FORM

Ex. 22-2. continued.

Blick,
^^
p If
sah
p cjMf
schon am schbnern Ta -
^
ge des
p
i
Crp ^
Wie der sehens
p 1
^

Gliick.
'

'
p
Und
i

S
i ^ *H^ E

J ^J ^
r r r r

y r Pc;f'
wie die Sterne
^
ka- men, der
p
i
'f
Mond
PCJNf
her auf- ge- schifft,
r
da
pif
las
p[j i
er in den

* ^
'

m Ji f J J' *rjj
^
1=1

'J ^ J JiJ J i

r r r r r
t
^ ^^

^ ^
y
i r ^ p 'LTp 2 r p ir" ^

I
t
Ster -

^ S
nen der Hoffnung ho- he

^
Schrift, der Hoff nung

ar J ^J ^ J ^ J ^ ^=^^=^ J ^J ^ ^jg^
r r r r

^ r7^

^^ ^
i ho he Schrift.

i i i I f 1 f^ 1
pr ^^Ff

«
r p

r
J J'j ^ j=

r
t^

^
*<t *
f p f p
v:;

The key basis of this song, e Cg G, is a crucial factor in the delineation of the
whole design. The use of both g minor and G major contributes to the unity of
the composition, through retention of the single tonic, and counterbalances the
contrast of tex*;ural change.
The potentials of this design principle are limited only by psychological prac-
THROUGH-COMPOSED FORM 359

ticality. It would be which there is no repetition at

possible to create a form in
any level, motivic, phrase, or sectional. However, that would be the exception
rather than the rule. The disjjn guishinp feature of through-composed de sign js
large sectional contr asts. These gross contra sts often are softened by transferring
cTiaracteristic patterns from one section to another.

Mutated Chords 7-1 and 7-VI

In the previous chapter mediant and submediant chords add

we saw that the
new dimensions to the harmonic palette. Chordal unfolding also is expanded by
using chords that result from chromatic inflection, such as the minor tonic and the
minor subdominant in a major key. Incorporating the chromatically inflected
third and sixth scale degrees into the musical fabric gives the impression of "mix-
ing" elements of both the major and minor modes. Initially, the resulting chordal
and melodic digressions are local, or "coloristic," in effect; structurally, these
digressions prolong harmonic activity.
Frequently the progress of a composition is enhanced when repeated phrases
are mutated by chromatic inflection. As in Ex. 22-3, the effect is that of juxtaposed
modes, but the total impression is a blending that does not distort or change the
structural tonal relationships. On the contrary, the mixture increases the available
tonal possibilities.

Ex. 22-3. Haydn: String Quartet, Op. 64, No. 3, I.

^ ^Sp P •> '' i

^ ^
n
f
^ f
'^ i
V r > ^

w ^^ ^ E
{^^r^-^
i
^m^ -0-
y ,

J) y

5 ^E^ ^?=^ ^^^'i'^-

mt^ f=^ f
^
360 THROUGH-COMPOSED FORM

Ex. 22-3. continued.

^ ^^^
P

^^^e ^
•^ l-z^Z-J--'^^^
wr^*5t*v*it*

P ^^^ i

^ "27
i 'l-zJ

When these digressions are set in close proximity, as here, the result is a fusion of
different but complementary elements, obscuring the more distinctive qualities
of each. It is probably more accurate to designate compositions in which elements
of both major and minor appear consistently as major-minor.
Any chord containing notes whose tonal roles are flexible may appear as a muta-
tion. Both the mediant and submediant are particularly suited to mutation be-

cause their roles in the establishment of tonality are less direct. As mutated chords
they add to the harmonic spectrum by making available sonorities that are more
closely associated with other tonal contexts.
In Ex. 22-4 the elided phrases represent a prolongation of V. The deceptive
harmonic activity in measure 4 is intensified by the appearance of the B-flat major
chord, a mutation of the diatonic vi. It is created by the chromatic inflection of
the third and sixth scale degrees, and changes the root and fifth of the triad by
lowering them a half step.

Ex. 22-4. Haydn: Quartet, "The Lork," Op. 64, No. 5, III.

VI.

VI.

Via.

Vc.
THROUGH-COMPOSED FORM 36?

Like its diatonic counterpart, the 'VI prolongs harmonic activity when it is

used to create a deceptive cadence. The difference we perceive between ^VI and
vi in the deceptive cadence is the result of several factors: (1) a major triad is

heard instead of a minor triad, (2) the root motion is by minor second rather than
major second, and (3) the inflected third and sixth scale degrees bring into play
regional chromatic activity.
The non-cadential use of 'VI is the same as the diatonic vi. If "VI is directly
preceded by I, as in Ex. 22-5, both the diatonic and the mutated spellings of the
third scale degree are juxtaposed. Furthermore, the resultant root relation is a
major third. This combined with the chromatic inflection produces a third rela-
tion.

Ex. 22-5. Brahms : Symphony No. 3, II.

I W I W

Third_relation is present when chord roots are ^thnd^part. If the chords in-
volved have two tones in coinnioii, a diatonic third relation exists, e.g., vi IV; on
the other hand, if the chords inxoKccl oiiK ha\c one tone, or no tones in common,
a^ "ch romatic" third relation exists. In a ll chromatic third re ations one of the
l

chords is diatonic, the other a mutation (or chromatic).

In Ex. 22-5 "V'l both prolongs the influence of the tonic pitch and also focuses
attention on the plagal cadence. In part, this attention is a by-product of the
362 THROUGH-COMPOSED FORM

lowered sixth scale step, both as root of ''VI and as the third of iv in the cadential
pattern.
The mutated mediant also is used in the same way as its diatonic equivalent.
To create the ''III, both the root and the fifth of the mediant triad are lowered
one half step. Like the ''VI, ''III adds another sonority to the harmonic palette.
When'' III precedes V or V, a cross relation may be created by the juxtaposition
of both the diatonic and the mutated seventh scale step, as in the second measure
of Ex. 24-6.

Ex. 22-6. Dvorak : String Quartet in A-flat, |.

li^f^J ^m ^J B t— tL ±i^

^^^
At: I
*^

VI
f
¥^=^

IE
1

V^

The 'III chord is in third relation to both I and V, and has one tone in common
m r
^^

with each. The ''III also bears an interesting relation to ''VI because of their root
relation of fifth and their common tone.
The purely coloristic roles of ''VI and ''III are sometimes regarded with less

attention than their structural roles. In Ex. 22-7 the cadential activity is heightened
by introducing ''VP before proceeding to tonic.

Ex. 22-7. R. Strauss: Die Nachf, Op. 10, No. 3. By permission of the International Music
Company, New York.

zt
^

rtft?
33
zr ^
Bt: bVI

At first glance it appears that the cadence is both deceptive and authentic. How-
ever, after the harmonic motion is completed, ''VP is heard as a chromatic em-
broidery around I that is reminiscent of non-chord activity.
Earlier in the chapter we stated that consistent use of mutated chords produces
THROUGH-COMPOSED FORM 363

the cfTect of elements mixed from two different tonal sources. The process we have
seen thus far has always involved juxtaposition. In some rare instances the mixing
involves both juxtaposition and superposition, as in Ex. 22-8.

Ex. 22-8. Stravinslcy: Symphony of Psolms, Copyright 1941 by Russischer Musikverlag,

I.

Renewed 1958. Copyright & Renewal assigned to Boosey & Hawkes Inc. Re-
vised Version Copyright 1948 by Boosey & Hawkes Inc. Reprinted by per-
mission.

The simultaneous mixing of different harmonic elements is also a possibility.

Such stacking of diverse elements carries the practice of mixing to its logical further
development.

Ex. 22-9. Bartok : String Quartet No. 2, I. Copyright 1920 by Universal Edition. Renewed
1948. Copyright & Renewal assigned to Boosey & Hawkes Inc. for the U.S.A.
Reprinted by permission.

Violin I

P dolce

Violin n
e ^m P dolce
i
fi £ r^^
Viola
M pizz.
i
r r r #
Cello
m tr
se: 3
iU- T-

9—
T»

m.

2 2
 1

364 THROUGH-COMPOSED FORM

Ex. 22-9. continued.

In Ex. 22-9 a harmonic groundwork o( A major is clearly outlined by the cello

chords. Stacked above this predominance of A major is the octave pattern of the
violin that definitely outlines a minor.

Harmonic Sequence

The harmonic sequence is created by repeating a systematic root pattern at

successively different pitch levels. Some skeletal versions of several patterns used
in this procedure are given in Ex. 22-10.

Ex. 22-10. Harmonic sequence.

O O ^J C3H m
<i *Jn ^-O^ o XE \\i\i\\\'^\\^ ^W ft n
^^W JCE
^&w
an. 8«««g'
g
u on""Qoo
--0- IE

TlvvTu i\'
zaz

V I
g
I Vi III I V III VII°V I
m
m^^-^ jCX EC
I6i\'v0°6iii vjeii
O O
3X IX -&-

v^i
I II I I 1 I

4th6th4th6th 3rd 5th etc. 4th 5th etc.

In Ex. 22- 10a the sequential pattern involves root movement up a perfect fourth,
and its repetition a third lower. The pattern is broken here when root movement
by a second appears between IV —V.
In Ex. 22- 10b a pattern involving roots related by thirds is the basis for a har-
monic sequence. Each unit of the sequence is connected by roots in a fourth rela-
tionship, and the interval of repetition is a third above.
THROUGH-COMPOSED FORM 365

First inversionand root position chords are alternated in Ex. 22- 10c. The result-
ing root pattern is by fourths and fifths. Notice that in a harmonic sequence the
leading tone "functions" like a root. Consequently, the vii% chord is assigned a
status determined by its prime relation to the other diatonic triads.

Each of these illustrations involves a pattern of only two chords. The number of
times a pattern is repeated is a matter determined by compositional necessity. One
pattern might become dull if repeated too often, while another bears repetition
because of its melodic and harmonic interest.
The phrase in Ex. 22-1 1 opens with a harmonic sequence. The pattern is based
on the chord root relationship of a fourth and a bass pattern of root movement up
a fifth. The melodic sequence is carried out between two different parts and is
continued through measure 3, but the harmonic sequence ends in measure 2.

Ex. 22-11. Handel: Organ Concerto in F Major,

Andante

$
t
V (^ i^
(J^) % % % <
^

^
P# ^^
^
i

s^^^^ ^
mm m m
'y-'i!
<''
W¥=^
J'l
Bt: VI

The harmonic pattern treated sequentially in Ex. 22-12 contains three chords.
The root pattern up a fifth, down a second the interval of sequence is a minor
is ;

third below. Since a minor dominant chord is used, the sequence contains only
minor chords, whereas the initial statement contains only major chords.
366 THROUGH-COMPOSED FORM

Ex. 22-12. Brahms: Piano Sonata, Op. 5, I.

^ 5;
'^ ^
-<9^

^
^
3
12

'^^'i^
ji im
m ^ w £ ^p
At I
I IV vi (V)

In Ex. 22-13 both root position and first inversion chords are used. The sequen-
tial pattern begins with vii°, indicating again that the leading tone functions as
a root when it appears as part of a harmonic sequence.

Ex. 22-13. Schumann: Album Leaf, Op. 124, No. 4.

Harmonic sequences often involve non-diatonic chords. When this occurs the
repetition can be the harmonic replica —equal sonorities as well as duplicated root
relations —of the original statement. In Ex. 22-14 the basic harmonic pattern is

I — V7 — I; the sequence has the same structure transferred up a second.

Ex.

f^^
^^
22-14. Beethoven: Plana Sonata, Op. 81a,

^^ ^^^
III.

gf^ ^
^m *
Eb: I yi

Harmonic sequences play an important formal role in many compositions. Our

discussion here is merely an introduction to this aspect of organization; a more
detailed studv will occur in Book II.
 .

THROUGH-COMPOSED FORM 367

Other Examples of Harmonic Parallelism

Harmonic parallelism places chords in a relationship more melodic than har-

monic. As such, the individual root relationships are less significant than the total
pattern as a sweep of motion. As in harmonic sequence, a systematic root pattern
emerges. Sometimes an entire phrase is organized by parallel chords, as in Ex. 22-
15.

^
Ex. 22-15. Puccini: // Tofaorro.

m MM ^
O e ter - ni. in - na
f^
mo - ra - ti , buo
^m
na sera
b

§S ^! f y
JL
1
m
F P

In other contexts a series of parallel chords creates variety w^ithin the phrase,
as in Ex. 22-16. In both Ex. 22-15 and Ex. 22-16 parallelism incorporates first
inversion chords exclusively.

Ex. 22-16. Brahms: Variations and Fugue on a Theme by Handel, Op. 24, Variation !.

f .^-^-^m M imif^itir ^

n '^ . [rn ^ m^ i==*

B\>: V I
Z^
V 16 ije lije IV6 v6 IV6- V6 I

Parallelism is not restricted to inverted chords^ or root movement by seconds.

In Ex. 22-17 root movement is by thirds, and each of the chords (except for the
second) is major. In this excerpt it is difficult to distinguish between melody and
harmony because the interval of the third characterizes both.

- Refer also to the examples of parallel second-inversion chords in Chapter 2 1

 —

368 THROUGH-COMPOSED FORM

Ex. 22-17. Debussy: Preludes, Book I. "Les sons et les parfums tournent dans I'air du
soir." Permission for reprint granted by Durand et Cie., Paris, copyright owners,
and Elkan-Vogel Co., Inc., Philadelphia, agents.

^P H^ ^^^=^=^=^-
mm r M H Hi i

f a i , |i| im n

accompany a chordally outlined melody in Ex. 22-18. Because

Parallel fifths
measures 3-5 constitute a harmonic sequence, some of the roots form an aug-
mented second relationship. Notice that the effect of the parallel movement is
partially counterbalanced by the contrary motion of the melodic pattern.

Ex. 22-18. Bartok Mikrokosmos, Book V, No. 139. Copyright 1940 by Hawkes
: & Son
(London) Ltd. Reprinted by permission of Boosey & Hawkes Inc.

^ ^m
^
ty-^-

m w ^m #
p
m
f
^^ 5

'rrt
i m
More complex motion found in Ex. 22-19.
sonorities are involved in the parallel
In this passage the parallel chords move above an ostinatd^ figure. Both factors
parallelism and ostinato —
create a static harmonic rhythm.

' A short pattern reiterated at the same pitch level.

THROUGH-COMPOSED FORM 369

Ex. 22-19. Stravinsky: Rife of Spring, "Dance of the Adolescents."

FU.

Horns
^^
f^A > k^^
^^ %^
Bass Clar.
Vic. m^'r ^j j
- ^
- »

Exercises

For more detailed assignments see Materials and Structure of Music I, Workbook, Chapter 22.

1. Make a detailed analysis of Ex. 22-1. What other patterns than those mentioned in the
chapter are used to unify the composition?
2. Write a 16 measure through-composed composition for piano that uses a key scheme
such as the following: G-flat major, parallel minor, G-flat major.
3. Spell and sing mutated chords (i, iv, III, VI) in all major keys.
4. Listen to compositions such as Brahms' i?/!a/;iO(/)', Op. 1 19, No. 4. Discuss the use of mutated
chords.
5. Locate, sing through, and analyze several through-composed compositions.
6. Create various harmonic patterns that could be treated sequentially. Use one of the
examples in this chapter as your model.
 Binary

Form
23

In shaping their compositions composers have often used a two-part

or binary form. There are works from many which employ this formal
centuries
design of two distinct sections which often (but by no means always) contain
similar material in both sections. The grouping of two (paired) dance movements
—
such as the Pavane Galliard is perhaps an early manifestation of such a trend.
B inary form is most associated with dance movements found in instrumental
and keyboard works of the eighteenth century, as we shall note later in this chapter.
It IS also important, however, to note that two-part forms can be found in vocal

music, ensemble and solo instrumental music, and keyboard works of other periods
as well, including the current era. Furthermore, the principle of two-part organiza-
tion is often found as the basis for sections of compositions as well as entire pieces.
The themes of variation movements, for example, are commonly ordered in
binary form.
Example theme from a movement whose sub-
23-1 shows the statement of the
sequent variations retain the structure, harmony, and melodic outline of the
opening and its accompaniment. Note that the passage is arranged in two eight-
measure periods, A and B, each of which is repeated. It is common to regard the
fi* second section as a logical "answer to" or continuation of the first. A letter repre-
sentation of the form of the example would read AA BB. The letter B denotes con-
trast between the two sections, in this case involving rhythm, contour, harmonic
progression and texture.

370
BINARY FORM 371

Ex. 23-1. Beethoven: Op. 57, Andante con moto.

Andante con moto

.<rt/^UiA^

In contrast with the preceding illustration, binary organization encompasses

the entire movement shown two main sections
in Ex. 23-2. This piece consists of
of differing lengths, measures 1-21 and 28-50, separated by a six measure inter-
lude (Adagio), which in effect joins the first section with the second and prepares
for a modified return of the opening. Note the similarity of materials in measures
1-4 and 28-31. A comparison of the completion of section I (A), which is not
repeated, with section II (A') will show that the second half of the piece, while
making use of materials easily traceable to section A, constitutes more a logical
outgrowth and continuation of A than a contrasting section it is therefore labeled
;

A', rather than B.

Ex. 23-2. Shostakovitch: Prelude No. 18, Op. 87. © Copyright MCMLV by MCA Music, a
division of MCA Inc., New York. Used by permission.

Moderate (J = 88)
/

A-/^' cri A 1/1

372 BINARY FORM

Ex. 23-2. continued.

^^^ ^^m ^ fl
PT C m
^^ ^
dim.
n.
-9
10

^nz:
i?±i

^''' [jf'^ ^ ZJI

dim.
^ 15

^
- J.[> # *

^ i j I
'f~ T^
20

i i 1^^
^^? * jr r W^
cresc.

rr
^ f r
Adagio =

»
ritenuto (J 66)

355=^

^
ii
1p
^^ i
r*- i- » i,o
25

ra
s
j:^? sub i to accelerando
WZ,i-?-

^ ^. i
f
'^ !!'

^^
t\>Moderat o con primo (J = 88)

i^

^ ^^ />o<:o a
P
poco
c? W^ fcK^JPP
^
p^ %
9
21

^^ P
dim.
liJplil '
^^'' ^^^^J^
35

cre5c.

^ M i5?
-pj.

s :s:
BINARY FORM 373

/vvUrtu>^

')^
J' t
i Hi'

^g -1112 ^i^i^i
19-

g ^ id ^
^^
50

a
^

^S ll'
m Z2 ^ zz m S ^
zz

\fr

f-? f^f 'r—f ^- r

A further study of this piece will show that terminal close is avoided in measure
21 in favor of a shift to the D
major region that begins the Adagio and which
moves by dominant pedal (C in / minor) to a reassertion of the principal
tonality (/minor), coinciding with the beginning of ^'.
The simplicity of the plan of this movement testifies to the usefulness and easily
comprehended structure that typifies most binary compositions in which con-
tinuity and overall unity, as opposed to contrast and developmental display, are
desired characteristics.

Baroque Binary Form

Aparticular manifestation of the binary principle appears in much music writ-

ten during the Baroque period. This is the only specific type of binary construction
to achieve widespread currency, and then only in the seventeenth and eighteenth
centuries.
This form plan is significant not only because it was the prevailing small form for
over 200 years, but also in that it was the direct recursor of the sonata-allegro
p
forrrk In these centuries the binary form was widespread, appearing in the separate
movements of the dance suite (allemandes, courantes, sarabandes, gigues, bour-
rees, forlanas, menuets etc.) as well as in the various movements of the instrumental
sonata and the concerto.
 374 BINARY FORM

Many of our observations on the nature of this form will apply equally to other
compositions in two-part structure. It should be understood, however, that these
specific descriptions are based upon Baroque binary compositions such as Ex. 23-3.
Two general aspects are almost always present in this type of form: an obvious
parallel between the two sections in their use of thematics, and an absence of strong
d ivisiv e contrasts such as those found in the ternary form., A certain basic "same-
ness" of themes, texture, register, tonality, etc. often characterizes the binary form.
This quality is readily apparent to the listener. Both of these attributes are clearly
demonstrated in Ex. 23-3, which is a piano sonata by Domenico Scarlatti.

Ex. 23-3. D. Scarlatti : Piano Sonata in B Minor.

$
h 1 »
^^=^^
([iczc^Miz/^

^ 15
m m m

mi m^ n^

tr
i;^.'-"--
-^

rn^fin

. c.
20
±=^ ^ '\?ff^\^

jij ^ I
j^j
p
m^ jj

A ^ f*
m
F
Ai.
JJJ JJJ ,
B m m .
25

SP d ' ^ P

r,

%
BINARY FORM 375

30 t
y^ ^^^^ =
?
m^ ^
^
V ^ or- ^eMM?<^

^
k^jj^
f\^^\
^¥=i^
p' i;

n ^^ I

^ s^ i m ^m
Oa

^^
'^^'1
1
^ LiLr
^^
1r 40
\

p
(

^ ^^
D
. ...-fence /"^

^^
n
^^ ^^
45

iiU £ f^

AYOA^l^j

p # s ^^ ^
tt4r^t,ux1b

p P
S ^ ^ a ^ ^
P^
55
#-# — ^-(^
^ i J
tr #,tr
i
60

m m
^^ a #-^ !lp .£1

65

* i mw
it

^^ Fl I
376 BINARY FORM

Ex. 23-3. continued. klTT /^ A

^
-jl
''^

^^te ?

^^ ^^ . - •
(

^ ^
75 «^

^^ :^

^ ^ ^^ ^ fe^
80

P
^
^ t=m. ^-^-» q?^ ^>-m-^ 0'

f^^^ ^
V^"!
^^
!
^ ^J^J
85

l±±.
- ^^fr

f
^=±

The tonal relationships of binary form also generally conform to a common

pattern such as that unfolded in this example. The bi-partite design is frequently
confirmed visually by the use of double bars at the end of each section. Since each

section is usually repeated, a formal arrangement of A A A'A' is produced (the

same letter is used because of the basic similarity of the thematic material).
An understanding of the formal design is facilitated by extracting the important
thematic fragments. The fragments (or "motives") shown in Ex. 23-4 are not
complete themes, but they comprise the significant musical ideas in the first section
(measures 1-47), and they recur in the second section in recognizable form. A
comparison of the thematic outlines of these two large sections will make clear the
similarities (and differences) between them.
 — J ^

BINARY FORM 377

Ex. 23-4. Significant thematic fragments from Scarlatti : Sonata in B Minor.

a (beginning

J m V ^ m
^F
-- ll
^ ^
N ^
p

o: i, a P^
^ 1 jy
— * d — — U
1 1

J J. J
1

b (measure

SS
7)

*f P= = !^
W~^~W
i

c
i
(measure 29)
*=s
^
^
d (measure 35)

^
? ^^
^
The thematic outhnes of each section are very similar. Fragment (a) occurs in
much the same form at the beginning of each part (measures and 48). Similarly, 1

fragment (d) is the thematic basis for the last part of each section (measures 35
and 75). The principal difference between the two halves of the form is the order
of appearance of fragments (b) and (c) they are reversed in the second section.
;

Compare measures 7 and 67 and also measures 29 and 62.

From this analysis we can conclude that the two sections of this binary move-
—
ment are quite similar almost parallel in many cases. The interchange of
position of the two middle motives in this example is not typical of the form, al-
though other examples of the same arrangement do exist. Our analysis has not
accounted for every melodic fragment, but it has been thorough enough to disclose
the basic thematic similaiity of the two sections.
378 BINARY FORM

Before leaving this example, however, we must consider the tonal design, a factor
equal in importance to the thematic outline. Examine this composition again,
analyzing for keys and the relationships between successive keys.
apparent that the key scheme of the two sections does not duplicate the same
It is

neat parallelism of the thematic design. Section A begins in the key of b minor,
changes to D major in measures 25 and 26, and remains in that key until the double
bar. The tonality at the beginning of section A', however, is not clearly defined (G
major and D
major are both possibilities), but it becomes stabilized in b minor,
arriving there in measure 55, and it remains there until the end of the sonata. The
tonal direction of the second section is reversed, in a sense, as the following diagram
indicates:

Tonal diagram of Scarlatti : Sonata in B Minor

Section A Section A'

Tonic to contrasting key Contrasting key or (?) to tonic

The apparent tonal indecision or instability at the beginning of the second sec-
tion is present in the majority of binary movements. In many cases it is not pos-
sible to rule out all but one key at this point. In the analysis of compositions
showing this characteristic tonal ambiguity it is sufficient to point out the general

key area.
The relationship between keys is somewhat different when the composition be-
gins in a major key. In that event the contrasting key is almost always the dominant^
(for example D major to A major). The minor key to relative major key progres-
sion of the Scarlatti is the rule, however, when the basic key of the composition is

minor.
To summarize the general characteristics of binary form, the thematic arrange-
ment of the two sections will be parallel, but the tonal direction will be reversed
in section two. This latter statement will apply almost without exception.
The above elements hardly exhaust the list of possible factors which contribute
to the perception of form in this or any other composition. Considerations such
as changes of texture, register, cadences, phrase structure, phrase extensions,
contrapuntal factors, sequences, melodic contour, harmonic implications, and many
others affect our mental image of the structure of a piece of music. These may not
all be of equal importance in any given composition, but all of them —-along with
countless other factors not mentioned — contribute in some degree to the total

experience of musical form.

Among the other significant form-producing factors in Ex. 23-3 is texture.
A change of texture is often the signal that a new formal or thematic unit has be-
gun, and this occurs in measures 29 and 62. The addition of the octave in the right
hand against the continuous sixteenth notes in the left hand marks an important
change from the previous texture and attracts attention in both of these locations.
Aside from this one change, however, the remainder of the composition does not
use this method of delineating formal sections.
Cadences play an important role in defining the breaks between sections. An
 —

BINARY FORM 379

obvious example occurs in measure 34 and again in measure 75, each bringing the
previous material to a terminal cadence. These mark the points of arrival for the
keys in which each of these sections concludes.
An element that is not readily apparent often serves as a unifying formal device.
Such is the case in measures 1-10 where the left hand part is an ostinato, repeating
the same two-measure fragment again and again. Similar figures appear in at least
two other locations in each section, particularly near the final cadence. Notice also
the use of augmentation in measures 7 and 8; both hands play the same melodic
fragment but in differing note values. Suggestions for further analysis of this com-
position will be given at the end of this chapter.

Binary and Ternary Forms Contrasted

The main differences between the binary and ternary principles apply
following
virtually always to movements in these forms, Although all of these contrasts will
not apply to every composition, enough will be present to indicate clearly the
proper category.

BINARY ^C TERNARY ^^'^

1. In two sections, each set off by 1. In three sections, the third of which
double bars and repeat signs. is a literal repeat of or is similar to
the first.

2. Each of the two sections ends in a 2. Each of the three sections usually
different key than that in which ends in the same key in which it

it begins. begins.

3. There is little thematic contrast 3. There is considerable thematic con-

between the two sections. trast between the first two sections.

4. In the conventional binary, the 4. The opening thematic material in-

opening thematic material does variably returns in the tonic key
not recur in the tonic key. at the beginning of the final (A)
section.

Rounded Binary

A basic element of almost all musical forms is the return or restatement of opening
material near the close of a composition. This element, prominent in the ternary
design, is absent (except in terms of key return) from the binary form as described
above. In the Scarlatti Sonata, the opening theme does not return intact in the tonic
key. The only reprise of this opening pattern appears at the beginning of the second
section.
After the Baroque era some composers began to display in their binary composi-
tions traces of a partial or even complete restatement of the opening thematic ma-
terial near the end of the movement. Ex. 23-5 demonstrates how a movement that
basically is binary integrates this principle of a recapitulation.
380 BINARY FORM

Ex. 23-5. Haydn: Quartet, Op. 76, No. 8, III (Trio).

Trio yr^-r
-^ f^v^^
go
Violin I
m^ mi ^m m ii 3: E
Violin n
P a ^
Viola
^ t?

» 1^
^
^B
Cellc ^ P
:v
S f

B ^ wm « p
70

ii^

i ^ ^ /'

^ ^ ^/ ^
m g ^ ^^ /
^ 3J

75 ^ns frr

i ^f ^
p
^
•
\
fS.
^ # ^
*j

W^ =^
o>
i?p

i^ =^^
i?P

1^^ f=FT i

# i i P PP
i
ft: r «. 3-c
. 80
s^ I '^ ^

^ ^
^

^ 85

1
g^ ^ ^ ^
i^
^J:
P

-T- •
^-t i ^
J- fl -14 J
BINARY FORM 387

$ *:
^P
90

^ i^^ ^ ^3^
1

i
fr\\^c>V

$ -9-^
i ^
^
')
-&-

J
w
3EE ^J 3E£
ii

3^ J3EE

3^=F
{ \

i 1 f
J-> 3^
95

^ P ^
-i 1

f
'

^
i.

^
^
^^ t?
f

P ^ ^P ^
D.C.

The first three of the four criteria suggested above apply to this composition.
Significant alterations have been made, however. The two sections are not approx-
imately the same length as in the Scarlatti Sonata; the second section here is more
than four times the length of the first. We also find a restatement of the opening
material in measures 93-100, where the mutation of the parallel major key returns
to minor. In contrast to measures 56-64, these^measures are not modulatory but
remain solidly in a minor. Another example of tonal instability occurs following
the double bar at measure 64. This additional factor contributes to the recognition
of the binary structure. The rounded binary form, of which this composition is a
typical example, must be viewed as a hybrid form. Although it reveals traces of
the ternary form, notably in the restatement it contains, it belongs clearly to the
binary category.

Song Form and Trio

Ex. 23-5 is the middle part, or "trio," of the third movement of Haydn's "Em-
peror" Quartet, a movement that illustrates clearly the song form and trio princi-
ple.This formal arrangement was used frequently by composers of the Classical
period as one of the middle movements in large works such as the symphony.
382 BINARY FORM

String quartet, sonata, and concerto, and it was cast in the spirit of a dance or at
least a movement of a relatively light nature. The
and the scherzo and
menuet and trio

trio are the most frequent names given to these movements which are moments of

relaxation in the midst of the weightier and more serious movements that surround
them.
Actually this formal design incorporates two different small compositions (the
so-called "trio" is merely a second menuet or scherzo). The trio apparently derives
from the Baroque practice of lightening the texture in sections such as this, some-
times even to three voices; hence the name "trio."

Exercises

For more detailed assignments see Materials and Structure of Music I, Workbook, Chapter 23.

1. Listen to a recording of Ex. 23-3, noting each formal change and comparing the two
large sections. Analyze further for the following details:
a. Examples of repetition, sequence, imitation, phrase extension, motivic develop-
ment
b. cadence types
c. Points of contrapuntal interest
d. Points of contrapuntal sterility
2. Play Example 23-5 from the score at the piano. Analyze for the following points:
a. In what ways does example exhibit principles of effective counterpoint?
this

b. Analyze for phrase and period construction; analyze and label each cadence
jr^ by key, Roman numerals, and cadence type.

( c. Make a harmonic analysis of measures 76-92.

d. Discuss the intervallic structure of the theme in measures 1 — 8 and how this is

developed in the remainder of the trio,

d. Find examples of stretto and of imitation.

3. Follow a recording of Beethoven's String Quartet, Op. 18 No. 5, II. After listening to the
full movement at least twice, make a diagram of the form. Try to incorporate the broad
details at first, then perfect by noting smaller details. Listen once again and check for
accuracy. Then answer the following questions:
a) How closely does the form of this movement correspond to the diagram of Ex. 3.
b. Are there contrasts of homophonic and contrapuntal textures? If so, where do
they occur?
c. Are there examples of sequence, melodic inversion, and repetition? Where do
they occur?
d. Where do the main cadences
and what types are represented?
fall

4. Following exercise 3 above, study a score of the movement, taking note once again of
the above points. Then make a harmonic analysis of selected passages.
5. Write a brief composition for piano that is cast in simple binary form. Make each section
no longer than sixteen measures, and retain a simple texture of two voices throughout
(prominent top line, accompanimental bass voice).
 Secondary
Dominants
24

As we have seen, the presence of chromatic alterations in a passage

may indicate one of several things: aherations of decorative tones (non-chord
tones), usual altered tones of the minor scales, or modulation. Practically any page
of music contains accidentals, either flats, sharps or natural signs, which indicate
inflections of notes within the diatonic scale system. Many such alterations result
from the composer's desire to exploit one of music's strongest harmonic relation-
ships, that of "dominant-tonic." Our foregoing study of harmony has shown the
important role played by this relationship, a role emphasized by frequency of use,
as well as structural prominence. It is also possible that composers simply developed
a preference for such relations. In any event, a particular practice developed,
namely that of creating "secondary dominant-tonic" relationships. This practice
will be the basis of our study for the next few chapters.
In Ex. 24-1 the d-naturals that appear in the seventh measure create a half step
(leading tone) relation with e-flat.

Ex. 24-1. Mozart: Symphony in E-flat Major (K. 543), II.

Andante

:) y J- J^
-

^ E»
p
^ 1
gffia
At:
T^
x
f
^ M i

i^ i:**'-d m
0-If )i^ i^^
K
(

^i ffi
f f
1 ±3;
VS V'/v
^
384 SECONDARY DOMINANTS

The d-natural is part of a melodic sequence begun in measure 6 that leads to the
focal point of dominant of A-flat major. The last chord in measure 7 is
e-flat, the
a Mm 7 chord on b-flat, the V7 of E-flat. Mozart here heightens the effect of the

cadence on the dominant by preceding the dominant with its own "dominant
seventh" chord. In other words, he employed a "secondary dominant"^ (more
precisely, a "secondary dominant seventh"), the symbol for which is V7/V.
It is interesting to conjecture why Mozart used this pattern for the second ca-

dence rather than for the first, or why he used different patterns at all. Probably
two different cadence patterns were used for the sake of variety, and the particular
order was established to sustain interest. Had the order of cadences been reversed,
the resultwould have been somewhat anticlimactic, for the point of maximum
harmonic tension would have been reached at measure 4 rather than at measure 8.
A further study of the second cadence in Ex. 24-) reveals other interesting facts.
Notice the third chord from the end. It is the dominant in second inversion, the

Vf. This chord and the two following constitute a progression (V^ — V^/V —V) that
resembles one of the most common cadential patterns, I^ —V^ — In both I. in-
stances the middle chord is the "dominant," which is preceded by its "tonic" in
second inversion, then followed by its "tonic" in root position. The cadence in this
— —
example may be designated as follows: V® V^/V V. The cadence could have
been accomplished through the use of V^ — V/V — V. The addition of the seventh
to the triad V/V which increase the expectation of
creates dissonant elements
resolution. Using this example as a point of departure, and from observations made
of musical practice, we may generalize about "secondary dominants" as follows:

1. Any diatonic major or minor triad may be embellished by its own dominant.
2. Such embellishment creates harmonic color and strengthens linear motion
(leading tone effect), thereby heightening resolution tendency.
3. Their presence sometimes indicated by the appearance of one or more chro-
is

matic tones of harmonic significance appearing in music that is basically dia-

tonic. (Remember that chromatic notes may indicate other things as well.)

4. The secondary dominant seventh, because of the added dissonance and the re-
solution tendency of the members of the tritone, stands in stronger relation to
its "tonic" than does the corresponding secondary dominant triad.

5. Secondary dominants and secondary dominant sevenths appear in inversions as

well as in root position.

6. In four-voice textures the root of the secondary dominant is frequently doubled
while the secondary dominant seventh usually appears in complete form;
however, if not, the root is doubled.
7. Secondary dominants resolve regularly, (to their "tonics"), deceptively (to a major
or minor chord whose root is a step above the root of the secondary dominant),
or irregularly (to a variety of other chords).

In this sense, the dominant of a key might be regarded as the "primary dominant.
SECONDARY DOMINANTS 385

Melodic Significance of the Secondary Dominant

In analyzing homophonic music with regard to secondary dominants it is easy

to overlook their melodic significance andregard them as simply another type
to
of harmonic structure. To do
so is one very important aspect of their use.
to ignore
Ex. 24-2 (late sixteenth century) contains patterns of harmonic relation identifiable
as "secondary dominant" in function. Through the use of the chromatic inflections
g-sharp, c-sharp, and /-sharp, the composer has heightened the melodic drive to
a, d, and g, respectively.

Ex. 24-2. Gesualdo : Madrigal, lo pur respiro.

Ke)/

^¥ ^
^m m^ ^ m
i u JZ
i
f
t^ m -*^ m M- mfe
0—0-
-.
;^
f f*

h i* -
J

II
>
m
•<•

H
VI 'Q^/i
vi
'
In
^
J3J,J
^^ JJJ I
?

In Ex. 24-3, composed some two centuries later, chromatic alterations are again
used for line inflection, resulting in a secondary dominant chord function.

Ex. 24-3. Mozart : l\ne kleine Nachtmusik. K. 525, Menuetto

m #um ^
Allegretto

Violin I
la*

Violin n
m ^ m i^
^ ^ ^
^ ^
P P
tr

'^
^
J3

Viola

^
^ f
t
f ^ ^m M ^
Cello

G:
/
^
^ pi ? VJ, V
^ ^ ^
 386 SECONDARY DOMINANTS

At the transient-terminal cadence in measure 4, perform either the viola or

cello line as written and compare that result with a performance in which c is
substituted for c sharp. Obviously either arrangement is possible; however, it is
apparent that the original version drives more unequivocally to d, the dominant.
Stressing the transient nature of this interior cadence, the composer immediately
cancels out the leading tone effect of the c sharp by the use of c's in the following
passage.

Harmonic Significance of the Secondary Dominant

It worth noting that second ary dominants are generally used to embellish
is

and emphasize structural chords within a tonal framework. Consequently, their

appearance is usually predictable. For example, we can expect to find V7/V used
with considerable frequency preceding the V chord in authentic cadences.

Ex. 24-4. Bach: Chorale, Cantata No. 140, Wachet Auf, Ruff uns Die Stimme.

3 i
/7\

331
i
T P^tM
r
Li i 1
9^S^
E^
1
m ^% V
g m P

I ^ ^ 1

A
di
ot
-o-
zaz
4 i
r
^
-«-

i i- J 1
--^i
n. 'rry i i
\ " ^Af ^
^ PP
I V4 . IV6 I VV, IV
I
ii7
f
s

It is two are
interesting to observe that of the three cadences in this excerpt,
on the dominant. In both instances these important structural points have been
emphasized by the use of secondary dominants. In so doing, Bach has stressed the
dominant tonal area, and in the third phrase he is faced with the necessity of re-
emphasizing the tonic in a convincing fashion. He by turning
accomplishes this

toward the subdominant through the use of its secondary dominant. In other
words, in the course of three phrases he stresses the upper dominant, the lower
dominant (subdominant) and finally at the end of the third phrase arrives at the
"mid-point," the tonic.
In seeking to create variety, composers are not always content to follow tradi-
tional patterns. We find secondary dominants used to obscure the tonic tern-
SECONDARY DOMINANTS 387

porarily, thus creating an added element of suspense. For instance, Ex. 24-5 begins
on a Mm^ chord with E as root (V^ of IV).

Ex. 24-5. Chopin: Mazurka, Op. 41, No. 2.

Andantino

3j

iV
^
VT
f.
m
T

Through hindsight we are able to hear the harmonic design and to establish

the tonal focus of the passage. This is not immediately apparent upon a first

hearing, at least not during the first few measures.

Sequential Treatment of Secondary Dominants

Secondary dominants are used frequently in harmonic sequences of nonmodula-

tory nature. They add tones foreign to the basic key, and they make more cohesive
the harmonies of which the sequences are comprised. In Ex. 24-6, the melodic
sequence is accompanied with a succession of secondary dominant sevenths. The
chord of resolution becomes a secondary dominant seventh that progresses to
another, etc.

Ex. 24-6. Mozart: Symphony in C, K. 551, II.

Anda nte cantabile -

f~3~r' 3

m ^ ^
4 SSS 4

S
F: Vy

3 £: 3 3

W f ^
2
 388 SECONDARY DOMINANTS

In Ex. 24-7, the composer doggedly maintains a pattern of sequences so that

harmonies quite foreign to the basic key are introduced.

Ex. 24-7. Chopin: Mazurka, Op. 59, No. 2.

Allegretto

B'-
"Jl '/I I%1
It seems illogical to regard this as a series of fleeting modulations, particularly at
the indicated tempo. In this instance the simple root relations are still apparent,
but the so-called "functional" relationships are not so clear. As the study of har-
mony more complicated chromaticism, the analysis of such an
progresses through
example will become less difficult. For the moment, suffice it to observe the rapid
rate of harmonic change, the particular root relations, and the secondary dominants
appearing at the points marked, each of which resolves to its respective "tonic" or
"tonic substitute."
From Ex. 24-7 we may generalize that to^ establish s eq uences of secondarv
domin ants which each "tonic" successively becomes a "dominan t" of the n ext
in
chord will weaken tonal stability. This is especially true if the sequential pattern
is maintained so loi;ig that an overabundance of non-diatonic chords is introduced.

This very factor made the harmonic sequence a popular modulatory device, for
example, in the Classic period. A pattern of chord motion could be established and
maintained until the original tonality had been obscured. Then, upon arrival at
the desired new tonal region, a cadence pattern would establish the new tonality.

Secondary Dominant of the Dominant (V/V ,-

VVV)

In major keys the ap2earance of the Y'V or V'/V is suggested by the_piesence^

of the raised fourth degree of the scale as a member of a chord. In such instances
the chord will have as its root the second degree of the scale, and except for the

altered note (the sharped fourth degree of the scale which is the third of the chord),
will con tainJTie notes of the diatonic ii chord. As a matter of fact, it is helpful to
think of the V/V in both ways : as a major triad built on the second degree of the
scale, and as a variant of the supertonic chord (with its third raised). (See Ex. 24-
8.)

Iiijnh}2r_ke.y3 the V/V or V"/V is created by two chromatic alterations, the

raised fourth and Observe that two alteratioxiS-are rx=.
sixth degrees of the scale.
quired to create a major triad or major-minor seventh chord on the second_di
of the harmonic minor scale, for the supertonic triad is diminishe d.. (See Ex. 24-8.)
 ;

SECONDARY DOMINANTS 389

Ex. 24-8. Secondary dominant of the dominant.

a) Major b) Minor

331 33=
-O- ini UI
e- o-
I _i

ii6
WV«/v
>V

Approach to the Dominant of the Dominant

The V/V or VJ/yjrequently is. preceded by a chord that is common both to

which the secondary dominant would be the.,
t he origina l^fcey ^rid to the key in

true dominant. For instance, in Ex. 24-9a the V/V is preceded by a chord common
to the tonic (vig) and to the dominant keys (iig) in Ex. 24-9b, the V^/V follows ;

a minor triad that is ig in a minor and ivg in e.

Ex. 24-9. Approach to V/V.

a) b)

Vmi tfi'
" n V 1

A. If
'f o o
r» Jf
r* f» **^
1

iffS
^K '^ Jj o
r» Vu
fyft
^ .r ;t X 1

IT ||o J
O o
^•< D **
o
r* H
M J%"
•
^5
•j.Jdtt
tt t^ o
r»
•!•
'' *^
*• O
i-i
11
1

A: Vi6 V^ V a :
16 V
E: iic V I e : iV6 V7 I

Although the approach to the secondary dominant indicated in Ex. 24-9 may
result in a smooth melodic/harmonic progression, such progression is not always
desirable or possible. Other cases may necessitate the creation of a chromatic
relationship between members of the secondary dominant and the preceding chord
one tone of the scale may appear in its natural form in one chord followed by its
chromatic alteration in the other.

Ex. 24-lOa. Secondary dominant.

m -e-
"0~ m 331

mw^ -e- -e- 33=

IV6 V4 V
Vv
390 SECONDARY DOMINANTS

Ex. 24-lOb. Secondary dominant with chromatic alteration.

IV6 V6/ V

In Ex. 24- 10a, note that the g is approached from the g-flat in the same voice.
The resuk is an unbroken melodic ascent to the fifth degree of the scale. In Ex.
24- 10b the g-flat appears in one voice and the g in another. This cross relation is

somewhat rougher in that both notes are prominently located, and their relation
is exaggerated by the fact that they do not appear in the same voice. Although the
cross relation is not always undesirable, it is usually avoided when a less dis-
jointed result can be obtained, as in Ex. 24- 10a.
In connection with melodic movement in secondary dominant progressions one
other observation should be made. It is often true that a chromat icallY_infl££j.f.d
note progresses in the direction of the inflection. That is, if a diatonic note is

raised by an accidental the melodic line tends to proceed upward the reverse is ;

true if the note is lowered by an accidental. In Ex. 24-11 this tendency is quite
apparent. Note that the /-sharp is followed by a ^; the/ by an e.

Ex. 24-11. Schein

^
s
1 J
: Ge/obef

^U ^
seist du, Jesu Christ.

^^
i
r
4
^
This rule of "tendency" corresponds to the functional relations of tones within
the major-minor scale systems in that the leading tone (here represented by f-
sharp) progresses up and the fourth degree (here represented by /) progresses
down.

Resolution of the Dominant of the Dominant

The principles of resolution of the V/V and V'/V are not different from those
of the V and V. The usual resolution is to their "tonic," that is, to a major chord
SECONDARY DOMINANTS 391

whose root stands in a fifth relation below. The raised fourth degree, the "secondary
leading tone" in the secondary dominant, generally progresses to the fifth degree.
In other words, it follows the tendency of the inflection. See Ex. 24- 12a. One ex-
ception occurs when the third of the chord (the inflected tone) proceeds to a note
a third below, that is, to the fifth of the chord of resolution. This usually occurs in
one of the inner voices (see Ex. 24- 12b) in order to provide a full triad for the
resolution chord.

Ex. 24-12. Resolution of the V/V.

b)

^m
a)

1> ijo ui: 331

i "O"

m: jQI
nsz §^ K3L.
-*-Tr
JOZ

F: V7 f: V, V
'/v yy

The notes of the tritone in the V'/V usually resolve as do those of the V^. The
augmented fourth expands stepwise and the diminished fifth contracts stepwise.
(See Ex. 24- 1 3a). One exception to this appears where the third of the V'/V
proceeds to the fifth of V. (See Ex. 24-13b.) Notice that each of these resolutions
corresponds to the melodic progressions illustrated in Ex. 24- 12a and Ex. 24- 12b.

Ex. 24-13. Resolution of the V/V.

a) b)

::ii=
-» o nsz
t no
i "cr

m CT
^te^ CT
e: V7 V E: Vl
Vv '/v

Use of the Dominant of the Dominant

As previously mentioned, the V/V or V'/V is frequently used in transient-terminal

cadences. In such instances the secondary dominant often appears in root posi-
tion and progresses to V or V^, which is also usually in root position.
 —f —

392 SECONDARY DOMINANTS

Mozart: Symphony

^w
Ex. 24-14. in E-flat K. 543,

Allegretto

^^ h
^ ^ 0- i9-

Trm
^ m^

^^ ^^
— -d — l^-d- —

f — :^-
^3
i < I i

S ^ Vi6
n V7
'/v
^^

V
m m.

: ) i

Note the similarity of the cadence pattern (Vig V| V^/V V) to the cadence — — —
— —
"formula" previously discussed (iig 14 V^ I). This similarity becomes more
apparent when the two possible analyses of this kind of transient-terminal cadence
are compared.

Ex. 24-15. Analysis of cadence pattern of Ex. 24-14.

P^ f
S fe
E^: Vi6 V6 V
V7 I)

As illustrated in Ex. 24-15 the V'/V is frequently "prepared" by the V^, and in
such instances, this chord is often preceded by vi or vig. In other contexts the
V^—V7/V—V pattern may be preceded by I, resulting in a harmonic progression
comparable —V^ —
to iv 1% I.
 —— -

SECONDARY DOMINANTS 393

Ex. 24-16. Beethoven: Trio, Op. 97, II.

Allegro
i2.- »;
-^
i«ig 1

ffffi
-9-= >
gf^
U— hi
»—
3"
5-
31

p rH crf5c.

—— f -4 —- •
•
-•—
f
>.f-
' 1 m
-9
M.
-f- •-
.

i.-^y^'ij -J -0 1
'

-h
r p 1

- -J- f •
•

Bi*: I V| V7/^ V
[F: IV 16 V7 I ]
4

In the study of V and V we noted that the resolution of the chord might be
delayed momentarily by the interpolation of other harmonies, by suspensions and
by other means. This is also true of the resolution of the V/V, as will be illustrated
and discussed in subsequent chapters.
When used in the interior of a phrase, V/V or V'/V generally occur in connec-
tion with transient-terminal cadences. In such contexts they frequently resolve to an
inverted form ofV, thereby contributing to the forward movement of the harmony.
Note that in Ex. 24-17 the V/V is preceded by ii, its diatonic counterpart.

Ex. 24-17. Wagner: lannhauser, Overture.

Andante maestoso

lLi ^.>jV »g g nrf -ft^ u

^m^ ^
EZKZE
. . f^ .

^ f

wmm ^ S ' It
zz
i ^p d ^m ' '^
T rT r 'r r
f
^/V^Jv ^S

The V/V and V/V occur somewhat less frequently in minor. Creating a major
triad ormajor-minor seventh chord by altering a ii chord involves two chromatic
changes, and in this respect the V^/V in minor is more remote from its key than
the V^/V of major. It is possible that composers frequently bypassed the V^/V in
minor for other sonorities more closely related, or they bypassed the tonic minor-
dominant key relationships for others such as tonic minor-relative major.
 —

394 SECONDARY DOMINANTS

When we compare Ex. 24-18 and Ex, 24-19 with Ex. 24-17 we find that there
are no major differences in the use of V/V or V^/V in minor; they are preceded
and followed as in major. In Ex. 24-18, i precedes V/V, whereas ig precedes V^/V
in Ex. 24-19.

Ex. 24-18. Chopin: Ballade in G Minor, Op. 23, No. 1.

Moderate

m p
{^^i
dolce V P ^TT -SM-
^
^ P (*
^
VTt FfT
# P
^ff^ f iEE£
W^
s-

$
^TTT? i ??
nfTrfr
^ M*^
jr V7
r r

^5'v

Ex. 24-19. Chopin: Polonaise, Op. 40, No. 2.

Allegro maestoso

^ lii

jsr
^f
i^
i 1*
s^t t
J ^
f
^^ ^^ =^
v| i6 V7
^KV

It is not unusual to find V/V in minor used in conjunction with v, the minor
dominant. In Ex. 24-20 the V'/V is preceded by v and followed by V^ in the
approach to the cadence on tonic.
SECONDARY DOMINANTS 395

Ex. 24-20. Verdi : Requiem, Agnus Dei.

Andante
J

When working with V/V and V'/V in minor in a choral style, care should be
taken to avoid augmented intervals in the melodic lines containing the chromatic
inflections. In instrumental performance these melodic intervals are not as difficult
to produce accurately.
Inversions of V/V and V/V are used with considerable frequency, and generally
in complete form. They may be designated by the following symbols:

V/V; inversion,
.31 iiiv..iaiuii,
first VJV;
V 6/ V
, second inversions, V^/V.
\rTi\7. c_„*
V/V; first inversion, V|/V; second inversion, V^/V;
third inversion.
inversion, V|/V.
VilV.

Ex. 24-21. V/V, V7/V and Inversions.

I* i ^ ^ i ^
i s
r
T f f
^s i
fV
1
^
i i
fV4

^
^
A^-

r
/v

T
^
V6/
/v
V5/

i
vv

f
V6

ii
5/v
V4/

^
Pc:
3/v

^
:2te:
/
V

rV P ¥ ¥
f:
/v
V6
7v
V6
VV vv
/v
V6
/v 3/v
V4
Vv
396 SECONDARY DOMINANTS

As indicated in the previous chapter, the V/V and V/V often appear in con-
nection with the transient-terminal cadence. This is equally true of the inverted
forms. Inversions make possible a conjunct bass line that is more "melodic" in
character. To some degree, the use of inversions stresses the "temporary" nature
of the transient terminal cadences, since in terminal cadences the penultimate
chord is usually in root position, thus producing a more conclusive cadential effect.
In Ex. 24-22, IV precedes the —
cadence pattern V|/V V. The movement to V
is heightened by the chromatic ascent of the bass g-flat
—g —
a-flat. A smooth connec-

tion between IV and V|/V is possible because the third and fifth of the IV chord
{B-flat and D-flat here) are common to V^/V. In typical fashion, the cadence
chord, V, appears on the strong beat and is preceded by V|/V on the previous weak
beat. This cadence may be considered as a variant of the simpler pattern, IV V, —
here modified by the insertion of an intermediate V|/V. The introduction of the
chromatic leading tone (here g), and the presence of the dissonant elements in the
— —
Mm'' chord {g d-flat and e-flat d-flat) increase the sense of inevitable move-
ment to the cadence.

Ex. 24-22. Schubert : Moments Musicaux, Op. 94, No. 6.

n 1 n
^m SP
iz^

^m is: 3

Ex. 24-23 contains another treatment of the V^/V. Here the chord appears in
second inversion preceded by Such an approach is quite smooth, for there are
vi.

notes in common between the two chords. As in Ex. 24-22, there is an accelera-
tion of harmonic rhythm in the approach to the cadence. Notice also the simple
step progression in the middle pattern, A-flat B-flat —
C D E-flat. — — —

Ex. 24-23. Beethoven: Piano Sonata Op. 13, II.

Adagio cantabile
 — ^ — — — —

SECONDARY DOMINANTS 397

As discussed in the previous chapter, the dominant of the dominant is sometimes

used in the minor mode to embellish the minor dominant chord. This is the function
of the V|/V in Ex. 24-24, in which the minor dominant is introduced quite unex-
pectedly as the cadence chord of a passage in which the major dominant has
prevailed.

Ex. 24-24. Beethoven : Piano Concerto No. 3, in c minor, Op. 37,

^ ^^
Allegro

i f rm =
^
^^
if

^
mf 'f

ms W— at
?
1;^ J ^ J
w
2i'\, m rwtmW- r 1,; lu r -^1
_,L^ — y y
Z— ?-t 3-#
4? #? —#? ,

- ^^^
j-^, *- *-— -V#- t_?Z_ 1
J ^
. Kl-
J' ^
1

'y r
>

V4
Vv

Ex. 24-25 and Ex. 24-26 show inversions of the V'/V within phrases.

Ex. 24-25. Schumann : Albumn for the Young, No. I.

S
Moderate semplice

^ ^J = 96

^ f^

Ex. 24-26. Brahms : Tragic Overture, Op. 81

Tranquillo
398 SECONDARY DOMINANTS

Ex. 24-26. continued.

fc^^^
^g
i
^8~
dim.
§

m jOZ
331
ini
ISt
un

In Ex. 24-26 the V|/V occurs on a weak beat. It is preceded by subdominant,

and it resolves to V. Through the use of double suspensions over the dominant
pedal after measure 3, the texture maintains linear interest, while prolonging the
dominant for six measures.
In Ex. 24-27 the composer has combined two lines which imply the progressions
indicated.

Ex. 24-27. Haydn: Symphony No. 85. (La Reine), III.

m
^M
Allegretto

p
iS;
m m
^ £ # ,
i

p
^ ^m
?
p

?
Vi6 V§
s/v
V^ Vi ii6 I| V I

The V|/V in the fifth measure of this excerpt is clearly outlined, having been
preceded by a fleeting suggestion of vig and followed by V. This in turn is followed
by a succession that cadences on the tonic, B-Jiat.

Dominant of the Subdominant

The dominant is frequently the tonal goal of a phrase or larger melodic section.
As previously indicated, the tonal movement to this goal is often intensified by the
inclusion of secondary dominants, for example, V/V. This relationship, in turn, can
be strengthened by the addition of other secondary dominants which precede the
V/V, for example, the V^IV and the V^ii.
SECONDARY DOMINANTS 399

Ex. 24-28. Mozart: Piano Sonata, K. 279, II.

Andante

p ^m J^ ji^''^^
ll
1^ I
T3—\
&7:sj^
% i
')Wi\ \ ^^ i ^
V7/ IV V6/. V
^IV 5/v

The domi nant seventh of the subdom ina nt (VjIV; V^/iv) is a rhord whose
ro ot is th e tonic. Its appearance in minor requires a change of the tonic chord
from minor to major, thereby creating the leading tone of iv.

Ex. 24-29. Dominant of the subdominant.

a) b)

tf 3i:

i
4t

W W e-
* ife ^ T^ ^
Ml 331
-e- ll^
_Q_
s _Q_
331 -H-
-o-

E: V^/
/rIV
V6.
^IV 47IV ^VlV
c : VV,
/iV 3/i
V4/
ViV
V4
2/iV
/

Arr
i^^D

In terms of roots, I stands in relation to IV as V does

However, a "dominant- to I.

tonic" relationship is not so evident between the major tonic triad and its sub-
dominant until a minor seventh is added to the former, thus creating an unstable
sonority on the tonic.

^
Ex. 24-30. Handel : Piece for Harpsichord.

m
fct
^=f^
r
-tSl-^

^ 5
r^

^ -zn

^
\^ J
l t J
^ fi
«
,i

^ 33

^S
^'/iIV
^i #
IV
^ ^# ^ ^
400 SECONDARY DOMINANTS

In normal resolution the dissonant elements (minor seventh and tritone) are
treated as were those of the V'/V. That is, the tritone as an augmented fourth
generally expands stepwise, just as a diminished fifth contracts stepwise. Excep-
tions are made in order that the chord of resolution be a complete triad (see Ex.
24-3 lb), or because of other considerations, such as a desirable voice doubling
(see Ex. 24-3 Ic).

Ex. 24-31. Resolution of dominant of the subdominont.

(a) (b) ^^(c) ^ „(d) (e) (f)

^ -o- :xx:
-e- ice:
fc-&- EEJI
zee:
o
i F^o=
(irregular)
$ _ti_ >o-
L[

+4
|
"-» o
(irregular)
i
^^

«^^"^

o
-»o -o=

o
-e-
^
_Q_
an m ti ti
3s;
^=^
^TT
F: V7/ IV V7/. IV b: VO iV G: V4/ IV V4 IV6 a: V4/ iV6
'/iv '^/iv /iV •^/^ TiV

Uses of the Dominant of the Subdominant

The V'/IV is often used to counterbalance emphasis on the dominant and, in

many such instances, appears toward the close of a phrase, period, or section. Ex.
24-32 shows the last phrase of the second period of a theme, the first period of which
ended with a transient terminal cadence, V/V V. Through the use of a V|/IV, —
the subdominant is emphasized at the climax of the phrase. The augmented fourth
(c^f-sharp) expands by step to its typical resolution (B G). —
Ex. 24-32. Haydn : Piano Sonata in D Major, III.

w^
^a
Presto

y
ma non troppo

i
t§^
m ig ^m
±±

V4
m ^±k^-±L^

IVO
ff 5
16 V
^

/^ 4

On the other hand the V'/IV also occurs as in Ex. 24-33, at the beginning of
a section before tonic has been established. Although tonic is not readily apparent
 —

SECONDARY DOMINANTS 401

at the beginning of this exerpt, it becomes clearly established in the ensuing mea-
sures.

Ex. 24-33. Chopin: Mazurka, Op. 41, No. 2.

Andantino

^^ P
In Ex. 24-34, the subdominant is stressed by the V'/IV, and by the prominent
—
melodic use of the interval d g at the head of the motive appearing in measures
1 and 3. Any tonal ambivalence between d and g which may have arisen by
measure 4 is soon dispelled by the cadence pattern, iig I V^ — V—
I, in measure 7-8. —
Ex. 24-34. Bartok: Little Pieces for Children, Vol. I, No. 2. Copyright by Edwin F. Kolmus.
Reprinted by permission.

Molto sostenuto

*ptt ^g ^-^-0- mp mm * w-m

^ dole

=iF te^ u
D :

%
V7/ ,
i
IV6 IV
^ ji
F' Vi iic
i ft^
V IV6
4
I

Because of the common pitch shared by I, V'/IV and IV (root, root and fifth,
respectively), these chords often appear in conjunction with a tonic pedal. This
402 SECONDARY DOMINANTS

procedure offsets the weakening of tonality that otherwise can result from the use
of a V^IV.

Ex. 24-35. Chopin : Mazurka, Op. 6, No. 4.

Presto ma non troppo

The V^/IV in Ex. 24-36 appears in conjunction with a shorter tonic pedal, and_
as in the previous examples gives way to the subdominant in second inversion.
Note the smooth introduction of the seventh of the V/V in the tenor, where it

functions as a passing tone between g andf.

^m ^
Ex. 24-36. Gounod : Faust, Act II, "Salut I Demeune."

Larghetto

^m^ *=i
f ^
*=*
I
p cresc. T^

^S ^M^ Ul iffi
\? ^ t>
pf^ i m
Yl IV«
4
/iv

In Ex. 24-37 the V'/IV is preceded by tonic in a passage characterized by a

rearticulated pedal. The harmonic movement to IV is heightened by the addition
of the seventh, d-flat.

Ex. 24-37. Haydn : Piano Sonata in E-flat Major, I.

Allegro (J = 80)

xt
^^
M.T.

W >i*^
mS -
-r4^n
^A-

f ^T^
te ^ra= # m j'^ }U}}
SECONDARY DOMINANTS 403

The subdominant often plays an important role as a cadence chord, and it

frequently appears embellished by its secondary dominant. In Ex. 24-38 a transient-

terminal cadence on the subdominant is preceded by its dominant seventh, V'/IV.

Ex. 24-38. Schubert: Mass in G Major, No. 2, Kyrie.

Andante con moto

s i^=^
m ^ i=4
f
i i
^ i

9^<i{ r r
J

# ^
1 A

IV
J-

n/„
i
IV

Ex. 24-39 illustrat^es another cadential use, but in this instance the subdominant
is the penultimate' chord of a plagal cadence. The b-flat pedal underlines the first
two measures, above which a V^/IV appears. The V^/IV links the two forms of
the same sonority, IVg and IV, which occur at the phrase's high point.

Ex. 24-39. Schubert: Octet, Op. 166, II.

Andante un poco mosso

w^w '^m^-^m
ms 5
WlTf
1 'JU 3W I h
5 \^
0\>t»\Z
I
1
i
^^ ^VtIV
p=^^
IVC (ivo) I
r=^
V8
s
Vk iveyt, IV
f
I
Viv

There are many other uses of this chord; obviously, any appearance of a sub-
dominant could be embellished by its dominant. The standard "blues progression"
of jazz cadences on a V^IV at the end of the first four-measure phrase.
404 SECONDARY DOMINANTS

Ex. 24-40. Arlen-Mercer : Blues in the Night. Copyright 1941 by Remick Music Corpora-
tion. Used by Permission.

^ Blues tempo

xr
1-3-

iy hni \ , h
r-5-i

mifm
X5~
r-3-i

s m p^
^ ^ pi ^ ^ii
£
¥
Bt:

Dominant of the Supertonic

The relation of V/ii is generally limited to the major mode, for the supertonic
chord in minor is diminished and does not function satisfactorily as a "temporary
tonic." Its^root is the sixth degree of the scale, and its presence is suggest ed by _the
appearance of the raised first d egree of the scale (leading tone of 2) that usually
resolves upward.

Ex. 24-41. Dominant of the supertonic.

fefe lOI
zssz
ni =8= -(»)-
-e
-o
— fo)-
fo>-
I il Vi 3nr -e^ ^ jol:
n o

_Q_ jQ (£U_ _Q_

^ ii ^^)
rO- _Q_
iEi zsc -(o^ 3S=
o (o) -e-
CT

A: V, V7/ ii (ii) Vf/ ii V4/ ii (ii6) V4/ ii8

II /|| VW VW vii

As indicated earlier, the presence of the raised first degree of the scale (leading
tone of 2) suggests the V/ii. In Ex. 24-42, the c sharp in the second measure is the
third of an arpeggiated A major triad which moves to D. Similarly, a secondary
leading tone is formed in the penultimate measure by the F-sharp.

Ex. 24-42. Brahms : A German Requiem, Section 6.

3
^
^^
Allegro

zm
P P
XL.

f=-
^
mf
C:
fffHtf-
^gf#^
"/«
^ ^^ - M
ih-t
W V/
^

/v
•
•

V
-
^m
J#
a
SECONDARY DOMINANTS 405

Uses of the Dominant of Supertonic

The V/ii is almost entirely limited to the interior of phrases. It seldom appears
at cadence points, except rarely when there is a transient-terminal cadence on the
supertonic.

Ex. 24-43. Schubert: Octet, Op. 166, IV.

^^ w^ U^lU ^ g
IV

i w
i,t iJ ^.i
?
m f
y tf^

^ y

f ^ 1^
i
V7 V>ii
" V I v'/v V7

^p £?
^^ i
tr

Ma
f^^ ?
y 1 yjtl
± ^^
v§ 16

The sequential root pattern 6 — 5— 2, 1 frequently involves a dominant embellish-

ment of ii as in measures 2 and 3 of Ex. 24-43.
A noteworthy exception to the foregoing principle appears in Ex. 24-44 in which
the Vjii serves as a climactic cadence chord (measure 4).

Ex. 24-44. Chopin: Prelude, Op. 28, No. 6.

^^^¥^ ^
Andantino

#^-»
i i i

:2i
i
^ i i

nm
M-
¥

ii7 V9 V7 I
406 SECONDARY DOMINANTS

Although the V/ii is often preceded by I, other chords may be used for this
purpose. For instance, vi is used in the Haydn excerpt of Ex. 24-44, and IVg in
Ex. 24-45, in which the secondary dominants are treated sequentially.

Ex. 24-45. Schumann : Symphony No. 3 in E-flat Major,

(J^=116)

V4 , TVS V4 . iis

Viv Mi

An interesting use of the Vg/ii occurs in Ex. 24-46 where it appears as the open-
ing chord, again forming the initial part of a sequence (VJii — ii) that is completed
by the pattern Vg/I.

Ex. 24-46. Mozart: Piano Sonata, K. 283, III.

V8/. ii V6 I
CTIJ
It is not unusual to find the V'/ii used in sequential patterns such as, (V|/ii — ii)

(V| — I), as exemplified in Ex. 24-47.

Ex. 24-47. Mozart: Piano Sonata B-flat Major, K. 333, I.

Allegro
^
,jj'..trr,t7r
|
vrB
w
i #-i» —
f»
tt £^
• *
m *

V-iJ 'U p p 21 w
" Vi ivg vii°8
^3^ ^V^ 3
SECONDARY DOMINANTS 407

The V/ii is often used to prolong the action of the ii chord, as in the beginning
of the second phrase of Ex. 24-48. In this passage the V^/ii appears between suc-
cessive occurrences of the ii in the forms of and iig. This treatment parallels the
ii

first three measures of the first phrase, where I and Ig are linked by V^.

Ex. 24-48. Beethoven: Piano Sonata Op. 10, No. 3,

Allegro

Similarly, V/ii is used to predict the arrival of ii. However, in this instance a
progressive cadence occurs on V/ii. In such a context, the impression of actual key
change is sometimes considerably stronger than in the V^/V transient-terminal
cadence.

Ex. 24-49. Schubert: Octet, Op. 166,

m rr i P
^
^
pp

i? ^ ^
Vii
f ' w * w
In many instances the temporary "tonic" of the V/ii is altered, so that it too
becomes a secondary dominant (V/V). In Ex. 24-50 V|/ii progresses to V'/V,
which in turn resolves deceptively.
408 SECONDARY DOMINANTS

^m
Ex. 24-50. Chopin: Nocturne, Op. 9, No. 2.

Andante
0.
fe mP P- .

ps* » # * — -"

^C
^fg r^^yt £f f^fhfe >fr
'^^"i, Ir cP
O'D^ ^ tP
i „ . „ -

#
C^ vy V
vi V4/V> V7
'S/i ^>v /v M\ /v

Although Ex. 24-51 represents a conventional progression of the V'/ii, it does

contain an unusual twist in that the resolution is delayed (triple suspension) until
the third beat of the fourth measure.

Ex. 24-51. Mozart: The Magic Flute, Act II, "March of the Priests."

Andante

sotto voce
t ^m * i
f
%
71

9- -m-

^V.

The V^/ii in measure 6 of Ex. 24-52 approached in a conventional manner.

is

However, it is followed not by ii but by its own dominant, the V'/vi. This is then
followed by V|/ii which resolves to iig.

Ex. 24-52. Verdi : Requiem, Requiem and Kyrie.

'^m
Andante

ppp
F
f
i J-.

TTTf
„ J] ^
r »c;"^ r
^
^
i
dolcissimo
H-
^z. 21

Vi7 VT V7
/v
 — :

SECONDARY DOMINANTS 409

3;=

-o* M 3
i =3
qg
^^ 331
331
-e-
^^
^«-
w
311
-^^ — rxsz

T^
1

Vt W7
/V
V4
V4
2/-
iio Vii°i
' J 4

From the previous presentation of the dominant of the supertonic certain

points should be apparent. ( 1 ) The root of the V/ii or V/II is th e sixth degree of.
the scale. (2) To create the leading tone of supertonic (which is tlie third of the
V /ii) rec[uices..that t he first degree of the scale be raised chromatically. (3) It is

often u sed in phrase interiors in connection with some form, of the basic progression
i i — V'^
I. and in many instances it is approached throughj. (4) Xh.e usual les-
oj^ution is to supertonic, but occasionally to \' l\L (5) In rare instances it appears
as a cadence chord, or even as the first chord of a phrase:- (6) In other typical
tr^tments it may serve tO "prolong" the supertonic or appear in various sequentiaF"
patterns. (7) The V/ii° rarely occurs in the minor mode, a use that would require
mutation of the supe rtonic chord (thus y/ii).

Exercises

For more detailed assignments see Materials and Structure 0/ Music I, Workbook, Chapter 24.

1. Find examples of the use of secondary dominants in the music you perform.
2. Scan new music rapidly, looking for chromatic inflections as possible indications of
secondary dominants.
3. Indicate the major and minor keys in which a-c-sharp-c-f might appear as a .secondary
dominant seventh, and the appropriate identification of each.
4. Practice spelling V/V and V^/V in various major and minor keys.
5. Consider various pitches as root, third, fifth or seventh of V"/\' and spell the chord and
resolve it to V.
6. Use a V'/V in a transient cadence in a four-part choral texture.
7. Use a V'/V in the interior of a phrase for piano.
8. Compose two phrases of music using Ex. 24-1 as your model. Employ at least one V/V
(or (V^/V). Arrange for four woodwinds.
9. Analyze some of the following, indicating keys, chords and non-harmonic tones
Haydn: Piano Sonata in D major. III (1-8)
Mozart: Piano Sonata in D major. III, var. 12, (1-9)

Beethoven: Piano Sonata, Op. 26, II, (1-8)

String Quartet, Op. 18, No. 5, IV (1-12)
Schubert: Op. 114, IV, (1-8)
Quintet,

Chopin: Mazurka, Op. 56, no. 2, (33-38)

Wagner: Wach Auf {Die Meistersinger, Act III) (1-10)
 : : : I

470 SECONDARY DOMINANTS

10. Spell (from the bass up) the following:

a. v6/V, c d. V4/IV, G
b. V|/ii, E e. viii, A-flat
c. V4/iv, d V^/V,
. B f. 2,,

11. Find examples of secondary dominants of dominant, subdominant and supertonic in

the music for your instrument.
12. What is the third of each of the following:
a. V|/V, c sharp d. V7/V, B
b. V|/ii, B-flat e. V|/IV, D-flat
c. V|/iv, g f. Vi/ii, A
13. Make an SATB setting of the following
I—V|/V—Vg— vig—V/ii|—li— 16—V7— I—V7/IV— IV6—
14. Using Ex. 24-48 as a model, compose a period (4 part texture, note the sequence)
using at least one each of the following
V3/V V|/IV V|/ii; arrange for 4 brass.
15. Using the sequence pattern (V|/ii— ii) (Ve/V—V) (V|— I) (V/IV|— IV)
construct a phrase in which motivic treatment is a characteristic feature.
16. Add 2 phrases to those in Ex. 24-49, using dominants of dominant and subdominant.
When completed arrange for flute, oboe, clarinet and bassoon.
17. To continue the study of secondary dominants, analyze several of the following works,
indicating key chords and non-chord tones
Haydn : Symphony No. 6, 111. {\ -18)
Mozart: Piano Sonata, K. 284, I. (1-10)
Piano Sonata, K. 332, I. (1-12)
String Quartet, K. 387, I. (1-6)
Beethoven: Piano Sonata, Op. 7, I, (59-61)
String Quartet, Op. 18, No. 5, III, (9-16)
Symphony No. 7, Op. 21, II, (1-26)

Bagatelle No. 3, Op. 33 (1-17)

Ich Liebe Dich (song) complete work
Schubert: Octet, Op. 166, II, (1-5)

Octet, Op. 166, V, (trio) (1-16)

Symphony No. 5, IV, (1-16)

Chopin: Mazurka, Op. 6, No. 2 (9-16)
Prelude, Op. 28, No. 3 (1-34)
Nocturne, Op. 37, (57-64)
 Conclusion

,f
25
Secondary
Dominants

Dominant of the Submediant (V/vi; V/VI)

There are two basic forms of the submediant chord, vi in major and VI in minor,
with each having a related secondary dominant whose root is the third degree of
the scale. The V/vi (major mode) requires that the fifth of the major scale be
chromatically raised. The c-sharp m Ex. 25-1 is the third of a chord whose root
is a, the third degree of the /major scale. The chromatically inflected note, func-
tioning as a leading tone to d, is an important member of a major-minor seventh
chord that has a dominant relation to the submediant.

Ex. 25-1. Dvorak: Symphony No. 7, in d Minor, Op. 70, II.

Poco adagio

^^ p'
?r
^
^m ^^
^^ i r^^n^-
I
nig
f
412 CONCLUSION OF SECONDARY DOMINANTS

There are no new problems of resolution for the V'/vi, because it resolves the
same way as each of the secondary dominants discussed earlier.

Uses of the Dominant of the Submediant

The V/vi frequently appears early in a phrase following a dominant or tonic

chord. When
preceded by the dominant, as in the progression V, Vg/vi vi, the — —
result is an elaboration and chromatic reinforcement of the deceptive progression
—
V, vi through the interpolation of the Vg/vi.

Ex. 25-2a. Progression V— V7— Vl/vi— vi.

LMi S
*
^^
C: V V7 Vg/ Vi
yvi

Ex. 25-2b. Brahms : A German Requiem, Section 6.

Pf
Allegro
^
I

J-
4
WAk 4
^m^ J ,jTJ
^ f
n

C:
p^ p Ie
V6V
^^ Vi
i^
V/ V
^
i
p
iRl

/Vi /v

A similar chromatic connection {a — a-sharp) is involved in the progression Vg/vi

— vi in Ex. 25-3. Melodic repetition and variation are important features of the
organization of this passage.

Ex. 25-3. Bartok : Little Pieces for Children, Vol. I, No. 9. Copyright by Edwin F. Kalmus.
Reprinted by permission.

Poco piu vivo

m > \i n m
s
p
^ lis ir
D: V7 ^' V7 V7.
^%i yrv
CONCLUSION OF SECONDARY DOMINANTS 413

t ^ 4t=i:d

sR-

IV

The progression of tonic to submediant is common, particularly at the beginning

of a phrase, and the V|/vi frequently serves as a connecting link between the two.

Ex. 25-4. Wagner : Lohengrin, Overture, Act

Sehr Lebhaft

mr ^ 0-m-
i t i=y s ,i^=M
^=^ $
r nf
*^
nI i
t^ «-

^^^M i

^ ^m ^ ^^ l>y J., ij j
I i
i
*j it
m/^ dim.

f=f
EI
^— &
V4/ Vi V7
>V

In the minor mode no chromatic alterations are required for the triadic form
V/VI, but the seventh chord (V7/VI) necessitates the lowered second degree of the
scale.

Ex. 25-5. V7/VI, Dominant of the submediant.

* ^ 331 ff

a: in VI VI
"'M

In measure 6 of Ex. 25-6, the b-Jiat creates the seventh of a chord that embel-
lishes the submediant.
414 CONCLUSION OF SECONDARY DOMINANTS

Ex. 25-6. Mendelssohn: Song Without Words, Op. 19, No. 2.

Andant e es pressivo

ti
^ J fl i i
mf
f=TT f
'imn TfTTl
m P i6

^ ^ . ,.rri>
iife

T dim. r
if-

i
if- -^

i
VI
Sf^z^ fa^P
r
* =g

r
S
^Vv,

The dominant of the submediant in the interior of a phrase is often preceded

by tonic or dominant, as the previous excerpts have illustrated. In Ex. 25-7 the
Vg/vi is approached through the dominant and prepares the way to the half
cadence.

Ex. 25-7. Verdi: Aida, "Su ! Del Nilo," Act I, Scene I.

a^
Allegro

I m
fmfT
«-^ \

j^
^^
WTf
mf
4' 0-

¥ m p-if

n
> >
i
A A A '^

Except for occasional Phrygian cadences in the major mode, it is unusual to

find the V/vi serving as a cadence chord. When used as in the next excerpt the
result is harmonic
to strengthen thedrive from the progressive cadence on the V/vi
to the transient-terminal cadence on V.
CONCLUSION OF SECONDARY DOMINANTS 415

Ex. 25-8. Brahms: Liebeslieder Walzer, Op. 52, No. 8, (vocal parts).

^^ ^
Slow waltz
^=^ ^^ si
J-J ^ ^ f
JJ ii ill
')ah>ii I r r
p^ f^ p
V
Vii°6 ii Vi6

In the next quoted passage the submediant chord is prolonged through its repe-
tition and its attendant secondary dominant. The result is the creation of a mo-
mentary tonal "cell" on vi prior to the progressive cadence on V.

Ex. 25-9. Wagner Siegfried Idyll.

^
:

Con mote ma tranquillo

Violin I
mi m

^mU
Violin n
^ SI

Viola la^ ^^ F J ii^ it sm

^^ J

Cello 'r-mi i i
W
P 3

^^
^ ^
P Vi
V/vi W V/„. Vi

^
§
-iS> (^ -e-

A cr

^^ 331 ^
Ptt -o-
 —

416 CONCLUSION OF SECONDARY DOMINANTS

Frequently the chord to which V/vi resolves is itself a secondary dominant,

namely the V/ii. The relation (V/vi — V/ii) represents a normal root resolution of
the V/vi since the root of the V/ii is the sixth degree of the scale. Such progressions
are often found in harmonic sequences.

Ex. 25-10. Mozart: Symphony in C, K. 425, III.

sF¥^
Menuetto

i
/
^^ ^^ ^j^i
^m k
^y
4
V7/_. IV
'>iv

mmn m C3 i
j^

I r
* e
^ V6
^^
I
^« m-

^
V7 I

In another similar treatment a V|/vi proceeds to V'/ii the effect of the dominant ;

seventh of submediant is enhanced by the accented passing tone d.

Ex. 25-11. Verdi: Requiem, Agnus Dei.

$
Andante

e^
i>P
is: 04^u
m ¥'l^ «;?
m^ Tt

Sm ZEE
331
m ^^ — ^*F
• •
i a P
V7/ IV? V4, V7/ V4^ 116 ii V7 Vi ill V7 I
/IV ^
Xi /" ^ ii

To summarize dominant of submediant has as its root th e third_

briefly, the

degree of the scale. Its presence in major is suggested by the appearanc e of the
raised fifth degree of the scale, in minor by the lowered second degree. This sec-
ondary dominant frequently appears at the head of or within a phrase, pi
CONCLUSION OF SECONDARY DOMINANTS 417

by I and resolving to vi. It sometimes occ iirs^in the .transient-terminal cadence

or V,
Vl/yi —
vi, and as the final chord in a Phrygian cadence pattern, preceded by ii,.

It is often involved in sequential passages in wjhuch it sometimes prec edes the V/ii.

Dominant of the Mediant (V/iii ; V/lll)

As is true of the submediant chord, the mediant chord usually appears in one
of two forms, iii in major and III in minor. Each has a related secondary dominant
whose root is the seventh degree of the scale. To introduce a V^/iii (major mode)
requires the chromatic alteration of two diatonic tones; the second and fourth
scale degrees both must be raised a semitone. In minor, the root of the V'/III is
the subtonic of the scale.

Ex. 25-12. Vy/iii Dominant of the mediant,

a) b)

^ ^
a -e- 331
i
rjsi
* ~D"

w
P5

F:
;n=

L
I

-e-

V7
L.T.
— 1

(of-

3x:

III
^& Ty

V7/
ZSSl
ICC

n
>fi
III '^i

By raising the second scale degree (major mode) the leading tone of iii is created.
The raised fourth scale degree permits a perfect fifth between the root and fifth of
the chord (see Ex. 25-12).
Ex. 25-1 3 contains a passage in which V'/iii follows Vg. Notice that this particular
form of the progression uses the common tone between the two chords as a kind
of pedal bass.

Ex. 25-13. Brahms: A German Requiem, Section 4.

418 CONCLUSION OF SECONDARY DOMINANTS

Uses of the Dominant of the Mediant

As exemplified and Ex. 25-14, the V^iii frequently appears in the

in Ex. 25-13
interior of a phrase, generally resolving to iii and frequently being preceded by V
or I. In Ex. 25-14 the step motion up to the dominant climax in the top voice is
given added thrust by the chromatic alterations that yield the a-sharp as a fifth
of the VViii.

Ex. 25-14. Schubert: Symphony in B Minor,

Andante con moto

^m **

^
^ *-M
^m
1
f

^m m V4
3/..
III
^^ E
m^
The inverted forms frequently occur in the course of a phrase and thus minimize
the strong root progression. In Ex. 25-15 the V^/iii is used in a short sequential
pattern, measures 3-4 being a melodic-harmonic sequence of 1-2.

Ex. 25-15. Beethoven: Quartet, Op. 18, No. 1, III.

Allegro molto

1 PS IS
m
zc,

Pt ~w- 9-

s p
^ ¥=*
^ =!»
^ P

m^
V "iAi V/ii v^i III

B
i-

# i ^E^
1r

^ f
^
')\ r
III
i >
7^

^X;
§. ^ V7'/y
n
fV
£E£

One of the common functions of a secondary dominant is to reinforce various

cadential patterns. Such a use of the V'/iii may be found in Ex. 25-16 and Ex. 25-
 r

CONCLUSION OF SECONDARY DOMINANTS 419

17. In each instance the period closes with a transient-terminal cadence on iii,

followed by an immediate return to tonic upon the repetition of the period. Com-
pare the treatment of the first and second phrases of both examples. Also note that
in both of these examples the V/iii appears in root position, thereby creating a
more decisive cadence on the iii chord.

Ex. 25-16. Beethoven: Quartet, Op. 18, No. 3,

Allegro

iiis iii V^y... iii

Ex. 25-17. Haydn: Symphony No. 88, IV.

t
m
^ ~»—
If^^ #
i P
V^/.. Hi
III

The cadence of Ex. 25-17, a transient-terminal cadence on iii, implies a

final
convincing modulation to b minor. However, upon the immediate return to G major
that occurs, the tonal organization becomes quite clear: the V/iii has been used to
strengthen the iii chord.
Through an extension of the process, the "tonic" of a secondary dominant may
become a secondary dominant in its own right. If this happens after V/iii, the chord
of resolution is V/vi or V^/vi rather than iii. In Ex. 25-18 a dominant of mediant
is used as the head of the second phrase. It appears in the progression V/vi — V/iii
— Vg/vi (measures 6-7), a relation that parallels the progression I —V — Ig (mea-
sures 1-2) of the initial phrase.
420 CONCLUSION OF SECONDARY DOMINANTS

Ex. 25-18. Beethoven: Piano Concerto No. 4, Op. 58, I.

Allegro moderate

fc
^ ^
1=J
'W~w
P?re
f=« :s k

f=i
£ S
•-•-•-^ 21
is:
^

^t# ^-4-»
% % % % i^iiiii
f pp

^ m~0-
r \1S ^^^t^ -
Vv,
V/.. V/.. V/
Vi /ii /ill /vi ^/1i ^'/v

^.y. IS
i
"XT

e/':

IE
pp

za.
J- i
-e-
^
In a different context the dominant of the mediant might occur in connection
with a transient cadence on (major) III, again exemplifying the mutation of its

"tonic." In Ex. 25-19 the III does not function as a secondary dominant, for it

progresses to Ig rather than to vi.

Ex. 25-19. Beethoven: Trio, Op. 70, No. 5, III.

5^S m
IV V|^,
® 16

As previously mentioned, the root of the V/III in the minor mode is the subtonic
scale degree, hence a conventional fifth relationship exists between the roots of
V^III and III.
CONCLUSION OF SECONDARY DOMINANTS 421

Ex. 25-20. Chopin: Nocturne, Op. 55, No. 1.

Andante
^ "^ —r^
ft^
^^ F
'ij> f-T p
^
'H\?<'' \

"
t
VS
^Vm

In Ex. 25-21 the V'/III is so prominent that its role in this transient-terminal
cadence on III becomes that of supporting dominant in a more structural sense.
The pattern of harmonic movement introduced in the first measure is interrupted
by a two-measure appearance of V^/III, followed by III, which persists for four
beats. It is the extension of the phrase its fifth measure —
that accommodates the —
harmonic assurance that C is not, after all, to be regarded as a new tonic. The
V" chord ably impresses this upon the listener during the final two beats of this
fifth measure.

Ex. 25-21. Schubert: Moss in G Major, No. 2, Kyrie.

Voice
m^m Chri - ste e lei -
^son
r
nri
-^ P^P
ste e

Piano

^
a: i6 Vg
^^Im
i
""'A m
zpi
^
lei - son Chri-ste

t t t t t ^ i iit i i M '

^ttt
'^^> J y U^ ^fe^ ^=ff=^
P
m W Vi V^ I
422 CONCLUSION OF SECONDARY DOMINANTS

The V'/III in Ex. 25-22 is used in the approach to the transient-terminal ca-
dence on III, measure 4. If the subsequent phrase continued in G, the entire first
phrase would represent the modulatory pattern that first establishes the new key.

Ex. 25-22. Beethoven : Piano Concerto No. 4,

m P=^
n -=
ty

if a :$
f*=F
m I
m1 ^
r
s e: V V42
iaI
i6 V6. IV V?/ HI V7
i
i iV ii6
:

i6
J

V7
\
K
fi
5X,, /TTr 4
^/iv

Because the \"'III in minor is identical to the V" of the relative major, it fre-
quently is used to exploit this "duality." In Ex. 25-23 the V^/III supports a tran-
sient-terminal cadence on III at the end of measure 4. The harmonic resources
of ^ minor have been expanded here by this vacillation between these two closely
related keys, each tonic is in turn supported by its own dominant. Since the passage
does begin and end in g minor, the fleeting focus on B-Jiat as temporary tonic is
best regarded as more a prolongation of the mediant than a true change of tonic.

Ex. 25-23. Beethoven : Piano Sonata, Op. 79,

i^3

^
9—t
Andante
^fcji

?
t ^ ^ f-^' • '
?

O '
•
^
m

4-^
S ^ J'r ^gr p r g.ij^^
s -0 —0-
-^z^
-0—0-
-»-^
-0—0-
-^-^
-it
m d

ni m iis V7
"'/w
CONCLUSION OF SECONDARY DOMINANTS 423

III dominants are introduced quite unobtrusively,

inaiu' instances secondai)'
but tlie opposite is true of Ex. 25-24 which follows a progressive cadence on the
dominant. Here the \7iII makes an abrupt appearance following the dominant
(chi'omatic thiid relation). The resolution and the subsequent progression to tonic
is accomplished in a smooth, conventional fashion, as in the previous examples
which stress the III chord as a temporary shift to the relative major key.

Ex. 25-24. Schubert: Impromptu, Op. 90, No. 1.

Moderate

Vtin in ii°B^iV7) V V4
3
i'J io
4
V7 i

A number of important points have been made about the dominant of the
mediant. It is a chord whose root is the seventh degree of the scale —leading tone
of the majo r mode, subtonir of the minor mode. Tn major, two rhrnmafi<;;. altera-

tions are required for the pitches of the \ "

ui: the second an,dL-fQucLh..scale d£gre.es_
n^ml be raised a semitone. No alterations olihc ualLUcd minor scale are required
foi^rhe V'/TII. The chord is used most l\iiically in the interior of phrases preceded .

by \ and followed by mediant; to reinforce the transient-terminal cadence

or I

on the mediant in minoi", the progressive qadence (or so-called '"Phrygian Ca-
derue""; in major; in progressions in which the mediant chord itself is altered to
become a secondary dominant (\'/vij or to exploit the inherent duality betw een
;

t he V"/III (tonic minor mode) and the

\'" (relative major mode).

Dominant of the Subtonic

This survey of secondary dominants would not be complete without brief men-
tion of the V/VII in minor. Since the leading-tone chord (vii°) is diminished and
therefore never functions as a temporary tonic, its secondary dominant is not used.
However, a major on the seventh degree of the natural minor
triad (VII) built
scale (subtonic) may be embellished by its dominant, the V^/VII. In Ex. 25-25
note that the V^/VII is used in a sequential pattern that begins in measure 3 and
terminates in measure 6. Observe also the jolting effect of the root relation (tritone)
in the progression V^/l>n —
V'/V, in measures 6-7, in spite of the very smooth
—
motion o^ g-flat g-natural in the melodic line.
424 CONCLUSION OF SECONDARY DOMINANTS

Ex. 25-25. Chopin : Mazurka, Op. 67, No. 2

Cantabile

^m /''III /S.VI An /v

Irregular Resolutions of Secondary Dominants

Thus our discussion of secondary dominants has been concerned primarily

far,

with "regular" resolutions. By definition, a secondary dominant stands in a fixed

harmonic relationship to its "secondary tonic," a root relationship of a perfect
fourth up or perfect fifth down; and its harmonic function is determined by the
realization of this relationship (i.e., by its regular resolution). When such is not
the case but the chord of resolution is still diatonic or a clearly related member
thereof (another secondary dominant, for example), the embellishing sonority may
still be identified as a secondary dominant. Progressions of this kind are regarded
as irregular resolutions. Two such examples are shown in Ex. 25-26.

Ex. 25-26. Irregular resolutions of secondary dominants.

P ^ S * 1 & m
r f
i it
s f T^ I
f r
k
m3 f:
F: VJ
^
I« V«, iii»
i
vi
f
10 V V4 16 Yl V6/
^
Vi
^
16 V

In Ex. 25-26 the V|/V is resolved "deceptively," to chords whose roots are a step
above that of the secondary dominant. In (a) the chord of resolution is iii^, and in
CONCLUSION OF SECONDARY DOMINANTS 425

(b), V*/vi, the root of each being the third scale degree. This is but one type of
irregular resolution; others will be discussed later in this chapter.

Deceptive Resolution

No particularly new problems arise in regard to doubling and voice progression

in deceptive resolutions of secondary dominants; the principles established for the

deceptive resolution of the dominant chord are applicable. Recall that the fifth

of the secondary dominant is sometimes omitted, and that the third of the chord
of resolution frequently is doubled. In addition, care must be exercised if parallel
fifths and/or octaves are to be avoided. The dissonant elements are treated as they
are in regular resolution: the tritone, (between the chord's third and seventh)
usually expands an augmented fourth, contracts if a diminished fifth. Thus the
if

chromatic "leading tone" moves to its "tonic," even though this "tonic" is no longer
the root of the chord of resolution.

Ex. 25-27. Deceptive resolution of secondary dominants.

(a)

«»=^ J J J -e-
i^ -&-

t ^ T=^
-e-

I
m D:
^ I
y.

v;iv " V
-e-

g: i vy^
i^
m V4
i

^
(c)
J-
^ i
^
ZSSl
-o-
(d)

i
fei i
frf w-

^^
i
P 1
^8^
^ ^^V|^ Ft
_o_

-e-

T>^: I iir V6/..

5/111
I" IV V e : I V6 iV6 ii°6
 — —

426 CONCLUSION OF SECONDARY DOMINANTS

In Ex. 25-28 the V/V resolves deceptively.

Ex. 25-28. Mendelssohn: St. Paul, "O Great Is the Depth," Voice Parts.

^ Wm ^
Poco a poco piu animate
J ..

i^P i.

^ ^
F:
r rr

Vi/^ "'«
4

v;.^
#
p r

'« V7 Vi
f^

T « V

As is true of the \"/\', the \''/I\' also may resolve deceptively. In such cases the
chord of resolution is usually a form of the supertonic. In measures 3-4 of Ex.
25-29 the V'/IV (root d) progresses to ii (root e).

Ex. 25-29. Haydn: The Creation, "In Splendor Bright."

^ „ Andante I

¥^
—>» 31
i
i^
14 (
P
P P F5^
')^>ic - i Z££L
zaz

D: VV V7/ IV
IV /iv

The seldom resolves deceptively, particularly to a diminished triad on

\'/ii

7. However, it is found occasionally preceding ''\T I, a major chord built on the

subtonic of the major scale. In Ex. 25-30 the chromatically raised first degree of
the scale (E-natural) follows its "leading tone" tendency and resolves to the super-
tonic pitch. The effect of the deceptive progression to ''VII, and the attendant
disturbance of the tonality caused by the extended duration of''VTI is later nul-
lified by a clear return to E-flat. The effect is that of a brief '"region" based on a
tonic of D-flat.

Ex. 25-30. Haydn : Piano Sonata No. 3, 1.

Allegro
hi
^ ^^m i
dim.

Vi
^ P .

I
?VII
^ ^
CONCLUSION OF SECONDARY DOMINANTS 427

i
ft »F3t» mI i li H |P m &-^3 s dim

m^ j vJ^Jj^Jj^ ^^ #^
^^
p

A deceptive relationship is found between the V/vi and its irregular resolution
to V. As in Ex. 25-31. this progression frequently creates the effect of an approach
to the diatonic chord (IVg in this instance) by a chromatic leaning tone chord
built a semitone below (B major—* C major).

Ex. 25-31. Beethoven: Piano Sonata, Op. 49, No. 2, II.

^^jp i

r i[Xr \
^& ^^ ^m ::zi
p:iS»
WW
£

m^
VB/.IV6
m *^ ^ mm j=±
^

The V'/VI is which is an interesting example

treated deceptively in Ex. 25-32,
of a contrapuntal texture (above a bass theme) in which imitation plays a prom-
inent role.

Ex. 25-32.

——
1 17,
M » F
it
Bach

i^"^
: Passacaglia

r .
1 ^j=j.
^ff
in

P"^^
C Minor.

^ £^S*yF"
?
XJ
% P
im
^S ii.^ ^ fl
^ ^^
##

>''ii-v'j I f
r
V7/_
'/vi
;v
^
Ex. 25-33 is particularly interesting because it illustrates the use of simple chords
in complex relationships. Note particularly the deceptive resolutions of the sec-
—
ondary dominants, V^vi IV and V'/iii I in measures 3-4 and 7-8, respectively. —
428 CONCLUSION OF SECONDARY DOMINANTS

The harmonic treatment in measures 1 and 2 is a progression of major triads whose

root Hne is d— — c b and whose two-voice frame is organized mainly in contrary
motion.

Ex. 25-33. Prokofiev: Classical Symphony, III. Copyright 1926 by Edition Russe de Musi-
que. Reprinted by permission of Boosey & Hawkes Inc., Assignees of the
Copyright.

Gavotte

/
I fet
mw t
m t
p'f i f jff?
/
U
f
^m ^ ^^ 9

V7V
/Vi
fP
j
'

V? vy
V",. V7/
Y^f /Vi
fe^
IV

^ m Fir
n $
i
m ijca
gjjp

^i
=-*

Vi
mf

m ^ i
iii
*
vy..
p f
^ ip^rlr\
^

Another common which the chord of res-

type of deceptive resolution is that in
olution is itself a secondary dominant. In such progressions the secondary dominant
still resolves to a chord whose root is a step above, but the chord of resolution is

a non-diatonic chord.

Ex. 25-34. Deceptive resolutions to secondary dominants,

m a)

LA
^ i
r m
b)

J
"T^ r=^ T
i
A 4 Li i 4
i

G:
J

I
^^ V!
Yy rvi
V9
4
I
^^
I
^Kr ^>^vi
p
^'
V' I

If two complete seventh chords are used in such a succession, they are generally
inverted in a conventional resolution of the dissonance (see Ex. 25-34a) Other- .

wise, if in root position, one or the other is usually incomplete (see Ex. 25-34b).
Frequently, when two secondary dominant sevenths are inyolyed_in_jJ^decep-
CONCLUSION OF SECONDARY DOMINANTS 429

tive" pr ogression, usua l voice loading prorrdurrs arc ignored and the ypi£es.rT).Qye

from one chord to the other in parallel motion. Although the seventh of the first

clioid may rtOt resolve in a conventional sense, the note of resolution is usually
found in another voice of the chord of resolution.
The V|/V in Ex. 25-35 resolves deceptively to V|/vi (measure 8) in the first

transposition of a two-measure sequence begun in measure Observe that the

5.

voices move in parallel from one seventh chord to the other, each "line" moving
up a major second to the corresponding note of the next chord.

Ex. 25-35. Gounod: Faust, Act III, "Faites-Lui Mes Aveux."

Allegro agitato

Voice
^^ i2=^
wm i

Piano mm mn a:43:
fff
11111 mill rffff

C:
i ^^ P 2==t ^ i y I y i
yw—V y 2==:t

(j
-

pp j^pirr -''

^ PnOP p i
O i^ ^

^S/v ^k

A similar progression involving a V|/iv appears in the second phrase of Ex. 25-
36. Here the chord of resolution is V|/V whose root is a step above that of the
previous chord. The accompanying texture moves in parallel motion, in opposi-
tion to the descending pattern of the melodic line.

Ex. 25-36. Debussy : Preludes, Book I,No. 8. Permission for reprint granted by Durond
et Cie., Paris, copyright owners, and Elkon-Vogel Co., Inc., Philadelphia agents.

Calme e't doucement expressif (J = 66)

Viv Vv
430 CONCLUSION OF SECONDARY DOMINANTS

Other Irregular Resolutions

The number and variety of irregular resolutions is great, and there is consider-
able variation regarding frequency of use. The subsequent discussion will be limited
to the most common types with the assumption that more thorough knowledge of
this practice will be acquired through continued observation of the works of various
composers.
As a point of departure, consider the various irregular resolutions of the Mm"
chord (root c) appearing in Ex. 25-37. Keep in mind that any one of the progres-
sions might represent the resolution of a secondary dominant seventh chord in one
tonality context or another. For example, (a) might represent V|/VI in f V—
minor, or \'"/iii —V| in D-flat major, etc.

Ex. 25-37. Some irregular resolutions of a Mm7 chord.

M
6i TT
(b) (c)

m
(d) (e) (f)

:#S
(g) (h)

m
(i)

ft fr TT
11 11
W^ rr ^ T ^ w f^ Tf ^
The irregular resolutions indicated as (a), (b) and (c) exemplify chromatic
third relations. Of these three, (b) and (c) permit the simplest connection because
there are two common tones between the first chord and its chord of resolution.
Note the conventional resolution of the seventh in (a) and (b) in which the roots
move down a third, while in (c) (in which the root moves us a third) the seventh
is retained in the same voice. In each of the three, the other member of the tritone

(the "leading tone") is not resolved in the usual manner, either being held over as
in (b) or resolved downward by step as in (a) and (c).
It is apparent that such resolutions create various chromatic relationships, and

as a general rule, cross relations between voices are avoided. In progression (d)
(root movement down a fourth) the seventh B-flat ascends as does the "leading
tone" E. The resolution by root movement down a second (examples (e) and (f ))
permits a conventional treatment of the leading tone ; however, the seventh is

retained as the root of the next chord.

If the chord of resolution in such a succession is a Mm' chord, all voices may
move motion as in (g), and the "leading tone" usually appears in an
in parallel
inner voice, possibly to minimize the effect of the irregular treatment. The root
relation of the tritone (h) and (i), though rare, permits conjunct voice motion
because there are two notes in common (one enharmonic relation). The members
of the tritone remain unresolved, but there is an enharmonic change in one voice
or the other.
In Ex. 25-38, Ex. 25-39, and Ex. 25-40, various secondary dominants appear as
 .

CONCLUSION OF SECONDARY DOMINANTS 431

important structural units because they are the final chords of transient-terminal
cadences. The subsequent chord of each is one whose root is a third below that
of the secondary dominant.

Ex. 25-38. Schubert: Mass in G Major, No. 2, Credo (Voice Parts).

^m Allegro moderato

$
s m j^^ i
f #
G:
J

r^rr
JJ
^— J-.
zaz

i
zsn

^/1i
J-
Ud
^^ w^
IV
i JJ

i w oo

J J J- J J A J
3 ^^ =ni i
f #^
_CL.

In the Beethoven excerpt the cadence chord is V/vi which progresses to I upon
the repetition of the phrase, and subsequently to V'/vi. The cadence, ivg —V/vi is

Phrygian, as discussed in Chapter 1 1

Ex. 25-39. Beethoven : String Quartet, Op. 74, IV.

i
£
Allegro con variazioni

m
T rr
^
f m m ^m ^s r- FT rr
1^ f ^ W 8^4?
^

^ ^^
eI-: I

^ ri j=^ ^=^
i^ ^ ^
a
j>p
^J

n''i,l r
£j ^ P
^
V4/
rvi
Vi IV lie V
/Vi /vi
V7/
/ji
W /V
V7 I
432 CONCLUSION OF SECONDARY DOMINANTS

Ex. 25-40 contains an effective cadence on V/vi which then followed by I. is

This use of V/vi as a transient-terminal cadence chord emphasizes the close rela-
tion between a major tonic key and its relative minor.

Ex. 25-40. Faure: Requiem, "Pie Jesu."

i
& i
Adagio
iA
f*ff
S
^ iH^-m-d

r
^ i^
rrr
i
^i
^ ^/V/..
'|^%i
I
*=^ i ^ ^M
V4 Vi6
7Vi

When one secondary dominant resolves to its own secondary dominant, the
seventh of the latter supplies the former with its "leading tone" resolution. As a
general rule, the chord of resolution is followed immediately by a return to the
first secondary dominant, in a basic scheme such as V/V — V^/ii — V^/V. This
represents the embellishment of an already chromatic secondary dominant.

Ex. 25-41. Verdi: Requiem "Libera me."

Andante
te
_Q_

^i
±
p £
vn
^A J=J=J=J ^
» ^FW?
-e-
~n~ sc
:2=
^^

Bk n. V7/.
'>ii
V/
Vv V7 W /iv
IV iV

Although other possibilities of voice leading exist in the resolution of one sec-
ondary dominant seventh to another (root movement by step down, for example),
we frequently find all voices moving in parallel motion. Obviously such practice
precludes the regular resolution of the dissonant elements. In Ex. 25-42 this treat-
ment is made obvious by the use of the block chords and by the repetition of the
irregular pattern (V^/ii —V^).
 — —

CONCLUSION OF SECONDARY DOMINANTS 433

Ex. 25-42. Beethoven: String Quartet, Op. 59, No. I.

Allegro
^Mmr

^ sl^rn::t
Iff f
=3

te
^

4r
#
;2

1/:

^ m ^ r'it LU V7/ V7
ife
li
V7
>^ii
9 I

r
a

lA J-^ J
• 1

—tn —
-M
^ — —— m
9
f

1
-A
e
^— 11 Q u

In many ways Ex. 25-43 may

summation of the practice of irregular
serve as
resolution, at least in regard to the harmonic materials thus far presented. Con-
tained therein are six irregular progressions: (V^ — vi) deceptive; (V^/vi V) — —
root movement up a third; (V ivg), (V'/iii —
vig), and (V'/V Ig) —
root move- — —
— —
ment down a second (Vg/V V'/iii) root movement down a third. An important
;

organizational feature is the contrary motion between the outer lines in the long

melodic descent in measures 1-5. Through the use of secondary dominants the
harmonic potential is increased, particularly through the irregular resolutions.

Ex. 25-43. Wagner : Lohengrin, Prelude, Act I.

Lento
h
*t
m I
^ i^ »• #•

M
w ^^
o _
t=f:

rr
p^« p' iV6 VMi
434 CONCLUSION Of SECONDARY DOMINANTS

Ex. 25-43. continued.

4t
^P
rof
-rw
FfFtp
k
^P
/)ZMi>
r
^
f
9^^
^ ^^
Vi6 Vy 16 IV
^
^ ^ii
f
"'
m il

Sequential Use

Secondary dominants frequendy appear in sequential passages. This procedure

may be employed in modulatory sequences or in sequences in which the tonic
remains unchanged.
In Ex. 25-44 the beginning and end of the passage focus upon the same tonic,
yet the composer runs the sequential gamut through the use of a two-note pattern
beginning with I, V—
progressing without interruption through /HI to the V
cadence on tonic. Since each Mm" chord resolves to its "tonic," regular voice
leading is maintained.

Ex. 25-44. Beethoven : String Quartet Op. 59, No. 2, IV.

^m
Piii presto

3 ^
i ^ i
r I
E
I
''^
m ^^
^^ e:
f i
,V7
1=^
^ ^^ J Jl
^
V>'iii "'
'
P

,^v'\
r -^^

,^v
J L

Passages such as these may or may not be modulatory in effect, but they do
unsettle the tonality to a degree, thus allowing the option of returning to the
original key or proceeding to a new one. The powerful unity of the sequential
CONCLUSION OF SECONDARY DOMINANTS 435

pattern sets up a propulsive force that continues to an appropriate cadence, either

in the original or in a new key.
In Ex. 25-45 a modulation from e to a takes place. The original key is clearly
established (measures 1-4) and an imitative pattern begun which continues past
measure 8 (where the key of C is reaffirmed) to measure 14 where it becomes part
of a sequence of consecutive secondary dominant sevenths (exception, V in mea-
sure 5) This sequence is maintained to measure 8 where the pattern is interrupted
1 . 1

in preparation for the cadence on the dominant of A. From measure 8 the key is

a minor. However, the presence of the chain of secondary dominants creates an

ambiguity that is unresolved until the arrival at the cadence on the dominant.
Test this fact by substituting the optional cadence (No. 2) prepared by the author
to effect a return to C major.

Ex. 25-45. Beethoven: String Quartet, Op. 18, No. 5, IV.

Allegro

^MVMf r r
'

'^
¥-
Pff^
^
fp?
^ ^^
^m
IV
V7 W' '
% Vi

I
^
5pf^ W ^ J=U a

m#^ »?fi
i^ ^m
t^ ^±
^
— ^ — z=z: ^*^
mm f aoz
W^
\f^~~~. f f^

^^m in
^ ^^ u^
^Ljpj^
a:
T
 —

436 CONCLUSION OF SECONDARY DOMINANTS

Ex. 25-45. continued.

f£fi^'^ <

ia^
r
V" ' f F^ r
i

%
VI
r-
VI4
i
i
r
^ pd^
r r
f
^'/m "'AVI

Although the secondary dominant concept generally provides a satisfactory

explanation of the function of many non-diatonic M-mseventh chords, this is not
always true. Consider Ex. 25-46 which contains a progression of tertian chords
(predominantly M-m seventh chords) and consider the possible validity of the
attendant analysis.

Ex. 25-46. Chopin: Nodturne, Op. 55, No. 1,

Andante
i
^ ^
^^^ f7\
^i
f

'y, \ , .
U, y ii i i, £^^I 1 -^r T r
f
'^ ^
16 vy V7
^I'tn ^^w ^^im ^>|vi

True, there are some familiar root relationships as indicated by the symbols
(V/^V— V^) and (V^— III-VV— VI ; also, there are third relations (V|/II— V7III)
and (V'/vi — ig), as well as a tritone relation (V/VII Vj — III). As logical as such
analysis may appear on paper, the question arises as to the information imparted
by such an assortment of symbols, harmonic
as they pertain to the unfolding of the
materials. The rigid application of the secondary dominant classification to any
and all M-m seventh chords can sometimes lead to naught, and the resultant symbolic
representation may contribute little or even impede the understanding of the
musical relationships involved. Generally speaking, the application of this concept
should be limited to those relationships in which the chord of resolution is a rec-
ognized member of the diatonic family, or one clearly related.
The major-minor seventh chord, once used frequently as a secondary dominant,
has fallen into disuse. Contemporary composers usually avoid it entirely, or treat

it in ways from those of previous composers. Its sound, as an isolated

different
chord, is too reminiscent of major-minor music, and its implication of a simple
CONCLUSION OF SECONDARY DOMINANTS 437

tonal resolution is too compelling to enable it to fit into the more chromatic textures

that have prevailed in music since the turn of the century.

Exercises

For more detailed assignments see Materials and Structure of Music I, Workbook, Chapter 25.

1. Spell the indicated chords from the bass up:

a. V^/vi, A d. V6/Vi, b-Jiat

h. V^/iii, E e. V7/III, d
c. Vg/bVII, c f. V^/vi, D-Jlat
2. Devise a phrase featuring a sequence employing the following secondary dominants:
V of supertonic, of mediant, of subdominant, of dominant, and of submediant. Use
root position and/or the various inverted forms.
3. Consider various pitches as root, third, fifth or seventh of dominant of submediant
chords. Spell and chord from the bass up, indicate the key and function and the chord
of resolution. Do the same for the dominant of mediant.
4. Using the following harmonic progressions as models, create two different settings of
each, one for piano, the other SATB. Use different harmonic rhythms, textures and
keys for the two settings.
a. I iig V V|/vi vi V*/m iiig V|/IV ii V
b. i \'|/VI VI ivg V5/VII VII Illg V^/III III i6 V^ i

5. Compose a phrase to follow that of Ex. 25-19, maintaining the same general texture.
Employ at least one secondary dominant (other than V/III) and cadence on tonic.
Arrange the whole for solo clarinet, violin, viola and cello.
6. Seek out examples in which V/vi and V/iii appear. Pay particular attention to the ap-
proach and resolution and their significance in regard to context.
7. Analyze a number of the following, indicating keys, chords and non-chord tones.
Haydn: Symphony No. 85 (La Reine), II. (1-8)
Beethoven: Symphony Op. 21, I. (1-21)
jVo. /,

Brahms : Variations on a Theme by Haydn, Op. 569 (1-10)

Schubert : Der Erlkonig (87-96)
Schumann : Symphony No. 2, .'\dagio ( 1 -9)
Chopin: Mazurka, Op. 67, No. 2 (1-16)
Liszt: Les Preludes (70-80)
8. Practice resolving various forms of the secondary dominants of mediant and submediant
at the keyboard. Establish a key and introduce and resolve the embellishing harmony
in a smooth fashion.
9. .Assuming that each of the following secondary dominants is to be resolved deceptively,
spell the chord of resolution of each from the bass up.
a. V|/V, E-Jiat h. V|/iv, b c. V^/III, c

d. V| vi, Z) e.V^/V,e f.V*/lV,B

10. Considering the root relation indicated, spell the chord of resolution (from the bass up)
for each of the following: (The chord of resolution must be a diatonic triad in the key
indicated.)
Third down
a. V'/iv, c b. V^/iv, d
Third up
c. V'/vi, .A-flat d. V^/ii, F
Second down
e. V/ii, E f V*/III, g
 : : : :

438 CONCLUSION OF SECONDARY DOMINANTS

11. Construct short progressions using different forms of the dominants of dominant, super-
tonic, mediant and submediant, and resolve them deceptively and irregularly (up a
third, down a third, tritone, etc.).
12. Write an instrumental and choral setting of each of the following progressions. Use dif-
ferent textures and harmonic rhythms for each.
3.. I
X vigV'/V iii vig V|/ii V6 V7/V V
Vi.e

b. i Vg V4/VI ive ii° V V> VI V^/III V V7 i

^
13. Construct an example in 4-part texture employing a sequence of secondary dominants
in which tonic remains unchanged.
14. Using a three-part texture similar to that in measures 4-12 of Ex. 25-45, develop an
example employing imitation of short motives, using secondary dominants in deceptive
progressions or in other types of irregular resolutions. Arrange for oboe, clarinet and
bassoon.
15. Analyze a number of the following indicating keys, chords and non-chord tones.
Beethoven String Quartet, Op. 18, No. 3, III (63-74)
String Quartet, Op. 59, No. 1, IV (1-18)
String Quartet, Op. 59, No. 2, IV (179-209)
Schubert String Quintet in C major, Op. 163, III (11-17)
Mendelssohn Nocturne (Midsummer Nights Dream) (91-100)
Chopin Mazurka, Op. 56, no. 2 (33-44)
Mazurka, Op. 59, no. 1 (38-42)
Wagner Act III (1-16)
Lohengrin, Prelude,
Verdi: Requiem, Requiem and Kyrie (8-11)
 Tonality

Changes
26

In this chapter we an important aspect of tonal or-

shall consider
ganization, the change of tonic. This expression refers to a shift of tonal focus, and it
may be used in connection with most musical styles. Modulation, on the other hand,
is a particular process through which a change of tonic can be effected.

Modulation

To modulate, a composer must establish two different tonal centers — the initial

tonic and a new one. This relationship may be created in a number of ways, but
it exists at the point of actual tonal change, a point usually established by a single
pitch or chord that ismutually identifiable in both keys. A modulation takes place
when there is a change from one tonality to another, the second of which is estab-
lished cadentially and confirmed by a subsequent phrase beginning in the new
key.
Tonality change may be accomplished in a smooth, almost imperceptable
way, concealing the actual shift of tonic, or it may result from an abrupt shift.

In this book, the former will be described as a modulation, while the latter will be
described as a tonal shift.

A modulation may or may not be indicated by a new key signature^, but it may
be recognized visually as the result of a new set of accidentals which in a real
sense "signal" the change of key. A modulation from c minor to A-flat major
occurs in Ex. 26-1.

^ Modulations within short sections are seldom indicated by a change of key signature.

439
 #

440 TONALITY CHANCES

Ex. 26-1. Schubert: Ersfarrung.

Voice
^^
^Aj . =^ ; S^
^
Piano

%'A^J^J^P

^E W
vw—-Tw— -:

?=^
— ^
i?P

C^CiJCJ^CXJ
* V amV* ^

1^\^[S^\J^
xz=
^ pr r
I

f
^ p
.F]nn 9# m m pi
»f' -"TW

'^'^•^^^6} cJcXJ^c^ CJ-JC^CiJC^

The principal key of the song is c minor, and the change of key that occurs is a
modulation to the submediant of c, A-flat. Schubert might have changed the key
signature at measure 5; that he did not emphasizes the subsidiary relationship of
A-flat, the new key, to c minor. The note d-flat occurs as an accidental, and b-flais
replace the b' naturals which were the leading tones in the original key of c.

Melodic Modulation

The same melodic factors that establish an initial tonic usually function in the
establishment of a new one. For example, melodic motion from leading tone to
tonic (7-8), tonic triad outlining, dominant to tonic skips, repetitions of tonic and
the treatment of tonic as the beginning and/or closing pitch of a phrase or larger
section typify the estabUshment of a point of focus in melody. These factors (or
some of them) are usually evident in both initial key affirmations and subsequent
modulations.
TONALITY CHANGES 441

Several of the considerations just noted are found in Ex. 26-2. major is firmly D
established in the opening two phrases of the minuet, and the notes of the D
major triad frame the melodic activity of measures 1-4. In the subsequent phrase,
however, d becomes an unstable pitch, because of its tritone relationship with g
sharp. The tonality is unstable through measures 5-8, although we anticipate the
confirmation of /I in a cadence. A is confirmed in measure 10 by the melodic
motion 7-8 {g-skarp to a). A is convincingly reaffirmed as a new tonic at the be-
ginning of the next phrase in measure 1 1. Thus a modulation from D to A major
(the dominant key of D) has been effected.

Ex. 26-2. Mozart: Symphony No. 7, III, Minuet.

oEf/irrr i ffrf-fiP'rcnr i

^ W PS 3^
tf^LL/

It is important to note that a serves in a dual capacity in Ex. 26-2. The repeat
sign in measure 10 indicates a return to the beginning and, therefore, to the key
of/). The importance of A as a new key is lessened, since it is quickly erased with
the return to D. In the light of these broader structural considerations, we need
not regard A product of a modulation, but rather as the point of arrival of
as the
a transient-terminal cadence on the dominant of D, which momentarily diverts
attention from tonic.
However, with the repetition of the section, a is cast in an entirely different
light, for theopening of the next section is clearly in A, and establishes it as a new
point of focus. The note a has been heard in a dual capacity: first, as a strongly
emphasized dominant in D; and second, as the tonic of a new key that supercedes
the previous one.
Ex. 26-3 contains a clear modulation from G to dominant key of D. The
its

change to D is established in measure 5. D is emphasized at the cadence (measure

4) of the second phrase, where the D major triad is heard as the cadential chord of
a transient-terminal cadence on the dominant of G major. With the subsequent re-
affirmation of D, it is solidly confirmed as a new key.

Ex. 26-3. Bach : Chorale, A//e$ ist an Gottes Segen.

i ^s ^ Alles

¥ rn n m
ist an Gottes Segen

m s ^^^
rrrr m
o

^m
r
UU
^ ^p r Wm
iiA iiij
^ r
v:;
442 TONALITY CHANGES

The changes and Ex. 26-3 were introduced cadentially and

of key in Ex. 26-2
confirmed by the subsequent phrases. Although modulations achieved through .

such a process are those most clearly and strongly perceived, changes of key often
occur entirely within individual phrases. Three changes of key, each contained
within a separate phrase, may be found in Ex. 26-4. In contrast with the more
subtly effected modulations shown earlier in Ex. 26-2 and Ex. 26-3, these more
abrupt key changes, contained entirely within one phrase, are called transitory
modulations.^

Ex. 26-4. Hans Leo Hassler : Infrada.

^
Slow

g min.-
«=*S
g mm.
^ I

^
ipz

P W -e-
W^

^ 2
p
-o-

d min.
£
r^ i
ii^rrr Id I

-g min.
o

The modulations shown in Ex. 26-4 are considerably more abrupt than those
discussed earlier. In each case the change of tonality emphasized by the long
is

cadential duration of a newly perceived tonic, which has occupied an entire

phrase.
Since the main key (in this case beginning and ending key) is g, it is easy to see
that the changes to 5-flat and d minor represent only brief departures from tonic
to the relative major and dominant minor keys. Note also that these three tonics

(g, b-flat and d) comprise the notes of the tonic triad of^ minor.
An abrupt shift of tonic from B-Jlat to D occurs in conjunction with the repeti-
tion of a characteristic melodic motive in Ex. 26-5. No melodic cadence to either

b-flat or d occurs, nor approached by a leading tone the change of

is either pitch ;

tonal center (and key) is purely a product of the repetition of a figure based on
major triads. Each tonic is heard as the root of an arpeggiated chord. Shifts of key
such as this are found most often in developmental sections of compositions where
sudden shifts of tonality and passages of tonal uncertainty are common.

Ex. 26-5. Beethoven : Symphony No. 6, I.

»cj^rj c^Oir!^C; r!£/c;i^^-E/Cri^Jg

i i

D:
' For a fuller description see Book II, and the discussion of Tonal Regions.
 —

TONALITY CHANGES 443

It should be clear from the preceding discussion and illustrations that changes
of key, either smoothly introduced or abruptly efrected, may be established by
single strands of melody. However, as we discovered in our earlier study of melody,
the tonality of a single line may be ambiguous, and more than one pitch may be
interpreted as tonic. In the opening of Ex. 26-5, g may easily be perceived as tonic,
whereas c is apparently confirmed as tonic in the third and fourth phrases.

Ex. 26-6. Josquin des Pres : Ave Maria Motet (melody).

i "—e—e— o- :«= jet HBJ- -o —e— e- :»: =rn

^ |
o
l o
M ti
M n
-e-=

^ iBp

The ambiguity of the melody of Ex. 26-6 can be attributed partially to the
absence of a structural half-step relation in the first three phrases, an ambiguity
that is dispelled in the fourth phrase by the b — c (leading tone — tonic) cadential
figure.
The tonal ambiguity of a single melodic line usually disappears when it is

related to other parts of a texture. As we know, the different parts of a composition

are often organized through chord patterns; it is through the relationships of
chords to a tonic and the melodic activity of all the parts that the realization of a
tonality becomes most clear.
To pursue this point, we shall reconsider Ex. 26-6 by Josquin des Pres, which is
actually a work for four voices. The soprano line of Ex. 26-7 is the melody
shown in Ex. 26-6.

Ex. 26-7. Josquin des Pres : Ave Maria Motet (all voices).

Soprano -e —e—o- =W: ini j o i o- HeK- -e —e—e-

Alto S —e
-e &- ZEE-
# -o —e—o-
TV ^e^
101

ZSJZ
Tenor HBh itt:
:XC n n
l-^ " "
8
&-&»
Bass s «• «- -e-
HBh M »
qct
444 TONALITY CHANGES

Ex. 26-7. continued.

^ 33= Heh -&-

Hei-
iW: tr
3S: :is:

^ T%
-e- =PC 33=
5r =Q=

m He(-

=|DC
mi

=n=
TV

33=
:W= =n=

det
HBh

»
=&

I w zz HB(- -o-
:W= =ee: -e- =0=

P
M o 33=

^ -e-
_Q_!
TT" Ha-

?2=^=CC
-e- 33=

HSh
2Z

-e —a- =£3=
n
Hei-
HEK-

Ut:
*
5
-o- _Q_
=n= Hei- =a= o M
:W:

A study of the first phrase shows that the beginning pitch (g^) in the soprano
forms the fifth of a C major triad, and it recurs in the same role at the close of the

same phrase.
After hearing the whole texture we no longer sense any ambiguity; the possi-
bihty of interpreting g as tonic is erased by the establishment of c as the root of

both the beginning and ending chords. Further emphasis on c results from the
melodic activity of both the alto and tenor voices the leading tone-to-tonic half :

step occurs cadentially in the alto, and c^ is clearly heard as the focal point of the
tenor line. The chords that are heard on successive strong beats create the progres-
sion I — IV — V — I. It is interesting that in this composition, which is quite chordal
in texture, a canonic relationship at the fifth exists between the soprano and tenor
parts.
There is nothing that suggests modulation in this excerpt. We have simply
established the fact that while a single melody may clearly define a tonic, tonality

will become definitely determined only after considering both the melodic and
harmonic elements.
The melody shown in Ex. 26-7 unfolds entirely within A. Aside from the progres-
sive cadence on the dominant that occurs in the final measure, there is very Httle
activity that could induce one to hear any other pitch than a as a point of tonal
focus. Leaps from e to a (measures 11-12 and 16-17) continue to affirm a as tonic.
Sing the line.
TONALITY CHANGES 445

Ex. 26-8. Telemann : Lied Melody.

ft iiyp I
P'PP ^^'p PPP^ l I i
V'p IP'PP I p^'p W^
f i'
;
.
^ , i jj j ppp p'^pij'i^^^
i

Performed without its accompaniment, the Telemann melody is tonally decep-

tive. With the addition of the accompaniment (Ex. 26-9), an entirely different pic-

ture of tonality is gained. A modulation has taken place between measures 8 and
9, and the melodic patterns that seemed oriented to A are cast in an altogether

diflerent framework. The pitch a^ which seemed stable, is now heard as an un-
stablesubdominant, forming a tritone with the new leading tone of d-sharp. A
change of key, not perceptible in the melody alone, has been effected through
harmonic means. The new leading tone in £ major [d-sharp) is absent in the melodic
line. It is present, however, in the accompaniment as the third of V in E, replacing
the initial g-sharp as leading-tone.

Ex. 26-9. Telemann : Lied (with accompaniment).

Voice
ft iipp Ip- PP I p^'p W '
I
J'^P I
P'PP

Piano
f%^
W'
^^
1^
^m ^
i
m
tt m
r»-= —1*-(*

ft" p ^p I
PPP Mp p p ^m ^ «==*

ftf MJ i 0- i t

^ ^ ^m m nr-1

T^Tj) n^^
^
'p /3 J^ r
ftll* I

p p p I

p
I
J,
j)
^ I
J^ :
||

fti

^
i
'
f «^^P ^
1 ^ nz-^
- • g

i
^m m m
446 TONALITY CHANGES

Relationships of Keys

In subsequent chapters we shall deal in detail with many of the processes and
techniques associated with modulations. For the present we shall concentrate on
developing a more generalized picture of some of the most common key relation-
ships that have been used to create tonal variety in Western music.
The most frequently encountered key relationship consists of a change to a near
related key. Near whose signatures diffeii^y_jiQ_jnore than
related keys a re those

o ne sharpe r onejiat. For example, the modulation in Ex. 26-9 occurred between
near related keys, since the two involved {A major and E major) are one sharp
removed. That is, the signature of A major contains three sharps, while the key of E
contains four sharps.
Modulations from an initial key to the key of the dominant constitute the most
common type of near related key change. This seems logical and consistent when
we consider the strong relationship between tonic and dominant tones.
Near relationship exists between major tonic and major dominant keys, and
minor tonic and minor dominant keys. It does not exist between a minor tonic
and a major dominant key, because of the lack of common pitches shared by the
two keys. The foregoing discussion can be clarified by a study of Ex. 26-10.

Ex. 26-10. Tonic and Dominant Keys.

Near related Near related

C major G major (#) c minor {\)^\j) g minor {[,'>)

Distant relationship
c minor (b''b) G major (#)

Applying the above to any major key, we can see several

criteria described
possibilities for creating near related modulations from an initial key. Using C
major as a point of reference, modulations to G and F major and a, d or e minor
would represent changes to near related keys. The tonic chord of each of the new
keys is a diatonic chord of the key of C.
The same procedure can be applied to modulations from a minor key. Con-
sidering c minor as a key of reference, E-Jiat major, g minor, A-flat major, / minor
and B-flat major are near related keys. It is important to notice that the keys
which form near relationships to an initial tonic key ar^ lot always near related
to each other. For example, d minor and e minor are near related to C major, but
not to one another.
Near related does not imply close intervallic distance; it merely denotes a rela-
tionship of keys, a relationship that results from common tones shared by different
keys.
 1

TONALITY CHANGES 447

Several illustrations of near related modulations follow. Play through Ex. 26-1
and study the changes of key.

Ex. 26-11. Frauenholz : Der Herr gedenki an uns, for Voices, Strings and Organ.

jS
Violins
m s.
p=^=if ^
f $
E
r=r
i j
i
nfJP

Organ
P^ b m^o or

«
^
s
Voices
s.

T.
U
^Ji
tt
omxlL E
^^^

p^^
J JlTl i JlTTP i
J TO ^1-f^f^H^tf
p^r?^
r r
J J J J J J
J j J i ^
.'^''1
1
r r r
 « — »

448 TONALITY CHANGES

Ex. 26-12. Chopin: Mazurka in B-flat.

\1

4v i — rr
-t Ul^l 1 i 1
> -..^'r «|
-,^ --^ —*^--i —— •
^^3

—— Lj
. ^'
p ^ i

^ b 4 » —
» »
— •< »
1
1
i
]t
—4
p
P
—— »
P

j^''
fj^f gf
t f
\ M 1-

p^ ni a f=¥
^^ .
t f

10
F
P^ s •
m.
ft »— ^^p^
^^y-;f"
yjp ^

^ •4- 4

Ex. 26-13. Beethoven: Sonata for Piano, Op. 110, II.

C Major.
Ex. 26-14. Beethoven: Mass in

Am t=t i=i J^ ^^t,m

es M s
rr rr f
i4 i
s ^jg^
rfff
ZEE

r^ ^^
i ffit
? ^
^ 30
1

Jj JJJJ J
331
si
IE

rr rrfT
^ Jf
35
u.
^ J
f
i
s -e-

rr^
TONALITY CHANGES 449

t>Tn

I J .
.1 .1 -o-
40
331 i i^ .U
i zsn
1=T

g ?^
Ex.
J- J 11
^ 1 J

26-15. Bach: Three part Invention No.

^
5.
^ J-
^

.^b /y/«.u 1^

P ??
^ ^

^
K jn.A,^^
7 ^ e ^JOT ic:
i

y
J
rvrfrr
W^ fe^ V .
»
!
ilf^^i=f £

^^
J)

i
J>
J. >i' J. ^
f

Ex. 26-16. Handel: Concerto Grosso, Op. 6.

Violin I
fe^
JaJ ^i'^*

Violin n

Viola
f^^
^ ^ 5

-#-^»-
Cello
^
 —— — :

450 TONALITY CHANGES

Ex. 26-16. continued.

^m
^
i^'
f
^ cr»r

^ » 1
^^r^L£^^
tt j #

p
* # J »
le

» #=^=g

^
K S f
—^ f ^53
m.

^^
iitf
££r/ [!r E^J^ C; i^ ^
i ^ N ^
.ttJt

L/r ^p ^^ ^ ^ w
')-;'
[ID ^ ? 1^ ^^
This group of excerpts, which constitutes a variety of textures and styles, contains
modulations of the following characteristics
Example no. Keys Established Modulatory Scheme
11 D major A major Modulation to the Dominant
12 5-flat major F major Modulation to the Dominant
13 ^-flat major —/minor Modulation to the submediant
14 C major minor
a Modulation to the submediant
15 •2, G-flat major d minor Modulation to the mediant
16 g minor c minor Modulation to the subdominant

Less Common Key Relations

Composers have by no means limited their choices of keys to near relations,

since virtually any combination or sequence of keys may be found. Compositions
written after the eighteenth century sometimes use relationships which bring into
play many or all of the members of the chromatic scale. Consistent with the use
of more distant key relations is the lessening of key stability and reduction of key
duration. Sudden shifts of key, in contrast to the more gradual process of modula-
tion, create an aura of tonal uncertainty that both broadens the tonal perspective
and weakens the listener's feeling of principal tonic.
Third relationship describes a more distant key change involving two keys whose
 —

70NAt/ry CHANGES 451

scales contain one or no common tones and whose tonic chords are a major or
minor third apart. For example, C major and E major form a third relationship.
Their tonic chords possess one common tone, e, and a change from C to E (or E
to C) is often described as a third related key change. Actually, the change to a third
related key is usually felt as a sudden shift, rather than as a gradual change.
In Ex. 26-17 a third relation is introduced between D major and F major.
Beethoven has employed the pitch a as a common link between the tonic chords
of the two keys.

Ex. 26-17. Beethoven: Symphony No. 8, III.

^
^ 33 3
.9

t
mE§. ^
# —
\
(»

$ ^ 3 3

^^s
5

fe^iS #^^^
3

Major and minor keys a half step apart constitute the key relation in Ex. 26-18
in which a new key is introduced on the leading tone of the original key.

Ex. 26-18. Wolf: Spanish Songbook, I, No. 4.

.;i) ji^^ \0T

Voice ^^

Piano
Hv« MFmPmPmF.\> 0^¥^
^V(^ pfpr^rp py^

^J
1
m ^^M^
rrCT^gTlJ
^^
±t
^» i
452 TONALITY CHANGES

^
Ex. 26-18. continued.

*
t*
^ M
:^
;> i
vrFfiiFrFrFrFriii^^j^ ii' i^^ f^=^=^
«.

i
«^

^FF ^
^^^^=; -^
is:

^
1^

Other Aspects of Tonality Change

All of the modulations discussed in the previous sections of this chapter have at
least one significant feature in common ; in each case the new key was established
and then affirmed by a cadence. Cadences which confirm principal tonics are, as
we know, called terminal cadences, and most modulations are confirmed by terminal
cadences.
In contrast to the terminal cadence, both the progressive and transient-terminal

cadences function differently in regard to the confirmation of tonality. The pro-

gressive cadence clearly suggests that more music is to follow that will reemphasize
the previously established tonic. A progressive cadence to the dominant occurs in
measure 4 of Ex. 26-19.

Ex. 26-19. Haydn: Piano Sonata in D Major, I.

Allegro con brio

nnnn
r
p—p-
tr^ ti-
F=^
mi ^
^hi'^lr

^^^^^
r r r7 Tr

t d t i
^
/
r^$=i i^
TONALITY CHANGES 453

The contrast between progressive and transient-terminal cadences can be

shown easily by rewriting measure 4 of the Haydn sonata, as shown in Ex. 26-20.

Ex. 26-20. (revision of Ex. 26-19.).

The note a now attracts considerably more attention than when

as a point of focus
heard as the root of a progressive cadence chord. Leading tones (g-sharp) and root
—
movement to a by a descending fifth {e -a) point to a as a potential new tonic, but
its existance in such a role is short-lived, and it remains for a continuation of music
centering around a to erase the polarity of d.

Both terminal and transient-terminal cadences occur in Ex. 26-21. The excerpt
begins in the principal key of/ minor with a sustained statement on tonic, followed
by a transient-terminal cadence on the dominant. The subsequent phrase estab-
lishes a modulation to c minor, and the original key of/ minor is reestablished

with a terminal cadence at measure 9.

Ex. 26-21. Beethoven: Egmont Overture, Op. 84 (piano reduction).

fiJ HJ
®
-
^

ww
U-^
— r^
"3 5"
-^ ^
4i
-9—9-
^

^f
^i'

y
 1 —g —

454 TONALITY CHANGES

Ex. 26-21. continued.

t±=n
p^z
7
^ ^^ ra=^ i ICG
^-^
g — 33
^
^^

^ r rrr
UJU331
i ^
-e^
~T5~'
«
^7
—«
Z)
^ • -d

15
12
©
^e i ft»#

nr rfW r^
m ffi
-e^
- - Jzz^
5
f)
- I
rp ^^^
We "modulation" denotes a change of key. Since the
recall that the expression
system of "keys" is most prevalent in music written between the seventeenth and
the beginning of the twentieth centuries (music with which we are most familiar),
it is natural that we begin the study of tonality changes with this music. However,

to form a more comprehensive picture of tonality change, we must examine some

music in which "key" is replaced by other means of tonal organization.
Two phrases from a composition by Landini, a fourteenth century composer,
are shown in Ex. 26-22.

Ex. 26-22. Landini: 2 Voice Ballata.

s ii f f fff

^
i

s Z3Z

~~"-~~~-|
{fiF=F^^rf^ -^ 1 1
— 5 1
=^^1

Jt^ a •

r — —
p-= —f^
r r

The first phrase and the measures of the second establish the mode
initial three

of ^ dorian (f-sharp occurs as a cadential leading tone alteration). The second

phrase (the final phrase of the piece) asserts the principal tonal center of the work,
TONALITY CHANGES 455

d. The mode of the close of the composition is d dorian, with a c-sharp introduced
to create a leading tone in the 7 — 8 cadence pattern. The change of tonic is not felt

until the final measure, and therefore is would have been if d

not so strong as it

had had more preparation. However, as the last pitch heard, d can hardly be dis-
counted as a point of focus, and a definite change of tonic from^ to d is perceived.
We are reminded, by glancing at Ex. 26-22 and Ex. 26-23, that alterations are
common to compositions employing modal bases, just as they are to pieces written
in major or minor keys. The designation of a specific mode is made on the basis of
the most consistently recurring pitch material. Unlike most works in major or
minor keys, many modal compositions begin and close on different tonics. In such
examples, the closing tonic is usually considered to be the principal tonality of
the work. The prevailing pitch material of Ex. 26-23 forms a natural minor (Aeo-
lian) mode on a.

Ex. 26-23. Palestrina : Motet, Adjuro vos filiae Jerusalem.

r^a^
t rr ^^ ^
WTT r^rr r ffT? rr
i

C ai ^^a ^^ ^m ^^ ^^
SM
T
^^ P
c
P ^
lAdJ

Roots ^ ^ rnrr r r ii T

W i ^^ i ^ ^^^f ''

r nr
r- rrrrff r

^ ^^ -o-

J.
M^ J=^ iU
^
(Roots)
^ C
J
3^
J J

y n
i # ^ r
I
f ^r r
456 TONALITY CHANGES

Ex. 26-23. continued.

10
^=^ i
tr FfT
^ff rrr r

^ -# ^ i^i
s
m «— p
^•-^Jj ii
J -e-

-
J ^
^ ^F^
^J i J'

rrr f
^
rr '

^(Roots)

P HI ^^
(C: V/v)

^
15

« ^
rr st^ ^^
rrr If

f# ^f
-J J
g^
^^ ^^ r ^^^ ^ ; i
r
(V I)

m(Roots)

r
^ I
r J f^

In Ex. 26-23 tonal variety is created by a series of shifts from a to C, and the
tonal plan of the example can be understood by singing the second bass part, mea-
sures 1-10. An analysis of the other parts will reveal that the notes a and c serve
as terminal points for the various successive imitative entries which continuously
overlap. At no point until the close of the excerpt can all five voices be found in
cadential agreement, and the subtle shifts of pitch emphasis are not affirmed by
strong cadences. The cadences are weak because they occur only in rhythmically

staggered locations, rather than simultaneously in all the voices. The subtlety of
tonal shifts in the excerpt must be related to the texture of the composition, which
is quite contrapuntal, since strong tonality-defining cadences are avoided in favor

of continuous motion in each part.

Our perception of a and c as points of focus in this passage is dependent upon
three factors: (1) pitch repetition, (2) cadential leading tone patterns (i.e., g sharp
— —
a and b c) and (3) I or viig V— —
I chord progressions at cadences. C is not

a strongly defined tonality, but as a study of the root relations (accompanying the

r^jvii
 —

TONALITY CHANGES 457

example) will show, any description of its tonal organization would be incomplete
without some mention of c as a subsidiary point of focus. It is heard in a transitory
relationship to a, a point of momentary polarity, but its duration as a tonic is such
that should be viewed as part of a continuously unfolding tonal pattern com-
it

prised of a c —
a, which creates unity and variety within the principal tonality of

a. Vacillation between tonal focal points is a significant aspect of much music.

The principal tonic (a) of the Palestrina Motet ]ust discussed is the same as that

of the passage in Ex. 26-24. Despite the similarity of tonic and prevailing minor
mode, the two examples present a striking contrast of tonal material and organiza-
tion. But since both examples illustrate shifting points of tonal polarity, they are
more alike in basic tonal design than they would appear to be.

Ex. 26-24. Wagner Tristan and Isolde, prelude, Act I.

^^
:

Lento e languido
s

F^r^ r F=T i yi ^P*r

^ ^^ ^£
^

i^
^^^ fi^^ ±=^
p ^^^
10
j^;jj
fp=^
*r ^
^ I ^ i
ra:

j^m iJ^^~^
15
458 TONALITY CHANCES

^
Ex. 26-24. continued.

r=if^^^*^3 m
riT r^rrs'
^
r p=^J
i-
J'

jj-^j s
bi^5' i£^-jj
^
'^^^Tf
l

r— pr-
^ ±^
tp F^
3^
IP^

The tonality of the \Vagner excerpt might be described as "dynamic" because

tonic (or what we regard as points of focus) is continuously shifting. Contrast this
dynamic aspect of tonality with the stability of solidly established diatonic keys.
This fluctuation of tonic can be related to several common factors :
( 1 ) the absence
of strong, clear terminal cadences; (2) the predominance of root relations in seconds;
(3) the streams of chromatic inflections which by their abundance tend to minimize
the "key effect" of leading tone relations; (4) the absence of pitch repetition in
favor of pitch variety;and (5) the short duration (in context) of each area in
which we may perceive an "implied" or an anticipated tonic.
It is common to speak of sections such as this as involving "continuous modula-

tion." But since wejiave_de fined modulation as a clearly established change from
one diatonic key to another, confirmed by a terminal cadence^ "continuous modu-
lation" would seem to be a contiadiction of what we hear in such an example. If
on the other hand we admit that all twelve available pitches may comprise the
tonal material of a composition with one principal tonic, and that any of the twelve
pitches may occur as a briefly established or implied tonic, then a more suitable

distinction may be made by the expression implied modulation.

Implied modulations are frequently the structural basis of passages of prolonged
instabilitv. We are, in a sense, unsure of tonic or key, but we infer tonic on the basis

of short passages which only allude to particular keys. Sections or entire works
containing implied modulations are by no means limited to any specific period of
music (although they abound in works of the late nineteenth and early twentieth
centuries) as can be seen from a comparison of Ex. 26-24 and Ex. 26-25. Implied
modulations may be shown in analysis by indicating the implied key or tonic in
brackets, e.g., [C] or [a]. The impUed keys of the Wagner excerpt have been
shown in Ex. 26-24. Study the implied keys in Ex. 26-25.
TONALITY CHANGES 459

Ex. 26-25. Giovanni Macque (sixteenth century) : Organ Study.

P * ^
W
^^ i^ $
^ i
rr
^
s ICC

^^ §=

* TT
r^
M ^^^
^ F=T r
i ^
r
^-j
e^d^ Py^^
ii J.
-e-
fro-

f
In the concluding chapters of volume two we shall deal extensively with some of
the materials of more recent music. As we shall see, changes of tonality are as
significant in the structure of many contemporary works as in music of past periods.
Much twentieth century music has a strong affinity for tonal relationships that are
typical of much earlier music. In Ex. 26-26, tonic and dominant relations con-
stitute the principal means of delineating the tonality of the opening phrases.

Ex. 26-26. Hindemith : Ludis Tonalis, Interludium in E-flat (The March). (C) 1943 by Schott
& Co., Ltd., London. Reprinted by permission.

March (J=66)
 . :

460 TONALITY CHANGES

Ex. 26-26. continued

Exercises

Additional materials are contained Materials and Structure of Music I, Workbook, Chapter 26.

1 Study Ex. 26-26 using as a guide the list of considerations that follows
a. Describe the "key" of the example.
b. In what way do tonic and dominant relationships organize the passage?
c. What are the prevailing root relations?
d. What types of contrapuntal relationships occur?
e. What are the most characteristic rhythm patterns used?
f. What types of decorative activity are found?
g. Where do changes of tonality occur?
h. In what way do changes of dynamics contribute to the organization of the
excerpt?
i. Where do harmonic or melodic tritones occur and how are they treated?
j. Contrast the harmonic language of the excerpt with that of Ex. 26-25.
2. Name all the near related keys to A major, c minor, D-flat major and b minor.
3. Invent an eight measure piano composition which fluctuates tonally between G major
and e minor. Begin in G and close in e.
4. Sight sing Ex. 26-23.
5. Transpose the soprano line of Ex. 26-3 to B-flat major and make a four-voice setting of the
melody which contains a near related modulation.
 ^

Procedures

<f
27
Tonality

Change

Modulation is a principle of organization that constantly confronts

the composer. As we have seen, key change is a common ingredient in all but the
shortest compositions. Our objective in this chapter is to study how, aside from
melodic procedures, the change in pitch focus is accomplished. This involves more
than observation of musical results; we must delve into the musical techniques used
to produce these results.

Modulation by Pivot Chord

One of the most frequent modulation procedures establishes the relationship

between the two keys by means of a specific chord that they possess in common.
The agent of modulation, then, is a chord that can be interpreted in both the old
key and the new key. This process capitalizes on the potential ambiguity of chords,
i.e., the fact that a single chord can possess a logical identity in more than one

key.
Ex. 27-1 illustrates concisely the pivot chord modulation technique, in this case
involving two distantly related keys, which is not uncommon in nineteenth cen-
tury music.

Ex. 27-1. Schubert: (W/nferre/se), Muth.

Ziemlich geschwind, Kraftig

*^
Voice

Piano

^ / ZT
5b£
^— ^
f
& s
W P
-f—^

^^^
r^ = m
 o —

A61 PROCEDURES OF TONALITY CHANGE

Ex. 27-1. continued.

a fE^r
it
f=g-85r
* *^
It*:* I
ft
10

—
• p"^f*i
^ ^^':! ';;;:> S*=i^
:
^i=^
/I
iV
I
in a
in E
'_j u ^ r [_r
i

B\' measure 9 of this excerpt the change of key has taken place minor has been ; .-1

replaced by E major. From measure 8 the tonality is clearly E major; therefore we

must look immediately before this location to see the actual point of shift. The
major triad on E in measure 7 is clearly \" in .-I minor, if we were to look no further.
In retrospect, however, we see that it can also be interpreted as I in £" major. This
triad is thus the pivot chord between these two keys; it is analyzed as shown on
the example.
We can perceive this type of modulation only by looking back from the point at
which the new key has been irrevocably established. Since any chord is capable of
a number of interpretations in any number of possible keys, we \\ ould remain in
a constant state of coiifusion if we were always conjuring up the many possibilities
of each chord we hear. Fortunately, although we do make guesses as to the possible
outcome of a musical situation, we guess only on the basis of the evidence at hand
in other w-ords, we interpret each chord only in the light of the current key, until
this key clearly has been abandoned.
Once change has taken place, however, it is possible to identify the dual
this

role of the pivot chord. Each modulation generally contains a signal or simple
"clue" that the old key is no longer in effect. This is usually an accidental foreign
to the old key but diatonic to the new key (often a new leading tone). Occasionally,
though, the change of key occurs without additional accidentals, in which case other
factors must be considered. Once this "clue" has been spotted, the pivot chord is
easy to locate; it is usually the previous chord.
In Ex. 27-2 no accidental signals the advent of the new key. Instead, the Mm"
chord in measure 6 (not a diatonic member of A minor but, as it turns out, clearly
V^ in D major) first indicates that b minor is no longer the prevailing key. The
pivot chord is thus the previous chord — i in b minor becomes vi in D major.
 .

PROCEDURES OF TONALITY CHANGE 463

Ex. 27-2. Haydn: Quartet, Op. 64, No. 2, Menuetto.

^^ ^ ^
Menuetto

Violin I

m Allegretto

'/
=fe^
/ f
^ p. i

Violin H
m i^ —6 «- m &
M w^
y
Viola rF=f=^
f
^— m Be

Cello
^m f
^ 0-
m
m mm ^ ^
— — m

/
i
fe tt
J ^ ^ ^ ^/ ^P ^^ ^ ^
m:
i^ ^ £
^ ^-#

f
I
P
W ^ ^
^Fm fs
f ^m f it / ^ ^

Ideally any chord —diatonic or chromatic — can act and a situa-

as a pivot chord,
tion may result in which a chromatic chord in the old key becomes a diatonic
chord in the new key or vice versa. The Vg/ii chord in D major, for instance, can
function as Vg in E minor or major. Usiially, however, the pivot chord is diatonic
to bo th keys. The diatonic pivot chord possibilities are easily determined by pairing
off the appropriate chords in the two keys involved, as in Ex. 27-3. If, as in this
case, the modulation is to the dominant major key, the V will pair with I, vi with
ii, and so forth.

Ex. 27-3. Modulation by pivot chord.

fD Major:
ff mig [11

iii
,i|i§

IV
^ §

Vi
H
Vii"

i
A
14

Major: IV
U ilti§ ^^
Vi Vii*
ff

I
f=%
III

»1W
 —

464 PROCEDURES OF TONALITY CHANGE

We
can rule out several of these chord pairs ii (a minor triad) will not serve as :

the chord equivalent of V (although V/V will) IV and vii° are likewise incompati- ;

ble, as are vii° and iii. Four pairs remain I and IV, iii and vi, V and I, vi and ii
:

all equally possibly. It is obvious that the primary^ criteriqnjs jdentity of chord
quality.
Different pairs of keys display widely differing pivot chord potentials. In certain
key relationships, as illustrated in Ex. 27-4, the possibilities are more limited than
in Ex. 27-3.

Ex. 27-4. Relationships of pivot chords.

:^^ m ^^^% l\\ H ^^ f^» (i>)8^ ^^

D Minor i m iV VI Vii°

'^' (ii)§ m\ <i|>§ (ii )^

I k i{

C Major: ii iri IV Vi Vii°

This process of common

chord modulation does not require a harmonic texture
of block chords. Ex. 27-5 is clear in its modulatory implications: F major is con-
firmed (although briefly) in measure 7 I becomes IV in the previous measure.
;

Ex. 27-5. Beethoven: Trio, Op. 97, ("Archduke"), Scherzo.

Viola
m mm ^w
Cello W¥^ ^ W #^ ^

Ex. 27-6 contains a clear pivot chord modulation between two keys that are not
closely related. The process is more complex, though. The pivot chord occurs
not
immediately before the first departure from C major IV in C becomes V in B-jiat —
major in measure 17.

Ex. 27-6. Schubert: Symphony in C Major, Scherzo.

Allegro vivace 5
 m #

PROCEDURES OF TONALITY CHANGE 465

m
±±€:^^±
iM ^^
p.'
J.
-J.

Oa7m • • •

m^
i 3t
*=:*
m
^^
f=TT
8va

a^ m$^
*
f ^m iff'
^t
^
sf
p
«L^*V a=a:
m fC: IV
Ib'': V
» •
—#

^ ^20

W
8va
-

»— r

\*-
» p
^=ii ^
^m
*
I
it
^ I
--#
7l9H
25

? 4
# •

7=rT=if=^^ ffiffi

Pivot Tone Modulation

In some modulations the sole common

between the two keys is a single tone.
link
Ex. 27-8 contains a pivot tone modulation between the relatively distant keys of
F major and D-Jlat major; the sustained tone F (introduced in measure 5) acts
as a link between the two keys. Note that the harmonic motion is from the tonic
of the original key to the tonic of the new key. Pivot tone modulation became
more frequent in the nineteenth century than formerly, often as a link between
distant related keys.

Ex. 27-7. Beethoven: Trio, Op. I, No. 3, Finale.

Violin j^''U1||,)"^
If^ ^ i 331 zai

^
Cello

Piano
s
gffi^

^^ ^ 33C

^
^^

^pi \ ^i o
^
466 PROCEDURES OF TONAl/rV CHANGE

Ex. 27-7. continued.

This principle is equally apparent in Ex. 27-8. The pivot tone here is the reiterated
G in the viola part; its role changes from that of tonic in g minor (in measure 8) to
that of mediant in E-flat major. Here the change is better described as a tonal
shift than as modulation because of its abruptness.

Ex. 27-8. Shostakovitch : Quartet, Op. 49, I. (C) Used by permission of MCA Music, a divi-
sion of MCA Inc., New York, N.Y. All rights reserved.

^ft ^ m
; jj j:7?^ ,

r
^r
m i nm
r f-
^
m :$
zc

g
i ^?^^
^ m P3EEE

}^.
^ ^ 1
^
^^^^
r f^
gliss.
ppf
^J
^^f yb in y

Modulation by Chromatic Inflection

In another common process the relationship between two keys is by

established
melodic inflection — a voice that moves (or voices than move) up or down a minor
second, leading smoothly to a diatonic pitch in the new key. In this relationship,
 PROCEDURES OF TONALITY CHANGE 467

of course, there are no diatonic elements in common between the two keys. There-
fore the connection is through the stepwise melodic action of one of the lines.

Ex. 27-9 contains a modulation by chromatic inflection in the fourth and fifth

measures.

Ex. 27-9. Mendelssohn : Symphony No. 3 (Scotch), I.

rj:^ fl^.

The Mm^ chord on F

measure 4 no more suggests G major than does the
in
same chord type on D suggest the F major of the preceding section. The agents of
modulation are the bass line, moving chromatically from tonic of the old key to
the leading tone of the new key, and the movement from tonic F through E-Jlat to
D, the fifth of the new key.
An extension of this technique may be seen in Ex. 27-10, in which the two tonics

Ex. 27-10. Bartok :Concerto for Violin No. 2, I. Copyright 1946 by Hawkes & Son
(London) Ltd. Reprinted by permission of Boosey & Hawkes Inc.

Violin

Orchestra
468 PROCEDURES OF TONALITY CHANGE

Ex. 27-10. continued.

poco rallent.

125

h©- ^
a tempo

PP

i^
p espr.
^

^W p-e-
I
II f I i -^^^if

^ ^
3i:
f5/)r.
^
331

(F and C) are connected by the chord in measure 126. Although this D-flat minor
triad is foreign to both keys, its use as a connecting link is obvious and relates it
to the technique described above.
Modulations by chromatic inflection frequently involve^ the dominant _as_at
l east one of theT chjQttifi. Composers often have modulated to the supertonic or sub-

mediant keys by this procedure. For example, the raised tonic pitch of a key be-
comes the leading tone of ii; the raised dominant becomes the leading tone of vi.
Ex. 27-1 1 contains a further example of this type of modulation, in this case
involving a chord that is not diatonic to either old or new key. The upward
chromatic inflection in the bass at measure 6 leads our attention from i in/minor
to \'|/\' in c minor.

Ex. 27-11. Purcell : Dido and Aeneas, Prelude, Act I, Scene 2.

'i^
-9-,
//(^

^
-
f
EE
* P
fe
m
-a-
PROCEDURES OF TONALITY CHANGE 469

t
&
fefe

'J' lI' i
I'
i-

I"
1^
^Jm t-
^ ^^ i
3-

w
i
fr
i
Descending chromatic inflection establishes the modulation in Ex. 27-12, again
in the bass line, in measures 2 and 3. It is interesting to note that the two tonics
in this excerpt lie a tritone apart, A — E-jlat; they are distant relations.

Ex. 27-12. Hindemith: Sonata for Organ, I. (C) 1937 by B. Schott's Soehne, Mainz. Re-
printed by permission.

Enharmonic Modulation

Composers occasionally have found it necessary to relate the two keys of a mod-
ulation through enharmonic spelling. This does not necessarily imply a remote
modulation, however, since the enharmonic spelling is often used merely for the
performer's convenience. The keys F-sharp major and D-flat major seem distantly
related at first glance, but they are in fact no more distant than C major and G
major. It is as natural, when in F-sharp major, to modulate to the dominant as
when in C major, and most people would find D-flal major easier to read than
C-sharp major, because of the notational complications of the latter.
The modulation in Ex. 27-13 is not between keys as closely related as f-sharp
and D-Jiat, but it does demonstrate that convenience of spelling can take precedence
over a more notationally consistent indication of key relationships. Measures 5 and
6 of this excerpt are actually notated in F-flat major, although the accompaniment
appears in the enharmonic key of E major. The pivot chord is also unusually
interesting, for it is not diatonic. In the last half of measure 4, V in A-flat major
becomes V/iii in F-flat major and resolves deceptively to the tonic of this new
key. However, a more musical interpretation of this modulatory relationship
would recognize the common pitch bond between the two keys; A-flat (tonic) of
the initial key becomes mediant of the new key.
470 PROCEDURES OF TONALITY CHANGE

Ex. 27-13. Schumann: Frauen/zeben und Leben, Helft mir, ihr Schwestern.

Voice j''i>'-j
}n S' \
} m- ^'
i
r p^'e^'^

Piano
:--;^^ii. ^ \

\
;.^^} \

rit.

a tempo

Chordal texture is absent from the enharmonic modulation in Ex. 27-14 from
E-flat minor to b minor; the change of key is brought about solely by the change
in function of the pivot tone: G-flat F-sharp (3 in e-JIat minor
j 5 in b minor). —
Schubert has cleverly expedited the modulation by the running chromatic scale
in the piano, effectively blurring the recollection of the previous key.
PROCEDURES OF TONALITY CHANGE 471

Ex. 27-14. Schubert = Trio in E-flat Major, Op. 100, I.

P g^
^n •»»»»^^»^»^»»i»^^##i»»*'« #>^0#l»»»i#ll#N»^l*>^»»»^»*.

ttT-^
Violin
I

\^
^ r I'T r
''^
r

^
cresc.
I
#i»»»#i^»i»»»'»^»»^-#»^»'»^i^.»*-*i^^»»^i^^*»»»«^**»

Cello £
cresc.

^
Piano

^ Gt major
^^ ^^•^^^ ^^^ ^^-^s^ ^l<>^^ » »<^»*>#N^^^^ > ^ ^^•^^^^^ ^^^S» ^^.
(T
Wi3?pJ^J^^'''
i»^ »^<»^^<#'^ ^

i fcb
^7
il
^»»0#>^-»*^»'#N#'#'^^'»^ ^ »»^>^>»^l^.^^'^<^S»^i^i^^>»<»^.^ »<!» ^^^^^^»'#\ ^^^^^•^^^^'^^^^^^•^^^^^•^^^^•^'^^^^^^'^^'^^•^^-^•^^^•^i^ » ^^^»^>^^ »»»>

^ 771"

p5
eSeiT^l* *!£*
vv^k^fei^^ilMl

j^^'i^
^;^ ^ici^ ^
» *»^ ^ »i»^^ > ^»^^ ^^^^^ ^^^ * ^^K^ ^»i^» ^^••^^'^^ ^ ^^.^^•^^
?p.>»»lf f f

i^
-•—•-
^ m m m

»»»*>»^ * #» ^^^^•^•^^1^ ^^^^^'^'^^^^^'^^^•^^^^^•^i^^^'^^ »^>^S#*»i^i y

B minor
472 PROCEDURES OF TONALITY CHANGE

More Abrupt Tonality Changes

Disguising a change of tonic through a subtle relating of two keys has not always
been the composer's goal. A sudden shift of key can produce a stunning effect, one
that many composers have obviously considered desirable at times. We will not
dwell on the manifold effects of this procedure except to note that this lays bare
the relationship between the two keys, emphasizing their contrast, particularly
when they are not near related.
First, however, we should observe that modulation between closely related keys

occurs frequently near the beginning of a phrase. In this event it is pointless to

single out a pivot chord; the break in musical continuity caused by the previous
cadence and the start of the subsequent phrase helps to emphasize rather than
soften the difference in key. In Ex. 27-15 the first phrase cadences in/ minor, and
the second resumes with A-flat major clearly established. Because of their close
relationship, however, the effect of shift is barely noticeable.

Ex. 27-15. Mozart: Piano Sonata, K. 280, Adagio.

Wm^ 1^^i mm
^m^ ^^m i
mf 'Hh

^^^^ M "M- m^ ^^^

f.

^
p
J-

P
'i.

^
M
P ^ P P ^ J

Measure 11 of Ex. 27-16 contains a cadence on V of c minor, but measure 12

begins with the tonic triad in E-jial major. Despite the cross-relation created by
this succession of chords {BjB-flat), the effect is only mildly abrupt. We are well
able to accommodate seemingly unrelated juxtaposed sounds as long as each
possesses a logical and well-defined tonal identity in a clearly-established tonal
system. There is no appreciable abruptness about this key change because the two
are near related.
PROCEDURES OF TONALITY CHANGE 473

Ex. 27-16. Haydn: Quartet, Op. 64, No. 6, I.

Violin I
lhi;fff}H te
? ^- if cresc.
^^
Violin n
>j'''''''J
^J'' ?; ^^ ^ £/• cresc.
?-e-

Viola ^s^^ ^^ 6 *
Q 331
sf cresc.

Cello
m ffi ^E
p
33:
ICE

5;^ cresc.

U
{/•
/

ia P ^^
^
^
S
»/

»-

^/
J
if

Y
i/
^
if

5^

#
V
if

^ M
f

/
ttrrf-iT^

t
a
10
^f

^fg m-M-m-
^
f=^=^
sf ^f -/

^
/

^
f^
?=i^

:a
dtrjtcif ^^ rJ 90 =Z2I
^^
9^^ ^^ ^
F^^
 —

474 PROCEDURES OF TONALITY CHANGE

Ex. 27-17 and Ex. 27-18, however, contain shifts of tonal center that are not
only abrupt but, at times, of distant relations. In the Beethoven, for example, the
rapid tempo contributes to the effect of merely sliding the tonic down a minor
second —from /-sharp minor to F major. The succession of keys in the Brahms
excerpt is no less unusual.

Ex. 27-17. Beethoven: Symphony No. 8, Finale.

p^
^ El
P
i
p
i ^» m
^ fc# ^ ^e 4
g
tel fe# i
Ex. 27-18. Brahms: Symphony No. 4,

Allegro giocoso

Although its harmonic style is less accessible than in the previous examples,
Ex. 27-19 contains a similar abrupt shift measure 3 to
of tonal center from C in
E-flat in the next measure. The two sections are related thematically through the
sequence of perfect fourths in the bass, the first note of which forms a step-progres-
—
sion of^ -f e-flat. But there is an unmistakable change of tonal center after the
double bar.
 PROCEDURES OF TONALITY CHANGE 475

Ex. 27-19. Stravinsky: Symphony of Psalms, III. Copyright 1941 by Russischer Musik-
verlog Renewed 1958. Copyright & Renewal assigned to Boosey & Hawkes
;

Inc. Revised Version Copyright 1948 by Boosey & Hawkes Inc. Reprinted by

permission.

Soprano

Alto
^ - -^ i i
/ m
=te * ^
a
Tenor
iS:
s t
f

^
i' (' ^-
'i ^P
8 /
Bass

P^wr
> . >
I

f. jfgg ll
g
4 ^i 2 s'
=|:
^ ±=21

Orchestra"

^^ /
—n
cresc.

> ^
-a
—^.—5:
J2:
ffi

Molto meno mosso J = 72

^ p subito
^ ^
'V\. J J J I
-I

^ i ^ i
_P subito

g
±
^^^^ ZZL

r r I

r
g p subito

^ p
p

subito
JQ_

i
g
f
^ ^

^ 3:
476 PROCEDURES OF TONALITY CHANGE

Ex. 27-20 contains a succession of tonal centers too brief to classify as full-fledged
modulations, since none is established by a cadence and subsequently confirmed.
In their succession, however, the sequence of tonal areas on C, E, G, B, and again
C is organized by the chromatically ascending bass line. Each transitory tonic
serves as a momentary point of focus in an unstable, constantly shifting tonal
context.

Ex. 27-20. Schumann : Symphony No. 2, Adagio.

m =«
\ft 1|^ ^ ^|t^j^-l>^^

f ^^ f
^
^ lA
i
f f
4p ^ i^
i t
it

Ex. 27-21 represents the ultimate in abrupt tonal shifts. The keys in this excerpt,
E-flat, D-flat, and C majors, succeed one another through the successive descents
of the major triads that act as their tonics.
PROCEDURES Of TONALITY CHANGE 477

Ex. 27-21. Beethoven: Symphony No. 3, ("Eroico"), I.

Flute

Oboes

Clarinetti
in Bk

Bassoons

Horns
in Ek

Trumpets
in Kli

Violin I

Violin n

Viola

Cello

Contrabass

Harmonic sequences are often involved in the process of modulation. As in Ex.

27-22, the sequence can be a stabilizing factor, the repeated pattern sustaining
the ear through a series of distantly related, transitory keys.

Ex. 27-22. Wagner : Die Walkiire, Act I

Sehr langsahm
A7^ PROCEDURES OF TONAL/T/ CHANGE

Ex. 27-22. continued.

Mutation

We recall that modulation, as defined in Chapter 26, requires an actual change

of tonal center. The process of mutation — a change in mode —retains the same tonic
pitch and should not be confused with modulation. Although many aspects of one
key are changed through mutation (e.g. the quahty of most of the diatonic triads,
the roots of several diatonic chords —
notably mediant and submediant), the most
important factor, the tonic pitch, remains unchanged. Mutation's primary effect
is a change in the "color" of the key from predominantly major to minor, or vice

versa. Such a passage occurs in Ex. 27-23.

Ex. 27-23. Brahms: Intermezzo, Op. 118, No. 2.

piu lento

tre corda Vjt^ VB^

 }

PROCEDURES OF TONALITY CHANGE 479

Although not in itself modulatory, mutation often serves as an easy vehicle for

modulating to more remote keys. The following diagram demonstrates that, when
the tonic triad is altered through mutation, a variety of new near related keys are
made readily available.

E (original key)
e (mutation)

In Ex. 27-24 Schubert twice uses this technique to accomplish relatively remote
modulations: A modulating to F major through a minor, and later F modulating
to D-Jlatmajor through/minor. In each case the second form of the chord under-
going the mutation is the pivot chord, i in the old key becoming iii in the new.

Ex. 27-24. Schubert : Sehnsuchf.

Voice
pk) I
rH; P
J^
J u- Tr p ^-^M
^
ft

Piano
^ i y y y

-M-t
Uj f
mijL
p ^
^

^m ^m-'''fn
CP
-^f-^-

c>
tt
;
-f
1
r^—-p y 1

4t
i yijf-
ai
^
m
l^ ' f ^
'
P y vT- '^ ly-
J
m ^
r^r'i ^
*
T^¥-P
~
^
 ^

480 PROCEDURES OF TONALITY CHANCE

Ex. 27-24. continued.

P^ —
j¥ i,j)7ri yj r> J' ll ^M^I pr p r p

Exercises

For more detailed assignments see Materials and Structure of Music I, Workbook, Chapter 27.

1. Explore the diatonic pivot chord possibilities of the following pairs of keys:
a. E-Jlat major and its supertonic
b. A major and its mediant minor
c. F minor and itssubdominant minor
d. F sharp and its submediant major
2. What are some possible pivot tones between the following pairs of keys? Write a melody
containing such a modulation.
a. C sharp minor and C major
b. A-flat major and D major
c. E major and A-flat major
3. Using Roman to a near related key. Im-
numerals plot a modulation from a major key
provise at the keyboard, or vocally, a harmonic pattern. Such a
melody that fits this
melody could be a simple arpeggiated version of the chords, or a more complex line.
4. Choose a simple melody and effect a modulation 1 to 2 measures long that leads to a
^restatement of the same melody a major third higher (or lower).

f 5. jUsing the following harmonic scheme, construct a number of 3- or 4-part textures and
\ 'arrange the best for some instrumental combination. „ L~m-.^J
,,'
,
'

/vi^ 'S-«'^ 'J.WlttoU«/

F: I V-/1V IV3 V,/vi
:(r^) V7 VI V ill

6. Find other examples illustrating the various types of tonality changes illustrated in this

chapter.
 Ind ex

harmonic, 148-161, 152-154, 203, 207

melodic, 50ff, 55,58-61, 67
Accent: modal. 152-1 5-1
dynamic, 4 Phrygian, 291-292, 414, 431, 432
metric, 2, 4, 96, 97, 110 plagal, 290
Accidentals: 77-/5 progressive, 50-53, 55, 76, 157-159, 340, 346,
Anacrusis: 90-99 414, 452/
Anticipation: 109, 111, 186-187, 248-250, 268 supertonic plagal, 335
Appoggiatura: see Leaning tone terminal, 50-55, 55, 70, 76, 154-157, 288,
Approach interval: see Interval, approach 290. 325, 346. 458
Arpeggiation of chord: see Chord, prolonged tonic-dominant, see Half cadence
Augmentation: S3, 186 transient-terminal, 56-88, 159, 386, 391/,
Augmentation Dot: 8 396, 400, 403, 407, 419, 421, 422, 452,
453
Cadential consonance: see Consonance, caden-
tial
Cadential tonic six-four: 282/, 309-312
Basic associate: 100, 101, 275 Caesura: 52
Basic consonance: see Consonance, basic Canon: 183
Basic duration: 2, 4, 200/ Changing tone: 182, 247
rest equivalents, 7 Chorale prelude: 200
beaming, 6 Chord: 205, 214-219
in compound meter, 10 diatonic, 217
subdivision of. 12 dominant, 219^, 276, 279-281
Basic melody: 87-99, 244 dominant seventh, 286-288
Basic pitch: 101, 105, 107, 121, 122, 124, 133/7, doubling, see Doubling
163, 164, 168, 170, 178, 187, 190^, 194 embellishing, see Embellishing chord
Beam: 5-6 fundamental position, 223
Beat (as rhythmic pulse): 1, 2 inversion, see In\ersion
Bichord: 274 leading tone, 301-303, 365
Binary form: 370-381 major minor seventh (Mm;), 286-288, 384,
rounded, 379-381 387. 396, 430
mediant, 343-349
mutated, 281/, 359-364
neighbor, see Neighbor chord
passing, see Passing chord
Cadence: pivot, 461-465
authentic. 288-290, 294, 362. 386 prolonged. 229-230, 278, 314, 407
deceptive. 158, 340-343, 362 relationship, 351-352
dominant-tonic, 120, 122, 154-157. 179, 288- secondary dominant, 383-437
290 {see also Authentic) of dominant. 388-398
half, /5.V. 285. 291-292. 326. 339 of mediant. 417-423

• Note: Italic type indicates pages on vvhich the definition of a subject appears.

481
482 INDEX

of subdominant, 398-404 in leading tone chord, 302

of submediant, 411-417 in submediant chord, 342
of subtonic, 423-424 in three voices, 238-240
of supertonic, 404-408 in tonic six-four chord, 310-311
subdominant, 236, 276, 281-285 Dyad: see Diad
submediant, 337-343 Dynamic accent: see Accent, dynamic
supertonic. 326-336
tonic, 219j^, 236, 276-279, 303, 345
succession, see Harmonic succession
Circle of fifths: 43
Clef: Echappee: see Escape tone
alto, 14/ri
Elision: 80, 360
bass, 13
Embellishing chord: 314-315, 386
c, 13-14
•Escape tone: 105, 107, 111, 189, 248-250, 267
movable, 13-14 Extension:
tenor, 14/n
by interpolation, 79
treble, 12
by variation, 83
Closed score: 253 cadential, 78
Codetta: 150. 157
Common tone relations: 328^, 351^, 401j^
Consonance: 127-129, 181, 214
basic, 127-129
cadential. 127-129, 139, 157, 207, 238
False relation: see Cross relation
decorative, 127-129 157, 238, 278
Fauxbourdon: 207
Contrary- motion: 137-138, 139, 140, 142, 151,
Fifth of chord: 223-224
156. 164, 179, 329, 333, 344, 368
Figured bass symbols: 224-227
Contrast: 80-81, 185, 320
Flag: 5-6
Contrasting phrase structure, 69
Form:
"Corelli clash": 273
binary, 370-381
Counterpoint: 113
harmonic rhythm and, 307
Cross relation: 792-195, 390
key relations and, 378-379
melodv and. 62^
phrase structure and, 66^
song form and trio, 381-382
ternar^, 320-326
texture and, 325
D.C. (da capo): 324
through-composed, 353-359
D.S. (dal segno): 324
tonality and, 29
Deceptive cadence: see Cadence, deceptive
Free tone: 274
Decorative chords: see Types under chord.
Function, tonal: 219, see also Root relations
e.g.. Chord, passing
Fundamental pitch: 26
Decorative consonance: see Consonance, dec-
orative
Decorative pitch: 100-\\\, 133^, 190^, 240-244,
266-270, 383. {see also Specific types,
escape tone)
e.g.,

Density: 215 Gamut: 13

Diad: 227
Diatonic scale: see scale
Diminution: 83, 186 H
Direct fifth: 152, 263
Direct octave: 152, 156. 263 Half cadence: see Cadence, half
Dissonance: 127-129, 181. 214 Harmonic parallelism: 207. 300, 367. 369
Dominant: Harmonic progression: see Harmonic succes-
chord, see Chord, dominant sion
scale degree. 39. 56. 71. 89. 90. 219, 271 Harmonic rhythm: 237, 505-308, 338. 344
Dominant-tonic cadence, see Cadence, Domi- Harmonic sequence: see Sequence, harmonic
nant-tonic Harmonic series: 25, 232
Doubling: Harmonic succession: 154/, 219-223, 260-262,
in augmented mediant chord, 349 339
in four voices, 253-255 basic, 283
INDEX 483

Harmony: see Chord

Heterogeneous spacing: see Spacing
Homogeneous spacing: see Spacing Leading tone: 39-40, 1;')7, 219
llomoplionic: 113, 1%, 235-237, 2:)1 1^53 Leaning tone: 105-106, 111. 187-189, 248-250,
Homophony: 196 267
Ledger lines: 13

M
Imitation: 164-165, 168, 183-186, 198-199, 280
Imperfect terminal cadence: 55 Major-minor seventh (Mmy): see Chord
Intensity: 1 Mediant: 40, 57, 89, 90
Interval: Meter: 2, 3
approach, 150 compound, 10
cadential, 150/ simple, 4
classification of, 128-129 signature. 4. 10
hannonic. 16, 119, 208-209 Metric accent: see Accent, metric
liarmonic succession of, N3 Metric rhythm: 3
melodic, 16 Modal cadence: see Cadence, modal
scale and, 23 Mode: 35, 125
stable, 134.214 change of, 45
table of, 17 Modulation: 45-47, 85, 160, 161. 435. 439-459
ultimate, 150 chromatic inflection, 466-469
unstable, 144-147, 181, 190, 214 enharmonic, 469-471
vertical, 119, 208-209 implied, 458-459
Inversion: pivot chord, 461-465
chord, 224-227 pivot tone, 465-466
first, 225-227 transitory, 48, 442
dominant, 279-281 Monophonic: 113
dominant seventh, 293-301 Motive: 54, 63-66, 165-166, 186, 187, 376
interval, 27 Mutated chords: 359-364
leading tone, 301-303 Mutation: 45-47, 84, 194, 323, 359-364, 381,
mediant, 347-351 478-480
melodic, 84
secondary dominant, 395-396
subdominant, 281-285 N
submediant, 347-351
supertonic, 330-336 Neighbor chord: 243, 273, 296, 324, 339
tonic, 277-279 Neighbor group: 108-109, 111, 136137
second, 225-227 Neighbor tone: 103-104, 111, 136-137, 177.
dominant, 312-314 241-244, 267, 273-275
dominant seventh, 293, 297-298 Non-chord tone: 266-267, 273-275, 286/, 321,
parallel, 317-318 383, (see also Decorative pitch)
secondary dominant, 395-396 simultaneous, 273-275
subdominant, 314-315 Note head: 5
tonic, 309-314, 315 Note stem: 5
triads, 309-318
third, 293, 298-301
dominant seventh, 298-301
secondary dominant, 395-397
Oblique motion: 137-138, 140, 151. 333
Octave segment: 14
Osrinato: 206, 368, 379
Overtone series: see Harmonic series
Key: 32
distant related, 465, 469, 474
near related, 446-450
parallel. 43
relation, 445-452 Parallel motion: 137-138, 142, 151, 233, 262-
relative, 43 263, 326, 368
signature, 40-44 Parallel phrase construction, 68
 1

484 INDEX

Partials: 25 key signature of, 44

Passing chord: 243, 297, 302, 305, 312-314 parallel, 43
Passing tone: 102, 104, 111, 134-136, 137, 241- relative, 43
244, 267, 273-275 Sequence:
Pedal: 190, 206, 270-273, 306, 402 harmonic, 344-345, 349-351. 364-366, 368,
Perfect terminal cadence: 55 387-388, 406, 434-437, 477-478
Period: 55/n, 70, 400 melodic, 77, 79, 101, 122, 166-168, 187, 349,
double, 71 384
Phrase: 54, 62-63, 66-74 Similar motion: 137-138, 140-141, 142, 151,
asymmetrical, 69 263, 328
symmetrical, 69 Sixth chords (parallel): 207. 300, see also
truncated, 80 Fauxbourdon
Pitch: 1, 12-14 Slur: 8
Pitch association: 119-124,205-209 Song form and trio: 381-382
Pitch spectrum: 14 Sonority: 27^-219, 238, 317
Polyphonic: 113 Spacing:
Prime: 226, 301,302,328 close, 256-258
Progressi\e cadence: see Cadence, progressive four voices, 255-260
Prolongation: see Chord, prolonged heterogeneous, 212, 257-258
Pulse: 1 homogeneous, 212, 256-258, 259
in compound meter, 1 open, 256-258
three voices, 209-213, 232-235
two voices, 130-132
Staff: 12, 13
Statement: 320
Step-progression: 93, 95, 96-105, 121, 163, 178,
Range, voice: 130,211,253
474
Recapitulation: 379
Structural interval: 137^
Repetition: 76-80, 97, 165-166, 186, 320, 323
Structural pitch: 104, 134/, 205
Resolution:
Sub-division: 12
change of bass, 178-180, 245-246
Subdominant: 40, 57, 157
deceptive, 425-429
Subject: 183
irregular, 424, 430-434
Submediant: 40, 57
ornamental. 176-178, 247-248
Subtonic: 39-40
Restatement: 320, 326, 381
Supertonic: 40
Rests: 7-8
lowered. 193
Retardation: 180
Suspension: 109-110, 111. 170-182, 187. 188,
Rhvthm: 1
269-270, 287, see also Resolution
accent, see Accent, metric
2-3, 173, 176, 181, 244-248, 245, 248. 269-
phrase structure and, 66-67
270
Rhvthm:
4-3, 173-174, 181, 245. 248. 269-270
metric, 3
6-5. 173-175. 181,248.269-270
Rhythmic association: 113-119, 196-200, 233
7-6, 173. 177, 181,248, 269-270
Rhvthmic diversity: 115^, 206
9-8, 173-175, 181-182, 244-245. 248, 269-
Rhvthmic unitv: 200-204
270
Root: 2V, 26
Syncopation: 3-4, 170-172, 181, 186, 187, 203
chord, 223, 284, 337/, 399/
doubled, 238
interval, 27, 157
position, 225-227, 276#
relations. 154-159, 161, 276^, 279, 333^,
Tempo: 1
336. 338, 344
Terminal cadence: see Cadence, terminal
imperfect: 55
perfect: 55
Ternary form: 320-326, 379
Texture: 113, 118/, 200, 205, 206-207, 235-237.
Scale: 251-253.280,325, 378
chromatic, 44 Theme: 376/
degree, see Separate entries, e.g., tonic, Third of chord: 223-224
supertonic, etc. Third relation:
diatonic, 32-39 chromatic and diatonic, 361ff, 436, 450-451
INDEX 485

Through-composed form: 353-359 major. 216-217

Ties: 8 minor, 216-217
Timbre: 1 1 ritone:
Tonal function: see Function, tonal resolution of, 145-146. 263. 287. 294, 297
Tonal shift: 439; 442/, 450/, 472^ Truncation: 80
Tonality: 79,29-30, 122. 219 Two-voice framework: 119-124
change of, 161,439-459
form and, S5j
Tonality framework: 21-24, 87-88, 92, 94, 98, U
119-124, 126
Tonic: 20, 24, 26, 28, 39, 45, 87, 90, 125. 193, Ultimate interval: see Interval, ultimate
219, 271. 276, 285, 354
Transient-terminal cadence: see Cadence,
transient- terminal
Transitory moiiulation: see modulation,
transitory Variation: 81-85, 186
Transpose: 33/n Vertical framework: 205
Triad: 215, 218 Voice:
augmented, 217 crossing of, 235
diminished, 217 leading, 262-265
fundamental, 224 overlapping, 264
 .

^.i^
yijW^^SSg^::-:

-3«SBSffiKT:J7!!rS3SS»??B' rs^S^BR
I