OPEN PIT DESIGN

Daniel Philco, M.Sc.

The major factors affecting the open pit design are:

1.- Current market price of the final product (investor)

2.- Forecast of the future market price (police country)

3.- The production rate of the mine (consume – demand)

4.- Production cost (minimum cost as possible)

5.- Ore reserves (depend on slope pendants)

6.- Stripping ratio

10% Cost – Breaking rock (drilling and blasting)

16% Cost - Shovel loading (loading and excavating)

45% Cost – Ore and overburden haulage

DEVELOPMENT DRILLING
Delimitation of the size, mineral content and location of an ore body by drilling holes.

OBJETIVE:
1.- To determine the geometry of mineralization

2.- Determination the grade and tonnage

3.- Obtaining samples for metallurgical testing

4.- Obtaining geotechnical data for mine design

TO ACCOMPLISH THESE OBJETIVES a drilling plan should include:

i) The No. of holes

ii) The spacing and orientation of holes
iii) A suitable data collection program
- Sample collection
- Hole loggin
- Data presentation
DRILLING PATTERNS
1.- SYSTEMATIC GRID

The space between row and columns have to be defined (It is necessary to do a network, if is not
false information).

2.- RANDOM PATTERN (See Fig. 1.)

Drawbacks (disvantages):

1.- Inadequate area coverage

2.- Theoretical objections (a sample don`t influence another)

3.- Arbitrary drill hole location: based on geological reasoning

PRINCIPLES FOR ORE RESERVE COMPUTATION
1. Rule of gradual changes or law of linear functions

The grade between adjacent sampling points varies linearly

2. Rule of nearest point or law of equal influence:

METHODS FOR THE ORE RESERVE COMPUTATIONS

1.- Method of blocks

2.- Method of triangles

3.- Method of polygons

4.- Method of cross-sections

All of them: a) Included Area Method

b) Extended Area Method

METHOD OF BLOCKS:

L, W & T are the length, wide and thickness

N is the tonnage factor

G is the grade

L*W*T
Total tons = ---------------------------
N

L*W*T*G
Average grade = --------------------------------
L*W*T

METHOD OF TRIANGLES:
 h1 + h2 + h3
Volume A = ---------------------------- x A
3

h1, h2, h3 are the ore intercept in the holes forming the TRIANGLE

Gi * hi G1*h1 + G2*h2 + G3*h3

GA = ----------------------- = -------------------------------------
hi h1 + h2 + h3

METHOD OF POLYGONS:
METHOD OF CROSS – SECTIONS:
DESIGN DATA EVALUATION CRITERIA
In any business, it is essential that we select those alternatives which are not only technically
feasible, but will be the most profitable to the business in terms of corporate objetives.

Activities and studies which support the financial analysis are:

1. Cutoff grade determination
2. Estimation of ore reserves
3. Production forecast (long term + short term)
4. Evaluation of haulage alternatives
5. Evaluation of equipment

1. CUT OF GRADE DETERMINATION

Revenue = R = C + P C = Cost P = Profit

a) Break even analysis

b) Marginal analysis

BREAK EVEN ANALYSIS

G_ * E* (R – T – O) – Cml – Cmn – Coth = 0
100

G = Grade
E = Recovery
R = Revenue per ton of metal
T = Treatment cost per ton of metal
O = Other cost per ton of ore
Cml = Milling cost per ton of ore
Cmn = Mining cost por ton of ore
Coth = Other cost per ton of ore
% GRADE NV Net value/ton
0.25 NV1 1.5
0.35 NV2 1.0
0.45 NV3 0.5
0.55 NV4 0.0
0.65 NV5 -0.5
0.75 NV6 -1.0
DETERMINATION OF CUT OFF GRADE:

STRIPPING RATIO (SR):

The unit ammount of overburden that must be removed to gain access to a similar ammount of
mineral material.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN G & SR (Grade and Stripping Ratio):

G x E (R – T – O) = C ml + C mn + Coth + Cw*SR Cw = Cost of stripping per ton of waste

100 SR = Stripping Ratio

For the example:

GR x 0.8 x 2000 x (0.65 – 0.30) = 0.42 + 0.25 + 1.60 + 0.56 – 0.65 + 0.55xSR
100
GR x 5.60 = 2.18 + 0.55SR
GR = GC + 0.0982 SR

GEOSTATISTICAL MINERAL RESERVE

Ore Reserve Quality (value)
Quantity (ammount)

Value of mineral Position of the ore body

Value of the ground sourrounding it

Conventional Technics Utilize area of influence

No way to measure the reliability of the estimate

Statistical Techniques Produce estimates to which confidence limits can be assigned

Ignore spatial relationship`(if is 100% is OK)

Example:
a) 1, 7, 3, 6, 2, 9, 4, 8, 5 ------------------- erratic mineralization

(x – S1) 2 + (x – S2)2 + ….. + (x - Sn)2

Variance V = ------------------------------------------------- n = number of samples
n

(5 -1)2 + (5 – 7)2 + (5 – 3)2 + ….. (5 – 5)2

x=5 V = ---------------------------------------------------- = 6.67
9

b) 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 8, 6, 4, 2

( 5-1 )² + (5-3)² + (5-5)² + … + (5-2)²

V = ---------------------------------------------------- = 6.67
9
GEOSTATISTICS: Use of variogram permits the cuantification of the geological parameters
mentioned previously.

- The variation that exists among samples some distance apart within a continuous
mineral deposit is a measure of their spatial correlation.
The variogram is an arithmetically simple graph which plots the average difference between
samples values at specific distance or logs apart. Because the difference between impaired
samples is either plus or minus, it is necessary to square the difference, sum them of divide by
twice the N° of points.

The result is called geo-statistical variance (h)

(G (x +h) – G (x) )²

(h) = -----------------------------------
2n

G(x) = is the grade at sample point x

G (x+h) = is the grade at a point (x + h) ft away

h = is a difference vector function

n = # of data pairs counted

VARIOGRAM COMPUTATION SCHEME USING SAMPLE PAIRS A GIVEN

DISTANCE APART

a = range of the variogram

Co = Nugget effect
C + C1 = Sill
PROPERTIES OF THE VARIOGRAM
1. A measure of the continuity of mineralization
Growth curve ------ Regionalized element
Smoth steady curve ----- Degree of continuity of mineralization
The optimum sample spacing = ( 2/3 to ¾) a

2. A measure of the area of influence of the sample:

e.g. a = 300´ === 0 ----------------300´-------------0

3. Directional Anisotropy 0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0 find the direction
Less use space means + money, + time etc. ( by project use only technical)

MARGINAL ANALYSIS
For operate mine how to find the cut off grade, cut off, etc.
Total price received
Average Revenue per lb of metal = -------------------------------
N° of pounds sold
Total cost
Average total cost per lb of metal = -----------------------------------
Total N° of lb produced

There are 2 types of cost:

- Variable cost: Cost which vary with the level of out put (production)
- Fixed cost: do not vary with the level of out put

Marginal revenue: is the additional revenue obtained when one additional unit is sold
Marginal Cost: is the total additional cost that is incurred by the production of an additional unit
e.g. if is produced 10000--------------- x
10001--------------- x +1

SECUENCE (OPEN PIT DESIGN)

- Cut off grade
- Ore reserve and average grade (cross sections)
There are important things in pit design:

1. Pit slope angles

2. Bench parameters
- Height
- Width
- Length
Bench height depend upon:

1. Vertical distribution of ore: composition of the ore tons and grade, bench by bench or
totally will show the bench height.
2. Production requirements and equipment size
It will be impractical to use 50´ benches with front end loader or to use 20´ benches with
large electric shovel
Large drill holes ------- bench ht = one pass on the drill
3. Existing equipment and availability of capital
Existing equipment and availability we have and when it will be replaced ----- With that it
will be replaced.
4. Other ------------------ Safety

LOW VS HIGH BENCHES

Advantages:
1. Greater drill accuracy
2. Higher penetration rates
3. Greater selectivity of the mining
4. Less boulders

Disadvantages:
1. Twice as much road to construct and maintain
2. It permits only the use of smaller equipment
3. More drill time in shifting the machine which in fact outweighs the higher penetration rate
4. Double--- the over drilling
Project: use a bench height of 50´
OPERATING PIT SLOPES
Examples: Berkeley Pit --- Butte Montana ----- Anaconda
Bingham Cannyon ---- Salt Lake City --- Kennecty – Copper Corp.

Overall pit slope angle is:

1.- Ore location
2.- Bench operating widthy
3.- Position and dimension of the haul road

There are two types of slopes:

1. FINAL SLOPE - Ultimate pit slope
2. OPERATING SLOPE- Working slope = 38° - 55°
38° is wet alluvial material and extremely unstable work
45 – 55° in good areas project use 45- 50°
Example:

PIT DESIGN
1. Manual ----- hand methods (Mining Geometrical Analysis)
2. Computer methods (Vulcan, Micromine, Data Mine, etc)

STEPS IN OPEN PIT DESIGN

I. The pit limits are located in the vertical section. This section include:
a. Mineral block inventory
b. Surface topography

Vertical section:
- Cross sections
- Longitudinal sections
- Radial sections (see graph Plan of ore body)
II. Pit slope angles: Depend upon:
i) Preliminary estimates and anticipated pit dimension
ii) Road and ramp requirements
iii) Slope stability studies

III. Location of the Pit Limits:

The Pit Limits are located on each section or the ore grade along the pit limit supports
a stripping ratio corresponding to the breakeven or allowable stripping ratio
GR = a + b*Sr
SrA = C + d GA
IV. Locations the pit limits on each vertical sections is usually a trial and error process
requiring N° of approximations (See graph Fig. N° 5, 6, 7 and 8)

V. Transfer Pit Limits to the Plan Map.

VI. Design of Composite Plan (See fig 11 & 12)

VII. Complete levels Plans (See Fig 13)
VIII. Calculation of ore reserves and overall stripping ratio (See fig 46)

There are 2 possible approaches to mining:

1. By rapidly mining the ore body it is possible to maximize the return on investment.
2. By using a lower capital investment and a longer life for the pit. The total price from the
pit can be maximized.

When final pit limits and overall stripping ratio is determined the mining Plan can be
executed in N° of ways.

I. DECLINING STRIPPING RATIO METHOD

This method requires that each bench of ore be mined in sequence and all waste on
the particular bench be removed up to the Pit Limits.
 Advantages:

Adequate operating working space available.

All equipment working on the same level

No contamination on ore from the waste blasted in the upper bench.

Equipment requirements are minimum towards the end of the mining life.

Disadvantages:
- Overall operating cost are maximum during the initial life of the mine.

II. INCREASING STRIPPING RATIO METHOD

Stripping is done as needed to uncover the ore. The working slopes of the waste faces
are essentially maintained parallel to the overall pit slope angle.
 This method allows for maximum profit in the initial years at greatly reduces the
investment risk in waste removal for the one to be mined at a future date.

Disadvantage:
Operating a large # of stacked narrow benches simultaneously to meet production
needs.

III. CONSTANT STRIPING RATIO METHOD.

The method attemps to remove the waste at a rate approximated by the overall stripping
ratio. The working slope of the face starts very shallow but increases as mining depth
increases until it is equal to the ultimate slope.
Advantages:

A good profit can be generated initially to generate cash flow.

SLOPE STABILITY ANALYSIS

Slope stability has the following implications:

1.- Loss of ore

2.- Cost involved in the cleaning up of the failure

3.- Human Injury

4.- Damage to the equipment

5.- Cost involved in re – routing haul road

6.- Production delay

7.- Extra stripping cost

TYPE OF SLOPE FAILURES:

1. PLANE failure
2. WEDGE failure
3. CIRCULAR failure
4. TOPPLIN failure

FACTORS INFLUENCING SLOPE STABILITY

1.- Joints or other discontinuities ---- Geological discontinuities

- Reduce shear strength

- Increase permeability

- Act as planes of failure

2.- Faults.

- Weathering

- Change in shear strength

- Change permeability

- Act as probable failure plane

3.- Rock Properties

- Determine the force resisting the failure

4.- Hydrogeology

- Changes the cohesion and friction stress

- Reduces the effective normal stress

5.- Blasting:

- Causes fractures

- Opens up discontinuities
6.- Design stresses:

Influence the stress field

7.- Time:

Degeneration of the stability of the slope

8.- Slope Parameters:

- High of the slope

- Slope angle

PLANE FAILURE

R is resisting the slide

W*sinØ = CA + W*cosØ*tanø

Force causing the slide = Force resisting the slide

It C = 0

W*sin Ø = W*cos ø

Tan Ø = tan ø
SLOPE ANALYSIS: (When vertical cracks are existing)

When the crack is dry:

Example:

W1 = ½ * 160 ((22+10.489)*50 – 10.489*12.5) = 119466 lbs

U = ½ * Øw*Zw* A1 = ½ *60*12.5*48.953 = 18357.29 lbs

V = ½ * Øw*Zw² = ½ * 60*(12.5)² = 4687.5 lbs

C*A1 + (W1*cosØ – V*sinØ – U) * tanø

F = -----------------------------------------------------------
W1*sinØ + V*cosØ

400*48453 + (119466*cos50° - 4687.5*sin50° - 18357.3)*tan30° 195811 + 31663.8

F = -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- = -------------------------- = 0.542
119466*sin50° + 4687.5*cos30° 94529.5

If the crack is driened

C*A1 + W1*cosØ*tanø 400*48.953 + 119466*cos50°*tan30°

F = ------------------------------------ = --------------------------------------------------- = 0.698
W1*sin Ø 119466*sin50°

0 – 1 -------- Fail
 1.2 ------ Stability
 GRAPHICAL ANALYSIS OF STABILITY

STEPS
1.- Calculate W, V and U
2.- Draw a vertical line to represent the W of the sliding wedge
3.- At right angles to the line representing W draw line to represent the force V due to water
pressure in the tension crack.
4.- Draw a line at an angle Ø to represent the uplift force U due to water pressure on the sliding
surface.
5.- Project the line representing U and from the upper extremity of the line representing W,

construct a ┴ (perpendicular) to the projection of the U line.

6.- Draw an angle ø at the top end of the line representing “U”.
7.- The length f in figure represent the frictional force which resist sliding along the failure plane.
8.- The cohesive force CA can be drawn parallel to “S”.
9.- The length of the line marked “S” represents the force tending to induce failure.
10.- Factor of safety “F” is given by the ratio of the lengths (f + CA) and S.
f + CA
F = -------------
S