POLLUT ION A to Z

E D I TO R I A L B O A R D
Editor in Chief
Richard M. Stapleton
Senior Policy Advisor
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, D.C.
Associate Editors
Patricia Hemminger, Ph.D.
New York, N.Y.
Susan L. Senecah, Ph.D.
Associate Professor
State University of New York College of Environmental Science & Forestry

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ii
POLLUT ION A to Z
2
Richard M. Stapleton,
vo l u m e

Labor, Farm to Zero

Editor in Chief Population Growth
Index
 Pollution A to Z
Richard M. Stapleton, Editor in Chief
Patricia Hemminger, Ph.D., Associate Editor
Susan L. Senecah, Ph.D., Associate Editor

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Pollution A to Z / Richard Stapleton, editor in chief.

p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-02-865700-4 (set : hardcover : alk. paper) — ISBN
0-02-865701-2 (v. 1) — ISBN 0-02-865702-0 (v. 2)
1. Pollution—Encyclopedias. I. Stapleton, Richard M.

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10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
 Table of Contents
VOLUME 1 Carbon Monoxide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
TABLE OF CONTENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v Careers in Environmental Protection . . . . 75
PREFACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix Carson, Rachel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
TOPICAL OUTLINE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv Carver, George Washington . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
FOR YOUR REFERENCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxiii Catalytic Converter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
CONTRIBUTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxxv CFCs (Chlorofluorocarbons) . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Chávez, César E. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Abatement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Citizen Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Acid Rain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Citizen Suits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Activism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Clean Air Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Adaptive Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Clean Water Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Addams, Jane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Cleanup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Agencies, Regulatory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Agenda 21 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 Colborn, Theo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 Commoner, Barry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Air Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Composting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Air Pollution Control Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Comprehensive Environmental Response,
Antinuclear Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Compensation, and Liability Act
Arbitration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 (CERCLA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Arctic National Wildlife Refuge . . . . . . . . . 41 Consensus Building . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Arsenic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Consumer Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Asbestos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Cost-benefit Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Asthma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Cousteau, Jacques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Beneficial Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 Cryptosporidiosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Bioaccumulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 DDT (Dichlorodiphenyl trichloroethane) 118
Biodegradation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 Diesel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Bioremediation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Dilution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Biosolids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 Dioxin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Bottle Deposit Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 Disasters: Chemical Accidents and Spills . 124
Brower, David . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 Disasters: Environmental Mining
Brownfield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 Accidents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Brundtland, Gro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 Disasters: Natural . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Burn Barrels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 Disasters: Nuclear Accidents . . . . . . . . . . 134
Cancer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 Disasters: Oil Spills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Cancer Alley, Louisiana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 Donora, Pennsylvania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Carbon Dioxide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 Dredging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142

v
Table of Contents

Dry Cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 Heavy Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256

Earth Day . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
Earth First! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 Household Pollutants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
Earth Summit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 Hypoxia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
Economics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 Incineration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
Ecoterrorism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 Indoor Air Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 Industrial Ecology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
Ehrlich, Paul . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
Electric Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 Infectious Waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Electromagnetic Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 Information, Access to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
Emergency Planning and Community Injection Well . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
Right-to-Know . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 Integrated Pest Management . . . . . . . . . . 293
Emissions Trading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 Ishimure, Michiko . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
Endocrine Disruption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 ISO 14001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
GLOSSARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
Energy, Nuclear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
INDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
Energy Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Enforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
VOLUME 2
Environment Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Environmental Crime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 TABLE OF CONTENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
Environmental Impact Statement . . . . . . 196 PREFACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix
Environmental Justice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 TOPICAL OUTLINE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv
Environmental Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 FOR YOUR REFERENCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxiii
Environmental Racism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 CONTRIBUTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxxv
Ethics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 Labor, Farm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, LaDuke, Winona . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
and Rodenticide Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Landfill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Fish Kills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Laws and Regulations, International . . . . . . 5
Fossil Fuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Laws and Regulations, United States . . . . . . 9
Fuel Cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
Lead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Fuel Economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
Legislative Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Gauley Bridge, West Virginia . . . . . . . . . . 219
Life Cycle Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Gibbs, Lois . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
Lifestyle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
GIS (Geographic Information System) . . 222
Light Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Global Warming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
Limits to Growth, The . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Litigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Green Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Malthus, Thomas Robert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Green Marketing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Marine Protection, Research, and
Green Party . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 Sanctuaries Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Green Revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 Mass Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Greenhouse Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242 Mediation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Greenpeace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242 Medical Waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Groundwater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 Mercury . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Halon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 Methane (CH4) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Hamilton, Alice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 Mexican Secretariat for Natural Resources
Hayes, Denis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246 (La Secretaría del Medio Ambiente
Hazardous Waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 y Recursos Naturales) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Health, Human . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251 Mining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

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 Table of Contents

Mining Law of 1872 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 President’s Council on Environmental

Mixing Zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Mold Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 Progressive Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Montréal Protocol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 Property Rights Movement . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Nader, Ralph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 Public Interest Research Groups
(PIRGs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
NAFTA (North American Free Trade
Agreement) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 Public Participation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
National Environmental Policy Act Public Policy Decision Making . . . . . . . . 157
(NEPA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 Radioactive Fallout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Radioactive Waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Administration (NOAA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 Radon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
National Park Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Recycling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
National Pollutant Discharge Regulatory Negotiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Elimination System (NPDES) . . . . . . . . 59 Renewable Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
National Toxics Campaign . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 Resource Conservation and Recovery
Natural Resource Damage Assessment . . . 61 Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Nelson, Gaylord . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 Reuse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
New Left . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 Right to Know . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
NOx (Nitrogen Oxides) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 Risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Noise Control Act of 1972 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 Rivers and Harbors Appropriations Act . . 191
Noise Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
Nonaqueous Phase Liquids (NAPLs) . . . . 69 Scrubbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Nongovernmental Organizations (NGOs) 69 Sedimentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
Nonpoint Source Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 Settlement House Movement . . . . . . . . . . 202
Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) . . 77 Smart Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
Occupational Safety and Health Smelting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
Administration (OSHA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 Smog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
Ocean Dumping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 Snow, John . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
Ocean Dumping Ban Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 Soil Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Oxygen Demand, Biochemical . . . . . . . . . . 84 Solid Waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Ozone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 Space Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Particulates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 Sprawl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
PCBs (Polychlorinated Biphenyls) . . . . . . . 91 Strong, Maurice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
Persistent Bioaccumulative and Toxic Sulfur Dioxide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
Chemicals (PBTs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 Superfund . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) . . . . 94 Sustainable Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Pesticides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 Swallow, Ellen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Petroleum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 Systems Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
Phosphates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 Technology, Pollution Prevention . . . . . . 232
Plastic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 Terrorism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
Point Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 Thermal Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
Politics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 Times Beach, Missouri . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Pollution Prevention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 Tobacco Smoke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
Pollution Shifting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 Todd, John . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Popular Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 Toxic Release Inventory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) . . . 249
Poverty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 Toxicology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
Precautionary Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 Tragedy of the Commons . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253

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Treaties and Conferences . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254 Waste, International Trade in . . . . . . . . . . 291

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers . . . . . . . . . 258 Waste, Transportation of . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
U.S. Coast Guard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 Waste Reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
U.S. Department of Agriculture . . . . . . . . 259 Waste to Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
U.S. Department of the Interior . . . . . . . 260 Wastewater Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency . 260 Water Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
U.S. Food and Drug Administration Water Pollution: Freshwater .......... 305
(FDA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264 Water Pollution: Marine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
U.S. Geological Survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265 Water Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
Ultraviolet Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266 Whistleblowing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
Underground Storage Tank . . . . . . . . . . . 266 Wise-Use Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
Unintended Consequences . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Workers Health Bureau . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
Union of Concerned Scientists . . . . . . . . . 271
World Trade Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
Vehicular Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
Writers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
Visual Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
Yucca Mountain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
VOCs (Volatile Organic Compounds) . . . 280
Zero Population Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
Warren County, North Carolina . . . . . . . 287 GLOSSARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
Waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288 INDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353

viii
 Preface
Can you see the Great Milky Way where you live? Most Americans cannot.
The greatest vista known to humankind is obscured by the veil of light pol-
lution that shrouds all but the least developed regions on Earth.
From the quality of life to life itself, there is not one person who is not
affected in some way by pollution. Pollution affects our ability to swim in
local waters or enjoy clear views in our national parks. More critically, pollu-
tion is responsible for waterborne diseases, birth defects, increased cancer
incidence, and neurological problems ranging from loss of intelligence to
madness itself. Pollution can kill instantly—over 8,000 died in just three days
when methyl isocynate leaked from the Union Carbide facility in Bhopal,
India—or it can take decades for the full impact to be known. Indeed, the
number of lives cut short by the radiation released when the Chernobyl
nuclear reactor exploded in the Ukraine in 1986 is still being counted.
The other fundamental truth about pollution is that we have no one to
blame for it but ourselves. Yes, there are natural causes of pollution, and we
include an article on Natural Disasters, but the preponderance of pollutant
threats are anthropogenic—caused by man. From lead in paint to mercury in
water, PCBs in rivers to VOCs in the atmosphere, from CFCs to greenhouse
gases, the sources of pollution can be traced to the decisions of industry, gov-
ernment and, ultimately, the individual consumer/voter.
With that in mind, one entry deserves special mention. Lifestyle is less
an article than an opinion essay. Its inclusion is meant to challenge the
reader’s social choices, to ask you to consider how your own personal life-
style affects the environment. Do you use bottled ketchup or individual
packets? Do you ride to school in an SUV or take a bus? The fact is that
just as every person on the planet is affected by pollution, so each of us
directly and indirectly creates pollution. Some of us just create more of it
than others.
One caution: if you are looking to these volumes for the answers to all
questions about pollution and its effects on human and environmental health,
you will be disappointed. There are dozens—perhaps hundreds—of toxic
substances, for example, for which we do not have health-based standards,
meaning we do not know what is a “safe” level of exposure. And if we know
little about these contaminants individually, we know virtually nothing about
the cumulative (synergistic) impact of multi-contaminant exposure. Perhaps
the most important thing we have learned in the last half-century is how little
ix
Preface

A map of London, England,

showing locations of pumps
and deaths from cholera Pump sites
during the epidemic, 1854.
See Health, Human; Snow, Deaths from cholera
John; Water Treatment.

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Distance, meters

we know. There is no shortage of discovery left for the next generation to

undertake.

Organization of the Material

As its title would suggest, Pollution A to Z is organized alphabetically with 267
articles presented in two volumes. Articles are cross-referenced. Authors
were aware of (and sometimes wrote) related articles and, for the fullest
understanding, the reader is encouraged to explore at least one level beyond
the subject first selected. This is made easier with the inclusion of cross-ref-
erences at the end of many articles. You will find that articles are balanced
between hard science and social science. You can research the contaminants
that pollute a river, learn the health impacts of the pollution, and then trace
society’s response, from activism through the political process required to
enact legislation to the enforcement that ultimately slows or reverses the pol-
lution.
Each entry has been commissioned especially for this work. Our con-
tributors are drawn primarily from the ranks of academia and government,
each chosen for his or her particular experience and expertise. Who better,
for instance, to write about the first Earth Day than Denis Hayes, the man
who organized it. Equally important, our authors were chosen for having the
x
 Preface

uncommon ability to make their knowledge accessible to advanced high Clean-up efforts underway at
Love Canal, May 22, 1980.
school students and university undergraduates. We also provide a glossary in
(©Bettmann/Corbis.
the back matter of each volume, summarizing the definitions of teh terms in Reproduced by permission.)
the margins throughout the set. See Comprehensive
Environmental Response,
The two volumes are richly illustrated with charts, tables, maps, and line Compensation, and Liability
drawings. Each, along with the many photographs, was selected to amplify Act (CERCLA); Environmental
Movement; Gibbs, Lois;
the text it accompanies. Historic photographs such as the one taken at noon
History; Laws and Regulations,
during Donora, Pennsylvania’s, killer smog are especially important; they United States; Mass Media;
convey far more about the state of our environment at its nadir than any Politics;
words could. Finally, articles include selected lists of additional resources.
The lists focus on materials that students can reasonably expect to locate, and
each contains at least one Internet reference.

Acknowledgements
There are so many people to thank for their commitment, encouragement,
and patience along the way. First, the editorial team at Macmillan Reference
xi
Preface

Boats approaching the oil- USA and the Gale Group. In particular, my thanks to Hélène Potter for her
covered beach of Green Island,
unflinching support, and to Marie-Claire Antoine, Michael J. McGandy,
Alaska, following the 1989
Exxon Valdez oil spill. Shawn Corridor, Patti Brecht, and Frank Castronova. Their gracious
(©Natalie Fobes/Corbis. patience, from the initial vision through searching for just the right authors
Reproduced by permission.) to the endless tweaking of content, has been a much-appreciated constant.
See Disasters: Chemical
Accidents and Spills; Disasters: No one, of course, has been more patient than my wife, Andrea, and son,
Oil Spills; History; Industry; Matthew, who forgave me so many nights at the computer.
Mass Media; Petroleum.
I trace my appreciation for the environment to growing up on a small
New England dairy farm. To work the land is to connect with it; the intimate
relationship between air, water, land, and life is seen every aspect of life. I
have left the land behind now, both figuratively—I work in the city—and lit-
erally—for relaxation, we sail. It is the sailing that now seeds me with the
environment, and it is a bittersweet connection. We sail by the grace of
nature, propelled by balancing the forces of wind and water. But we sail in a
nature disgraced by humans. To depart the harbor, we must first breach the
xii
 Preface

trash line, a floating windrow of plastic bottles, styrofoam cups, paper trash, Petroleum storage tanks,
New Haven, Connecticut.
old tires and worse. And the return means putting the clear ocean sky behind
(©David Zimmerman/Corbis.
us to head instead for the orange-brown smudge that heralds yet another Reproduced by permission.)
urban ozone-alert day. See Industry; Petroleum.

My son, Matthew, is thirteen as I write this. He and his generation are

making their own connections with the environment. My hope is that the
information presented here will in some small way help them to be better
stewards than their parents were.
Richard M. Stapleton

xiii
This page intentionally left blank
 Topical Outline
AIR BIOGRAPHIES
Acid Rain Addams, Jane
Air Pollution Brower, David
Air Pollution Control Act Brundtland, Gro
Asthma Chávez, César E.
Burn Barrels Carson, Rachel
CFCs (Chlorofluorocarbons) Carver, George Washington
Clean Air Act Colborn, Theo
Coal Commoner, Barry
Cousteau, Jacques
Diesel
Ehrlich, Paul
Disasters
Gibbs, Lois
Donora, Pennsylvania
Hamilton, Alice
Electric Power Hayes, Denis
Emissions Trading Ishimure, Michiko
Energy LaDuke, Winona
Energy Efficiency Malthus, Thomas Robert
Fuel Cell Nader, Ralph
Fuel Economy Nelson, Gaylord
Global Warming Snow, John
Greenhouse Gases Strong, Maurice
Halon Swallow, Ellen
Household Pollutants Todd, John
Incineration
Indoor Air Pollution C AREERS
Methane (CH4 )
Montréal Protocol Careers in Environmental Protection
NOx (Nitrogen Oxides) Economics
Ozone Enforcement
GIS (Geographic Information System)
Petroleum
Point Source
Radioactive Fallout CLEANING UP POLLUTION
Radon Abatement
Scrubbers Biodegradation
Smelting Bioremediation
Smog Comprehensive Environmental Response,
Tobacco Smoke Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA)
Ultraviolet Radiation Dilution
Vehicular Pollution Disasters: Chemical Accidents and Spills
Visual Pollution Incineration

xv
Topical Outline

Phytoremediation ENERGY
Science Antinuclear Movement
Scrubbers Arctic National Wildlife Refuge
Superfund Coal
Diesel
Disasters: Environmental Mining Accidents
CULTURAL ISSUES Disasters: Oil Spills
Consumer Pollution Economics
Education Electric Power
Environmental Movement Energy
Green Marketing Energy, Nuclear
Lifestyle Energy Efficiency
Mass Media Fossil Fuels
Popular Culture Fuel Cell
Population Fuel Economy
Global Warming
Poverty
Green Chemistry
Public Participation
Greenhouse Gases
Sprawl
Lifestyle
Writers
Light Pollution
Mining
Radioactive Waste
ECONOMICS
Renewable Energy
Consumer Pollution Vehicular Pollution
Cost-benefit Analysis Waste to Energy
Economics
Emissions Trading ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH
Energy
Acid Rain
Enforcement
Air Pollution
Green Chemistry
Bioaccumulation
Green Marketing
DDT (Dichlorodiphenyl trichloroethane)
Industrial Ecology
Electric Power
Industry Endocrine Disruption
ISO 14001 Energy
Labor, Farm Fish Kills
Life Cycle Analysis Hypoxia
Limits to Growth Oxygen Demand, Biochemical
Pollution Shifting Pesticides
Smart Growth Phosphates
Sprawl Sedimentation
Sustainable Development Smart Growth
Tragedy of the Commons Sprawl
World Trade Organization Water Pollution
Water Pollution: Freshwater
Water Pollution: Marine
EFFECTS OF POLLUTION
Acid Rain GLOBAL ISSUES
Cryptosporidiosis CFCs (Chlorofluorocarbons)
Endocrine Disruption Disasters: Nuclear Accidents
Fish Kills Earth Summit
Global Warming Global Warming
Health, Human Greenhouse Gases
Hypoxia Halon
Smog ISO 14001

xvi
 Topical Outline

Laws and Regulations, International History

Laws and Regulations, United States Times Beach, Missouri
Montréal Protocol Warren County, North Carolina
Ozone
Politics
Population HUMAN HEALTH
Poverty
Air Pollution
Public Participation
Public Policy Decision Making Arsenic
Sustainable Development Asbestos
Terrorism Asthma
Ultraviolet Radiation Bioaccumulation
War Burn Barrels
Waste, International Trade in Cancer
World Trade Organization Cancer Alley, Louisiana
Zero Population Growth Cryptosporidiosis
Dioxin
Disasters: Chemical Accidents and Spills
GOVERNMENT AGENCIES
Disasters: Nuclear Accidents
Agencies, Regulatory Donora, Pennsylvania
Cleanup Electric Power
Emergency Planning and Community Right-to- Electromagnetic Fields
Know Endocrine Disruption
Dredging
Energy
Environment Canada
Energy, Nuclear
Environmental Crime
Groundwater
GIS (Geographic Information System)
Government Hazardous Waste
Mexican Secretariat for Natural Resources (La Health, Human
Secretaría del Medio Ambiente y Recursos Heavy Metals
Naturales) Household Pollutants
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Indoor Air Pollution
Administration (NOAA Infectious Waste
National Park Service Ishimure, Michiko
Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) Lead
Occupational Safety and Health Administration Mercury
(OSHA) Mold Pollution
President’s Council on Environmental Quality Ozone
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Particulates
U.S. Coast Guard PCBs (Polychlorinated Biphenyls)
U.S. Department of Agriculture Persistent Bioaccumulative and Toxic Chemicals
U.S. Department of the Interior Persistent Organic Pollutants
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Radioactive Fallout
U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) Radon
U.S. Geological Survey
Risk
Workers Health Bureau
Smog
Times Beach, Missouri
HISTORY OF POLLUTION Tobacco Smoke
Disasters: Environmental Mining Accidents Toxicology
Disasters: Nuclear Accidents Vehicular Pollution
Disasters: Oil Spills Wastewater Treatment
Donora, Pennsylvania Water Pollution
Earth Day Water Pollution: Freshwater
Earth Summit Water Pollution: Marine
Gauley Bridge, West Virginia Water Treatment

xvii
Topical Outline

L AND LEGAL PROCESS

Antinuclear Movement Arbitration
Brownfield Citizen Suits
Citizen Science Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-
Citizen Suits Know
Dry Cleaning Consensus Building
Hazardous Waste Enforcement
Injection Well Environmental Crime
Landfill Environmental Impact Statement
Mining Environmental Justice
Government
Phytoremediation
Laws and Regulations, United States
Smart Growth
Litigation
Smelting
Mediation
Superfund
Natural Resource Damage Assessment
Underground Storage Tanks Regulatory Negotiation
Waste Right to Know
Toxic Release Inventory
Whistleblowing
L AWS AND REGUL ATIONS
Air Pollution Control Act MAJOR POLLUTION EVENTS
Clean Air Act
Clean Water Act Disasters: Chemical Accidents and Spills
Comprehensive Environmental Response, Disasters: Environmental Mining Accidents
Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA) Disasters: Natural
Disasters: Nuclear Accidents
Disasters: Environmental Mining Accidents
Disasters: Oil Spills
Disasters: Natural
Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-
Know NON-POINT SOURCE POLLUTION
Environmental Crime Agriculture
Ethics Cryptosporidiosis
Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Household Pollutants
Act Pesticides
Laws and Regulations, International
Laws and Regulations, United States
PETROLEUM
Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries
Act Arctic National Wildlife Refuge
Mining Law of 1872 Diesel
National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) Disasters: Oil Spills
National Pollutant Discharge Elimination Petroleum
System (NPDES) Plastic
National Resource Damage Assessment Underground Storage Tanks
Noise Control Act of 1972
Ocean Dumping Ban Act POINT SOURCE POLLUTION
Precautionary Principle
Acid Rain
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
Catalytic Converter
Rivers and Harbors Appropriations Act
Coal
Soil Pollution
Diesel
Solid Waste Electric Power
Sprawl Fossil Fuels
Superfund
Times Beach, Missouri
Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) POLITIC AL PROCESS
Unintended Consequences Arbitration
xviii
 Topical Outline

Consensus Building Sulfur Dioxide

Earth Day VOCs (Volatile Organic Compounds)
Education
Environmental Justice
Environmental Movement POLLUTION PREVENTION
Environmental Racism Beneficial Use
GIS (Geographic Information System) Bottle Deposit Laws
Government Catalytic Converter
Green Party Composting
Information, Access to Energy Efficiency
Legislative Process Enforcement
Litigation Environmental Impact Statement
Mediation Green Chemistry
National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) Industrial Ecology
New Left Integrated Pest Management
Nongovernmental Organizations (NGOs) Life Cycle Analysis
Politics Pollution Prevention
Progressive Movement Pollution Shifting
Property Rights Movement Recycling
Public Interest Research Groups Renewable Energy
Public Participation Reuse
Public Policy Decision Making Science
Regulatory Negotiation Systems Science
Right to Know Technology, Pollution Prevention
Unintended Consequences Toxic Release Inventory
Whistleblowing Waste
Wise-Use Movement Waste Reduction
Waste to Energy
POLLUTANTS
Adaptive Management RADIATION
Arsenic
Asbestos Disasters: Nuclear Accidents
Carbon Dioxide Electromagnetic Fields
Carbon Monoxide Energy, Nuclear
CFCs (Chlorofluorocarbons) Radioactive Fallout
Coal Radioactive Waste
DDT (Dichlorodiphenyl trichloroethane) Radon
Dioxin Yucca Mountain
Fossil Fuels
Greenhouse Gases
SCIENCE
Halon
Heavy Metals Carson, Rachel
Household Pollutants Carver, George Washington
Infectious Waste Citizen Science
Lead Colborn, Theo
Mercury Cousteau, Jacques
Methane (CH4) GIS (Geographic Information System)
NOx (Nitrogen Oxides) Green Revolution
Nonaqueous Phase Liquids (NAPLs) Politics
Particulates Risk
PCBs (Polychlorinated Biphenyls) Science
Persistent Bioaccumulative and Toxic Chemicals Systems Science
(PBTs) Technology, Pollution Prevention
Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) Toxicology
Phosphates Union of Concerned Scientists

xix
Topical Outline

SOCIAL ACTION Lifestyle

Mining
Activism
Nonpoint Source Pollution
Consensus Building
Pesticides
Earth Day
Petroleum
Earth First!
Point Source
Ecoterrorism
Smelting
Education
Terrorism
Environmental Impact Statement
Vehicular Pollution
Environmental Justice
Environmental Movements
Environmental Racism TREATIES AND CONFERENCES
Ethics
Agenda 21
GIS (Geographic Information System)
CFCs (Chlorofluorocarbons)
Gauley Bridge, West Virginia
Earth Summit
Green Party
Environmental Crime
Greenpeace
Ethics
Information, Access to
Global Warming
Labor, Farm
Greenhouse Gases
Legislative Process
Halon
Lifestyle
Montréal Protocol
Mass Media
NAFTA (North American Free Trade
National Toxics Campaign
Agreement)
New Left
Precautionary Principle
Nongovernmental Organizations (NGOs)
Treaties and Conferences
Popular Culture
Poverty
Precautionary Principle T YPES OF POLLUTION
Progressive Movement Air Pollution
Property Rights Movement Light Pollution
Public Interest Research Groups (PIRGs) Medical Waste
Public Participation Mold Pollution
Public Policy Decision Making Noise Pollution
Settlement House Movement Plastic
Toxic Release Inventory Radioactive Waste
Union of Concerned Scientists Soil Pollution
Warren County, North Carolina Space Pollution
Wise-Use Movement Thermal Pollution
Writers Vehicular Pollution
Zero Population Growth Visual Pollution
War
Water Pollution
SOURCES OF POLLUTION
Water Pollution: Freshwater
Agriculture Water Pollution: Marine
Consumer Pollution
Disasters: Chemical Accidents and Spills
VEHICUL AR POLLUTION
Disasters: Environmental Mining Accidents
Disasters: Natural Catalytic Converter
Disasters: Nuclear Accidents Diesel
Disasters: Oil Spills Energy Efficiency
Dry Cleaning Fuel Cell
Electric Power Fuel Economy
Electromagnetic Fields Ozone
Energy, Nuclear Petroleum
Incineration Smog
Industry Vehicular Pollution

xx
 Topical Outline

WASTE Dredging
Dry Cleaning
Beneficial Use
Energy
Biosolids
Fish Kills
Burn Barrels
Hazardous Waste Groundwater
Injection Well Hypoxia
Landfill Infectious Waste
Medical Waste Injection Well
Ocean Dumping Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries
Plastic Act
Pollution Shifting Mixing Zone
Recycling National Pollutant Discharge Elimination
Reuse System (NPDES)
Solid Waste Nonpoint Source Pollution
Superfund Ocean Dumping
Waste Ocean Dumping Ban Act
Waste Reduction Oxygen Demand, Biochemical
Waste to Energy PCBs (Polychlorinated Biphenyls)
Waste, International Trade in Petroleum
Waste, Transportation of Phosphates
Yucca Mountain Point Source
Sedimentation
Superfund
WATER Thermal Pollution
Acid Rain Underground Storage Tank
Agriculture Wastewater Treatment
Biosolids Water Pollution
Clean Water Act Water Pollution: Freshwater
Cryptosporidiosis Water Pollution: Marine
Disasters: Oil Spills Water Treatment

xxi
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 For Your Reference
Below is a list of selected symbols, abbreviations, acronyms, and initialisms that are
used regularly throughout the articles in this book.

ACh acetylcholine
ACM asbestos-containing materials
ACTION Activists’ Center for Training in Organizing and
Networking
AEC Atomic Energy Commission
AFL Affiliated Federation of Labor
AFT American Federation of Teachers
AHERA Asbestos Hazard Emergency Response Act
AHERA Asbestos Hazard Emergency Response Amendment
AMD acid mine drainage
ANILCA Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act
ANWR Arctic National Wildlife Refuge
AOC Area of Concern
APA Administrative Procedures Act
APCA Air Pollution Control Act
APHIS Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service
As arsenic
ATCA Alien Torts Claims Act
ATSDR Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry
BCC bioaccumulating chemical
BCC bioaccumulative chemical
BCF bioconcentration factor
BEAR Business and Environmentalists Allied for Recycling
BHC benzene hexachloride
BMP best management practice
xxiii
For Your Reference

BOD biochemical oxygen demand

BTNRC Brookhaven Town Natural Resources Committee
BTU British Thermal Unit
C carbon
C Celsius
C-BA Cost-benefit analysis
C2H6 ethane
C3H8 propane
(CH3)2Hg mercury—methylmercury compound
C4H10 butane
CAA Clean Air Act
CAAA Clean Air Act Amendments
CAFE corporate average fuel economy
CAFO concentrated animal feeding operation
CAP Campaign Against Pollution
CCA chromated copper arsenate
CCHW Citizens Clearinghouse for Hazardous Wastes
Cd cadmium
CDC U.S. Centers for Disease Control
CEC North American Commission for Environmental
Cooperation
CEQ [President’s] Council on Environmental Quality
CERCLA Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation,
and Liability Act
CFC chlorofluorocarbon
CFR Code of Federal Regulations
CGIAR Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research
CH3Hg+ mercury—methylmercury compound
CH4 methane
ChE cholinesterase
CHEJ Center for Health, Environment and Justice
CHP combined heat and power
CITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species
of Wild Fauna and Flora
CLEAR Environmental Working Group Clearinghouse on
Environmental Advocacy and Research
CO carbon monoxide
xxiv
 For Your Reference

Co cobalt
CO2 carbon dioxide
CPAST Corporation for Public Access to Science and Technology
Cr chromium
CRJ United Church of Christ’s Commission for Racial Justice
CSD Commission on Sustainable Development
CSISSFRRA Chemical Safety Information, Site Security and Fuels
Regulatory Relief Act
CSO Combined Sewer Overflow
CSO Community Service Organization
Cu copper
CWA Clean Water Act
CWS community water system
DBP disinfection by-product
DDT dichlorodiphenyl trichloroethane
DEA Drug Enforcement Agency
DES diethylstilbestrol
DHHS U.S. Department of Health and Human Services
DNA deoxyribonucleic acid
DNAPL dense nonaqueous phase liquid
DO dissolved oxygen
DOA U.S. Department of Agriculture
DOE U.S. Department of Energy
DOJ U.S. Department of Justice
DOL U.S. Department of Labor
DOT U.S. Department of Transportation
E-coli Escherichia coli
E-FOIA Electronic Freedom of Information Act
EC European Community
ECOSO U.N. Economic and Social Council
ED effective dose
EDA Emergency Declaration Area
EDC ethylene dichloride
EDF Environmental Defense Fund
EEA European Environment Agency
EF ecological footprint
xxv
For Your Reference

EF! Earth First!

EFA ecological footprint analysis
EIA Energy Information Administration
EIS environmental impact statement
ELF Earth Liberation Front
ELF extremely low frequency
EMF electromagnetic field
EPA U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
EPCRA Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act
EPI efflux pump inhibitor
EPR extended producer responsibility
ERNS Emergency Response Notification System
EU European Union
F Fahrenheit
FBI Federal Bureau of Investigation
FDA U.S. Food and Drug Administration
FeS2 iron sulfide (incl. marcasite and pyrite)
FICAN Federal Interagency Committee on Aviation Noise
FIFRA Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act
FOIA Freedom of Information Act
FTC Federal Trade Commission
FTIR Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy
FWPCA Federal Water Pollution Control Act
FWS U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
GAC granular activated carbon
GASP Group Against Smog and Pollution
GATT General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
GDP gross domestic product
GEF World Bank’s Global Environmental Facility
GEO geosynchronous Earth orbit
GHG greenhouse gas
GIPME Global Investigation of Pollution in the Marine
Environment
GIS Geographic Information System
GLOBE Global Learning and Observations to Benefit the
Environment
xxvi
 For Your Reference

GMA Grocery Manufacturers of America

GPS Global Positioning System
H hydrogen
H2SO4 sulfuric acid
HAA hormonally active agent
HAP hazardous air pollutant
HC hydrocarbon
HFC hydrofluorocarbon
Hg mercury
HGP Human Genome Project
HgS cinnabar
HHS U.S. Department of Health and Human Services
HHW household hazardous waste
HPLC high-performance liquid chromatography
HSWA Hazardous and Solid Wastes Amendment
HYV high-yielding variety
IADC Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee
IAEA International Atomic Energy Agency
IAP2 International Association for Public Participation
IARC International Agency for Research on Cancer
IBI Index of Biotic Integrity
ICC International Chamber of Commerce
ICP-AES inductively coupled plasma emission spectra
IDA International Dark Sky Association
IEGMP Independent Expert Group on Mobile Phones
IIED International Institute for Environment and Development
IMF International Monetary Fund
INPO Institute of Nuclear Power Operations
IOS International Organization for Standardization
IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
IPM integrated pest management
IR infrared
ISO International Organization for Standardization
IWI index of water indicators
LC lethal concentration
xxvii
For Your Reference

LC-72 London Convention 1972

LCA life cycle analysis
LCA life cycle assessment
LD lethal dose
LEO low Earth orbit
LEPC Local Emergency Planning Committee
LNAPL light nonaqueous phase liquid
LQG large-quantity generator
LUST leaking underground storage tank
MACT Maximum Achievable Control Act
MACT Maximum Achievable Control Technology
MARPOL International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution
from Ship 1973
MASSPIRG Massachusetts Student Public Interest Research Group
MCL maximum concentration load
MCL maximum contaminant level
MEO middle Earth orbit
MGD million gallons per day
Mha million hectare
MIT Massachusetts Institute of Technology
MNA Monitored Natural Attenuation
MPG miles per gallon
MSDS Material Safety Data Sheet
MSW municipal solid waste
MSWLF municipal solid waste landfill
MTBE methyl tertiary-butyl ether
MTD maximum tolerated dose
MW megawatt
MWTA Medical Waste Tracking Act
N nitrogen
N2 atmospheric nitrogen
N2O nitrous oxide
NAAEC North American Agreement on Environmental
Cooperation
NAAEE North American Association for Environmental Education
NAAQS National Ambient Air Quality Standards

xxviii
 For Your Reference

NAFTA North American Free Trade Agreement

NAPL nonaqueous phase chemical
NAPL nonaqueous phase liquid
NAS U.S. National Academy of Sciences
NASA U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration
NCA Noise Control Act
NEA National Education Association
NEMO Nonpoint Education for Municipal Officials
NEPA National Environmental Policy Act
NESHAP National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants
NFWA National Farm Workers Association
NGO nongovernmental organization
NH3 methane
NHGRI National Human Genome Research Institute
Ni nickel
NIEHS National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences
NIH National Institutes of Health
NIMBY not-in-my-backyard
NIOSH National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
NO nitric oxide
NO2 nitrogen dioxide
NO3 nitrate
NOx nitrogen oxide
NOAA National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration
NOEL no observable effect level
NORM Naturally Occurring Radioactive Material
NPDES National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System
NPL National Priorities List
NPL National Priority List
NPPR National Pollution Prevention Roundtable
NPRI National Pollution Release Inventory
NPS National Park Service
NRC Nuclear Regulatory Commission
NRCS Natural Resources Conservation Service
NRDA Natural Resource Damage Assessment

xxix
For Your Reference

NRDC Natural Resources Defense Council

NSR New Source Review
NSRB Nuclear Safety Regulatory Board
NSTA National Science Teachers Association
NTC National Toxics Campaign
O oxygen
O&M operations and maintenance
O2 molecular oxygen
O3 ozone
ODA Ocean Dumping Act
OECD Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
ONAC Office of Noise Abatement and Control
OPA Oil Pollution Act
OPEC Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries
OPP Oil Pollution Prevention Act
OSHA Occupational Safety and Health Administration
OTEC ocean thermal energy conversion
P2 pollution prevention
PAC polycyclic aromatic compound
PACCE People Against a Chemically Contaminated Environment
PAH polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon
Pb lead
PBB polybrominated biphenyl
PBT persistent bioaccumulative and toxic chemical
PCB polychlorinated biphenyl
PCC primary combustion chamber
PCDD polychlorinated dibenzo dioxin
PCDF polychlorinated dibenzo furan
PCE perchloroethylene
PCN polychlorinated naphthalene
PCP pentachlorophenol
PCP Principia Cybernetica Project
PCSD President’s Council on Sustainable Development
PEM proton exchange membrane
PERC perchloroethylene

xxx
 For Your Reference

PET polyethylene terephthalate

PIC Prior Informed Consent
PIRG Public Interest Research Group
PM particulate matter
3-
PO4 phosphate ions or groups
POP persistent organic pollutant
POTW publicly owned treatment works
PPA Pollution Prevention Act
PPCP pharmaceutical and personal care product
PPE personnel protective equipment
PrepCom preparatory committee
PS polystyrene
PSAC President’s Science Advisory Committee
PV photovoltaic
PVC polyvinyl chloride
RCRA Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
RDF refuse-derived fuel
ReDo Reuse Development Organization
RF radio frequency
RMP recommended agricultural practice
RRA Resource Recovery Act
RTK Right to Know
S sulfur
SANE Sane Nuclear Policy
SARA Superfund Act
SARA Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act
SB styrene-butadiene
SCC secondary combustion chamber
SDS Students for a Democratic Society
Se selenium
SEED Schlumberger Excellence in Educational Development
SEJ Society of Environmental Journalists
SEP Supplemental Environmental Project
SERC State Emergency Response Commission
SF6 sulfur hexafluoride

xxxi
For Your Reference

SHAC Stop Huntingdon Animal Cruelty

SIP State Implementation Plan
SLAPP Strategic Litigation against Public Participation
SMCRA Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act
SO2 sulfur dioxide
SO4 sulfate
SOC soil organic carbon
SQG small-quantity generator
Superfund Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation
and Liability Act
SUV sport utility vehicle
SWDA Safe Drinking Water Act
TBT tributyltin
TCDD tetrachloro dibenzo dioxin
TCE trichloroethylene
TEF Toxicity Equivalency Factor
TEPP tetraethyl pyrophosphate
THM trihalomethanes
TMDL Total Maximum Daily Load
TMI Three Mile Island
TOMS/EP Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer on the Earth Probe
Satellite
TRI Toxic Release Inventory
TSCA Toxic Substances Control Act
TSP total particulate matter
TT Treatment Technique
U uranium
UCC United Church of Christ
UCS Union of Concerned Scientists
UFW United Farm Workers of America
UK United Kingdom
UN United Nations
UNCED U.N. Conference on Environment and Development
UNCHE U.N. Conference on the Human Environment
UNEP U.N. Environmental Programme
US United States of America

xxxii
 For Your Reference

USDA U.S. Department of Agriculture

USGAO U.S. General Accounting Office
USGS U.S. Geological Survey
UST underground storage tank
UV ultraviolet
VOC volatile organic compound
WET Whole Effluent Toxicity
WHB Workers Health Bureau of America
WHO World Health Organization
WPA Works Progress Administration
WRI World Resources Institute
WSP Women Strike for Peace
WTC World Trade Center
WTE waste to energy
WTO World Trade Organization
ZID zone of initial dilution
Zn zinc
ZPG zero population growth

xxxiii
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 Contributors
David E. Alexander Dave Brian Butvill Joseph E. de Steiguer
University of Massachusetts Fontana, Wisconsin University of Arizona
Amherst, Massachusetts Tucson, Arizona
Julie Hutchins Cairn
Paul T. Anastas Seattle Public Utilities Larry Deysher
Executive Office of the President Redmond, Washington Ocean Imaging
Washington, D.C. Solana Beach, California
George Carlson
Sarah Anderson Canterbury, New Hampshire Thomas D. DiStefano
Institute for Policy Studies Bucknell University
Washington, D.C. Elizabeth L. Chalecki
Lewisburg, Pennsylvania
California State University
Mary Jane Angelo Hayward, California Bruce K. Dixon
St. John’s River Management National Association of Science
District Ron Chepesiuk
Rock Hill, South Carolina Writers
Palatka, Florida American Association for the
Phillip Anz-Meador Christos Christoforou Advancement of Science
Viking Science and Technology, Inc. Clemson University Naperville, Illinois
Houston, Texas Clemson, South Carolina
Clive A. Edwards
Matthew Arno Allan B. Cobb Ohio State University
Kailua-Kona, Hawaii Columbus, Ohio
William Arthur Atkins
Atkins Research and Consulting Christopher H. Conaway Robert M. Engler
Normal, Illinois University of California U.S. Army Engineer Research and
Santa Cruz, California Development Center
Jay Austin
Environmental Law Institute Stacie Craddock Vicksburg, Mississippi
Washington, D.C. U.S. Environmental Protection Christine A. Ennis
Agency National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Pamela Baldwin
Washington, D.C. Administration Aeronomy
Owings, Maryland
James L. Creighton Laboratory
Anne Becher Cooperative Institute for Research in
Boulder, Colorado Creighton and Creighton, Inc.
Los Gatos, California Environmental Sciences
Elizabeth D. Blum Boulder, Colorado
Troy State University José B. Cuellar
San Francisco, California Larry Eugene Erickson
Troy, Alabama
Kansas State University
Brigitte Bollag Raymond Cushman Manhattan, Kansas
Pennsylvania State University New Hampshire Department of
University Park, Pennsylvania Environmental Services Gary R. Evans
Canterbury, New Hampshire SE4 Consulting
Jean-Marc Bollag Potomac Falls, Virginia
Pennsylvania State University Kenneth A. Dahlberg
University Park, Pennsylvania Western Michigan University Jess Everett
Kalamazoo, Michigan Rowan University
Arline L. Bronzaft Glassboro, New Jersey
Lehman College, City University of Heinz H. Damberger
New York Illinois State Geological Survey John P. Felleman
New York, New York Boulder, Colorado State University of New York
Syracuse, New York
Joanna Burger Lawrence C. Davis
Rutgers University Kansas State University Adi R. Ferrara
Piscataway, New Jersey Manhattan, Kansas Bellevue, Washington

xxxv
Contributors

Linda N. Finley-Miller Craig R. Humphrey Lois Levitan

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Pennsylavania State University Cornell University
Sacramento, California University Park, Pennsylvania Ithaca, New York
A. Russell Flegal Susan M. Jablonski Deena Lilya
University of California Texas Natural Resource Boise, Idaho
Santa Cruz, California Conservation Commission
David Lochbaum
Austin, Texas
David Frame Union of Concerned Scientists
Oxford, United Kingdom Betsy T. Kagey Washington, D.C.
Ralph R. Frerichs Frostburg State University
Tim Lougheed
University of California Cumberland, Maryland
Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
Los Angeles, California Corliss Karasov
Adrian MacDonald
David Friedman Madison, Wisconsin
Long Island City, New York
Union of Concerned Scientists James P. Karp
Washington, D.C. Peter S. Machno
Syracuse University
Peter S. Machno LLC
David Goldberg Syracuse, New York
Seattle, Washington
Decatur, Georgia Sara E. Keith
Daniel Barstow Magraw
Janice Gorin State University of New York
Center for International
Syracuse, New York
Kevin Graham Environmental Law
Windom Publishing Suzi Kerr Washington, D.C.
Denver, Colorado Motu Economic and Public Policy
Kenneth H. Mann
Research
Robert F. Gruenig Bedford Institute of Oceanography
Wellington, New Zealand
Reynolds, Illinois Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
Leeka Kheifets
Janet Guthrie Jack Manno
World Health Organization
National Institute of Environmental State University of New York
France
Health Services Syracuse, New York
Research Triangle Park, North Stephen M. Kohn
Michael Mansur
Carolina Kohn, Kohn, & Calapinto
The Kansas City Star
Washington, D.C.
Charles Hall Kansas City, Missouri
State University of New York Philip Koth
Burkhard Mausberg
Syracuse, New York William Kovarik Environmental Defense Canada
Dan Hamburg Radford University Toronto, Ontario, Canada
Voice of the Environment Radford, Virginia
Michael J. McKinley
Ukiah, California Michael E. Kraft U.S. Geological Survey
Ian Scott Hamilton University of Wisconsin Reston, Virginia
Texas A&M University Green Bay, Wisconsin
Glenn McRae
College Station, Texas Ashok Kumar CGH Environmental Strategies, Inc.
Burt Hamner University of Toledo Burlington, Vermont
Seattle, Washington Toledo, Ohio
Martin V. Melosi
Donald J. Hanley Rishi Kumar University of Houston
Bechtel SAIC Company, LLC Global Educational and Consulting Houston, Texas
Las Vegas, Nevada Services
Peter Michaud
Mississauga, Ontario, Canada
Donald R. Hastie Gemini Observatory
York University J. Michael Kuperberg Hilo, Hawaii
Toronto, Ontario, Canada Florida State University
Bruce G. Miller
Tallahassee, Florida
Richard A. Haugland Pennsylvania State University
U.S. Environmental Protection Rattan Lal University Park, Pennsylvania
Agency Ohio State University
Joel A. Mintz
Cincinnati, Ohio Columbus, Ohio
Nova Southwestern University
Denis Hayes Deborah Lange Davie, Florida
Bullitt Foundation Carnegie Mellon University
John Morelli
Seattle, Washington Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
Rochester Institute of Technology
Patricia Hemminger Denise M. Leduc Rush, New York
New York, New York West Bloomfield, Michigan
Office of Solid Waste/U.S.
Paul Philip Hesse Terra Lenihan Environmental Protection Agency
NCI Information Systems, Inc. Denver, Colorado Washington, D.C.
Washington, D.C.
Peggy Leonard Sunil Ojha
Annette Huddle King County Wastewater Treatment University of Toledo
San Francisco, California Seattle, Washington Toledo, Ohio

xxxvi
 Contributors

Kenneth Olden Joseph N. Ryan Kender Taylor

National Institute of Environmental University of Colorado Seattle, Washington
Health Services Boulder, Colorado
Research Triangle Park, North Christopher M. Teaf
Karen M. Salvage Tallahassee, Florida
Carolina State University of New York
Christine Oravec Binghamton, New York Valerie M. Thomas
University of Utah Joseph J. Santoleri Princeton University
Salt Lake City, Utah RMT-Four Nines Princeton, New Jersey
Tim Palucka Plymouth Meeting, Pennsylvania Nathan Thrall
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Michael G. Schechter
Iris Udasin
Lee Ann Paradise Michigan State University
Environmental &
Lubbock, Texas East Lansing, Michigan
Occupational Health
David Petechuk Susan L. Senecah Sciences Institute
Rifle, Colorado State University of New York Piscataway, New Jersey
P.A. Ramachandran Syracuse, New York
Johan C. Varekamp
Washington University Hollie Shaner
Wesleyan University
St. Louis, Missouri CGH Environmental Strategies,
Middletown, Connecticut
Stephen C. Redd Inc.
Centers for Disease Control and Burlington, Vermont Stephen J. Vesper
Prevention William E. Sharpe U.S. Environmental
Atlanta, Georgia Pennsylvania State University Protection Agency
University Park, Pennsylvania Cincinnati, Ohio
William E. Rees
University of British Columbia Lynne Page Snyder Margrit von Braun
Vancouver, British Columbia, National Academies of Science, University of Idaho
Canada Institute of Medicine Moscow, Idaho
Kevin Anthony Reilly Washington, D.C.
Frank A. von Hippel
New York State Supreme Court Gina M. Solomon University of Alaska
New York, New York University of California Anchorage, Alaska
Joseph Richey San Francisco, California
Boulder, Colorado James J. Stapleton Ted von Hippel

Heather V. Ritchie University of California Paul Wapner

Tallahassee, Florida Parlier, California American University
Richard M. Stapleton Washington D.C.
Marin Sands Robinson
Northern Arizona University U.S. Environmental Protection
Linda Wasmer Andrews
Flagstaff, Arizona Agency
Albuquerque, New Mexico
Washington, D.C.
Mary Elliott Rollé
Donald Stedman Richard J. Watts
National Oceanic and Atmospheric
University of Denver Washington State
Administration
Denver, Colorado University
Department of Commerce
Pullman, Washington
Vermont Law School Richard S. Stein
Silver Spring, Maryland University of Massachusetts Stefan Weigel
Walter A. Rosenbaum Amherst, Massachusetts University of Hamburg
University of Florida Diana Strnisa Hamburg, Germany
Gainesville, Florida Five Rivers Environmental
Laura Westra
Joan Rothlein Education Center
York University
Delmar, New York
Oregon Health and Science Toronto, Ontario, Canada
University Jacqueline Vaughn Switzer
Portland, Oregon Northern Arizona University Ross Whaley
Flagstaff, Arizona State University of New York
Natalie Roy Syracuse, New York
The Environmental Council of the Dorceta E. Taylor
States University of Michigan Christine M. Whitney
Washington, D.C. Ann Arbor, Michigan Watertown, Massachusetts

xxxvii
Labor, Farm
The rise of organized labor in agriculture is epitomized by the United Farm
Workers of America (UFW), the largest and oldest union of agricultural
L
laborers in the nation, and its influence on environmental public policy, oper-
ations, and worker conditions. Many salient actors, events, and campaigns
have contributed to this influence.
The National Farm Workers Association (NFWA), precursor to the
UFW, was cofounded in 1962 by César E. Chávez and Dolores Huerta.
Their lifelong commitments were to win recognition and respect, better
wages, and safer working conditions for agricultural laborers in California
and elsewhere. Earlier efforts to organize agricultural labor in the United
States, such as the National Agricultural Workers Union, which Chávez
joined in 1947, were not successful. Moreover, no labor union in the United
States had ever expressed much concern about the effects of pesticides on
farm workers and their families.
La huelga en general (also known as the general strike) catapulted the
Chávez-led UFW to international attention after September 16, 1965, when it
joined a strike against grape growers started eight days earlier by a union of Fil-
ipino workers in Delano, California. From the beginning, Chávez expressed
concern about the harmful effects of commonly used pesticides on farm work-
ers. In 1969 he marched with several hundred other protesters to the national
headquarters of the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and demanded
increased government surveillance of pesticide use on food crops.
By the early 1970s, following Chávez-led fasts, secondary boycotts, and
protest marches, Huerta had negotiated UFW contracts with many central
California grape growers that required protective clothing for workers labor-
ing in fields sprayed with pesticides and effectively banned the use of DDT DDT the first chlorinated
(dichlorodiphenyl trichloroethane) and other dangerous pesticides. These hydrocarbon insecticide; it has
a half-life of 15 years and can
contracts also required longer periods before reentry into pesticide-sprayed collect in fatty tissues of cer-
fields—beyond state and federal standards—and also mandated the testing of tain animals; for virtually all
farm workers on a regular basis to monitor for pesticide exposure, several but emergency uses, DDT was
banned in the U.S. in 1972
years before comparable government rules were established. The UFW was
also the first union to require joint union-management committees to
enforce state safety regulations regarding the use of pesticides in vineyards.
From the beginning, Chávez urged farm workers like Pablo Romero and
activists like Marion Moses to become physicians committed to addressing
1
Labor, Farm

the many pesticide-related health threats to farm workers. After medical

school, Romero worked as a physician at the UFW clinic in Salinas, Califor-
nia, where he also helped form a community task force that set new rules to
minimize the risk of accidental pesticide exposure. Moses, a native West Vir-
ginian and former UFW nurse, became Chávez’s personal physician and
union researcher, after studying internal and occupational medicine. Moses
later founded the Pesticide Education Center in San Francisco, California,
with the mission of educating the public about the adverse health effects of
exposure to pesticides in the home, within the community, and at work.
The UFW initiated another antipesticide boycott against grape growers
in 1984 after research found hundreds of thousands of local residents suffer-
ing from pesticide-related illnesses and an unusually high incidence of cancer
among children in central California. Chávez called on Americans to once
again stop buying grapes until the industry stopped using pesticides known to
cause, or suspected of causing, cancer in laboratory animals. The UFW used
an innovative direct-mail campaign to carry Chávez’s antipesticide plea to
consumers all over North America.
Following two mid-1980s incidents near Salinas in which hundreds of farm
workers received emergency hospital treatment after they were twice acciden-
tally sprayed with pesticides, the UFW pushed for Monterey County’s enact-
ment of the toughest pesticide restriction laws in the nation, which prompted
similar policy changes throughout the state of California. Thus, the UFW
became the first labor union to demand government protection for farm work-
ers and others from dangerous pesticides, including airplane-sprayed chemical
drifts. After Chávez’s unexpected death in 1993, the UFW’s leadership main-
tained its strong antipesticide position by continuing to advocate for more pro-
tection for farm workers and other who work and live near and around the
fields. S E E A L S O Activism; Agriculture; Chávez, César E.; Pesticides.
Bibliography
Griswold Del Castillo, Richard, and Garcia, Richard A. (1995). César Chávez: A Tri-
umph of Spirit. University of Oklahoma Press.
Ferriss, Susan, and Sandoval, Ricardo. (1977). The Fight in the Fields—César Chávez and
the Farmworker Movement. New York: Harcourt and Brace.
Ross, Fred. (1989). Conquering Goliath—César Chávez at the Beginning. Keene, CA: El
Taller Grafico Books.
Internet Resources
Children’s Environmental Health Network Web site. Available from http://www.cehn.
org/cehn.
San Francisco State University Web site. “César E. Chávez Institute for Public Policy.”
Available from http://www.sfsu.edu/~cecipp.
United Farm Workers Web site. Available from http://www.ufw.org.
José B. Cuellar

Labor, Industrial See Labor Unions

LaDuke, Winona
ENVIRONMENTAL ACTIVIST
(1959–)

Winona LaDuke, an Ojibwe Indian, is an internationally recognized, long-

time environmentalist, feminist, and indigenous rights activist. She was vice
2
 Landfill

presidential running mate for Ralph Nader’s 1996 and 2000 U.S. presidential
campaigns on the Green Party ticket. Through her speaking, writing, inter-
national conference participation, and activist activities, she has increased
public awareness of the environmental degradation of Native American lands
by nuclear and toxic dumping, water pollution, mining, and toxic exposure.
She also builds support for self-determined solutions and protections that
honor the cultural and spiritual values of Native Americans. Indian lands
hold large supplies of uranium, coal, and timber, and the vast, isolated lands
are attractive to industries searching for radioactive, hazardous, and other
waste-disposal sites. LaDuke advocates for Native American environmental
groups to wage a vigilant battle to protect their environment for future gen-
erations. She is the founding director of the White Earth Land Recovery
Project and the program director of the annual Honor the Earth Foundation.
In 1994, Time magazine named LaDuke one of its “50 for the Future.” S E E
A L S O Activism; Environmental Justice; Environmental Movement;
Environmental Racism.
Bibliography
Winona LaDuke. (AP/Wide
White Earth Land Recovery Project. Available from http://www.welrp.org. World Photos. Reproduced by
Susan L. Senecah permission.)

Landfill
A landfill is a large area of land or an excavated site that is designed and built
to receive wastes. There were 3,536 active municipal landfills in the United
States in 1995 according to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA). Today, about 55 percent of America’s trash (more than 220 million
tons annually) is disposed of in landfills. Municipal solid-waste landfills
(MSWLFs) accept only household, commercial, and nonhazardous industrial
waste. Hazardous waste generated by industrial sources must be disposed of
in special landfills that have even stricter controls than MSWLFs.
In the past, garbage was collected in open dumps. Most of these small
and unsanitary dumps have been replaced by large, modern facilities that are
designed, operated, and monitored according to strict federal and state reg-
ulations. These facilities may be distant from urban centers, requiring the
large-scale transport of waste. About 2,300 municipal solid waste landfills
were operating in the United States in 2000.
A typical modern landfill is lined with a layer of clay and protective plas-
tic to prevent the waste and leachate (liquid from the wastes) from leaking to
the ground or groundwater. The lined landfill is then divided into disposal
cells. Only one cell is open at a time to receive waste. After a day’s activity, the
waste is compacted and covered with a layer of soil to minimize odor, pests,
and wind disturbances. A network of drains at the bottom of the landfill col-
lects the leachate that flows from the decomposing waste. The leachate is usu-
ally sent to a recovery facility to be treated. Methane gas, carbon dioxide, and
other gases produced by the decomposing waste are monitored and collected
to reduce their effect on air quality. EPA regulations require many larger
landfills to collect and burn landfill gas. EPA’s Landfill Methane Outreach
Program was created in 1994 to educate communities and local government
3
Landfill

DIAGRAM OF A PROPERLY CLOSED LANDFILL

When landfill is full,

layers of soil and clay topsoil
seal in trash.
sand
clay
Wells and probes to detect
leachate or methane leaks garbage Pipes collect explosive
outside landfill. methane gas, used as
fuel to generate electricity.

Cutaway view of a modern

Leachate pumped up landfill designed to prevent
to storage tank for the two main hazards of
safe disposal. the dump: explosions or fires
caused by methane gas, and
leakage of rainwater mixed
with dangerous chemicals (or
garbage leachate).
sand
synthetic liner Clay and plastic lining
to prevent leaks; pipes
sand collect leachate from
clay bottom of landfill.
subsoil

about the benefits of recovering and burning methane as an energy source. By

2002 the program had helped develop 220 projects that convert landfill gas to
energy. Such projects, when analyzed in 2001, offset the release of carbon
dioxide from conventional energy sources by an amount equivalent to remov-
ing 11.7 million cars from the road for one year.
Fresh Kills Landfill in Staten Island, the largest landfill in the United
States, accepting approximately 27,000 tons of garbage a day in the late
1980s, closed in March 2001. Although landfills occupy only a small per-
centage of the total land in the United States, public concern over possible
ground water contamination as well as odor from landfills makes finding new
sites difficult. S E E A L S O Solid Waste; Waste, Transportation of.
Internet Resources
Freudenrich, Craig C. “How Landfills Work.” Available from http://www.howstuff-
works.com/landfill.htm.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Office of Solid Waste Web site. Available from
http://www.epa.gov/epaoswer.
Office of Solid Waste/U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

4
 Laws and Regulations, International

Laws and Regulations, International

The problems of pollution are not limited to the borders of any one country.
Because the harmful effects of pollution often extend to areas beyond the
country where the pollution originated, the international legal system is an
important means of controlling pollution. (The text here refers to “coun-
tries,” but the reader should be aware that countries are usually termed
“states” in the parlance of international law.) International efforts to control
pollution are numerous and complex. The following section identifies some
of the main features of the system.
French police officer
International Legal System performing pollution test on
a car in Paris, France. (©Le
The two primary sources of international law are custom and treaties, and Segretain Pascal/Corbis Sygma.
both play a role in regulating international pollution. Customary interna- Reproduced by permission.)
tional law emerges when countries engage in certain practices in the belief
that those practices are required by international law. To become customary
law, a practice must be generally followed, rather than just being the practice
of a few countries. In contrast, treaties, which are often referred to as con-
ventions or protocols, are legally binding agreements between countries or
intergovernmental organizations. Treaties typically do not enter into force
until a specified number of countries have expressed their consent to be
bound by the treaty; even after the treaties enter into force, only the coun-
tries that expressed their consent are bound. A treaty is only effective to the
extent it is implemented domestically by the parties to it. Each treaty raises
its own questions of domestic implementation.

Customary International Law

Many environmental activists and other observers believe that countries have
an obligation through customary international law to not cause transbound-
ary environmental harm. Principle 21 of the Stockholm Declaration (1972)
and Principle 2 of the Rio Declaration that emerged out of the 1992 Earth
Summit both clearly state this principle. The Rio Declaration affirms that
countries have “the sovereign right to exploit their own resources pursuant to
their own environmental and developmental policies, and the responsibility
to ensure that activities within their jurisdiction or control do not cause dam-
age to the environment of other States or of areas beyond the limits of
national jurisdiction.” Under this principle, countries are prohibited from
undertaking or allowing actions that will cause pollution in other nations.
Another important concept, known as the precautionary principle or pre-
cautionary approach, addresses circumstances where significant health, safety,
or environmental risks may be involved although full scientific certainty is
lacking. Many countries, especially those in Europe, consider the precau-
tionary principle to be a part of customary international law, but this legal sta-
tus is debated by other countries, such as the United States. Considerable
controversy also exists over exactly what the precautionary principle means.
Principle 15 of the 1992 Rio Declaration reads, “Where there are threats of
serious or irreversible damage, lack of scientific certainty shall not be used as
a reason for postponing cost-effective measures to prevent environmental
degradation.” Another formulation is that a country is not prohibited from
taking measures to protect health or the environment because of the existence
5
Laws and Regulations, International

of scientific uncertainty. A more aggressive formulation is that countries

should err on the side of caution when dealing with environmental problems
rather than wait until a risk is certain to occur before acting, by which time it
will often be too late to reverse the damage. For example, under this more
aggressive interpretation of the precautionary principle, if there is evidence
that a pollutant might be dangerous, even if the risk is not certain, a country
should take action to prevent the risk involved despite the scientific uncer-
tainty. Under any formulation, questions remain about what level of risk war-
rants precautionary action and what level of precaution may or should be
taken.

Treaties and Regulations

There are hundreds of treaties and other international instruments relating
to pollution. Some prominent examples include the following: The 2001
Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) calls for an
immediate ban on certain chemicals, severely restricts the use of others, and
provides for POPs to be disposed of and managed using environmentally
sound methods. To address the problem of climate change, which is caused
by an increased concentration of carbon in the atmosphere, countries nego-
tiated the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change,
which entered into force in 1994, and finalized the Kyoto Protocol related to
that convention in 1997 (not yet in force). A treaty that addresses other forms
of air pollution is the Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air
Pollution formulated by the UN Economic Commission for Europe in 1979
and its protocols. The 1981 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea, sev-
eral regional agreements on specific seas, and various other treaties address
maritime pollution. The 1998 Convention for the Application of Prior
Informed Consent (PIC) Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and
Pesticides in International Trade (not yet in force) would ensure that coun-
tries have the opportunity to make informed decisions on whether to allow
hazardous chemicals to enter their borders. There have also been important
treaties regulating oil and nuclear pollution, such as the International Con-
vention on Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response and Cooperation in 1990,
and the International Atomic Energy Agency Convention on Nuclear Safety
in 1994.
Since food is often imported and exported among countries, interna-
tional regulations can be significant in reducing the amount of pollution con-
tained in food that travels beyond national borders. The Codex Alimentarius
Commission, created in 1963 by the United Nations, has as its highest pri-
orities the protection of consumer health and guarantee of fair practices in
trade. With those objectives in mind, it develops standards for, among other
criteria, food labeling, food additives, contaminants, methods of analysis and
sampling, food hygiene, nutrition and foods for special dietary uses, food
import and export inspection and certification systems, residues of veterinary
drugs in foods, pesticide-residue levels in food, and guidelines to protect con-
sumer health. These standards are not automatically binding, either domes-
tically or internationally. However, because most countries must at some
point conform to international trade law—which requires that certain health-
related standards be science-based and recognizes following codex standards
as one way of meeting that requirement—some pressure exists for them to
adopt codex-sponsored standards in their own regulations.
6
 Laws and Regulations, International

Enforcement
An important question is how international law regarding pollution can be
enforced. There is no international police agency with the authority to
enforce international law or any international court system with broad com-
pulsory jurisdiction to make binding decisions on countries without their
consent. Despite the lack of a central force, however, countries generally
comply with their international legal obligations. Among other reasons, this
is because countries will usually only assume obligations in the first place if
they believe it is in their best interest to do so. In the event of noncompliance,
economic sanctions may sometimes be imposed under the terms of certain
agreements, and nonviolating countries may sometimes take other measures
against countries that violate international law. The risk of negative publicity
may also persuade countries to comply with their obligations.
Studies have shown that noncompliance, especially among developing
countries, more often results from a lack of capacity than willful defiance.
Compliance with international agreements regarding pollution usually
requires a significant amount of scientific expertise that not all countries pos-
sess. In addition, some governments may not have the administrative capa-
bility necessary for monitoring actions, such as the emissions of pollutants,
which take place within their countries, or a legal system capable of enforc-
ing laws. Finally, countries, especially developing countries, also may be
unable or unwilling to comply with their international legal obligations to
restrict pollution because efforts to alleviate poverty in the immediate term
take priority over environmental protection.
The United States, generally speaking, takes compliance with pollution-
related treaties very seriously. For example, the United States has not become
a party to the PIC and POPs Conventions, mentioned above, as well as the
Basel Convention on the Transboundary Movement of Hazardous Waste
(1989) because it does not have the domestic legal authority to implement
those agreements fully. On the other hand, many environmentalists would
argue that the United States has not fulfilled its obligations under the frame-
work convention on climate change.

Voluntary Corporate Codes of Conduct

Transnational corporations exercise enormous economic power and engage
in practices that result in the release of large amounts of pollution. However,
the conduct of transnational corporations frequently is not effectively regu-
lated by any environmental regime; since domestic law (especially in devel-
oping countries) often is not adequately enforced, it typically does not
address the environmental activities of overseas corporations, and interna-
tional law is not adequate to fill in the gaps. Given the lack of effective laws
concerning pollution that govern transnational corporations, a recent trend
has been the emergence of voluntary corporate codes of conduct. Although
corporations have no legal obligation to follow these codes, the demands of
the market may persuade international companies to adopt voluntary envi-
ronmental codes in order to remain competitive. Compliance with these vol-
untary codes can result in reduced pollution.
The International Organization for Standardization (ISO), a nongovern-
mental body that develops worldwide standards to facilitate the international
7
Laws and Regulations, International

exchange of goods, has created a series, ISO 14000, of voluntary environ-

mental management standards for corporations. ISO 14000 does not include
specific environmental regulations for corporate compliance. Instead, the
series contains general procedures for developing management systems that
address the environmental impacts of corporate activities, including pollution,
and thus can be adapted to different types of organizations. In order to
become certified under ISO 14000, the top-level management of an organi-
zation must establish an environmental policy that takes into account all
activities of the company which have environmental implications, and com-
mits the organization, among other things, to the prevention of pollution.
The environmental management system must have a planning process that
creates specific environmental goals, methods of implementation and opera-
tion, and a system of monitoring and measuring environmental performance.
Because ISO 14000 certification—like compliance with other voluntary codes
of conduct—is sometimes contractually required by a company’s customers to
do business, ISO 14000 can encourage organizations to develop policies that
reduce pollution.
Several other corporate codes of conduct relating to pollution prevention
have been established. One example is the Ceres Principles, a moral code of
environmental conduct that corporations can choose to adopt. It facilitates
investment by shareholders in companies that have taken steps to improve
their environmental performance. By 2000 approximately fifty-four major
U.S. corporations, including General Motors, Ford Motor Company, Ben &
Jerry’s Ice Cream, and Domino’s Pizza, had endorsed the Ceres Principles.
The International Chamber of Commerce (ICC), a nongovernmental organ-
ization, has developed a set of environmental standards known as the Busi-
ness Charter for Sustainable Development. The ICC also documents
examples of successful environmental management practices for other com-
panies to model. In addition, the United Nations has established the Global
Compact, a set of voluntary corporate codes that incorporates principles
from international environmental and human rights treaties. A final example
is the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD)
Guidelines for multinational corporations, which include a chapter on the
environment. S E E A L S O Enforcement; Environmental Crime; Govern-
ment; ISO 14001; Laws and Regulations, United States; Legislative
Process; Precautionary Principle; Public Policy Decision making;
Right to Know; Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA).
Bibliography
Barber, Jeffrey. (1998). “Responsible Action or Public Relations? NGO Perspectives
on Voluntary Initiatives,” in Industry and Environment, 21 (United Nations Envi-
ronment Programme, January-June).
Brown Weiss, Edith; Magraw, Daniel Barstow; and Szasz, Paul C., eds. (1992). Inter-
national Environmental Law: Basic Instruments and References.
Brown Weiss, Edith; Magraw, Daniel Barstow; and Szasz, Paul C., eds. (1999). Inter-
national Environmental Law: Basic Instruments and References 1992–1999.
Handl, Gunther, and Lutz, Robert E. (1989). Transferring Hazardous Technologies and
Substances: The International Legal Challenge.
Magraw, Daniel Barstow, ed. (1991). International Law and Pollution.

Internet Resource
Center for International Environmental Law Web site. Available from http://www.ciel.org.
Daniel Barstow Magraw & Janice Gorin

8
 Laws and Regulations, United States

Laws and Regulations, United States

Although pollution control laws have been in use in the United States for a
century, it was not until the 1970s, the “Environmental Decade,” that mod-
ern pollution-control laws began to take shape. The American public was
awakened to the need for better pollution control through the 1967 publica-
tion of Rachel Carson’s groundbreaking Silent Spring and environmental dis-
asters such as Love Canal, New York; the Donora, Pennsylvania, inversion;
and the Cuyahoga River fire in Ohio. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, citi-
zens began to demand comprehensive environmental protection laws. In the
thirty years since, those early environmental laws have been used as the broad
framework on which national pollution control are based laws in the twenty-
first century.

Overview of U.S. Pollution-Control Laws

and Regulations
Pollution-control laws in the United States can take several different forms.
Federal pollution-control statutes are enacted by Congress in response to
domestic problems or needs, or to implement international treaties. They are
complex laws that state a goal for lowering or eliminating the release of cer-
tain pollutants, generally within a specific medium. These laws assign a duty
to an agency, typically the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), to
implement the law. The agency then creates rules and regulations to further
establish and advance the statute’s goals.
Virtually every federal pollution control law delegates authority to states,
entrusting them to create their own programs for implementing the law. Usu-
ally states have some leeway in deciding how implementation of a federal
statute is best achieved on the state level. However, as a general rule, state pro-
grams that are derived from a delegation of federal regulatory authority can

THE PERMITTEE EXPERIENCE

Owning a piece of land does not always mean that your project is consistent with your state’s
having the freedom to do with it what you want. Coastal Zone Management Act program policies,
For example, if you want to build a boathouse and ensure that no other federal licenses will be
on your lakefront property, you will have to fol- required for your project. Then you will need to
low a legal process before ensuring that such a figure out which state and local regulations
project will be allowed under local, state, and/or apply to your plan, and request any permits that
federal law. Your property’s proximity to the may be required on the local level. While there
water may mean that it will be classified as wet- will likely be some overlap in the state and fed-
lands. Under various wetlands protection laws, eral requirements, it is often difficult to deter-
you will have to be granted permission from mine exactly what is needed before you can be
numerous government sources before going for- assured that you are in compliance with all
ward with your project. applicable laws. This complicated process can
produce great frustration, and can lead appli-
Under the Clean Water Act, you will have to
cants to avoid meeting legal requirements
apply to the Army Corps of Engineers for a 404
because complying with the rules is too
permit. You will also need to provide an environ-
difficult.
mental assessment for NEPA purposes, certify

9
Laws and Regulations, United States

be more, but cannot be less stringent than the federal law. This leads to state
and local laws and regulations that mirror their federal counterparts and allow
for enforcement on the local level. Although this cooperative effort may
ensure that federal environmental statutes reach a larger share of violators, it
can also lead to confusion for individuals who try to comply with the law, and
may make it difficult for agencies to apply the law with uniformity.

Major U.S. Pollution-Control Statutes

One of the first modern environmental protection laws enacted in the United
States was the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (NEPA), which
requires the government to consider the impact of its actions or policies on
the environment. NEPA remains one of the most commonly used envi-
ronmental laws in the nation. In addition to NEPA, there are numerous
pollution-control statutes that apply to such specific environmental media as
air and water. The best known of these laws are the Clean Air Act (CAA),
Clean Water Act (CWA), and the Comprehensive Environmental Response,
Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA) commonly referred to as
Superfund. Among the many other important pollution control laws are the
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), Toxic Substances Control
Act (TSCA), Oil Pollution Prevention Act (OPP), Emergency Planning and
Community Right-to-Know Act (EPCRA), and the Pollution Prevention Act
(PPA).

Pollution-control laws focus on the regulation of activities that utilize

materials that are potentially harmful to human health and the environment.
These laws frequently vary in terms of their expectations and potential penal-
ties for violators, depending on the risks associated with the materials
involved. For example, CERCLA and RCRA are similar in terms of the activ-
ities they address. Both statutes focus on the storage, transport, and disposal
of waste. However, the penalties for violating CERCLA are much more seri-
ous because that statute covers activities surrounding accidental or negligent
releases of hazardous wastes, after the fact. RCRA’s penalties are less severe,
because the threat of harm is lower.
U.S. pollution-control statutes are numerous and diverse. Although
many of the environmental statutes passed by Congress are useful tools in
pollution prevention, they often need to be expanded before their impact is
fully realized. Pollution-control laws are generally too broad to be managed
by existing legal bodies, so Congress must find or create an agency for each
that will be able to implement the mandated mission effectively. The statute
then serves as a framework for the agency in organizing its agenda. At each
level, the law becomes more specific and targeted.

Regulations: Role of the Agency in U.S.

Pollution Control
Federal agencies in the United States are established through enabling legis-
lation known as organic acts. These acts create and empower agencies, as well
as define and limit their roles. Congress delegates a certain amount of author-
ity to each agency, allowing its officials to develop regulations to ensure that
the agency’s duties will be achieved. Congress grants this authority to agen-
cies because the legislature cannot always foresee all the elements that will be
10
 Laws and Regulations, United States

M AJ O R U .S. P OL L U T I O N C O N TR O L L A W S

Medium Statute Goal/Description Agency

Air Clean Air Act (1970) To prevent & control air pollution/Regulates air emissions through EPA
42 USC §§7401–7671q, National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS)
40 CFR Part 50

Water Clean Water Act (1977) To restore & maintain the integrity of U.S. waters/limits discharges EPA
33 USC §121 et. seq. to U.S. waters through National Pollutant Discharge System
40 CFR Parts 100–140; (NPDES)
400–470

Drinking Water Safe Drinking Water Act To protect U.S. drinking water & supplies from contaminants/ EPA
(1974) 43 USC § 300f et. sec. Establishes safe standards for drinking water
40 CFR Parts 140–149

Ocean Oil Pollution Act of 1990 To prevent and clean up oil spills in U.S. waters/Establishes fund EPA/Coast Guard
33 USC §6602 et. seq. for response costs and requires vessels & facilities to make
40 CFR Part plans for responding to oil spills

Ground/Toxics Resource Conservation & To promote protection of human health and the environment/ EPA
Recovery Act (1976) Oversees the handling of solid & hazardous wastes from "cradle
42 USC §321 et. seq. to grave"
40 CFR Parts 240–271

Comprehensive Environmental To oversee the clean up of the worst U.S. hazardous waste sites/ EPA
Response, Compensation, & Establishes a "Superfund" to aid in the costs that arise in
Liability Act (1980) remediating CERCLA sites.
42 USC §§9601–9675
40 CFR Part 300

Toxic Substances Control Act To understand the health risks of certain chemical substances/ EPA
(1976) 15 USC §2601 et. seq. Promotes the development of scientific health risk data
40 CFR Parts 700–799

Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and To prevent harm to human health and the environment from EPA
Rodenticide Act (1972) pesticide use/To register and classify all pesticides in use and
7 USC §§136–136y analyze risks & benefits of use
40 CFR Parts 162–180

Food Quality Protection Act To protect human health from the risks associated with exposure EPA/FDA
(1996) Public Law 104–170 to pesticides/Uses a "risk cup" test for all pesticides &
establishes maximum exposure levels for each

General Pollution Prevention Act of 1990 To reduce or eliminate pollution/To improve technology & EPA
42 USC §13101 et. seq. manufacturing & products in order to lower pollution levels

Emergency Planning & Community To improve local solutions to pollution emergencies/Directs the States
Right-to-Know Act (1986) creation of State Emergency Response Commissions (SERCs)
42 USC §11011 et. seq.

Occupational Safety & Health Act To ensure that workers will be safe from harmful activities & OSHA
(1970) 29 USC §61 et. seq. hazardous exposures in the workplace/Establishes maximum
exposure limits for workplace hazards

Noise Control Act (1972) To prevent damage to human health from the effects of noise EPA
42 USC §4901 et. seq. pollution/Establishes noise emissions standards and other
40 CFR Parts 204, 211 noise-control measures; Congress has not funded the NCA since
1982, effectively gutting the law.

National Environmental Policy Act Established Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ); requires All Federal Agencies
(1969) 42USC 4321–4347 environmental impact statements (EIS) for all "legislation and
major federal actions"

necessary for pollution-control laws to be effective. Agencies can develop the

expertise needed to execute their lawmaking and legally required oversight
duties because they have a narrower focus than the legislature.
Agencies spend a great deal of time considering the effectiveness of their
regulations. When an agency determines that its goals would be better
achieved if its approach was changed or updated, the agency may propose that
a new rule be created. The agency then must announce the proposed rule in
11
Laws and Regulations, United States

the Federal Register, where the public is able to consider the change and
return feedback on it to the agency. Federal law requires that agencies consider
all public comments that are submitted regarding new rules before making
their final decision. Any changes to the proposed rule must again be reported
in the Federal Register, with new comments solicited from the public. When
the final rule is complete, it is printed in the Federal Register as a new statute
before it is codified, or entered into the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR).
Several federal agencies oversee pollution control in the United States.
At the top of the regulatory pyramid of agencies focused on pollution control
is the EPA, which is assigned the duty of coordinating and overseeing all
environmental protection laws nationwide. EPA also monitors the imple-
mentation of a number of comprehensive pollution-control laws. In addition,
there are numerous federal agencies that regulate more narrowly concen-
trated areas of pollution control law. These agencies include the U.S. Fish
and Wildlife Service (FWS), U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA),
National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), Occu-
pational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), Food and Drug Admin-
istration (FDA), and Nuclear Safety Regulatory Board (NSRB).

Jurisdiction and Enforcement of U.S. Pollution-

Control Laws
Agencies can achieve regulatory compliance through different approaches.
One method is to enforce regulations through frequent inspections and
stringent penalties. Another is to offer incentives to those who are out of
compliance, in order to bring them in line with regulations. Several federal
pollution-control statutes offer such alternatives to violators. For example,
through the CAA, EPA offers emissions trading as an option to those whose
emissions levels are above the agency’s set limits. By making a deal with a
neighboring industry whose emissions are similar in type, one plant can
maintain its higher emissions levels in exchange for an agreement by the
other to keep its emissions below the limit to a comparative degree. By allow-
ing such agreements, EPA maintains acceptable emissions levels within cor-
ridors without drastically affecting the viability of individual industries.
EPA responds to all violations of pollution-control laws in one of four
ways, depending on the severity of the violation. In the least extreme cases,
EPA issues informal letters that advise violators to correct their behavior.
The next level of violation leads to a formal agency response, a legal order
that requires violators to come into compliance. For more severe violations,
EPA initiates civil lawsuits, demands compliance, and imposes potential
financial penalties. Finally, the agency may bring criminal charges against the
most flagrant violators, leading to large fines and prison sentences. In all
cases involving court actions, the U.S. Department of Justice takes over as
attorney for the agency.
Although U.S. pollution control laws are very broad and complex, they
are implemented in an organized system that focuses on the most effective
strategies for approaching problems and bringing about compliance with the
law’s stated goals.
Because of the United States’ comparatively long history of environ-
mental regulation, it is ahead of many other nations of the world in certain
12
 Lead

aspects of pollution control. However, there are still many hurdles to over-
come. Chemical corporations, pharmaceutical companies, the farm bureau,
property-rights advocates, and other interested groups continually lobby
Congress to weaken environmental laws. Such activities have had major
impacts in some cases, including in 1982, when efforts by opponents of the
Noise Control Act led to the effective gutting of that law. Organized lobby-
ing groups also challenge existing laws when circumstances arise under which
court cases can be won that will impact the application or effectiveness of a
given law. Conversely, environmental and human health groups also lobby
Congress in hopes of making pollution control laws even stricter. Such
groups also bring a number of lawsuits each year to push for agency enforce-
ment of existing laws. Ultimately, the effects of pollution control laws are
usually visible, which suggests that they will stay in place for years to come.
S E E A L S O Carson, Rachel; Comprehensive Environmental Response,
Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA); Donora, Pennsylvania;
Enforcement; Environmental Crime; Government; Laws and Regula-
tions, International; Legislative Process; National Environmental
Policy Act (NEPA); Politics; Public Policy Decision making; Regula-
tory Negotiation; Right to Know; Toxic Substances Control Act
(TSCA).
Bibliography
Arbuckle, J.G., et al. (1983). Environmental Law Handbook, 7th edition. Rockville, MD:
Government Institutes.
Percival, Robert V. (1996). Environmental Regulation: Law, Science, and Policy, 2nd edi-
tion. Boston: Little, Brown.

Internet Resource
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. CFR Chapter 40, “Protection of the Envi-
ronment.” Available from http://www.epa.gov.
Mary Elliott Rollé

Lead
Lead (symbol Pb, atomic number 82) is a soft, dense, bluish-gray metal that
melts at the relatively low temperature of 328°C (662°F). It has many bene-
ficial uses in compounds as well as in its metallic form, but is toxic at almost
any level in the body. Mentioned in the Bible, lead was one of the first known
metals. Its toxicity was also recognized long ago; Greek physicians made the
first clinical description of lead poisoning in the first century B.C.E., and lead
is arguably the earliest known industrial pollutant.
Lead taken internally in any of its forms is highly toxic. At higher body
levels, the symptoms of lead poisoning are anemia, weakness, constipation,
colic, palsy, and often a paralysis of the wrists and ankles. At low levels, there
may be no symptoms. Young children are especially at risk from lead, even at
levels once thought safe. Low-level lead poisoning can reduce intelligence,
delay motor development, impair memory, and cause hearing problems and
troubles in balance.
chelating agents chemicals
Higher levels of lead poisoning are reduced with the use of chelating that trap metal ions (chele =
agents that help the body to excrete the lead in urine. Although this may claw)

13
Lead

address the physical symptoms mentioned above, there is no cure for the
loss of IQ and other neurological effects that lead poisoning has on young
children.
Lead was used by the Romans to make water pipes and create elaborate
urban water systems. The word plumbing comes from the Latin word for
lead, plumbum. Lead was, and still remains, a natural choice for plumbing,
malleable able to be shaped Widely available, it is durable and easily malleable, and it does not rust.
and bent Water is still delivered to homes in many U.S. cities via lead supply pipes.
alloy mixture of two or more Alloys of lead are also used in solder and in brass faucets and fixtures. Drink-
metals ing water can leach lead out of a plumbing system, and this may be one
leach dissolve out source of lead exposure.
The most common uses of lead today are in lead-acid storage batteries
and to shield against radiation. Computer screens are made of leaded glass to
contain the electromagnetic radiation within, and as a consequence, two U.S.
states have banned the disposal of CRT monitors in landfills and incinerators.
Lead is useful in many compounds. Lead carbonate, called white lead,
has been used for over 2,000 years as a white pigment in paint and ceramic
drier a compound that glazes, and other lead compounds have been used as pigments and driers.
increases the drying rate Lead-based paint was first identified as the source of deadly childhood poi-
soning in Australia in 1904.
Subsequently, lead-based paint was banned in Australia and much of
Europe in the 1920s, but the United States did not prohibit its residential use
for another fifty years. By 1971 it was determined that two hundred children
a year died annually in this country as a result of lead poisoning. That year
Congress passed the Lead-Based Poisoning Prevention Act, but delayed
implementation of its official ban until 1977.
The lead-based paint applied to homes during the first two-thirds of the
twentieth century continues to be the primary cause of childhood lead poi-
soning. Children who eat flakes of peeling and chipping paint in older,
unmaintained housing are at serious risk. The National Survey of Lead and
Allergens in Housing for 1998 to 2000 found that some 38 million housing
units contain lead-based paint. Some 25 million of these units have “signifi-
cant” lead-based paint hazards.
Even lead-based paint that is in good condition can pose a risk as the dust
created by the friction of opening and closing windows may cause low-level
lead poisoning. The renovation of an older home, when done improperly,
can poison adults and children as well as pets living in that residence. Resi-
dential lead-based paint should never be sanded or burned off.
Lead poisoning is an important health problem, affecting an estimated
890,000 preschoolers, according to the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention. That means that about 4.4 percent of children aged one to five
A little girl is standing and have unacceptably high levels of lead in their bodies. Although lead poison-
gazing out a window. Dust ing crosses all socioeconomic, geographic, and racial boundaries, the burden
settling in windows may of this disease falls disproportionately on low-income families and those of
contain lead, a result of the
use of lead-based paint in
color. In the United States, children from poor families are eight times more
homes. (©2003, Robert J. likely to be poisoned by lead than those from higher-income families.
Huffman, Field Mark
Publications. Reproduced by Another compound, tetraethyl lead, was once routinely added to gasoline
permission.) to prevent knocking or premature detonation in internal combustion
14
 Lead

engines. The lead survived the combustion process and became a significant
contributor to air pollution. Leaded gasoline was phased out in the United
States starting in 1976. All gasoline-powered cars and trucks now sold in this
country must burn unleaded gasoline.
Leaded gasoline nevertheless remains a problem in many other coun-
tries. In 1995 fewer than thirty countries worldwide had banned leaded gaso-
line. In 1996 the World Bank called for the international phasing out of
leaded gasoline, claiming that most of the 1.7 billion urban dwellers in devel-
oping countries were at risk from lead poisoning. The United Nations Com-
mission on Human Settlements—known as Habitat—approved a resolution
in 1999 that committed member nations to begin phasing out leaded gas. By
2001 forty-five nations worldwide had banned its use.
Because lead is an element; it does not biodegrade. Lead pollution from
the dawn of civilization remains in the environment. Ice-core researchers in
North Greenland have found layers of glacial ice contaminated with lead
from ancient Rome’s smelters. The lead pollution emitted by smelters can
reach staggering levels. In Herculaneum, Missouri, where the nation’s largest Sign warning residents of
lead smelter has been in operation for more than one hundred years, health high lead levels from Doe
Run Smelting. (AP/Wide World
officials documented that almost 28 percent of children under seven have ele- Photos. Reproduced by
vated levels of lead in their bloodstream; close to the facility that figure rose permission.)
to 45 percent. Dust samples along the roads used by trucks serving the
biodegrade to decompose
under natural conditions

110

16

100

15
Total Lead Used per 6-Month Period (thousands of metric tons)

90
14
Average Blood Lead (µg/dL)

80
13

70
12
Lead used in gasoline

Average blood lead

60
11

50 10

40 9
1976 1977 1978 1979 1980
Year

SOURCE: Adapted from Alliance to End Childhood Lead Poisoning.

15
Legionnaires’ Disease

smelter contained extremely high concentrations of lead (up to 300,000 parts

per million), and the site has been declared an urgent public health hazard.
Enforcement actions by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) and the Missouri Department of Natural Resources led to an agree-
ment by the Doe Run Company, the smelter’s owner, to install new controls
remediate reduce harmful on air emissions, remediate lead contamination in residential yards, and sta-
effects; restore contaminated bilize a contaminated slag pile located in the Mississippi River flood plain.
site
Although lead is a persistent and widespread contaminant in both natu-
ral and man-made environments, lead poisoning is an entirely preventable
pathway the physical course a disease. The key to prevention is the elimination of sources and pathways.
chemical or pollutant takes The positive results of bans on leaded gasoline, lead in paints and glazes, lead
from its source to the exposed
organism solder, and lead plumbing can be seen in the reduction in the number of lead-
poisoning cases as well as the decreased levels of lead found in the general
population.
Bibliography
Stapleton, Richard. (1994). Lead Is a Silent Hazard. New York: Walker and Company.
Warren, Christian. (2001). Brush with Death; A Social History of Lead Poisoning. Balti-
more: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001.

Internet Resources
Alliance to End Childhood Lead Poisoning. Available at http://www.aeclp.org.
CDC Childhood Lead Poisoning Prevention Program. Available at http://www.cdc.
gov/nceh/lead/lead.htm.
Richard M. Stapleton

Legionnaires’ Disease See Indoor Air Pollution

Legislative Process
Simply, legislative process means the steps required for a proposed bill to
become a law, but the whole process includes much more than what happens
in Congress. At the federal level in the United States, this process has six
major steps. First, a written draft of the proposed law, called a bill, is spon-
sored by a member in one of the two houses of Congress—House or
Senate—and recommended for consideration. The presiding officer of the
house puts the bill on the agenda and assigns it to a standing, or permanent,
committee for consideration.
The standing committees consider all bills and oversee government
actions on specialized issue areas. In the House of Representatives, commit-
tees that deal with environmental issues include the Agriculture, National
Security, Resources, Science, and Appropriations Committees. In the Senate,
standing committees relating to the environment include Agriculture, Nutri-
tion and Forestry, Energy and Natural Resources, Environment and Public
Works, and Judiciary Committees, although others in both houses may also
consider related issues.
Within the standing committee, the bill goes to a subcommittee to study
and modify; here, the bill is debated and edited in a line-by-line, and often
word-by-word, manner, with the agreed upon changes literally written on the
original draft bill.
16
 Legislative Process

T H E P O L IC Y P RO C E S S

Political Society Political

Culture Economy

Culture and Economy shape and

socialize each individual's values and
beliefs about government

Individual's views are combined to form

Public Opinion

The Media, Interest Groups, and Political

Parties, join with Individuals in Political
Dialogue about a Policy Idea or Issue

Policy Proposed as Legislation in Congress:

Six Steps

Signed by President, Legislation is sent to

appropriate Bureaucracy for Rule Making
and Program Administration

Bureaucratic Program Administration

Regulates Scope of Actions Permitted to
Individuals and Industries

Once modification is completed and the subcommittee and committee

approve the bill, the committee sends the bill back to the full house for floor
action, or more debate and a vote, this time will all the members of the house
participating. After a bill passes in one house (gets a majority of “yea” votes),
the bill is sent to the other house of Congress where the process begins all
over again. Because of this process, it is unlikely that both houses will approve
identical bills. However, when both houses have recommended a bill on the
same issue, the two versions are sent to a conference committee of members
of both houses, where the differences are discussed and argued over. If the
conference committee arrives at a compromise bill, that bill is sent back to
both houses for approval.
When this last legislative approval is obtained, Congress sends the bill to
the president for approval or rejection. If the president agrees with the pro-
visions of the bill, it is signed, and the bill becomes a law. However, if the
president disagrees with the provisions in a bill, the bill will be vetoed, and a
veto message will be sent with the bill back to Congress. Congress can over-
ride a presidential veto with a supermajority vote, or a vote in support of the
bill by two-thirds of both houses.
The more complex legislative process begins before Congress drafts a
bill and ends after legislation is signed. Other governmental institutions are
involved, including various executive branch agencies, such as the Environ-
mental Protection Agency (EPA). Outside government, other actors, such as
17
Life Cycle Analysis

the media and interest groups, are also involved in lawmaking. These exter-
nal, unofficial actors help to mediate the political dialogue about what gov-
ernment should do.
Mediated politics occurs when there are institutions or individuals who
carry the message between an individual and the representative, telling gov-
ernment what the public prefers. Legislative representatives receive messages
in various forms from individuals (as letters, votes, and contributions), as well
as from media reports and editorials, public opinion polls, political parties,
interest groups corporate or lobbyists, and interest groups. Taken together, these convey what it is the
citizen groups with a stake in public wants on an issue in addition to the level of interest. If an issue and
influencing legislation
opinion on it are compelling enough, then one or more legislators will intro-
duce a bill in one of the houses of the legislature, and lawmaking begins.
Once a bill is passed by both houses of Congress and signed by the pres-
ident, it goes to an executive agency where another part of the process
begins. The agency creates a way to implement the policy, often by writing
rules and regulations, stated in the law. Rule writing is based on implemen-
tation guidelines established in the Administrative Procedures Act, which
include holding public hearings for citizen feedback. The legislative process
ends here with an implemented and enforceable law.
Some members of society may be negatively affected by new legislation.
These individuals may form interest groups, write their legislators, or go to
court in order to get the law changed. This is where the policy process starts
and where active citizens dissatisfied with what the government is, or is not,
doing ask for a change in policy. S E E A L S O Public Participation; Public
Policy Decision Making.
Bibliography
Douglas, Arnold R. (1990). The Logic of Congressional Action. New Haven, CT: Yale
University Press.
Downs, Anthony. (1972). “The Issue-Attention Cycle.” The Public Interest 28 (Sum-
mer):38–50.

Internet Resources
U.S. Congress. Legislative Process—How a Bill Becomes a Law. Available from http://
www.house.gov/house/Tying_it_all.html.
Sara E. Keith

Life Cycle Analysis

impact a change to the envi- A typical product has a range of environmental impact arising from its man-
ronment resulting from a ufacture, use, and disposal. A life cycle assessment (LCA) evaluates the entire
human activity or product
environmental impact of a product through its life cycle. An LCA might, for
example, compare the environmental impact of ordering an item online to
going to a store to buy it. The analysis would include the environmental
impact of having the item mailed to the purchaser’s home directly from the
distributor versus having it sent from the distributor to the store, and then
having the customer drive to the store to buy it. In this example, an LCA has
shown that it can be environmentally preferable to buy products online, but
only if the item is sent by standard truck mail rather than by express airmail.
Other LCAs have shown that lightweight plastic bumpers are superior to
heavier steel bumpers for cars, and that the relative merits of cloth versus
18
 Lifestyle

disposable diapers depend on how the cloth diapers are dried, because elec-
tric drying uses so much energy.
Life cycle analyses of products are typically coupled with efforts to
reduce their environmental impact. Extended producer responsibility (EPR)
is the concept that the producer of a product is also responsible for recycling
the product. In Germany, producers are required to take back the packaging
of their products, and in the Netherlands, the cost of cars incorporates a recy-
cling tax. S E E A L S O Recycling; Reuse.
Internet Resources
Journal of Industrial Ecology. Available from http://www.yale.edu/jie.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. National Risk Management Research Labo-
ratory, Life-Cycle Assessment Web site. “LC Access.” Available from http://
www.epa.gov/ORD.
Valerie M. Thomas

Lifestyle
It might be said that, whether conscious of it or not, everyone has a lifestyle.
From this perspective, lifestyle refers simply to the defining characteristics or
qualities of a particular way of life, be it of an individual, a nation, or an entire
culture.
On the other hand, some argue that lifestyle is a Western concept, mean-
ingful only to the citizens of affluent countries, not to those whose main con-
cern is mere survival because of their absolute poverty. From this perspective,
the concept of lifestyle applies only to variants of consumerism, a largely
materialistic way of life that assumes: (1) that what one wants is entirely a
matter of choice; (2) that almost all choices are within one’s grasp; and (3)
that consumer choices can and should be hierarchically ranked from the most
to the least desirable, according to what the mass media and corporate enter-
prise decide is most worth having and doing. Underlying high-end con-
sumerism is the belief that the most desirable lifestyle is dependent on having
the most prestigious occupations, which are, in turn, associated with the
highest incomes. The concept and its implications are closely connected to
the values associated with extreme individualism, corporate capitalism, and
an open market, preferably one that is global in its reach.
To critics, what is excluded from lifestyle is even more important than
what is included. While most people would generally consider lifestyle to be
a neutral or amoral concept, others, on looking more closely, see it as having
an immoral side. Discussions of lifestyle generally exclude any thoughts of
justice, respect for human rights, or fairness. In short, questions of “ways of
being” are left out of the equation: We tend to forgo contemplation of what
society has become and what it should be in pursuit of the favored lifestyle.
This is innocent enough as long as people are truly ignorant of global cir-
cumstances, but it becomes increasingly inexcusable as the consequences of
gross social inequity become better known and the income gap yawns ever
wider.
Countries most closely identified with a consumer lifestyle include the
United States (where shopping is the most popular leisure-time activity),
19
Lifestyle

A consumer is selecting bulk

foods. (M. Stone, U.S. EPA.
Reproduced by permission.)

Canada, Western Europe, Japan, Australia, New Zealand, and a few others
where post-Enlightenment “scientific materialism” has taken hold as the
dominant way of seeing the world. In these generally democratic countries,
the economy functions more or less according to the laws of supply and
demand—if people buy a lot of some good or service, then private businesses
organize to produce as much of that good as they can and still make a profit
(keeping in mind that at least some of the demand may be stimulated by
advertising in the first place). People spend their money as they see fit with
little interference by governments. As a result, the economy produces what is
wanted by citizens who have the money to pay rather than what might be
needed by impoverished members of society who cannot “vote” in the mar-
ketplace. In the end, the citizens of free-market countries have access to the
most prodigious outpouring of manufactured goods and consumer services,
both necessary and trivial, ever made available to members of the human
species. Little wonder that in most market democracies many citizens seek
social status and define their self-worth in terms of the quality and quantity
of their personal possessions, particularly automobiles, houses and furnish-
ings (especially home entertainment products), and clothes. Indeed, the accu-
mulation of private goods is a defining characteristic of a consumer lifestyle.
It is often remarked that even the average person in the world’s wealthy con-
sumer societies enjoys greater personal comfort and convenience, if not out-
right wealth, than European monarchs of only a few centuries ago.
Given its pervasiveness in the West, many people will be surprised to
learn that the consumer society was, in effect, deliberately constructed. In the
years following World War II, North America was endowed with great indus-
trial overcapacity (war-time factories) and large numbers of underemployed
20
 Lifestyle

workers (returning soldiers). At the same time, the general population, having
endured the material deprivation of the Depression and subsequent wartime
rationing, was quite used to living modestly. To break people of their habit of
“underconsuming,” American industry purposefully organized to encourage
North America to become a throw-away society and embrace a consuming
way of life. In 1955, retail analyst Victor Lebow argued that Americans should
make consumption their way of life. He suggested that if they succeeded in
making the buying and use of goods into a kind of ritual, they would find spir-
itual satisfaction and ego gratification in consumption. His point was that to
keep the economy going things had to be consumed, burned up, worn out,
replaced and discarded at an ever-increasing rate. Today, a multibillion dollar
advertising industry is still dedicated, in part, to creating needs that some new
or improved product claims to meet.
Technology has also played a major role in helping industry to persuade
people that material goods will help to fill the spiritual void that gnaws at the
heart of techno-industrial society. For example, television has so successfully
sold conspicuous consumption that the world consumed as many goods and
services between 1950 (when commercial television was launched) and the
mid-1990s as had all previous generations combined. For all that, a growing
number of studies show that there is no correlation—indeed, there may even
be a negative correlation—between growing incomes and subjective meas-
ures of “happiness” in the world’s richest countries. It turns out that money
really does not buy happiness.

The Pollution Connection

The promotion of consumerism, however it is portrayed in the media, leads
to increasing pollution, resource scarcity, biotic impoverishment, and other
forms of environmental degradation all over the world. Moreover, while a
quarter of humanity enjoys the benefits of material plenty, the negative
impacts of economic growth contribute to the loss of health and life among
the poor in every country.
The economic production process often creates a vastly larger mass of
waste than useful product. The packaging, distribution, use, and consump-
tion of the product produce still more waste. Waste becomes pollution when
the level of contamination impairs the aesthetic quality or productive capac-
ity of the atmosphere, water, soil, or landscape; that is, when ecosystems are
significantly damaged. Of course, as members of a human-centered, materi-
alistic society, we tend to pay the most attention to pollution when it affects
our own health or the health of other commercially valuable species. How-
ever they are perceived, waste and pollution are the inevitable and sometimes
pernicious by-products of a consumer society, and the consumer lifestyle is
spreading around the globe.
It is of little comfort that despite the best efforts of scientists, engineers,
and technological optimists, progress in solving our waste and pollution
problems has been decidedly erratic even in the world’s most “advanced”
economies. For example, studies show that although a greater number of
people recycle, more waste than ever is also being hauled to landfills and
incinerated. Often seeming improvements in one problem area are wiped out
by worsening conditions in another—waste simply has to go somewhere. In
2002, the North American Commission for Environmental Cooperation
21
Lifestyle

(CEC), an agency created under the North American Free Trade Agreement,
reported in Taking Stock (its sixth annual study on pollution in Canada and
the United States) that the total amount of toxic releases and transfers fell by
three percent between 1995 and 1999. This slight decline was partially
attributable to a 25-percent reduction in air emissions by the manufacturing
sector. (It is probably also the result of economic restructuring, including the
migration of some polluting industries or activities to developing countries.)
However, reduced air pollution was offset by a 25-percent jump in on-site
releases to land, a 35-percent surge in off-site releases—mainly to landfills,
and a 26-percent rise in the waste dumped into lakes, rivers, and streams.
Almost 3.4 million tons of toxic chemical waste were produced in 1999,
roughly one million tons of that released on-site into the air. Almost 8 per-
cent of total releases included chemicals known to cause cancer, birth defects,
or other reproductive problems.
The following year, Taking Stock reported a continuing improvement
overall—the reduction in industrial releases and transfers of chemicals in
North America reached five percent in the six years from 1995 to 2000.
However, there was a significant increase in toxic discharges among smaller
manufacturing firms. A group of fifteen thousand industrial facilities across
North America released and transferred 32 percent more toxic chemicals
from 1998 to 2000. These facilities, with chemical releases and transfers up
to 110 tons, represent the majority of polluters in Canada and the United
States. Victor Shantora, acting executive director for the CEC, noted that
“The small ‘p’ polluter might not grab the same headlines as a large power
plant or chemical manufacturer, but their effect is being felt throughout the
North American environment” (CEC 2003b). In Canada, these small ‘p’ pol-
luters registered a 66-percent increase in chemical releases and transfers. In
the United States, the same group recorded an increase of 29 percent.
Overall, wealthy industrial countries like the United States and Canada
are responsible for more than 90 percent of the 350 million metric tons of
hazardous waste produced globally each year. Approximately 65 percent of
the world’s economic production, consumption, and pollution is associated
with cities in rich countries.
The World Resources Institute (WRI) describes the general problem of
waste production in consumer economies in a particularly telling report, The
Weight of Nations, released in 2000. This report documents the flow of certain
materials through five of the world’s most advanced, efficient, and wealthy
industrial economies—Austria, Germany, Japan, the Netherlands, and the
United States—over a twenty-year period up to 1996. The WRI analysis
shows that, despite successful waste-reduction measures for some contami-
nants, significant improvements in the efficiency of material use and a slight
reduction in resource throughput per unit of gross domestic product (GDP),
both gross and per capita processed output (solid, liquid, and gaseous wastes)
generally increased; the extraction and use of fossil energy resources domi-
nated waste flows in all countries examined; and except in Germany, carbon
dioxide emissions rose in both total and per capita terms in all countries stud-
ied (the data on Germany were distorted by unification and by that nation’s
one-time shift from coal to other more efficient hydrocarbon fuels).
These results may come as a surprise to those who believe that increased
economic efficiency and resource productivity (technological efficiency),
22
 Lifestyle

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combined with the shift to more “knowledge-based” sources of wealth cre-

ation, would significantly “decouple” the economy from nature. On the con-
trary, The Weight of Nations concludes unambiguously that the resource
savings from efficiency gains and economic restructuring have been negated
by population growth, growing consumption, and increasing waste output.
Moreover, The Weight of Nations shows that despite the growing economic
role of high-end services and other knowledge-based activities, modern
industrial economies are carbon-based economies driven by fossil fuel; their
predominant waste-generating activity is burning material.
The WRI study might actually be optimistic because it apparently exam-
ined only the energy and materials flows through the domestic economies of
the countries studied. One may then ask how the data on resource consump-
tion and waste generation would be affected if the calculations were corrected
for trade flows. Does the embodied energy and material content of imported
manufactured goods exceed that of exports? If so, the reduction in material
consumption suggested by the modest decoupling of GDP growth from
domestic energy and material use may be exaggerated.

Comparative Ecological Footprints

Ecological footprint analysis (EFA) provides another way to understand the
problem of material throughputs in the modern world. The ecological foot-
print of a specified population may be defined as the area of productive land
and water ecosystems required, on a continuous basis, to produce the
resources that the population consumes and to assimilate its wastes, wherever
on Earth the relevant land/water is located. Because of trade and natural
flows, portions of any modern nation’s eco-footprint are scattered all over the
world.
23
Lifestyle

Since eco-footprint estimates are based on the resource use and waste
generation associated with final consumption by study populations, they
provide a way to compare the ecological impacts of differing lifestyles.
Recent national eco-footprint estimates underscore the fact that high-income
countries—including the most technologically efficient economies examined
in the WRI study—are the most material-intensive and polluting economies
on Earth on a per capita basis. The bar graph shows the per capita ecological
footprints (EFs) of a selection of countries across the income spectrum, from
among the richest to the poorest on Earth. To facilitate comparison, the EFs
are reported in hectares at world average productivity (data drawn from
WWF 2002).
Note the enormous disparity between high-income “northern” countries
and the poorer developing countries of the south. North Americans and
Europeans typically consume ten to twenty or more times as much per capita
of various resources as do the impoverished citizens of the poorest countries
such as the people of Bangladesh and Sierra Leone; the wealthy therefore
impose a correspondingly massive pollution load on the world’s ecosystems.
Because of the finite volume of “ecological space” on Earth, it would not
be possible to raise the entire world population to North American or west-
ern European material standards on a sustainable basis using prevailing tech-
nologies. The total eco-footprints of many densely populated high-income
countries are already considerably larger than their domestic territories.
Indeed, the world average eco-footprint is about 2.3 ha while there are fewer
than 2 ha of productive land and water on Earth. Although the basic eco-
nomic needs of a billion people have not yet been met, the world population
has already overshot global carrying capacity. Humans are living and grow-
ing, in part, by depleting the biophysical resource base of the planet.
There can be little doubt that political factors help to maintain the dis-
parity between high-income and developing countries. For example, the
structural adjustment programs imposed by the International Monetary
Fund (IMF) and the World Bank as a condition for development loans force
borrowing countries to lower their standards of living and to export more
minerals, timber, and food both to pay down their loans and to purchase
imports from high-income countries. However, in the increasingly open
global marketplace, developing countries must compete with each other and
with first world subsidies for first world markets. This forces down the prices
for developing countries’ commodity exports in relation to the prices of the
manufactured goods and services they must import. According to economist
J.W. Smith, current terms of trade create a relative price difference that is
even more effective than colonialism in appropriating the natural resources
and in exploiting the cheap labor of less-developed countries. Remarkably,
while developed countries claim to be financing the developing countries, the
poor countries are actually financing the rich through low pay for equally
productive labor, investment in commodity production for the wealthy
world, and other dimensions of unequal trade.
Most significantly, many observe that the terms of trade and structural
adjustments forced on third world countries are quite opposite to the policies
under which the wealthy nations developed. This suggests that the power
brokers of the developed countries know exactly what they are doing. Critics
such as Smith claim that their grand strategy is to impose unequal trades on
24
 Lifestyle

the world so as to lay claim to the natural wealth and labor of weaker nations.
Intentional or not, the strategy is clearly effective: In the 1960s only $3
flowed north for every dollar flowing south; by the late 1990s the ratio was
seven to one.
It is worth emphasizing here the extent to which wealthy industrialized
countries are dependent on cheap commodities, particularly low-cost fossil
fuel, to maintain their consumer economies. This reality is becoming an
increasing strain on geopolitical stability. For example, both our highly pro-
ductive intensive agriculture and almost all forms of transportation are
directly or indirectly petroleum based. This dependence has, in turn, led to
instances of aggression to control oil-producing countries thus assuring ready
access to critical fuel supplies. (To some oil is certainly one of the motivating
factors implicated in the 2003 war on Iraq.) It also encourages injustice, vio-
lations of human rights, and ecological degradation in order to extract oil as
cheaply as possible. A clear example of this is the alleged genocide and eco-
cide committed by Royal Dutch Shell Oil in Ogoniland, Nigeria, a case that
has been widely reported and is on trial in U.S. courts under the Alien Torts
Claims Act (ATCA).
Although such gross human rights violations are particularly egregious,
even normal day-to-day business activities that promote consumerism and
the ever-expanding eco-footprints of wealthy consumers can be interpreted
as a form of “institutionalized violence” if we continue these practices in full
knowledge of the distant social and ecological consequences.

Eco-Apartheid
Worldwide, the urban poor tend to live in neglected neighborhoods, endur-
ing pollution, waste dumping, and ill health, but lacking the political influ-
ence to effect improvements. Indeed, since the time of the Industrial
Revolution in the late 1700s, the urban poor, particularly racial and ethnic
minorities, have had neither the resources to avoid, nor the power to control,
noxious hazards in the workplace or in their homes. These are the people
who have borne the greatest ecological costs of two centuries of continuous
material growth. Today, the consumer lifestyle of the world’s wealthy elite
imposes an unprecedented burden of pollution, ecological disintegrity, and
global climate change on the world. The costs of this burden are paid most
heavily by the most vulnerable members of the human family: the poor and
people of color.
Indeed, some see an intensifying pattern of “eco-apartheid” throughout
the world. Extreme examples of city-level environmental distress are found
both in the industrial cities of the former socialist and communist economies
and in middle- and low-income megacities in the developing world. Cer-
tainly, the urban environmental hazards causing the most ill health are those
found in the impoverished homes, neighborhoods, and workplaces located
principally in the poorer countries of the Southern Hemisphere.
The problem, however, is hardly confined to second and third world cities.
Even in the United States, the geographic distribution of air pollution, con-
taminated waters and fish, toxic waste sites, and landfills, correlates strongly
with the distribution of both racial minorities and poverty. People have there-
fore begun to speak passionately of the need to ensure environmental justice
25
Lifestyle

for environmentally beleaguered communities. Some analysts emphasize that

the correlation between chronic exposure to ecological hazards and race is
much stronger than that between exposure and income poverty. A National
Wildlife Federation review of sixty-four studies of environmental inequity
found sixty-three cases of disparity by race or income but race proved to be the
more important factor. Similarly, the Argonne National Laboratory found that
of U.S. population, 33 percent of whites, 50 percent of African-Americans, and
60 percent of Hispanics live in the 136 counties in which two or more air pol-
lutants exceed standards.
To make matters worse, the evidence is clear that even in these enlight-
ened modern times, rich neighborhoods are often better served by environ-
mental law and regulatory agencies than are less advantaged ones. It seems
that if a community is poor or inhabited largely by racial minorities, it will
likely receive less protection than a community that is affluent or white. In his
article “Decision Making,” Robert Bullard has argued that:
. . . the current environmental protection paradigm has institutional-
ized unequal enforcement, traded human health for profit, placed the
burden of proof on the “victims” rather than on the pollution indus-
try, legitimated human exposure to harmful substances, promoted
“risky” technologies such as incinerators, exploited the vulnerability of
economically and politically disenfranchised communities, subsidized
ecological destruction, created an industry around risk assessment,
delayed cleanup actions, and failed to develop pollution prevention as
the overarching and dominant strategy. (p. 3)
It seems that in the United States economic privilege and power not only
insulate the wealthy from the worst effects of ecological degradation, but also
confer additional protection under the law.

Personal Responsibility
While overconsumption, particularly in northern rich countries, is a major
contributor to accelerating human-induced global change, the situation is
not totally hopeless. Human beings are consumers by nature—we have to
consume to survive—but informed consumers can learn to consume respon-
sibly. What, then, can the individual do to reduce his or her personal “load”
on nature? The fact is that making careful consumer choices can greatly
reduce the negative impacts of one’s personal lifestyle. For example, the most
ecologically harmful consumer activities are associated with fuel-guzzling
private automobiles and light trucks, diets rich in industrially produced meat,
poultry and other products of intensive agriculture, home heating and cool-
ing (including water heating), modern appliances, home construction and
household water/sewage. Personal transportation, food, and household oper-
ations alone account for between 59 and 80 percent of total household envi-
ronmental impact in several categories of pollution and environmental
damage (see table).
Deciding to take public transportation, walk, or bicycle (generally reduc-
ing automobile dependence) in the city, switching to a mostly organic low-
meat diet, living in a modestly scaled house or apartment and ensuring that
it is adequately insulated, and using only essential, certified high-efficiency
appliances are some of the best ways for residents of high-income countries
26
 Lifestyle

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS PER HOUSEHOLD

Climate Air Water Habitat

Change Pollution Pollution Alteration
Activity Greenhouse Common Toxic Common Toxic Water Land
gases use use
Transportation 32% 28% 51% 7% 23% 2% 15%
Food 12 17 9 38 22 73 45
Household 35 32 20 21 14 11 4
operations
Subtotal 80% 77% 80% 67% 59% 86% 64%
SOURCE: Brower, M., and Leon, W. (1999). The Consumer’s Guide to Effective Environmental Choices. New York: Three
Rivers Press.

to shrink their personal ecological footprints. Consumers can also demand

“fair trade” goods (such as coffee and other third world agricultural com-
modities) that ensure adequate returns to peasant producers in the develop-
ing world.
Unfortunately, shifting consumer preferences alone will not create a
green and fair economy. For example, the unfettered market is unlikely to
provide the financial incentives that are needed to stimulate the private sec-
tor to take advantage of technologies that already exist and that could be used
to increase resource productivity (efficiency) and conservation. Citizens
everywhere should therefore also support their governments to undertake
the ecological tax reforms (e.g., pollution charges and resource depletion
taxes) necessary to move their economies into a more efficient conservation
mode. No country can go it entirely alone. International cooperation in this
endeavor is necessary to create and maintain a level economic playing field.
There are of course, more radical solutions. Increasing numbers of peo-
ple are taking an additional step to reduce their load on the earth in the
movement toward “voluntary simplicity.” These individuals adopt less hectic
and materially simpler lifestyles in an effort both to reduce their ecological
footprints and to provide the psychological space needed to enrich their lives
spiritually. S E E A L S O Activism; Environmental Justice; Industry; Mass
Media; Popular Culture; Poverty.
Bibliography
Brower, M., and Leon, W. (1999). The Consumer’s Guide to Effective Environmental
Choices. New York: Three Rivers Press (for The Union of Concerned Scientists).
Bullard, R. (1995). “Decision Making.” Chapter 1 in Faces of Environmental Racism,
edited by L. Westra and P. Wenz. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield.
CEC. (2002 and 2003a). Taking Stock. Montreal: North American Commission for
Environmental Cooperation.
Colborn, T.; Dumanoski, D.; and Myers, J. P. (1994). Our Stolen Future. New York:
Dutton.
Goldman, B. (1994). Not Just Prosperity: Achieving Sustainability with Environmental Jus-
tice. Washington, D.C.: National Wildlife Federation Corporate Conservation
Council.
Hardoy, J.; Mitlin, D.; and Satterthwaite, D. (1992). Environmental Problems in Third
World Cities. London: Earthscan.
Haughton, G. (1999). “Environmental Justice and the Sustainable City.” Chapter 4 in The
Earthscan Reader in Sustainable Cities, edited by D. Satterthwaite. London: Earthscan.
Lane, Robert. (2000). The Loss of Happiness in Market Democracies. New Haven, CT:
Yale University Press.

27
Light Nonaqueous Phase Liquid (LNAPLs)

McGranahan, G.; Songsore, J.; and Kjellén, M. (1999). “Sustainability, Poverty, and
Urban Environmental Transitions.” Chapter 6 in The Earthscan Reader in Sustainable
Cities, edited by D. Satterthwaite. London: Earthscan.
Motavalli, J. (1966). “Enough!” E Magazine 7(2):28–35.
Rees, W. E. (1996). “Revisiting Carrying Capacity: Area-Based Indicators of Sustain-
ability.” Population and Environment, 17(3):195–215.
Rees, W.E. (2002). “Globalization and Sustainability: Conflict or Convergence?” Bul-
letin of Science, Technology and Society, 22(4):249-268.
Rees, W.E., and Westra, L. (2003). “When Consumption Does Violence: Can There Be
Sustainability and Environmental Justice in a Resource-Limited World?” Chapter 5
in Just Sustainabilities: Development in an Unequal World, edited by Julian Agyeman,
Robert Bullard and Bob Evans. London: Earthscan and Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Robins, N., and Kumar, R. (1999). “Producing, Providing, Trading: Manufacturing
Industry and Sustainable Cities.” Environment and Urbanization, 11(2):75-93.
Smith, J.W. (2000). Economic Democracy: The Political Struggle of the 21st Century.
Armonk: NY: M.E. Sharpe.
Wackernagel, M., and Rees, W. E. (1996). Our Ecological Footprint: Reducing Human
Impact on Earth. Philadelphia, PA: New Society Publishers.
Wackernagel, M.; Onisto, L.; Bello, P.; Linares, A. C.; Falfán, I. S. L.; Garcia, J. M.;
Guerrero, A. I. S.; and Guerrero, M. G. S. (1999). “National Natural Capital
Accounting with the Ecological Footprint Concept.” Ecological Economics, 29:375–390.
Westra, L. (l998). Living in Integrity. Lanham, MD: Rowman Littlefield.
Westra, L. (2000). “Institutionalized Environmental Violence and Human Rights.”
Chapter 16 in Ecological Integrity: Integrating Environment, Conservation and Health,
edited by D. Pimentel, L. Westra, and R. Noss. Washington, D.C.: Island Press.
World Resources Institute. (2000). The Weight of Nations. Washington, D.C.: World
Resources Institute.
World Wide Fund for Nature. (2002). Living Planet Report 2002. Gland, Switzerland:
World Wide Fund for Nature (and others).

Internet Resource
CEC. (2003b). “Latest News.” Montreal: North American Commission for Environ-
mental Cooperation. http://www.cec.org/news/details/index.cfm?varlan=english
&ID=2529.
William E. Rees and Laura Westra

Light Nonaqueous Phase Liquid (LNAPLs) See

Nonaqueous Phase Liquids (NAPLs)

Light Pollution
As humankind enters the twenty-first century, ours is the first generation
where the majority of children cannot routinely see the night sky in all its
splendor and glory. The problem is caused by light pollution, excess or mis-
directed artificial light that alters the natural night sky. In the night sky, light
pollution causes an atmospheric phenomenon known as skyglow. You may
have seen overhead clouds at night glowing with strange pink or orange col-
ors; this is wasted light reflecting off the water particles that form clouds.
Even without clouds, light shoots into the sky and reflects off of tiny airborne
dust and moisture particles. The skyglow phenomenon directly affects the
scientific research of amateur and professional astronomers. It also affects
everyone else who simply enjoys a dark night sky abundant with stars
overhead. Scientists say that nearly two-thirds of the U.S. population can no
longer see the Milky Way.
28
 Light Pollution

On Hawaii’s big island, Mauna Kea towers almost fourteen thousand feet Map of Earth at night, taken
from NASA space satellites.
above sea level and is home to the greatest collection of large telescopes on
Bright areas are those that are
the earth. In several communities around the base of the mountain, the types more developed. (Data
of allowed nighttime lights have been restricted to keep the skies dark at the courtesy Marc Imhoff of NASA
mountaintop—assuring that this site will remain one of the best in the world GSFC and Christopher Elvidge
of NOAA NGDC. Image by Craig
for astronomical research. This approach has also been successful in com- Mayhew and Robert Simmon,
munities such as Tucson, Arizona, whose nearby Kitt Peak National Obser- NASA GSFC. Reproduced by
vatory has been in operation since the late 1960s. permission.)

On a somewhat smaller scale, in Springfield, Vermont, an annual tele-

scope makers convention named Stellafane was threatened in the late 1990s
by the lights of a nearby, newly constructed planned prison called Vermont
Southern State Correctional Facility. Since 1920 as many as 3,000 telescope
makers and stargazers from around the world have converged at this site to
scan the dark New England skies with their homemade telescopes. When
stargazing was threatened by the corrections facility’s bright lights, telescope
makers worked closely with prison officials to install appropriate lighting that
maintained security, while minimizing its impact on the dark night sky.
Unfortunately, when the growth of lighting has gone unchecked, as in
parts of California, instruments of great historical value, such as the two-
hundred-inch Hale Telescope on Mount Palomar, have had their usefulness
severely limited.
In an effort to assess the magnitude of the light pollution problem, a
comprehensive World Atlas of Artificial Night Sky Brightness was produced
in 2001 by researchers at the University of Padua, Italy, and the National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). Thanks to work like this,
light pollution is rapidly gaining recognition as a global economic issue.
Although the problem is most pronounced among developed industrialized
nations, it is also responsible for squandering the limited resources of poor
and developing nations that can least afford the waste.
In 1988 a nonprofit educational research organization known as the Inter-
national Dark Sky Association (IDA) was founded to increase awareness of
29
Light Pollution

and offer solutions to the problems associated with light pollution. The IDA
currently has almost ten thousand members around the world, and has created
the definitive collection of resources for the study of light pollution and its
impact on the planet. Just a glance through the archives of the IDA reveals
that light pollution has an impact on everything from humans to moths.
For example, in Florida, sea turtle hatchlings become disoriented by inland
artificial lighting that confuses them during their first trip to the sea. It appears
that artificial lights can distract the young turtles from needed optical clues (e.g.,
the sky reflecting off the ocean) which would normally lead them to the sea
shortly after hatching. In some cases, nesting females also go astray for the same
reason. This problem has prompted sixteen counties and forty municipalities in
Florida to adopt coastal lighting ordinances. However, even with these ordi-
nances, in 1998 almost 20,000 hatchlings were reported to have become disori-
ented, and it is suspected that even this number might be underestimated.
Another example of light pollution’s impact on wildlife may be found on
the Hawaiian island of Kauai. Here, young birds called Newell’s Shearwaters
become disoriented by artificial lighting as they try out their wings for the
first flight from mountainside nests to the ocean. The result is that many of
the endangered seabirds die or collapse from exhaustion before making it to
sea. In 1998 it was determined that 819 shearwaters had been disoriented by
nighttime lighting on Kauai. Fortunately, a volunteer rescue effort saved 89
percent of these exhausted or injured birds.
These examples are representative of a much larger global problem that
extends well beyond Florida and Hawaii. In 2002 a conference entitled the
Ecological Consequences of Artificial Night Lighting was sponsored by the
Urban Wildlands Group and the UCLA Institute of the Environment. Find-
ings from a wide range of research focusing on the effects of light pollution
on wildlife demonstrated that nighttime lighting is having a profound (and
usually negative) impact on animals in both urban and rural areas. Although
there is no question that wild animals are affected by light pollution, there is
emerging evidence that humans might share some of the same light-induced
(or dark-induced) chemical reactions that affect other animals. A key finding
are the chemical bases for the circadian rhythm that regulates sleep/awake
cycles in some insects. If humans share a similar photochemical basis for the
sleep/awake cycle, then how does excess nighttime lighting influence this
natural cycle in humans? There are currently more questions than answers
regarding the impact of artificial nighttime lighting on humans, but it now
appears possible that nighttime lighting could influence human lives well
beyond the ability to play baseball at night!
It is estimated that each year the total value of wasted light in the United
States alone is equal to about $1 billion. This is clearly a significant waste of
resources. When the environmental impact of energy generation is consid-
ered, then light pollution is observed to have considerable secondary effects
as well. A dramatic illustration of this problem occurs whenever one flies over
a metropolitan area at night. While the thousands of tiny lights below might
look impressive, all the light visible from an airplane window represents
wasted illumination (and energy).
Obviously, light pollution is a problem with many negative ramifications.
Fortunately, however, it is also a problem that has many positive solutions.
One is to shield nighttime lighting and direct it appropriately so that all the
30
 Limits to Growth

light is directed down to the ground where it is needed rather than up into
the sky. By doing this, lights with lower wattage can be used and a significant In 2002 the Czech Republic
amount of energy and money saved. became the first country to enact
national light pollution legisla-
Another solution is to simply reduce the number and brightness of lights.
tion. The Czech law requires the
Often it is argued that this will reduce security, but research has shown that
use of fully shielded light fix-
if done properly, less light can actually increase visibility (and thus security)
tures—fixtures that “emit no light
by reducing glare and eliminating dark, high-contrast shadows.
above the horizontal direction.”
Finally, replacing inefficient fixtures with modern energy-efficient (and Czech legislation was patterned
shielded) models, as well as using motion sensors and timers, can all help to after the “Lombardy Law,”
save energy and reduce wasted light. enacted after some 25,000 citi-
These examples illustrate what can be done to reduce light pollution. zens of Italy’s Lombardy region
Lawmakers are beginning to address these issues more and more, as many signed petitions demanding that
communities, parks, and even entire countries are enacting lighting controls, action be taken against the glare
ordinances, and regulations. caused by ineffective outdoor
lighting.
As of 2002 many national parks throughout the United States enforce
strict lighting plans to protect wildlife and to ensure that visitors will experi-
ence the outdoors and nighttime sky under natural (often only celestial) illu-
mination. The same year the Czech Republic became the latest country to
enact a national light-control policy, as Australia previously had. Many towns
and cities worldwide have enacted local lighting-control laws to protect the
night sky for reasons that include aesthetics, economics, security, and even
astronomical research and amateur stargazing. Once light pollution is
addressed, it leaves no residual pollutants behind and results in saved energy
and better visibility. S E E A L S O Electric Power.
Bibliography
Mizon, Bob. (2002). Light Pollution–Responses and Remedies. London and New York:
Springer-Verlag.
Sky and Telescope. September 1998.
Internet Resources
Cinzano, P., Falchi, F., and Elvidge, C.D. The First World Atlas of the Artificial Night Sky
Brightness. Available from http://xxx.lanl.gov/abs/astro-ph/0108052.
International Dark Sky Association Web site. Available from http://www.darksky.org/
index.html.
Urban Wildlands Group Web site. Available from http://www.urbanwildlands.org/
conference.html.
Peter Michaud

Limits to Growth, The

The Limits to Growth, written in 1972 by a team of researchers from the Mass-
achusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), presented the results of a study in
which a computer model attempted to predict the fate of society. The computer model a program
model studied the interrelationships between the world’s population, agri- that simulates a real event or
situation
cultural production, natural resources, industrial production, and pollution.
The results of the modeling effort were generally pessimistic, indicating a
depletion of natural resources accompanied by a rapid decline in human pop-
ulation. The team argued that technological innovation could not halt the
pending collapse. Instead, imposed limits to population growth and limits to
investment in industrialization were the only solutions.
31
Litigation

The Limits to Growth sold four million copies and brought notoriety to the
research team. However, the study was criticized by other scholars and com-
fatalistic of a person who puter modelers who said that fatalistic assumptions had been programmed
believes that nothing one into the model, thus predetermining the pessimistic outcome. The team lead-
does can improve a situation
ers stood behind their study, although they admitted a negative, Malthusian
view of society’s future. The book’s findings were rejected by those who
believed that technology would solve all problems, but they served to rein-
neo-Malthusians modern force the views of neo-Malthusians. Its greater contribution was the innova-
adherents to the ideas of tive use of computers to model complex social, economic, and ecological
Thomas Malthus
systems for purposes of environmental policy analysis. S E E A L S O Ehrlich,
Paul; Malthus, Thomas Robert; Population; Tragedy of the Commons.
Bibliography
Steingraber, Sandra. (1997). Living Downstream: An Ecologist Looks at Cancer. Boston:
Addison-Wesley.
Thomas, Janet. (2000). The Battle in Seattle: The Story Behind and Beyond the WTO
Demonstrations. Golden, CO: Fulcrum.
Joseph E. de Steiguer

Litigation
Litigation, a case, controversy, or lawsuit, is a contest authorized by law, in a
court of justice, for the purpose of enforcing a claimed right. Participants
(plaintiffs and defendants) in lawsuits are called litigants. Litigation is often
highly adversarial and can take a great deal of time, energy, and money, even
when the case does not go to court (90 percent of all lawsuits are settled with-
out trial). Many states and governments have enacted, or are considering,
reforms directed at avoiding litigation, shortening the time a case takes to go
to trial and minimizing the expense traditionally associated with litigation.
Among these reforms are requiring that certain types of cases be arbitrated or
directed to alternative dispute resolution procedures such as mediation and
regulatory negotiation. S E E A L S O Citizen Suits; Consensus Building;
Enforcement; Laws and Regulations, International; Laws and Regula-
tions, United States; Mediation; Public Policy Decision Making; Reg-
ulatory Negotiation.
Internet Resource
U.S. Institute for Environmental Conflict Resolution Web site. Available from http://
www.ecr.gov.
Susan L. Senecah

London Smog See Smog

Thomas Robert Malthus.
(Corbis-Bettmann. Reproduced Los Angeles Smog See Smog
by permission.)

Malthus, Thomas Robert

M ENGLISH CL ASSICAL ECONOMIST AND CLERGYMAN
(1766–1834)

Thomas Robert Malthus is best remembered for his 1798 treatise titled An
Essay on the Principle of Population as it Affects the Future Improvement of Society.
32
 Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act

In that work, he argued that because food production increased arithmetically arithmetic increase by addi-
and human population increased in a more rapid geometric manner, society tion, e.g.., 2, 4, 6, 8 . . . as
opposed to geometric, in
would ultimately face dire consequences because of decreasing per capita food which increase is by multiplica-
availability. Because of this thesis, economics has been coined “the dismal sci- tion, e.g.., 2, 4, 8, 16 . . .
ence.” Detractors note that it is only a hypothesis and not a proven theory. Fur- geometric by multiplication,
thermore, they argue that human conditions since Malthus have improved in e.g.., 2, 4, 8, 16 . . ., as
many ways due to technological innovation. The Malthusian hypothesis today opposed to arithmetic, in
which increase is by addition,
remains influential in environmental thought because of its warning about e.g.., 2, 4, 6, 8 . . .
unrestrained population growth. S E E A L S O Ehrlich, Paul; Limits to
per capita per individual per-
Growth; Population; Tragedy of the Commons. son in the population
Internet Resource
The International Society of Malthus Web site, edited by Ronald Bleier. Available
from http://www.igc.org/desip/malthus.
Joseph E. de Steiguer

Marine Protection, Research,

and Sanctuaries Act
Although officially named the Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries
Act of 1972, this statute is better known by its common name, the Ocean
Dumping Act. An amendment known as the “Ocean Dumping Ban Act of
1988” significantly superceded certain aspects of the original act. The Marine
Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act arose from international treaty
commitments, specifically negotiations resulting in the London Convention
of 1975. Signing states agreed to take measures to prevent marine pollution
and particularly to ban the dumping of identified toxins that could not be
rendered harmless by natural processes. The statute’s enactment also
addressed the chronic and previously unfettered ocean dumping of munici-
pal garbage, and industrial and commercial wastes, which by the 1970s was
devastating marine ecosystems and fouling coastal beaches.
The Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act regulates the dis-
posal of any material in the U.S. territorial sea or contiguous zone, regardless
of its point of origin; and the marine disposal anywhere of wastes and other
material that originated in U.S. territory (expansively defined) or was trans-
ported on American vessels or aircraft. Although the U.S. Environmental Pro-
tection Agency (EPA) is the designated lead agency, the U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers has statutory responsibilities, and enforcement often requires the
services of the U.S. Coast Guard. Citizen plaintiffs may also sue to enforce the
act. Unlike the case with many federal environmental statutes, states enjoy only
a limited and generally advisory role. For marine disposals governed by the act,
a permit is required. The disposal of high-level radioactive wastes, medical
wastes, and radiological, chemical, or biological warfare agents is banned. Per-
mits for various toxins, including mercury, cadmium, and halogens known to
be carcinogens, mutagens, or teratogens, generally will be denied, unless pres- teratogen something that
ent only in trace amounts or compounds known not to bioaccumulate. causes birth defects, may be
radiation, a chemical or a virus
For the most part, the act has been successful within U.S. waters, as evi-
denced by significantly cleaner coastal areas and more robust marine ecosys-
tems since the 1990s. A series of public scares arising from medical wastes
that washed up along the eastern seaboard in the late 1980s prompted greater
scrutiny of coastal dumping and more exacting tracking mechanisms for the
33
Mass Media

disposal of medical waste. The penalties for ocean dumping of medical wastes
are much harsher than those for other violations. S E E A L S O Ocean Dumping;
U.S. Coast Guard; Water Pollution: Marine.
Internet Resource
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Web site. “Ocean Dumping Ban Act of 1988.”
Available from http://www.epa.gov/history.
Kevin Anthony Reilly

Mass Media
Before the 1960s, the media reported sporadically on the environment—
often then referred to as the ‘ecology’ issue.
But Rachel Carson’s 1962 book, Silent Spring, which raised deep con-
cerns about the nation’s increasing reliance on synthetic pesticides, sparked
the United States’ modern environmental movement and, in turn, increased
media scrutiny of its issues.
Before Silent Spring, some major pollution events, notably the “killer
fog” of Donora, Pennsylvania, and the black afternoon smog of major indus-
trial towns such as Pittsburgh and St. Louis, had largely been the limits of
media coverage.
“Throughout most of the Sixties, unless a river was on fire or a major city
was in the midst of a weeklong smog alert, pollution was commonly accepted
by both the press and the general population as a fact of life,” wrote David B.
Sachsman in the SEJournal, the quarterly publication of the Society of Envi-
ronmental Journalists (SEJ).
“Until the late Sixties, conservationists were thought of as eccentric
woodsmen and environmentalists were considered unrealistic prophets of
doom,” continued Sachsman, a communications and public affairs professor
at the University of Tennessee at Chattanooga.
With this new environmental interest, pioneers on the environmental
beat began to distinguish themselves in the 1960s and 1970s. They included
the New York Times’ Gladwin Hill and the Houston Post’s Harold Scarlett.
More reporters quickly followed.
“The year 1969 was pivotal for this growing media and public interest in the
state of our environment,” Sachsman concluded. That year, the New York Times,
soon followed by other major newspapers, created an environment beat. Time
and Saturday Review developed regular environment sections, Look devoted an
entire issue to the “ecology crisis.” National Geographic offered a nine-thousand-
word article on humankind’s environmental problems. As the 1970s dawned,
“The mission of the Society of Walter Cronkite presented the television feature “Can the World be Saved?”
Environmental Journalists is to and Paul Ehrlich’s book The Population Bomb had also become a best-seller.
advance public understanding of
About this time, television was coming into its own as a powerful new
environmental issues by improv-
medium. Its coverage lent fuel to the growing environmental movement.
ing the quality, accuracy, and vis-
Images of oil-soaked birds on the Santa Barbara beach, the result of the
ibility of environmental
Channel-Union Oil spill in 1969; stories on the “death” of Lake Erie; giant
reporting.”
fish kills in the Great Lakes; and the burning Cuyahoga River in Ohio
—http://www.sej.org/ cemented in the nation’s mind that an important new political, business, and
social issue had awakened.
34
 Mass Media

In turn, an estimated 20 million Americans gathered on April 22, 1970,

for the first Earth Day. As a single event related to the environment, it would “The enthusiasms of Earth Day
not be matched for two decades. 1970 have been institutionalized
in legislation, regulation, litiga-
Such political action quickly prompted federal legislation, including the
tion, political dynamics and new
Clean Air Act in 1970 and the Clean Water Act in 1972. This legislative
personal values, and woven into
attention gave legitimacy to the issue, spawning more media coverage.
the fabric of national life.”
During the mid-1970s, the hot environment story was the threat of chem-
—Gladwin Hill, New York Times,
ical pollution from the nation’s industrial plants and the pollution such oper-
December 30, 1979
ations had left behind. The coverage of Love Canal, New York, in the late
1970s and, in 1983, the evacuation of tiny Times Beach, Missouri, put into
headlines and daily conversation such insidious chemical names as “dioxin.”
In 1989, the year of the Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska, television images
again riveted the nation, showing oil-drenched birds struggling to survive on
pollution-fouled beaches. Global warming, concern over endangered species,
and air and water quality combined to increase coverage in all media. That
year, 774 minutes of environmental coverage on the three major broadcast
networks’ nightly news set a new record, according to the Tyndall Report, an
analysis of network news coverage.
In 1991, former New York Times environment reporter Phil Shabecoff,
founded the nation’s first environmental news service, known then as Green-
wire. “The environment isn’t a one-shot news story—it’s something that
needs to covered in-depth, day after day,” Shabecoff later told the Columbia
Journalism Review.
During the late 1980s, a group of daily reporters covering environmental
issues began the SEJ, an organization formed by journalists to help other jour-
nalists do a better job on the difficult environment beat. Among the founders
were some of the nation’s distinguished environment reporters, including Jim
Detjen of the Philadelphia Inquirer, Rae Tyson of USA Today, Noel Grove of
National Geographic, Shabecoff, and Teya Ryan of Turner Broadcasting. Eigh-
teen reporters attended the group’s first organizational meeting.
“We doubt that we will ever become a slick operation,” Detjen wrote in
1990. Today, the SEJ boasts more than 1,200 members—journalists, academ-
ics, and students, an annual budget of nearly $800,000, and a host of programs
for journalists and students, including an annual conference, a quarterly jour-
nal, and website updated daily with the latest environmental reports.
In 1990, the twentieth anniversary of Earth Day marked the single
largest global demonstration on the environment, winning coverage from
Mt. Everest to Kansas. But a backlash against the issue and those who cover
it soon developed.
“It is becoming trendy to ask whether environmental laws, not polluters,
are the real public enemy,” wrote Kevin Carmody, a founding SEJ board
member, in the Columbia Journalism Review in 1995. “In newsrooms through-
out the country, the hot story is the ‘high cost of environmental regulation,’
not the people or resources harmed when that regulation fails.”
Indeed, journalists caught in the 1990 frenzy to celebrate Earth Day
may have forgotten some basic journalistic principles—such as, question every-
thing—opening the door for criticism. John Stossel, an ABC consumer and
environment reporter, attracted sixteen million viewers in 1994 with a special
report entitled “Are We Scaring Ourselves to Death?” The Los Angeles Times
35
Mass Media

devoted seven full pages to a series by media critic David Shaw, called “Living
Scared: Why Do the Media Make Life Seem So Risky?”
By 1993, minutes on the television networks devoted to environmental
coverage had dwindled by 60 percent. Even so, environmental stories would
reap ten Pulitzer Prizes in the 1990s, compared to just nine in the three pre-
vious decades.
When a new Republican president was elected to the White House in
2000—George W. Bush—environment coverage quickly picked up again.
From January to May 2001, New York Times reporter Douglas Jehl wrote sixty
stories on the environment, many of them displayed on page one.
“I didn’t expect this,” Jehl told the Columbia Journalism Review. “No mat-
ter how you measure it, in terms of volume of copy or prominence of play,
there is a lot of environmental coverage today.”
The New York Times, the Washington Post, and the Los Angeles Times added
environment reporters, anticipating major conflicts thanks to the new Bush
Administration. The Tyndall Report found evening news coverage of the issue
back up, to nearly six hundred minutes.
“This renewed interest came at a time when the beat was in need of some
new twists,” said Bud Ward, then executive director of the Environmental
Health Center in Washington, D.C. “There was a feeling on the part of some
editors that we’re talking about the same problems as twenty years earlier,”
Ward said. “Environmental problems today are more subtle than smog over
Pittsburgh.”

PULITZER PRIZES AWARDED FOR ENVIRONMENTAL REPORTING

• 1967—PUBLIC SERVICE reporting by Tom Knudson that examined
environmental threats and damage to the
Milwaukee (WI) Journal: For its successful
Sierra Nevada mountain range in California.
campaign to stiffen the law against water pol-
lution in Wisconsin, a notable advance in the • 1996—PUBLIC SERVICE
national effort for the conservation of natural
News & Observer, Raleigh, NC: For the work of
resources.
Melanie Sill, Pat Stith and Joby Warrick on the
• 1971—PUBLIC SERVICE environmental and health risks of waste-
Winston-Salem (NC) Journal and Sentinel: For disposal systems used in North Carolina’s
coverage of environmental problems, as exem- growing hog industry.
plified by a successful campaign to block strip • 1996—EDITORIAL WRITING
mining operation that would have caused
irreparable damage to the hill country of Robert B. Semple, Jr. of the New York Times:
northwest North Carolina. For his editorials on environmental issues.

• 1979—NATIONAL REPORTING • 1998—INVESTIGATIVE REPORTING

James Risser of the Des Moines (IA) Gary Cohn and Will Englund of the Baltimore
Register: For a series on farming damage to Sun: For their compelling series on the
the environment. international ship-breaking industry, that
revealed the dangers posed to workers
• 1992—PUBLIC SERVICE
and the environment when discarded ships
Sacramento (CA) Bee: For “The Sierra in Peril,” are dismantled.

36
 Mediation

The September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks, a war in Iraq, and the nation’s
sputtering economy (which might be used to rally support for decreased
environmental protections) will present a new challenge to the coverage and
interest in environmental issues. The environmental beat also faces an inter-
nal pressure. More newsroom staffs are being pared as the economy contracts
and media competition increases.
But the last forty years have shown that each time interest in the topic
wanes, enterprising reporters rekindle it. Their future attention or lack of it may
play a pivotal role in how much larger the issue becomes in national politics.
“To report news about global warming in 10 inches of copy presents
daunting challenges to even the most knowledgeable and skilled environ-
mental reporter and editing team,” Ward wrote in a recent issue of Nieman
Reports that explored coverage of environmental issues.
Ward continued: “But the ways in which reporters and editors, corre-
spondents and producers confront these challenges—the ones inside and out-
side the newsroom—will have a large effect in determining how Americans
and their government anticipate and respond to continuing environmental
pressures.” S E E A L S O Popular Culture.
Bibliography
Hill, Gladwin. (1973) Madman in a Lifeboat: Issues of the Environmental Crisis. New
York: John Day Co.
Keating, Michael. (1993). Covering the Environment: A Handbook on Environmental
Journalism. Ottawa, Ontario, Canada: National Round Table on the Environment
and the Economy.
Shabecoff, Philip. (2000). Earth Rising: American Environmentalism in the 21st Century.
Washington, D.C.: Island Press.

Internet Resource
Society of Environmental Journalists Web site. Available from http://www.sej.org.
Michael Mansur

Mediation
Mediation is a facilitated negotiation in which a skilled, impartial third party
seeks to improve relations between parties to resolve a conflict by improving
communication, identifying interests, and exploring possibilities for a mutu-
ally agreeable resolution. The mediator has no power to impose any solution.
Instead, the disputants remain responsible for negotiating a settlement.
However, once signed, mediated agreements typically enter the regulatory
process to become binding. The mediator’s role is to assist the process in
ways acceptable to the parties. Mediation most often is a voluntary process,
but in some jurisdictions may be mandated by court order or statute. Many
believe that mediation is more cost effective and produces better resolutions
than settling a dispute out in court. S E E A L S O Arbitration; Consensus
Building; Enforcement; Litigation; Public Policy Decision Making;
Regulatory Negotiation.
Internet Resource
U.S. Institute for Environmental Conflict Resolution Web site. Available from
http://www.ecr.gov.
Susan L. Senecah

37
Medical Waste

Medical Waste
Medical wastes are generated as a result of patient diagnosis and/or treatment
or the immunization of human beings or animals. The subset of medical
waste that potentially could transmit an infectious disease is termed infectious
waste. The Centers for Disease Control (CDC), the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA), and the World Health Organization (WHO) con-
cur that the following wastes should be classified as infectious waste: sharps
(needles, scalpels, etc.), laboratory cultures and stocks, blood and blood prod-
ucts, pathological wastes, and wastes generated from patients in isolation
because they are known to have an infectious disease. Medical wastes can also
include chemicals and other hazardous materials used in patient diagnosis
and treatment. In some cases this subset of medical waste is classified as haz-
ardous waste. Hospitals, clinics, research facilities, diagnostic labs, and other
facilities produce medical waste. The bulk of the wastes generated by most
health care facilities, however, is municipal solid waste (MSW), or trash.
MSW includes large quantities of paper, cardboard and plastics, metals,
glass, food waste, and wood. Medical waste, though a smaller portion of the
total health care waste stream, is of special concern because of the potential
hazards from pathogens that may be present, or from hazardous chemicals.

Risk and Health Care Waste

In the late 1980s there were a series of syringe wash ups on beaches along the
East Coast of the United States, which were mistakenly attributed to health
care facilities. The federal Medical Waste Tracking Act (MWTA) was passed
and the EPA attempted to set standards for managing the infectious waste
component of medical waste that they renamed regulated medical waste. Few
states adopted its stringent guidelines. The MWTA expired in the early
1990s, making each state responsible for establishing its own classification
and management guidelines for medical waste.
There are very few documented cases of disease transmission from con-
tact with medical waste. The notable exception is needle stick, or “sharps”
injuries. Paralleling the concern over beach wash ups of medical waste, was a
growing awareness of the increase in HIV-AIDS and other cases of infectious
diseases being diagnosed and treated in health care settings. This, along with
a series of events, led to the Occupational Safety and Health Administration
(OSHA), which established rules designed to protect health care workers
(OSHA blood-borne pathogen standards and universal precautions) by stip-
ulating the need for such personnel to wear protective clothing and equip-
ment, and to take special precautions when handling or disposing of sharps.
The interpretation of rules surrounding worker safety regulations led to
some confusion over waste classification, thus causing a greater amount of
wastes to be considered as potentially infectious. (For example, under the
OSHA universal precautions guidelines, a worker handling a bandage with a
single drop of blood on it should wear gloves, but the waste itself would most
likely not be classified as infectious.)
Noting that there are multiple risks inherent in medical waste including
toxic chemicals and radioactive materials, the WHO has chosen to use the
term health care risk waste instead of medical waste.
38
 Medical Waste

Three syringes found on

Regulation a beach in New London,
Many regulations govern the labeling, handling, treatment, transport, stor- Connecticut. (©Todd Gipstein/
Corbis. Reproduced by
age, and disposal of medical waste, including: Department of Transportation permission.)
(DOT) rules for the packaging and transportation of wastes; OSHA guide-
lines for worker safety, waste labeling and handling; the Resource Conserva-
tion and Recovery Act (RCRA), which governs the management of hazardous
materials and wastes, including hazardous pharmaceutical wastes; Nuclear
Regulatory Commission (NRC) radioactive waste management practices,
Drug Enforcement Agency (DEA) regulations for handling and disposing of
controlled substances such as narcotics; the Clean Air Act, which regulates
emissions from incinerators; the Clean Water Act, which defines what may
be disposed of down the drain; state environmental and health rules that
define certain types of waste and determine the specifics of waste treatment,
as well as requirements for storage, labeling, handling, and segregation.
Most other countries have similar multitiered regulatory regimes, such as
Australia, where a national standard defines clinical waste (what is termed med-
ical waste in the United States). However, the particulars of regulation are left
to the discretion of individual Australian states.

Proper Management, Treatment, and Disposal

There is general consensus among professional health care organizations, the
waste management industry, and regulators that proper management starts
with the identification of wastes requiring special handling and treatment
39
Medical Waste

because of their hazardous nature (biological, chemical, or radioactive).

MED IC AL W AST E Waste identification is necessary for proper segregation, so that only those
wastes needing special treatment and handling are treated. Proper manage-
ment of all waste streams enhances worker safety, protects the environment,
and can reduce costs.
Wastes that are deemed potentially infectious may be treated prior to dis-
posal by a number of different technologies that either disinfect or sterilize
them. These technologies include incineration, steam sterilization, dry heat
thermal treatment, chemical disinfection, irradiation, and enzymatic (biologi-
cal) processes among others. In 2002 there were more than one hundred spe-
cific technologies in use. In order for treatment systems to work properly,
distinctive protocols for the classification and segregation of wastes must be in
General Noninfectious Waste
place. Most treatment technologies for infectious wastes cannot process chem-
ical or radioactive waste. Misclassification and inappropriate treatment of
Potentially Infectious Waste
infectious wastes can result in significant harm to the environment and human
Hazardous, Chemical, Radioactive Wastes
health; for example, residual chemotherapeutic agents are should not be
treated in autoclaves, but rather should be set aside and treated by either incin-
eration (hazardous waste incinerators) or chemically neutralized where feasible.
The EPA has cited medical waste incinerators as among the top sources
of mercury and dioxin pollution. New regulations governing the operation
of, and emissions from, medical waste incinerators in the late 1990s have
resulted in the closure of most such incinerators in the United States. Other
countries such as the Philippines have completely banned incineration
because of its adverse environmental impacts.
The health care industry is rapidly changing in ways that continue to have
significant impact on the volume and characteristics of wastes produced.
• New (e.g., laproscopic and laser) surgical techniques result in proce-
dures that produce very little blood-contaminated waste.
• Advances in cancer treatment have produced many drugs used in
chemotherapy that are highly toxic in small quantities, producing
more hazardous chemical wastes.
• Patient residence time in hospitals has declined. Procedures that pre-
viously required an extended stay now commonly occur on an outpa-
tient basis without necessitating an overnight stay.
• Home care continues to grow, shifting the location of service delivery.
Dialysis, chemotherapy, and hospice care are but a few examples of
PHARMACEUTICAL WASTE health care that often take place in a home setting, the result being
that many wastes regulated as infectious or hazardous waste in a hos-
Pharmaceutical wastes are pital are being disposed of as ordinary trash at curbside. (Household
diverse and in some cases trace waste is exempt from many regulations.)
amounts can be discarded as
medical waste. Certain pharma- • As hospitals close their incinerators, biohazardous and sometimes
ceuticals are hazardous wastes (inadvertently) hazardous wastes are being hauled significant distances
when disposed, and some com- to centralized facilities for treatment and disposal.
mon ones are “acute” hazardous All of these changes represent new challenges in continuing efforts to
wastes under RCRA regulations properly define, classify, regulate and manage medical wastes. S E E A L S O
(e.g., Epinephrine, Nitroglycerin, Dioxin; Endocrine Disruption; Hazardous Waste; Incineration; Infec-
Warfarin (>0.3%)). tious Waste; Mercury; Occupational Safety and Health Administra-
tion (OSHA); Resource Conservation and Recovery Act.
40
 Medical Waste

T HE HAZA RDOUS W ASTE STREAM

Hazardous Material Point of Generation Point of Use and Disposal Common Disposal
Chemomtherapy and Prepared in central Patient care areas Incineration as RMW
antineoplastic chemicals clinic or pharmacy Pharmacy Disposal as HW
Special clinics

Formaldehyde Pathology Pathology Diluted and flushed down

Autopsy Autopsy sanitary sewer
Dialysis Dialysis
Nursing units Nursing units

Photographic chemicals Radiology Radiology Developer and fixer is often

Satellite clinics offering Clinics offering radiology flushed down sanitary sewer
radiology services services X-ray film is disposed of as solid
waste

Solvents Pathology Pathology Evaporation

Histology Histology Discharged to sanitary sewer
Engineering Engineering
Laboratories Laboratories

Mercury Throughout all clinical areas Clinical areas Broken thermometers are often
in thermometers, blood Labs disposed in sharps containers
pressure cuffs, cantor If no spill kits are available,
tubes, etc. mercury is often disposed of
Labs as RMW or SW
Often incinerated

Anesthetic gases Operating theater Operating theater Waste gases are often direct
vented by vacuum lines to the
outside

Ethylene oxide Central Sterile Reprocessing Central Sterile Reprocessing Vent exhaust gas to the outside
Respiratory Therapy Respiratory Therapy

Radio nuclides Radiation Oncology Radiation Oncology Storage in secure area–disposal

by national Atomic Energy
Commission

Disinfecting cleaning Hospital-wide environmental Diagnostic areas Dilution, disposal in sewer

solutions services Operating theater
Facilities management Facilities management
Operating theater

Maintenance: Maintenance Maintenance Solid waste

Waste oil Sewer
Cleaning solvents
Leftover paints
Spent florescent lamps
Degreasers
Paint thinner
Gasoline

Bibliography
Bisson, Connie Leach; McRae, Glenn; and Gusky Shaner, Hollie. (1993). An Ounce of
Prevention: Waste Reduction Strategies for Health Care Facilities. Chicago: American
Hospital Association.
Health Care without Harm. (2001). “Non-Incineration Medical Waste Treatment
Technologies.” Washington, D.C.
McRae, Glenn, and Gusky Shaner, Hollie. (1996). Guidebook for Hospital Waste Reduc-
tion Planning and Program Implementation. Chicago: American Hospital Association.
Pruss, A.; Giroult, E.; and Rushbrook, P. (1999). Safe Management of Wastes from
Health-care Activities. Geneva: World Health Organization.
Rutala, William A., and Mayhall, C. Glen. (1992). “Medical Waste: The Society for
Hospital Epidemiology of America Position Paper.” Infection Control and Hospital
Epidemiology 13:38–48.

41
Mercury

Internet Resources
Centers for Disease Control Web site. Available from http://www.cdc.org.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Web site. Available from http://www.epa.gov.
Hollie Shaner and Glenn McRae

Mercury
Mercury is a metal with chemical similarities to zinc and cadmium. The metal
is liquid at room temperature, with a freezing point at –31°C, and it is one of
the most volatile metals. It occurs as the element Hg0 and as the mercuric ion
Hg++, which has a great affinity for reduced sulfur (sulfide, S=). Most mercury
ore deposits consist of the very insoluble mineral cinnabar (HgS), with little
droplets of elemental Hg. Mercury also occurs as impurities in many other ore
minerals, creating mercury contamination when these minerals are mined or
processed. Most common rocks have very low Hg contents, about ten to one
hundred parts per billion (ppb) Hg . Elemental mercury is barely soluble in
pure water, with only twenty-five ppb Hg dissolving at room temperature, but
it is more soluble at higher temperatures. The mercuric ion is very soluble in
most ambient waters, but very insoluble in the presence of sulfide. Natural
enrichments of mercury occur in and around ore deposits and in geothermal
hot spring areas and volcanoes. Bacteria in coastal waters convert inorganic
Hg ions back into the elemental state, which then evaporate from the water
back into the atmosphere. The physical transport of mercury from ore regions
and the vapor transport from geothermal areas and the oceans provide the
natural background contamination of mercury.
Mercury is a toxic element that damages the human nervous system and
brain. Elemental mercury is less dangerous when it is ingested than when it
is inhaled. The use of mercury in felt-making led to widespread elemental
mercury poisoning of hatmakers (“mad as a hatter”), which was expressed by
tremor, loss of hair and teeth, depression, and occasional death. The organic
The most common exposure to forms of mercury—methylmercury compounds, CH3Hg+ and (CH3)2Hg—
mercury in the home comes are very bioavailable or are easily taken up by living organisms and rapidly
when a mercury thermometer is enter cells, and are therefore the most hazardous. Minamata disease was an
dropped and broken. Children episode of mercury poisoning of a small coastal community in Japan (1954)
should be removed from the through the direct industrial release of methylmercury in the bay. Another
room immediately. DO NOT VAC- infamous episode of mercury contamination occurred in Iraq, where people
UUM SPILLED MERCURY. Vacuum- ate wheat that was treated with a mercury-containing fungicide. The contin-
ing will disperse the mercury into uous flux of mercury from the atmosphere results in the low level of mercury
the air; inhaling mercury poses pollution nationwide. A small fraction of the Hg++ from atmospheric deposi-
high risk. Mercury naturally tion is converted by bacteria into the very dangerous methylmercury form.
beads and if it is on a hard sur- The methylmercury is then taken up by the lowest life forms and makes its
face, it can be scooped up with way up the food chain and bioaccumulates in the larger fish. As a result, large
index cards or a file folder. Seal predator fish such as bass, tuna, shark, and swordfish have the highest levels
in a ziplock bag and call the of Hg in the methylmercury form. Most states in the United States have
health department or a hospital advisories for eating only limited amounts of freshwater fish. Limiting intake
to arrange safe disposal. Call the of mercury-contaminated fish is especially important for pregnant women
health department if mercury and young children. The current U.S. legal limit for Hg in fish for con-
has spilled on a carpet or other sumption is 1 ppm. Limits for Hg in soils vary from state to state but gener-
fabric. ally range from 10 to 20 ppm, whereas the Environmental Protection
Agency’s limit for drinking water is 2 ppb Hg. The Occupational Safety and
42
 Methane

Health Administration limits for Hg in the air in the workplace (for an eight-
hour average) are 0.01 mg organic Hg/m3 air.
Modern sources of mercury contamination from human activities are
subdivided into the following groups:
1. High-temperature combustion processes such as coal-fired power
plants, incineration of solid household waste, medical waste, sewage
sludge, and ore smelting.
2. Industrial waste effluents, such as from chlor-alkali plants that use liq-
uid mercury as electrodes.
3. Effluents of wastewater treatment plants.
4. Point sources of specific industries, many of them no longer active
today (such as hat making, explosives, mercury lights, herbicides, and
plastics).
An overview of modern anthropogenic Hg fluxes into the environment anthropogenic human-made;
shows that more than 80 percent of mercury is injected into the atmosphere related to or produced by the
influence of humans on nature
through such combustion processes as coal-fired power plants. The combus-
tion releases mercury as elemental vapor into the atmosphere, where it has an
average residence time of about one year before it is oxidized to the mercuric
form. The oxidized mercury attaches itself to small dust particles and is
removed by wet and dry atmospheric deposition. As a result of this massive
injection of Hg into the atmosphere—more than 100 tons of Hg per year in
the United States in the late 1990s—the contaminant is distributed all over
the globe. Even the polar ice caps show evidence of mercury contamination
over the last 150 years, from atmospheric dispersal and deposition from
anthropogenic sources. There are almost no places on earth that are not con-
taminated by anthropogenic mercury.
Mercury contamination is a matter of ongoing concern, and an extensive
study was done for the U.S. Congress to summarize the sources, pathways,
and sinks of mercury in the outdoor environment. There are several initia-
tives to limit the anthropogenic flux of Hg from coal-fired power plants, such
as switching to mercury-poor coals and scrubbing the stack gases. Limiting
or banning the production of mercury-containing materials, including
switches, thermometers, thermostats, and manometers, both in the house-
hold as well as in the medical profession, would also reduce the mercury
recycled back into the atmosphere from garbage incineration. S E E A L S O
Bioaccumulation; Health, Human; Incineration; Ishimure, Michiko;
Medical Waste; Persistent Bioaccumulative Toxic Chemicals (PBTs);
Superfund.
Internet Resource
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. “Mercury Study Report to Congress.” Avail-
able from http://www.epa.gov/oar/mercury.html.
Johan C. Varekamp

Methane (CH4 )
Methane is an invisible, odorless, and combustible gas present in trace con-
centrations in the atmosphere. It is the major component of natural gas, a
43
Mexican Secretariat for Natural Resources

fossil fuel commonly used for heating and cooking. The molecule consists of
H one carbon atom bonded to four hydrogen atoms (CH4), making it the sim-
H C H plest member of a chemical family known as hydrocarbons. Other hydrocar-
H bons include ethane (C2H6), propane (C3H8), and butane (C4H10).
Methane
As a greenhouse gas, methane ranks second to carbon dioxide. Methane
levels, based on ice core samples, have more than doubled since 1750 (from
Chemical structure of methane 0.7 to 1.7 parts per million), largely due to human activity. On a molecule-
(CH4). for-molecule basis, methane is twenty-three times more potent as a green-
house gas than carbon dioxide. Both gases are targeted for emissions
greenhouse gas a gas, such reduction in the Kyoto Protocol.
as carbon dioxide or methane,
which contributes to potential Methane enters the atmosphere from both natural (30 percent) and
climate change anthropogenic (70 percent) sources. Methanogens (methane-producing
anthropogenic human-made; bacteria in swamps and wetlands) are the largest natural source.
related to or produced by the
influence of humans on nature Anthropogenic sources of methane include leaks during fossil fuel min-
ing, rice agriculture, raising livestock (cattle and sheep), and municipal land-
fills. Methanogens thrive in the oxygen-free (anaerobic) environment of
landfills, releasing the gas in significant quantities. The gas is purposefully
ignited to prevent explosion or captured for its commercial value as a fuel.
Livestock such as sheep, goats, camel, cattle, and buffalo currently
account for 15 percent of the annual anthropogenic methane emissions.
These grass-eating animals have a unique, four-chambered stomach. In the
chamber called the rumen, bacteria break down food and generate methane
as a by-product. Better grazing management and dietary supplementation
have been identified as the most effective ways to reduce livestock methane
emissions because they improve animal nutrition and reproductive efficiency.
This general approach has been demonstrated by the U.S. dairy industry
over the past several decades as milk production increased and methane emis-
sions decreased. S E E A L S O Fossil Fuels; Global Warming; Greenhouse
Gases; Landfill; Petroleum.
Bibliography
DeLong, Eward F. (2000). “Resolving a Methane Mystery.” Nature 407:577–579.
Simpson, Sarah. (2000). “Methane Fever.” Scientific American 282(2):24–27.
Turco, Richard P. (1997). Earth under Siege: From Air Pollution to Global Change. New
York: Oxford University Press.

Internet Resource
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Working Group I. “Atmospheric
Chemistry and Greenhouse Gases.” Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis. Avail-
able from http://www.ipcc.ch.
Marin Sands Robinson

Mexican Secretariat for Natural Resources

The Mexican Secretariat for Natural Resources (La Secretaría del Medio
Ambiente y Recursos Naturales or SEMARNAT) is the government office in
Mexico responsible for creating sound national environmental policy, revers-
ing existing damage to the environment, and establishing programs for sus-
tainable development. SEMARNAT oversees the management of natural
resources and coordinates development with other agencies. It works to
44
 Mining

restore ecosystems while taking into account the social and economic needs
for natural resources.
Environmental policy in Mexico began in the 1940s, but was often over-
shadowed by the push to industrialize the country. Little attention was given
to protecting natural resources until the 1980s. At that point, the Mexican
government created a series of agencies charged with protecting various nat-
ural resources. Finally, in November 2000, SEMARNAT was created to
oversee the different agencies addressing environmental issues and establish
national environmental policies.
In 2002 SEMARNAT and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) established a program called Border 2012. It is designed to strengthen
the management of the environment and resources along the 2,000-mile bor-
der between the United States and Mexico. The program calls for the open
exchange of information relating to natural resource issues and pollution pre-
vention along the border. Border 2012 also involves regional workgroups so
that ancillary programs may be tailored to individual needs and problems at
a regional and local level. S E E A L S O Environment Canada; U.S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency
Internet Resources
“New U.S.-Mexico Border Environmental Program: Border 2012.” Available from
http://www.epa.gov/usmexicoborder.
SEMARNAT Web site. Available from http://www.semarnat.gob.mx./web_ingles.
Allan B. Cobb

Mining
Modern mining is an industry that involves the exploration for and removal
of minerals from the earth, economically and with minimum damage to the
environment. Mining is important because minerals are major sources of
energy as well as materials such as fertilizers and steel. Mining is necessary
for nations to have adequate and dependable supplies of minerals and mate-
rials to meet their economic and defense needs at acceptable environmental,
energy, and economic costs. Some of the nonfuel minerals mined, such as
stone, which is a nonmetallic or industrial mineral, can be used directly from
the earth. Metallic minerals, which are also nonfuel minerals, conversely, are
usually combined in nature with other materials as ores. These ores must be
treated, generally with chemicals or heat to produce the metal of interest.
Most bauxite ore, for example, is converted to aluminum oxide, which is used
to make aluminum metal via heat and additives. Fuel minerals, such as coal
and uranium, must also be processed using chemicals and other treatments to
produce the quality of fuel desired.
There are significant differences in the mining techniques and environ-
mental effects of mining metallic, industrial, and fuel minerals. The discus-
sion here will mostly concentrate on metallic minerals. Mining is a global
industry, and not every country has high-grade, large, exceptionally profitable
mineral deposits, and the transportation infrastructure to get the mined prod-
ucts to market economically. Some of the factors affecting global mining are
environmental regulations, fuel costs, labor costs, access to land believed to
contain valuable ore, diminishing ore grades requiring the mining of more
45
Mining

Aerial view of shoreline, raw materials to obtain the target mineral, technology, the length of time to
showing a stream polluted
obtain a permit to mine, and proximity to markets, among others. The U.S.
with waste water runoff from
strip mining flowing into the mining industry is facing increasing challenges to compete with nations that
Ohio River. (© Charles E. have lower labor costs—for example, less stringent environmental regulations
Rotkin/Corbis. Reproduced by and lower fuel costs.
permission.)

Mining Life Cycle

Minerals are a nonrenewable resource, and because of this, the life of mines is
finite, and mining represents a temporary use of the land. The mining life
cycle during this temporary use of the land can be divided into the following
stages: exploration, development, extraction and processing, and mine closure.
Exploration is the work involved in determining the location, size, shape,
position, and value of an ore body using prospecting methods, geologic map-
ping and field investigations, remote sensing (aerial and satellite-borne sen-
sor systems that detect ore-bearing rocks), drilling, and other methods.
Building access roads to a drilling site is one example of an exploration activ-
ity that can cause environmental damage.
46
 Mining

The development of a mine consists of several principal activities: con-

ducting a feasibility study, including a financial analysis to decide whether to
abandon or develop the property; designing the mine; acquiring mining
rights; filing an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS); and preparing the
site for production. Preparation could cause environmental damage by exca-
vation of the deposit to remove overburden (surface material above the ore
deposit that is devoid of ore minerals) prior to mining.
Extraction is the removal of ore from the ground on a large scale by one
or more of three principal methods: surface mining, underground mining,
and in situ mining (extraction of ore from a deposit using chemical solutions).
After the ore is removed from the ground, it is crushed so that the valuable
mineral in the ore can be separated from the waste material and concentrated
by flotation (a process that separates finely ground minerals from one another
by causing some to float in a froth and others to sink), gravity, magnetism, or
other methods, usually at the mine site, to prepare it for further stages of pro-
cessing. The production of large amounts of waste material (often very
acidic) and particulate emission have led to major environmental and health
concerns with ore extraction and concentration. Additional processing sepa-
rates the desired metal from the mineral concentrate.
The closure of a mine refers to cessation of mining at that site. It involves
completing a reclamation plan and ensures the safety of areas affected by the
operation, for instance, by sealing the entrance to an abandoned mine. Plan-
ning for closure is often required to be ongoing throughout the life cycle of
the mine and not left to be addressed at the end of operations. The Surface
Mining and Control Act of 1977 states that reclamation must “restore the
land affected to a condition capable of supporting the uses which it was capa-
ble of supporting prior to any mining, or higher or better uses.” Abandoned
mines can cause a variety of health-related hazards and threats to the envi-
ronment, such as the accumulation of hazardous and explosive gases when air
no longer circulates in deserted mines and the use of these mines for resi-
dential or industrial dumping, posing a danger from unsanitary conditions.
Many closed or abandoned mines have been identified by federal and state
governments and are being reclaimed by both industry and government.

Environmental Impacts
The environmental responsibility of mining operations is protection of the
air, land, and water. Mineral resources were developed in the United States
for nearly two centuries with few environmental controls. This is largely
attributed to the fact that environmental impact was not understood or
appreciated as it is today. In addition, the technology available during this
period was not always able to prevent or control environmental damage.
Air. All methods of mining affect air quality. Particulate matter is released particulate fine liquid or solid
in surface mining when overburden is stripped from the site and stored or particles such as dust, smoke,
mist, fumes, or smog, found in
returned to the pit. When the soil is removed, vegetation is also removed, air or emissions; they can also
exposing the soil to the weather, causing particulates to become airborne be very small solids sus-
through wind erosion and road traffic. Particulate matter can be composed of pended in water, gathered
together by coagulation and
such noxious materials as arsenic, cadmium, and lead. In general, particulates flocculation
affect human health adversely by contributing to illnesses relating to the res-
piratory tract, such as emphysema, but they also can be ingested or absorbed
into the skin.
47
Mining

Land. Mining can cause physical disturbances to the landscape, creating

eyesores such as waste-rock piles and open pits. Such disturbances may con-
tribute to the decline of wildlife and plant species in an area. In addition, it is
possible that many of the premining surface features cannot be replaced after
mining ceases. Mine subsidence (ground movements of the earth’s surface
due to the collapse of overlying strata into voids created by underground
mining) can cause damage to buildings and roads. Between 1980 and 1985,
nearly five hundred subsidence collapse features attributed to abandoned
underground metal mines were identified in the vicinity of Galena, Kansas,
where the mining of lead ores took place from 1850 to 1970. The entire area
was reclaimed in 1994 and 1995.
Water. Water-pollution problems caused by mining include acid mine
drainage, metal contamination, and increased sediment levels in streams.
Sources can include active or abandoned surface and underground mines,
tailings residue of raw mate- processing plants, waste-disposal areas, haulage roads, or tailings ponds.
rial or waste separated out Sediments, typically from increased soil erosion, cause siltation or the smoth-
during the processing of min-
eral ores ering of streambeds. This siltation affects fisheries, swimming, domestic
water supply, irrigation, and other uses of streams.
Acid mine drainage (AMD) is a potentially severe pollution hazard that
can contaminate surrounding soil, groundwater, and surface water. The for-
mation of acid mine drainage is a function of the geology, hydrology, and
mining technology employed at a mine site. The primary sources for acid
generation are sulfide minerals, such as pyrite (iron sulfide), which decom-
pose in air and water. Many of these sulfide minerals originate from waste
rock removed from the mine or from tailings. If water infiltrates pyrite-laden
rock in the presence of air, it can become acidified, often at a pH level of two
or three. This increased acidity in the water can destroy living organisms, and
corrode culverts, piers, boat hulls, pumps, and other metal equipment in con-
tact with the acid waters and render the water unacceptable for drinking or
recreational use. A summary chemical reaction that represents the chemistry
of pyrite weathering to form AMD is as follows:
Pyrite + Oxygen + Water → “Yellowboy” + Sulfuric Acid
“Yellowboy” is the name for iron and aluminum compounds that stain
streambeds. AMD can enter the environment in a number of ways, such as
free-draining piles of waste rock that are exposed to intense rainstorms,
transporting large amounts of acid into nearby rivers; groundwaters that
enter underground workings which become acidic and exit via surface open-
ings or are pumped to the surface; and acidic tailings containment ponds that
may leach into surrounding land.

Major U.S. Mining Laws and Regulations

Some major federal laws and regulations affecting the mineral industry
include the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and
Liability Act (CERCLA), commonly known as Superfund, enacted in 1980.
This law requires operations to report releases of hazardous substances to
the environment and requires cleanup of sites where hazardous substances
are found. The Superfund program was established to locate, investigate,
and clean up the worst abandoned hazardous waste sites nationwide and is
currently being used by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
48
 Mining

to clean up mineral-related contamination at numerous locations. The

Federal Water Pollution Control Act, commonly referred to as the Clean
Water Act, came into effect in 1977. The act requires mining operations
to meet standards for surface water quality and for controlling discharges
to surface water. The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA),
enacted in 1976, regulates the generation, storage, and disposal of solid waste
and hazardous waste, using a “cradle-to-grave” system, meaning that these
wastes are governed from the point of generation to disposal. The
National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), enacted in 1970, requires fed-
eral agencies to prepare EIS for major federal actions that may signifi-
cantly affect the environment. These procedures exist to ensure that
environmental information is available to public officials and citizens before
actions are taken. NEPA applies to mining operations requiring federal
approval.

Comparison of U.S. and International Mining Laws

and Regulations
The European Union (EU) has developed a set of environmental directives
that have had a significant effect on the mining industries of member nations.
Each country’s environmental laws derive from these directives. Among the
key directives are the Environmental Impact Assessment Directive (similar to
the EIS requirements of the United States), the Water Framework Directive COAL-BED METHANE
(addresses concerns similar to those of the U.S. Clean Water Act), and the
Waste Framework, Hazardous Waste, and Landfill Directives (all address Methane, a potent greenhouse
concerns similar to those of the U.S. RCRA). gas trapped inside coal, can be
released into the atmosphere
when coal is mined. The 1993
Examples of Mining Pollution and Reclamation President’s Climate Change Action
The Bunker Hill Mine complex is located in northwest Idaho in the Coeur Plan encouraged the recovery of
d’Alene River Valley, and has a legacy of nearly a hundred years of mining- a possible 100 trillion cubic feet
related contamination since 1889. Operations ceased in 1982, and the EPA of this coal-bed methane for
declared much of the area a Superfund site in 1983. The complex produced energy. This would reduce
lead, zinc, cadmium, silver, and gold, as well as arsenic and other minerals methane and carbon dioxide
and materials. Much of the mining pollution was caused by the dispersal of emissions overall, because burn-
mining wastes containing such contaminants as arsenic, cadmium, and lead ing methane produces less car-
into the floodplain of the Coeur d’Alene River, acid mine drainage, and a bon dioxide than burning fossil
leaking tailings pond. The metals contaminated soils, surface water, ground- fuels. Scientists from the United
water, and air, leading to health and environmental effects. Lead, in particu- States Geological Survey are
lar, was noted for its health effects on children in the area. EPA reports studying how to extract coal-bed
concerning lead poisoning state that experts believe blood levels as low as 10 methane without harming the
micrograms per deciliter (µg/dl) are associated with children’s learning and environment. Current difficulties
behavioral problems. High blood lead levels cause devastating health effects, include how to dispose of the
such as seizures, coma, and death. Blood levels of children in areas near the water that permeates coal beds
complex ranged from about 35 to 65 µg/dl in the early 1970s to less than and must be pumped off before
5 percent in 1999, as remediation efforts progressed. EPA reports also methane can be released, and
state that children are at a greater risk from exposure to lead than adults how to prevent methane migra-
because, among other reasons, children absorb and retain a larger percent- tion. Methane, possibly from
age of ingested lead per unit of body weight than adults, which increases the coal-bed methane mining, has
toxic effects of the lead. Efforts by the federal government, the state of Idaho, been discovered in groundwater
and industry to remediate contaminated areas associated with the site are in residential neighborhoods.
ongoing.
49
Mining

There are also many mines with successful reclamation plans. For exam-
ple, the Ruby Hill Mine, which is an open pit gold mine in Eureka, Nevada,
won a state award in 1999 for concurrent reclamation practices, such as using
revegetation and employing mitigation measures to offset potential impacts
to local wildlife.
The mining of asbestos, either as the primary mineral or included as an
unwanted material while mining for the “target” mineral, is one of the more
controversial issues facing the mining industry in the United States. Asbestos
is the name given to a group of six naturally occurring fibrous minerals.
Asbestos minerals have long, strong, flexible fibers that can be spun and
woven and are heat-resistant. Because of these characteristics, asbestos mate-
rials became the most cost effective ones for use in such items as building
materials (roof coatings and shingles, ceiling and floor tiles, paper products,
and asbestos cement products) and friction products (automobile clutch,
brake, and transmission parts).
Unfortunately, it has been found that long-term, high-level exposure to
asbestos can cause asbestosis and lung cancer. It was also determined that
exposure to asbestos may cause mesothelioma, a rare form of cancer. Work-
ers can be exposed to asbestos during mining, milling, and handling of ores
containing asbestos or during the manufacture, installation, repair, and
removal of commercial products that contain asbestos. One of the more
recent controversies involving asbestos is the exposure of workers and the
local residents to asbestos found in vermiculite ore mined in Libby, Montana.
The vermiculite ore was shipped nationwide for processing and was used for
insulation, as a lightweight aggregate, in potting soils, and for agricultural
applications. Mining of the Libby deposit ended around 1991 but elevated
levels of asbestos-related disease have been found in the miners, millers, and
the local population. Another major area of concern is naturally occurring
asbestos found in rock outcrops in parks and residential areas. S E E A L S O
Clean Water Act; Disasters: Environmental Mining Accidents; Min-
ing Law of 1872; National Environmental Policy Act; Resource Con-
servation and Recovery Act; Smelting; Superfund.
Bibliography
Kesler, Stephen E. (1994). Mineral Resources, Economics and the Environment. New
York: Macmillan.
Marcus, Jerrold J. (1997). Mining Environmental Handbook: Effects of Mining on the Envi-
ronment and American Environmental Controls on Mining. London: Imperial College
Press.
Ripley, Earle A.; Redman, Robert E.; and Crowder, Adele A. (1996). Environmental
Effects of Mining. Delray Beach, FL: St. Lucie Press.
Sengupta, Mritunjoy. (1993). Environmental Impacts of Mining: Monitoring, Restoration,
and Control. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Internet Resources
Brosius, Liz, and Swain, Robert S. (2001). “Lead and Zinc Mining in Kansas.” Public
Information Circular 17, Kansas Geological Survey. Available from http://
www.kgs.ukans.edu.
Bureau of Land Management. (2001). “Abandoned Mine Lands Cleanup Program.”
Available from http://www.blm.gov/aml.
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. (1995).“Report to Congress on
Worker’s Home Contamination Study.” NIOSH Report No. 95-123. Available
from http://www.cdc.gov/niosh.
Michael J. McKinley

50
 Mixing Zone

Mining Law of 1872

The General Mining Law of 1872 was enacted to promote the exploration
and development of domestic mineral resources, primarily in the West. The
law permits U.S. citizens to freely prospect for hard rock minerals, such as
copper and gold, on federal lands not closed to or withdrawn from mining.
Once a deposit is discovered, the prospector can stake a claim for ownership deposit concentration of a
of the deposit, develop it, and obtain a patent for the land and mineral rights substance, i.e., mineral ore
to the claim. Once the patent has been granted, the claim becomes private patent legal document guaran-
property for a small fee to the government. teeing the right to profit from
an invention or discovery
The law, and whether or not it should be reformed, is hotly debated in claim legal statement of intent
both the public and private sectors. The lack of environmental controls
under the Mining Law is a major issue that has spurred a host of reform pro-
posals. Supporters of the law make the point that existing federal and state
antipollution requirements are sufficient without creating new and possibly
redundant laws. Also, much of the contention is centered on the patenting
and claim system, and whether the government should assess a royalty for royalty money paid by a user
the extracted minerals. Because of the absence of royalties, critics view the to an owner
existing system as a giveaway of federal lands. Proponents of maintaining the
existing system argue that an incentive is still necessary for those who take
the substantial financial risk to develop a mineral deposit, because mining the
entire process is lengthy and involves high costs. They cite that to find and
develop a new mineral deposit in the United States can take from four to
eight years. The long duration is primarily owing to the lengthy permitting
process that must be completed prior to establishing whether the site can be
profitably developed.
Law-reform efforts address such issues as the institution of royalty fees,
reserving federal land for a specific use that may preclude mineral develop-
ment, and forcing public lands miners to bear the entire cost for the cleanup
of past practices. S E E A L S O Disasters, Mining; Laws and Regulations,
United States; Mining.
Internet Resource
Humphries, Marc. “Mining on Federal Lands.” Congressional Research Service Issue
Brief IB89130. Available from http://www.house.gov/price.
Michael J. McKinley

Mixing Zone
A mixing zone is an area of a lake or river where pollutants from a point
source discharge are mixed, usually by natural means, with cleaner water. In
the mixing zone, the level of toxic pollutants is allowed to be higher than the
acceptable concentration for the general water body. The mixing zone is an
area where the higher concentration is diluted to legal limits for water qual-
ity. Outside the mixing zone, the pollutant levels must meet water quality
standards. A typical mixing zone consists of two parts: the zone of initial dilu-
tion (ZID), near the outfall, and the chronic mixing zone from the ZID out
to where water quality criteria are met. The discharge into the mixing zone
may be effluent from water treatment plants, chemicals, or hot water from
cooling towers.
51
Mold Pollution

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is taking steps to ban

the use of mixing zones for toxic chemicals. The Great Lakes Initiative
(2000) also bans the discharge of twenty-two chemicals considered to be
bioaccumulative. Bioaccumulative chemicals (BCCs) are those that become
more concentrated as they move up through the food chain, for instance,
from aquatic insects to fish to humans. As the release of BCCs into water
bodies is phased out, industries will need to treat the discharge at the source.
S E E A L S O : Bioaccumulation; Dilution; Point Source; Water Pollution.

Bibliography
“Identification of Approved and Disapproved Elements of the Great Lakes Guidance
Submissions From the States of Michigan, Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, and Final
Rule.” (2000). In Federal Register 65:151.

Internet Resource
Great Lakes Initiative Fact Sheet. Available from http://www.epa.gov/ost/GLI/mix-
ingzones/finalfact.html.
Diana Strnisa

Mold Pollution
Mold pollution is the growth of molds in a building resulting in damage to or
the destruction of the structure itself (or its contents) and adverse health
effects on the building’s occupants. It is estimated that about 10 percent of
U.S. buildings may suffer from mold pollution.
microorganism bacteria, Molds, also known as fungi, are microorganisms that generally have
archaea, and many protists; threadlike bodies called mycelium and reproduce by producing spores.
single-celled organisms too
small to see with the naked Spores are generally round or ovoid single cells (but in some cases are mul-
eye ticellular). Spores can be colorless or pigmented and vary in size. While a
ovoid shaped like an oval or human hair is approximately one hundred microns in diameter, spore size
egg ranges from one to five microns.
There are about fifty to one hundred different molds typically found
growing indoors in water-damaged buildings. Water problems in buildings
are generally the result of leaks from roofs or plumbing, condensation, and
flooding. When building materials or furnishings such as wood, drywall, ceil-
ing tiles, or carpets become wet, causing molds to grow on them. The types
substrate surface on which an of substrates and the amount of moisture will often determine the kinds of
organism, i.e. mold, grows molds that grow. For example, some molds like Stachybotrys require a highly
water-saturated substrate. For other molds such as Aspergillus, only small
amounts of excess moisture are necessary for growth. Thus, moisture control
is key to controlling mold growth and eliminating their effects on the build-
ing or its occupants.
Mold growth can cause structural integrity problems in buildings con-
structed of wood. This generally goes under the misnomer of dry rot. The
dry rot molds, like Merulis lacrymans, are the natural decomposers of leaves,
stems, and trees in nature. If structural wood in buildings becomes wet, these
molds may grow. The name dry rot comes from the powdery residue that is
left after the wood is destroyed. Wood can be protected by the use of chem-
sick building syndrome shared
icals like creosote or by the use of sealants. Mold pollution in buildings may
health and/or comfort effects
apparently related to occupa- result in adverse health effects including infections, allergies, and asthma.
tion of a particular building Bleeding, memory loss, and a condition known as sick building syndrome
52
 Mold Pollution

may also result from mold pollution, but such health effects remain contro- Black mold at the bottom of a
wall in a home on the Turtle
versial. Epidemiological studies have linked molds to these conditions; how-
Mountain Indian Reservation.
ever, a direct causal relationship has not been established. (AP/Wide World Photos.
Reproduced by permission.)
When health effects from molds occur, it is generally as a result of inhal-
ing mold spores. For example, aspergillosis is an infection of the lungs caused
epidemiological epidemiology:
by some species of Aspergillus, which can result in difficulty breathing. If left study of the incidence and
untreated, it can spread through the bloodstream to other organs, resulting spread of disease in a
in death. It is probably the most common type of building-acquired infection. population
Individuals with impaired immune systems are most susceptible to this infec-
tion. Mold infections can be acquired in health care facilities (nosocomial
infections). Careful attention to removing spores from the air and water may
be the best method to protect the public from these kinds of infections.
Occasionally, mold infections result from animals and birds inhabiting
buildings. For example, bats or pigeons may deposit guano containing such guano solid or semisolid
molds as Histoplasma capsulatum and Cryptococcus neoformans. Disturbing this waste from birds and bats, rich
in nutrients
guano without respiratory protection can result in infection. The best
defense against this kind of mold pollution is to keep these creatures out of
the building.
In addition to infections, allergic diseases are associated with mold pol-
lution. Asthma is the most common chronic disease of childhood and is the
leading causes of school absenteeism, accounting for over ten million missed
53
Montréal Protocol

school days per year. For most elementary school children with asthma,
allergen a substance that allergens are the primary trigger for asthma, and their disease is thought to
causes an allergic reaction in result from early exposure and sensitization to common allergens in their
individuals sensitive to it
environment (e.g., dust mites, cockroaches, and molds). To prevent allergic
disease, excessive mold growth must be controlled or eliminated.
The elimination of molds from structures requires first that water prob-
lems be corrected. Then, the mold-infested material must be removed using
proper protection. In some cases, heavily mold-infested structures have had
to be demolished or burned. In order to make the best decision on how to
treat a mold-polluted structure, it is important to understand what molds are
present and in what amount. A mycologist (scientist who studies molds) can
often identify and count mold spores collected from indoor air, dust, or sur-
faces either by culturing them or by observing them under a microscope.
However, these are slow and difficult processes.
In order for mycologists to improve their knowledge about molds in the
indoor environment, mold DNA (i.e., moldgenomes) are being sequenced.
Sequencing of DNA is the process of deciphering the spelling of the DNA
alphabet that makes each organism unique. Like the sequencing of the
human genome, this knowledge of mold genomes allows molecular biologists
to develop easier and faster methods for the detection and quantification of
molds. This is important because all molds in the indoor environment can-
not be eliminated. If molds can be monitored, experts can find out when
mold concentrations are at dangerous levels. Measures can then be taken to
reduce the mold pollution in the environment. S E E A L S O Asthma; Indoor
Air Pollution.
Bibliography
Heid, Christian A.; Stevens, Junko; Livak, Kenneth J.; and Williams, P. Mickey. (1996).
“Real Time Quantitative PCR.” Genome Research 6:986–994.
Persing, David H.; Smith, Thomas F.; Tenover, Fred C.; and White, Thomas J. (1993).
Diagnostic Molecular Microbiology: Principles and Applications. Washington, D.C.:
American Society for Microbiology.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (2001). Mold Remediation in Schools and Large
Buildings. Washington, D.C.: Author.

Internet Resources
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Indoor Air Quality Web site. Available from
http://www.epa.gov/iaq.
Stephen J. Vesper and Richard A. Haugland

Montréal Protocol
Following the discovery of the Antarctic ozone hole in late 1985, various gov-
ernments recognized the need for stronger measures to reduce the production
and consumption of a number of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). CFCs, which
are human-made chemicals widely used in manufacturing, have been found to
deplete the ozone layer that shields the surface of Earth from harmful forms
of solar radiation. During the mid-1980s negotiations began on the Vienna
protocol in government: agree- Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer—a framework treaty
ment establishing rules or
focused on cooperation in research, information exchange, and scientific
code of conduct; science: a
series of formal steps for con- assessment of the atmospheric ozone (O3) problem—government representa-
ducting a test tives discussed drafting a protocol controlling the use of CFCs, human-made
54
 Nader, Ralph

chemicals widely used in manufacturing that deplete the ozone layer. How-
ever, no consensus could be reached. The Executive Director of the United
Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) established a working group to
begin drafting such a protocol. The final agreement, which was concluded on
September 16, 1987, reflects the contentious nature of the negotiations. For
example, by Article V, developing countries with low consumption rates (e.g.,
Brazil, India, and Vietnam) that feared the protocol would hinder their eco-
nomic development are allowed a ten-year delay in required compliance with compliance in law: meeting
the terms of a law or
targets and timetables for reducing ozone emissions. regulation
However, countries have generally been aggressive and effective in
implementing the protocol. By the time it came into effect on January 1,
1989, countries were already contemplating the protocol’s modification and
strengthening. Amendments and adjustments were agreed to in London
(1990), Copenhagen (1992), Vienna (1995), Montréal (1997), and Beijing
(1999). These modifications shortened the timetables for phasing out con-
sumption of listed chemicals, added and funded the Montréal Protocol Fund,
established the Implementation Committee, developed noncompliance pro-
cedures, and expanded the Technology and Economic Assessment Panels.
These panels have addressed new issues as they have arisen, such as recycling
and international smuggling of CFCs. S E E A L S O CFCs (Chlorofluorocar-
bons); Ozone; Treaties and Conferences.
Bibliography
Benedick, Richard Elliott. (1998). Ozone Diplomacy: New Directions in Safeguarding the
Planet. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Weiss, Edith Brown. (2000). “The Five International Treaties: A Living History.” In
Engaging Countries: Strengthening Compliance with International Environmental
Accords, edited by Edith Brown Weiss and Harold K. Jacobson. Cambridge, MA:
The MIT Press.

Internet Resource
Ozone Secretariat of the United Nations Environment Programme. “The Montréal
Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer.” Available from http://
www.unep.ch/ozone.
Michael G. Schechter

Nader, Ralph
AMERICAN CONSUMER ADVOCATE AND ENVIRONMENTALIST
(1934–) N
When a young Ralph Nader wrote a book about automobile safety, it made
him a household name across America. The experience sparked a lifetime of
service to numerous safety, political, and environmental causes.
One of the consumer activist’s first major accomplishments involved the
formation of the Public Interest Research Groups (PIRGs) in the 1970s.
These student-led groups, funded by college activity fees and supported by
paid professional staffs, serve as law offices working in the public’s interest.
PIRGs operate today in twenty-four U.S. states, tackling issues such as recy-
cling, pollution, and public health and safety.
Nader’s work also played a major role in the creation of the Coal Mine
Health and Safety Act and the Occupational Safety and Health Act, both of
55
NAFTA (North American Free Trade Agreement)

which continue to save lives. His other early work focused on food safety,
nursing homes, and water and air pollution.
Arguably, the most effective group that Nader founded is Public Citizen.
This organization, with the support of 150,000 members, serves as a lobby-
ing group—working to present ideas and critical information to members of
Congress, all in an effort to persuade them to vote in favor of public-interest
issues and, many times, against the wishes of major U.S. corporations.
Nader also led the fight against nuclear power in the 1970s and 1980s.
He, Public Citizen, and other groups that he helped form played a major role
in stopping the spread of nuclear power.
In 1996 and 2000, Nader ran for president on the Green Party ticket and
brought his views on environmental issues and social justice to a larger audi-
ence. Nader’s campaign played a role in the close 2000 election as he pushed
a progressive agenda and brought plenty of new people—many of them
young—into the political process. He continues his work today from an
office in Washington, D.C. S E E A L S O Public Interest Research Groups
Ralph Nader. (Alex Wong/Getty (PIRGs).
Images. Reproduced by
permission.) Bibliography
Graham, Kevin. (2000). Ralph Nader: Battling for Democracy. Denver: Windom Pub-
lishing.

Internet Resource
Essential Information. Available from http://www.essential.org.
Kevin Graham

NAFTA (North American Free Trade

Agreement)
On December 17, 1992, Canada, Mexico, and the United States entered into
a historical trade pact called the North American Free Trade Agreement
(NAFTA). It aims to increase trade by expanding market access and reducing
investment barriers across North American borders. Of the many aspects of
ratification formal approval the debate in the United States over the ratification of NAFTA, none
received as much attention as the potential impact of the agreement on the
labor market the area or pool environment. A number of issues including labor market disruptions fueled
of workers from which an intense debate over NAFTA, especially in the United States. But no issue
employer draws employees
received as much attention as the impact of NAFTA on the environment.
Debate focused on (1) possible threats posed to previously signed U.S.
domestic environmental laws and international environmental agreements;
(2) concern that harmonization of environmental standards would result in
acceptance of the least common denominator; and (3) fear that U.S. indus-
tries would establish pollution havens in Mexico, where labor is cheaper and
enforcement of regulations is weaker than in the United States.
In order to allay such concerns, several provisions were added to the
NAFTA text. For example, the preamble commits governments to under-
take increased trade in “a manner consistent with environmental protec-
tion and conservation,” and the agreement’s dispute-settlement provisions
can place the burden on the country challenging an environmental regula-
tion. In addition, prior to NAFTA entering into force on January 1, 1994, the
56
 National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA)

participating governments agreed to the North American Agreement on

Environmental Cooperation (NAAEC), which obliges each country to
“ensure that its laws and regulations provide for high levels of environmen-
tal protection and to strive to continue to improve those laws and regula-
tions.” It also ensures access by private persons to fair and equitable
administrative and judicial proceedings on matters pertaining to the envi-
ronment. The NAAEC established the Commission for Environmental
Cooperation (CEC), which has three institutional components: a Council, a
Secretariat, and a Joint Public Advisory Committee. The Council, assisted by
the Secretariat, is charged with monitoring NAFTA’s environmental impacts.
When they uncover adverse environmental impacts, they publicize them in
various ways, including posting notices on their web site. The aim of the
council is that, by means of this public shaming, countries will take action to
remedy these situations. S E E A L S O Economics; Laws and Regulations,
International; Treaties and Conferences.
Bibliography
Audley, John N. (1997). Green Politics and Global Trade: NAFTA and the Future of Envi-
ronmental Politics. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press.
Magraw, Daniel. (1995). NAFTA and the Environment: Substance and Process. Washing-
ton, D.C.: American Bar Association.

Internet Resource
NAFTA Secretariat Web site. Available from http//:www.nafta-sec-alena.org.
Michael G. Schechter

NAPLs See Nonaqueous Phase Liquids

National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA)

When signed into law in 1970, the National Environmental Policy Act
(NEPA) was a visionary and wide-reaching statute that required U.S. agencies
to fully identify, analyze, and weigh the environmental impacts of their deci-
sions. Insofar as most modern land-use planning requires agency approvals,
and industrial and commercial activity that results in pollution typically
requires agency-issued permits, the NEPA-mandated environmental review
process has dramatically affected modern lifestyles, the American economy
and, obviously, the environment.
NEPA is essentially procedural, in that it simply requires agencies to pro-
ceed through certain steps of environmental review. It does not create sub-
stantive legal rights. Although NEPA is a federal statute, many states and
even municipalities have enacted their own environmental review statutes.
While statutes may differ from state to state (New York’s, for instance, pro-
vides for substantive obligations and enforcement mechanisms), they incor-
porate many of NEPA’s basic elements. NEPA, in fact, is the model for
numerous similar laws in other countries.
The core of NEPA is the Environmental Impact Statement (EIS), a doc-
ument that has significantly affected modern American business, and even
political, practices. NEPA requires that an EIS be prepared and disseminated
before any “major federal action significantly affecting the quality of the
human environment” may proceed. “Major federal actions” often include the
granting of a permit.
57
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)

mitigation measures taken to Mitigation measures, if feasible, are also identified, although NEPA does
reduce adverse impacts not mandate that any particular form of mitigation be employed. This infor-
mation is intended not only to aid the agency in its decision making, but also
to put the public on notice as to the environmental consequences of various
potential government responses.
NEPA has been dramatically effective as an informational device, espe-
cially to the extent that the public is included in the process and thereby given
the tools necessary to shape political action. However, NEPA has been criti-
cized in many quarters because it lacks significant enforcement capability.
Nevertheless, the information-driven process it generates has proven to be an
indispensable resource for not only the public, but also agencies presented
with proposals that invariably have social, economic, and also environmental
importance. S E E A L S O Activism; Citizen Suits; Environmental Impact
Statement; Environmental Movement; Public Participation; Laws and
Regulations, United States.
Bibliography
Weinberg, Philip, and Reilly, Kevin A. (1998). Understanding Environmental Law. New
York: Matthew Bender & Co.

Internet Resource
“Recent NEPA Cases.” Available from http://www.naep.org/NEPAWG.
Kevin Anthony Reilly

National Oceanic and Atmospheric

Administration (NOAA)
Established in 1970 under the Department of Commerce, the National
Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) guides the United
States’ use and protection of its air and water resources. With respect to air
resources, the agency conducts research and gathers data about the earth’s air,
and engages in subsequent technical analyses. Specific agency concerns are
air pollution, acid rain, and global warming, all greatly influenced by human
activity. With respect to water resources, the agency conducts research and
gathers data about marine environments, and provides technical analyses of
the human activities affecting such environments. Specific agency concerns
are ocean dredging and dumping, which can have an adverse effect on marine
environments.
For both air and water issues, the agency has adopted policies to address
the adverse effects of human activities and provide recommendations to limit
or eliminate them. For example, the agency’s policy of requiring trawl fish-
ermen to use turtle excluder devices has served to protect sea turtles. Aside
from its policy initiatives, the agency enforces a number of laws and treaties
(e.g., Coastal Zone Management Act, Endangered Species Act, Magnuson
Fishery Conservation and Management Act, Marine Mammal Protection
Act, and Ocean Dumping Act), all of which promote the environmental pro-
tection of both the atmosphere and the earth’s marine environments. S E E
A L S O Acid Rain; Air Pollution; Global Warming; Ocean Dumping;
Water Pollution.
58
 National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES)

Bibliography
Natural Research Council, Committee on Global Change Research. (1999). Global
Environmental Change: Research Pathways for the Next Decade. Washington, D.C.:
National Academy Press.

Internet Resource
National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration Website. Available from
http: www.noaa.gov/fisheries.html.
Robert F. Gruenig

National Park Service

Established in 1916 under the National Park Service Organic Act, the
National Park Service (NPS) manages over 83.6 millions acres of federal
parks, including battlefields, cemeteries, historical sites, lakeshores, memo-
rials, monuments, parkways, preserves, recreation areas, rivers, seashores,
and trails. The NPS is supervised by both a director and the assistant secre-
tary for fish and wildlife and parks, and serves as a Department of the Inte-
rior bureau funded by Congress. As its primary mission, the NPS is charged
with the preservation of park lands for the enjoyment and education of cur-
rent and future generations, incorporating measures such as pollution control
to foster this preservation. The NPS advances its mission by serving as
an environmental advocate of park lands, funding state and local govern-
mental bodies in their efforts to develop park areas, and sponsoring educa-
tional activities to increase public awareness about parks. In addition, the
NPS works in conjunction with the Environmental Protection Agency
to enforce laws (e.g., Clean Air Act, Clean Water Act, Endangered Species
Act, National Environmental Policy Act, Wild and Scenic Rivers Act,
and Wilderness Act) intended to protect and preserve park lands. Compara-
ble agencies in Argentina, Australia, and Germany have adopted some of
the same strategies as the NPS. S E E A L S O Environmental Protection
Agency.
Bibliography
Freemuth, John C. (1991). Islands under Siege: National Parks and the Politics of External
Threats. Lawrence: University of Kansas Press.

Internet Resource
National Park Service Web site. Available from http://www.nps.gov.
Robert F. Gruenig

National Pollutant Discharge Elimination

System (NPDES)
Under the Clean Water Act, the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination
System (NPDES) helps control the discharge of pollutants into water bodies
by regulating point sources. By definition, point sources are discrete con-
veyances such as man-made ditches, tunnels, channels, or pipes that directly
discharge into surface waters. By regulating these forms of discharge, the
NPDES hopes to protect the public health and assure the treatment of
wastewater.
59
National Toxics Campaign

The main pollutants regulated by the NPDES include conventional pol-

lutants (sanitary wastewater, which consists of domestic wastewater—what
people flush down their kitchen sink, for example) and wastewater from
commercial and industrial facilities, fecal coliform, oil and grease, toxic pol-
lutants (organic and metals), and nonconventional pollutants (such as nitro-
gen and phosphorous). Industrial, municipal, or agricultural facilities
discharging directly into surface water require NPDES permits. A household
connected to a municipal or septic sewer system does not.
NPDES permits can be obtained at a state environmental protection
office, or at an Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regional office (in
states without EPA approval to issue permits). The permits limit what can be
discharged into the environment and provide established monitoring and
reporting requirements. The EPA monitors NPDES compliance with on-
site inspections and data review. Failure to comply with a permit’s provisions
can result in civil and criminal action against the violator.
By maintaining vigilant control of pollutants discharged into surface
water, the NPDES helps to prevent harmful contamination of the public’s
water supply. S E E A L S O Clean Water Act; Point Source; Wastewater
Treatment.
Internet Resources
Environmental Health & Safety Online. “NPDE—National Pollutant Discharge
Elimination System.” Available from http://www.ehso.com/npdes.htm.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. “National Pollutant Discharge Elimination
System (NPDES).” Available from http://www.cfpub.gov/npdes.
Lee Ann Paradise

National Toxics Campaign

The National Toxics Campaign (NTC) was once a leading environmental
organization, dedicated to helping local communities seek environ-
mental justice. From its inception in the 1980s until it ended in 1993, this
grassroots organization helped many citizen groups develop strategies to
hold industry and government accountable for damages to human health and
the environment.
The NTC’s basic philosophy was that people have the right to a clean
and healthy environment regardless of their race or economic standing.
Unlike many of the larger environmental organizations that worked on
national legislation and international issues, the NTC focused its efforts on
empowering local groups and organizations to work together to solve local
problems. The NTC succeeded in encouraging leaders of different ethnic
groups to organize their own campaigns against polluters that affected resi-
dential areas. The NTC’s leaders worked with many not-in-my-backyard
(NIMBY) groups—groups of citizens trying to keep toxic-waste dumps out
of residential areas.
In the beginning, the NTC’s founder, John O’Connor, concentrated on
local battles against chemical dumps and incinerators. Soon the organiza-
tion started the only toxics analysis lab in the country that was run by the
60
 Natural Resource Damage Assessment (NRDA)

grassroots movement. As the organization grew, members were able to

address more and more toxic-waste problems.
During its lifetime, the NTC was responsible for helping citizen groups
bring many polluters to court and for strengthening environmental protec-
tion legislation. The NTC was instrumental in the expansion and reautho-
rization of the Superfund and in the passage of right-to-know legislation the
Toxics Release Inventory, which required a limited set of industries to report
a release of a limited set of chemicals. The organization played a central role
in bringing environmental violations by U.S. military facilities to the atten-
tion of the public. Equally important, the NTC developed a network of lead-
ers (including a significant number of organizations of people of color) to
develop strategies for environmental justice.
Many people were surprised when the National Toxics Campaign ended
in 1993. However, there are several other national organization that have
been able to carry on similar grassroots campaigns. Groups such as the
Center for Health, Environment and Justice (formerly called the Citizens
Clearinghouse for Hazardous Waste), Highlander Center’s STP Schools,
Greenpeace, and People Against a Chemically Contaminated Environ-
ment (PACCE) support grassroots campaigns against toxic-chemical dump-
ing. S E E A L S O Activism; Citizen Involvement; Citizen Science;
Ethics; Gibbs, Lois; Nongovernmental Organizations (NGOs); Public
Participation.
Bibliography
Cohen, Gary, and O’Connor, John, eds. (1990). Fighting Toxins: A Manual for Protect-
ing Your Family, Community and Workplace. Washington, D.C.: Island Press.
Corliss Karasov

Natural Resource Damage Assessment

(NRDA)
Natural Resource Damage Assessment is the legal and technical process to
pursue restoration for damages to natural resources caused by discharges of
oil and releases of hazardous materials into the environment. Federal and
state agencies, and Native American tribal governments are designated as
NRDA trustees. They act on behalf of the public to restore injured natural
resources under a number of laws such as the Comprehensive Environmen-
tal Response, Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA), Oil Pollution Act
of 1990 (OPA), and Federal Water Pollution Control Act (FWPCA). Typi-
cally, monetary damages are assessed against the polluter. Damages are com-
pensatory, not punitive, and must be used for ecological restoration. The
NRDA process is overseen by the Department of the Interior. S E E A L S O
Arbitration; Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation
and Liability Act (CERCLA); Consensus Process; Enforcement; Liti-
gation; Mediation.
Internet Resource
U.S. Department of Interior. “Training Module for NRDA.” Available from
http://www.doi.gov/oepc.
Susan L. Senecah

61
Nelson, Gaylord

Nelson, Gaylord
U.S. SENATOR (D-WISCONSIN) AND FOUNDER OF EARTH DAY
(1916–)

One of the first and most effective environmentalists elected to the U.S. Sen-
ate, Gaylord Nelson is considered the father of Earth Day and sponsored
many of the important environmental laws passed by Congress in the 1960s
and 1970s.
As governor of Wisconsin (1958 to 1962), he convinced the legislature to
conservation easement legal purchase conservation easements on private property of high natural and
agreement restricting a scenic value.
landowner’s development
rights to preserve long-term Nelson brought his environmental concerns to Washington when he was
conservation and environmen-
tal values
elected Wisconsin’s Democratic U.S. Senator in 1962. He organized a
nationwide conservation tour for President Kennedy in 1963 and, in 1965,
introduced the first legislation to ban DDT, a chemical used to kill insects
that proved harmful to many other species. In 1969, inspired by the effective
teach-in educational forum student anti-Vietnam War teach-ins, Nelson hired Harvard law student
springing from a protest move- Denis Hayes to organize a series of environmental teach-ins on college cam-
ment (derived from sit-in
protests) puses nationwide. These teach-ins helped inspire a growing awareness of
pollution and environmental degradation. This awareness eventually led an
estimated twenty million Americans to participate in thousands of events
organized across the United States to mark the first Earth Day on April 22,
1970. The mobilized public awareness of environmental problems resulting
from Earth Day gave Nelson and other environmentalist members of
Congress the support they needed to pass the many environmental acts of
the 1970s. Nelson is best known for his work on the Environmental Protec-
tion Act (1969), the Clean Air Act (1970), the Safe Drinking Water Act
(1974), and the Clean Water Act (1977). Nelson received two awards
from the United Nations: the Environmental Leadership Award in 1982 and
the Only One Earth Award in 1992. In 1995, he was awarded the Medal
of Freedom, the nation’s highest civilian honor. S E E A L S O Activism;
Earth Day; Hayes, Denis; Laws and Regulations; United States;
Politics.
Bibliography
Mowrey, Mark, and Redmond, Tim. (1993). Not in Our Backyard: The People and
Events that Shaped America’s Modern Environmental Movement. New York:
Morrow.

Internet Resource
Earth Day Network. Available from http://www.earthday.net.
Anne Becher and Joseph Richey

NEPA See National Environmental Policy Act

New Left
In the 1930s and through the 1950s, a political movement known later as the
“Old Left” emerged in American politics. A liberal group of predominantly
northern intellectuals, the Old Left shared a fascination with labor problems
and frequently maintained an interest in communism as a solution to
62
 Nitrogen Oxides

America’s economic troubles. The New Left, the successor to the Old Left,
emerged in the 1960s and was heavily influenced by the early accomplish-
ments of the civil rights movement. The New Left included many different
groups, and was often dominated by middle-class college students disillu-
sioned with life in America. Students for a Democratic Society (SDS)
emerged as the best known of these groups, and pressed for a more demo-
cratic government, nuclear arms reduction, an end to the war in Vietnam,
and better living conditions for the urban poor.
The New Left, in its widespread critique of American society, also
included environmental and pollution reform in its agenda. Many New Left
activists focused on the dangers of increased industrial production and
increased consumption, leading to waste and pollution. One influence of the
New Left was the development of the first Earth Day on April 22, 1970.
Earth Day was originally planned by New Left activists as a teach-in and sit-
in at university campuses, similar to earlier civil rights and antiwar activities
to protest environmental degradation. Wisconsin Senator Gaylord Nelson
developed and changed the idea for the event, hoping to organize a peaceful
mass demonstration without the negative lawless image that public protest
had acquired over the course of the turbulent 1960s. Approximately ten mil-
lion people across the country participated in the original Earth Day, with
even local and national polluters professing their support. Overall, though,
the concept of Earth Day initiated by the New Left as a protest to industrial
production bore little resemblance to the actual event, which was supported
by the very polluters the New Left stood against.
New Left protest influenced the overall awareness of environmental
issues, and helped lead to legislation, including the Clean Air Act in 1970.
By the early 1970s, however, the New Left counterculture had become counterculture a culture with
increasingly interested in the use of violence and associated with drug use social ideas that stand in
opposition to the mainstream
and “free sex.” This use of violence appeared in a small group of New Left- culture
ers called the Weathermen, or the Weather Underground, who advocated
armed revolution against “American Imperialism,” usually in the form of ran-
dom bomb explosions. Other acts of New Left violence included the “liber-
ation” of areas for public park space.
By the late 1970s, New Right conservatism had catapulted Ronald Rea-
gan to the presidency, and before long a powerful backlash against many of
the accomplishments of the New Left, the civil rights movement, and the
1960s in general took hold throughout the United States. S E E A L S O
Activism; Earth Day; Environmental Movement; Politics; Public Par-
ticipation; Public Policy Decision Making.
Bibliography
Gottlieb, Robert. (1993). Forcing the Spring: The Transformation of the American Envi-
ronmental Movement. Washington, D.C.: Island Press.
O’Neill, William L. (2001). The New Left: A History. The American History Series.
Wheeling, IL: Harlan Davidson.
Elizabeth D. Blum

NGOs See Nongovernmental Organizations

Nitrogen Oxides See NOx

63
NOx (Nitrogen Oxides)

NOx (Nitrogen Oxides)

NOx is a common term for the more reactive nitrogen oxides and includes
nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2), but excludes, for example,
nitrous oxide (N2O). NO2 is a reddish brown, highly reactive gas that is
formed in the air by the oxidation of NO. Anthropogenic emissions from the
high-temperature combustion of coal, oil, gas, and gasoline can oxidize
atmospheric nitrogen (N2) to yield the majority of NO found in the envi-
ronment. Natural sources of NO2 are soil microbial processes. In the soil the
nitrification the process nitrification and denitrification processes pass through compounds that can
whereby ammonia, typically in break down and release NO and N2O into the atmosphere. This is a natural
wastewater, is oxidized to
nitrite and then to nitrate by process that is enhanced when nitrogen fertilizers are used to improve crop
bacterial or chemical reactions yields.
denitrification the biological Short-term exposure to NO2 at concentrations found in the United
reduction of nitrate or nitrite
to nitrogen gas, typically by
States can increase respiratory illness in children. There is evidence that
bacteria in soil long-term exposure to NO2 may lead to increased susceptibility to respira-
tory infection. The least reactive nitrogen oxide is N2O, but it can affect both
the ozone layer and global warming. Once in the atmosphere, it slowly dif-
stratosphere the portion of fuses into the stratosphere where it is destroyed by the shorter-wavelength
the atmosphere ten to twenty- UV radiation. The NO produced by this photodissociation is critical in
five miles above the earth’s
surface establishing the amount of ozone in the stratosphere, so any increase in N2O
would decrease the ozone layer. The lifetime of N2O is more than sixty years.
Because it can absorb infrared radiation, the excess production of N2O can
contribute to global warming.
NO and NO2 react with sunlight and unburned gasoline in a matter of
hours to days to produce ozone that is critical in the development of photo-
chemical smog. Atmospheric NOx also reacts to produce nitric acid. While it
is stable in dry air, nitric acid is very soluble and, along with sulphuric acid, sig-
nificantly contributes to acid rain. Because acid rain and smog involve the reac-
tions of NOx, restrictions on their emissions are a common approach to air
quality management even though only NO2 is classed as a criteria pollutant.
In most countries, smog control focuses on reducing ozone concentra-
tions to the air-quality standard by controlling emissions of the precursors,
including NOx. In the United States the national ambient air quality standard
(NAAQS) for NO2 is 0.053 parts per million (ppm), and from 1988 to 1997,
the average NO2 concentration dropped 14 percent to 0.018 ppm. Each state
prepares a state implementation plan (SIP) that describes how it will reduce
pollutant levels, and presents that plan to the EPA for approval. The EPA, in
turn, then supports state plans. The NOx SIP rule of 1998 is aimed at reduc-
ing summertime NOx emissions in order to cut down on the transport of
ozone from power plants in the Midwest to eastern states. Other countries
use similar approaches but rely on government and public pressure rather
than statutory requirements to meet standards. S E E A L S O Acid Rain; Coal;
Electric Power; Global Warming; Ozone; Petroleum; Smog; Vehicular
Pollution.
Bibliography
Brimblecombe, Peter. (1996). Air Composition and Chemistry, 2nd edition. New York:
Cambridge University Press.
Finlayson-Pitts, Barbara J., and Pitts, James N. (2000). Chemistry of the Upper and Lower
Atmosphere. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

64
 Noise Control Act of 1972

Graedel, Thomas E., and Crutzen, Paul J. (1995). Atmosphere Climate and Change. New
York: Scientific American Library (distributed by W.H. Freeman).
Turco, Richard. (1997). Earth under Siege. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Donald R. Hastie

NOAA See National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

Noise Control Act of 1972

In passing the Noise Control Act (NCA) of 1972, Congress hoped to “pro-
mote an environment for all Americans free from noise that jeopardizes health
or welfare.” The Office of Noise Abatement and Control (ONAC) of the
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) was charged with overseeing noise-
abatement activities and coordinating its programs with those of other federal
agencies that play an important role in noise control. The Noise Control Act
was amended by the Quiet Communities Act of 1978 to promote the devel-
opment of effective state and local noise control programs, to provide funds
for noise research, and to produce and disseminate educational materials to
the public on the harmful effects of noise and ways to effectively control it.
Throughout the 1970s ONAC issued reports identifying the products
that are major sources of noise pollution and providing information on ways
to control the noise they generate, for example, the regulation of noise emis-
sions from aircraft. EPA publications included a public education and infor-
mation manual for noise for schools and pamphlets on sound, sound
measurement, and noise as a health problem. The EPA assisted communities
in noise surveying, in designing local noise ordinances, and in the training of
noise enforcement officers.
Faced with strong industry opposition, ONAC lost its funding in 1981
and the EPA’s programs to control noise were halted. The Noise Control Act
has never been rescinded, but it has also yet to be refunded. As of 2002, agen-
cies such as the Department of Transportation, Department of Labor, and
Federal Railroad Administration have developed their own noise control pro-
grams, with each agency setting its own criteria. In addition, states and cities
have enacted noise ordinances, with some localities limiting noise more
effectively than others.
Across the United States, antinoise groups are pressing local authorities
to curb noise intrusions that have grown considerably over the past twenty
years and are urging legislators to refund ONAC. Comprehensive federal
oversight is needed to address transportation and product noises. With
Europe and Japan working toward implementing modern noise-control poli-
cies (such as noise labeling of products), American manufacturers may find it
difficult to meet foreign noise-emission standards. The European Noise
Directive requires member nations to assess environmental noise exposure
levels for their populations and to develop action plans to limit noise. S E E
A L S O Laws and Regulations, United States; Noise Pollution.

Bibliography
Bronzaft, Arline L. (1998). “A Voice to End the Government’s Silence on Noise.”
Hearing Rehabilitation Quarterly 23, no. 1:6–12, 29.
Dallas, J.E. (1998). “The Quiet Communities Act of 1997: More than Meets the Ear.”
Hearing Rehabilitation Quarterly:16–22.

65
Noise Pollution

Shapiro, Sidney A. (1991). The Dormant Noise Control Act and Options to Abate
Noise Pollution. Washington, D.C.: Report for the Administrative Conference of
the United States.

Internet Resource
Noise Pollution Clearinghouse. Available from http://www.nonoise.org.
Arline L. Bronzaft

Noise Pollution
Noise pollution is the intrusion of unwanted, uncontrollable, and unpre-
dictable sounds, not necessarily loud, into the lives of individuals of reason-
able sensitivities. Using the “reasonable person” standard removes the notion
that the judgment of sounds as unwanted is subjective. Unwanted sounds or
noises can be traced back to Old Testament stories of very loud music and
barking dogs as well as to ancient Rome where city residents complained
about noisy delivery wagons on their cobblestone streets. The Industrial
Revolution, the growth of cities, and the demand for transportation made the
world even noisier. With the modern world so dependent on and enchanted
with noise-producing and noise-related technology—automobiles, aircraft,
helicopters, motorcycles, snowmobiles, jet skis, leaf blowers, amplified music,
ambient surrounding or bass-driven car stereo systems—the ambient noise level is rapidly accelerat-
unconfined; air: usually but ing. This growth in noise has led to research examining the impact of noise
not always referring to outdoor
air on the lives and activities of reasonable people. The result has been a body of
evidence that strongly suggests noise is hazardous to good mental and phys-
ical health.
To understand noise, one must know something about sound and how
loudness is measured. Sound that travels through the air in waves has two
major properties: the frequency or speed at which the waves vibrate and the
intensity of each vibration. It is the intensity, or how many molecules are
packed together with each vibration, that for the most part produces the
sense of loudness, although frequency also contributes to the determination
of loudness, with higher-pitched sounds sounding louder. Loudness is meas-
ured by a decibel scale (expressed as dB), but to reflect human hearing more
accurately a modified version of this scale, known as the A scale, has been
developed. On the A scale, loudness is measured in dBAs. The scale increases
logarithmically so that an increase of 10 dB indicates a doubling of loudness,
and an increase of 20 dB represents a sound that is four times louder. Whis-
pers measure 20 dBA, normal conversation 50 to 60 dBA, shouting 85 dBA,
and loud music over 120 dBA. Continuous exposure to sounds over 85 dBA
may cause permanent hearing loss.
Exposure to very loud sounds that are enjoyable, and not technically
noise to the listener, can lead to hearing impairment. Because many people,
especially young children and teenagers, are not aware of the dangers of very
loud sounds to their hearing, they should be warned that playing computer
games with loud audio attachments, setting headsets at consistently high vol-
ume, or regularly playing ball in a loud gymnasium may affect their hearing
over time. A survey of hearing threshold shifts among youngsters between
the ages of six and nineteen found that one out of eight of them suffered a
noise-related hearing problem. Children attending loud movies and sporting
events, or visiting video arcades may be unwittingly exposing themselves to
66
 Noise Pollution

Safe Sound Level Times Allowed per Day

Hours

4
90 dBA 8 hours
92 dBA 6 hours
95 dBA 4 hours
97 dBA 3 hours
3 100 dBA 2 hours
102 dBA 1½ hours
105 dBA 1 hour
110 dBA ½ hour
2 115 dBA ¼ hour

0
90 92 95 97 100 102 105 110 115
dBA

dangerously loud sounds. Teenagers are especially vulnerable as they are

more likely to equip their cars with high-powered “boom boxes,” attend loud
dance clubs, and work in noisy fast-food restaurants.
Sounds need not be very loud to be deemed intrusive—for example, the
drip of a faucet, an overhead jet, or a neighbor’s stereo late at night. Noises
are especially bothersome at night when one is trying to sleep, and a good
night’s sleep is vital to good health. Exposure to bothersome noises over time
can be stressful, resulting in adverse health effects, such as hypertension.
Although more research is needed to solidify a noise and health link, there is
agreement that noise lessens the quality of life. Noises can be especially
harmful to children. Scientific research indicates that noisy homes slow down
cognitive and language development in young children. In addition, children
living and attending schools near noisy highways, railroads, and airports have
lower reading scores, and some children living or attending a school near a
major airport have experienced elevated blood pressure.
In 1972 the U.S. government passed legislation recognizing the growing
danger of noise pollution. It empowered the Office of Noise Abatement and
Control (ONAC) within the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to cur-
tail noise levels, but by 1982, during the Reagan administration, the office lost
most of its funding. States and cities were no longer supported in their efforts
to abate noise, and ONAC no longer published materials educating people on
the dangers of noise. Recently, the federal government has passed legislation
to lessen noise in national parks, for example, banning snowmobiles, but
states and cities are on their own in controlling noise, with some cities more
67
Noise Pollution

200

Rocket launch
190

180

170

160

150

Jet takeoff
140

Power drill
130

Symphony orchestra percussion

120

Rock concert, NYC subway

110

Disco
dBA

100

Factory machinery
Over 85 dBA, over time, can
90 cause permanent damage

Blender
80

Alarm clock, Heavy traffic, Noisy restaurant

70

60

Average conversations
50

40
Whisper at 5 feet

30

20

10

successful than others. Traffic noise, especially aircraft noise, is the major
source of annoyance calling for better federal regulation within the United
States. In contrast, the European Union is finalizing a noise directive that will
require member states to produce noise maps and develop action plans to
reduce noise levels.
Noise from snowmobiles, jet skis, and supersonic jets has also intruded
on the environment, affecting animals’ abilities to communicate, protect
their young, and mate. Worldwide, antinoise groups believe their govern-
ments are doing too little to lessen the surrounding din, and groups from the
United States, Europe, Canada, Australia, Africa, and Asia have joined
together to educate both the public and governments about the long-term
dangers of noise pollution, urging them to lower the decibel level. A quieter,
healthier environment is within our grasp.
Bibliography
Bronzaft, A.L. (1998). “A Voice to End the Government’s Silence on Noise.” Hearing
Rehabilitation Quarterly 23:6–12, 29.
Bronzaft, A.L., and Dobrow, S.B. (1988). “Noise and Health: A Warning to Adoles-
cents.” Children’s Environments Quarterly 5:40–45.
Chen, A.C., and Charuk, K. (2001). “Speech Interference Levels at Airport Noise
Impacted Schools.” Sound & Vibration 35(7):26–31.

68
 Nongovernmental Organizations (NGOs)

Evans, G.W., and Lapore, S.J. (1993). “Nonauditory Effects of Noise on Children. A
Critical Review.” Children’s Environments 10:31–51.
Federal Interagency Committee on Aviation Noise (FICAN). (2000). FICAN Position
on Research into Effects of Aircraft Noise on Classroom Learning. Washington, D.C.
Niskar, A.S.; Kiezak, S.M.; Holmes, A.; Esteban, E.; Rubin, C.; and Brody, D.J. (2001).
“Estimated Prevalence of Noise Induced Hearing Threshold Shifts among Chil-
dren 6 to 19 Years of Age. The Third Health and Nutrition Examination Survey.
1988–1994.” Pediatrics 108:40–43.
Stansfeld, S.; Haines, M.; and Brown, B. (2000). “Noise and Health in the Urban Envi-
ronment.” Reviews of Environmental Health 15:43–82.

Internet Resources
League for the Hard of Hearing Web site. Available from http://www.lhh.org/noise.
Noise Pollution Clearinghouse Web site. Available from http://www.nonoise.org.
Arline L. Bronzaft

Nonaqueous Phase Liquids (NAPLs)

Nonaqueous Phase Liquids (NAPLs) are hazardous organic liquids such as dry
cleaning fluids, fuel oil, and gasoline that do not dissolve in water. A significant
portion of contaminated soil and groundwater sites contain NAPLs, and they
are particularly hard to remove from the water supply. NAPLs are always asso-
ciated with human activity, and cause severe environmental and health hazards.
Dense NAPLs (DNAPLs) such as the chlorinated hydrocarbons used in
dry cleaning and industrial degreasing are heavier than water and sink
through the water column. They can penetrate deep below the water table
and are difficult to find when investigating sites for contamination.
Hydrocarbon fuels and aromatic solvents are described as light NAPLs
(LNAPLs), which are less dense than water and float. These include lubri-
cants and gasoline, pollutants often associated with leaking gasoline or oil
storage tanks.
It is difficult or impossible to remove all of the NAPLs once they are
released into the ground. Although many NAPL removal technologies are
currently being tested, there have been few field demonstrations capable of
restoring an NAPL-contaminated aquifer to drinking-water quality. NAPL
contamination can affect aquifers for tens or hundreds of years.
Internet Resource
Newell, Charles J.; Bowers, Richard L.; and Rifai, Hanadi S. “Impact of Non-Aqueous
Phase Liquids on Groundwater Remediation.” In Environmental Expert.com Web
site. Available from http://www.environmental-center.com/articles/article1079/
article1079.htm.
Richard M. Stapleton

Nongovernmental Organizations (NGOs)

Collaborative efforts among the public have played an important role in shap-
ing the political and social values and hence public policy of the United States.
Organizing with others who share a similar vision enhances the potential for
change. Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) accomplish just that. Estab-
lished outside of political parties, NGOs are aimed at advocating the public’s
69
Nongovernmental Organizations (NGOs)

ORGANIZATION FOUNDING BUDGET FOCUS ACCOMPLISHMENTS

Conservation 1987 $50,000,000 To preserve and promote Working with the Cambodian government to create a one-million-acre
International awareness about the protected area. Sponsored scientific research of coral reefs off
world’s endangered Indonesia. Helped create the world’s largest national rain forest.
biodiversity.
Izzak Walton League 1922 $3,000,000 To protect and promote Helped create the Land and Water Fund. Were instrumental in the
of America sustainable resource use. protection of the Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness,
Everglades National Park, and Isle Royale National Park.
National Audubon 1905 $44,000,000 To restore and protect Involved the public in bird counts across the United States to track
Society the natural habitat of birds populations. Has opened nature centers to promote understanding of
and other wildlife for the birds.
benefit of human interest
and biodiversity.
National Wildlife 1936 $96,000,000 The largest member- Function in forty-six states to promote the protection of species and
Federation supported conservation their environments. Worked in the western United States to prevent
group working to protect urban sprawl and sustainable forestry.
wildlife and ecosystems.
Natural Resources 1970 $30,632,992 Using science and law to Worked with the EPA to restrict pesticide use, prevented the
Defense Council protect the planet’s wildlife development of a large airport near the Florida Everglades, and have
and wild places. helped design a plan to restore Yosemite.
Nature Conservancy 1951 $245,000,000 To protect aquatic and Own over a thousand preserves and have protected more than
terrestrial habitats for the fourteen million acres of land in the United States.
survival of biodiversity.
Wilderness Society 1935 $14,700,000 Protect the remaining Helped block oil exploration near Arches National Park, created the
wilderness in the United Wilderness Act, which was passed in 1964, and the Conservation Act
States by keeping roads, which was passed in 1980.
loggers, and oil drilling
efforts out of wilderness
areas.
Wildlife Conservation 1895 $95,000,000 Support international Formed Jackson Hole Wildlife Park in 1956, led the national campaign
Society survival strategies as well to reintroduce bison to the Kansas grasslands, and created the Bronx
as habitat conservation Zoo.
projects.
World Wildlife Fund 1961 $60,000,000 Protect and preserve Launched Wildlands and Human Needs projects to address the needs
endangered species. of people living in fragile ecosystems.
Sierra Club 1892 $43,000,000 To educate and enlist people Assisted in preserving the North Grove Calaveras Big Trees, fought to
to protect the environment return Yosemite to federal management, and worked to create the
through lawful means, and National Park Service.
address key issues including
commercial logging, urban
sprawl, and water quality.
Environmental Defense 1967 $39,000,000 Create solutions to Won a ban on DDT use, prevented the development of a resort on
Fund environmental problems former state park land that would endanger native species.
including policies to reduce
fossil fuels.
Greenpeace USA 1971 $19,266,530 Nonviolent direct action to Drew attention to ocean incineration of toxic waste, resulting in a ban
expose environmental of the practice; also, won an end to sperm whale hunting, halted the
threats. testing of nuclear arms off Florida.
Friends of the Earth 1969 $3,000,000 To protect Earth from Conducted lab tests proving that genetically altered food not approved
environmental disaster for human consumption was being sold, won a federal court case that
through toxic waste prevented Army Corps of Engineers from illegally issuing permits for
cleanup and groundwater developers to fill in wetlands.
protection.

concerns and pressuring governments to do a better job. These organizations

may range from a handful of local citizens enacting recycling in their commu-
nity to a million-member-strong organization with a budget of $20 million.

Agents of Information and Action

NGOs are often nonprofit groups that employ a variety of tactics for achiev-
ing awareness among the public and the government. The very nature and
structure of NGOs has been advantageous in dealing with pollution issues for
several reasons. First, membership within NGOs consists of people with a
strong personal commitment to their cause. Second, the focused efforts of
NGOs allow their leaders to become specialized. Third, the loose structure
of NGOs enables them to respond with greater speed and flexibility than the
government.
70
 Nongovernmental Organizations (NGOs)

Throughout the forty years of the modern environmental movement,

NGOs have been crucial in bringing visibility to pollution problems affect-
ing both the local and international communities. According to Peter Wil-
lets, “Information is the currency of politics, and the ability to move accurate
up-to-date information around the globe has been a key factor in the grow-
ing strength of environmental groups” (Willets, p. 114). The communication
of information has been accelerated through the use of the Internet. In addi-
tion, NGOs also rely heavily on publications, media coverage, and confer-
ences to collaborate with one another and to educate the public.
Although reformers of the Settlement House era of the late 1800s and
early 1900s organized efforts for change within city neighborhoods, the for-
mation of prominent mainstream organizations such as the Wilderness Soci-
ety and Sierra Club are widely considered to be the first major environmental
NGOs. Rooted in early-twentieth-century debates over the exploitation of
land, these early NGOs lobbied the government by talking with local officials
and publishing works on the importance of wilderness. One of the most
notable efforts to drum up public support was a series of full-page advertise-
ments taken out by the Sierra Club from 1965 to 1968 in the New York Times
vilifying the prospects of building hydroelectric dams in and flooding the
Grand Canyon.
Friends of the Earth and Greenpeace are two NGOs with international
status that have fought to keep the public informed about pesticides and tox-
ics pollution through direct action techniques. Their practices of physically
obstructing or protesting industry has made them popular in the media since
the groups’ inception in the 1970s. In one particular instance, Friends of the
Earth amassed a collection of Schweppes bottles and subsequently dumped
them on the company’s front steps. Their efforts to send a clear message to
the beverage company about waste pollution attracted media coverage and
brought about a rise in membership. Similarly, Greenpeace employed con-
frontational tactics by sailing the vessel Phyllis McCormack towards a French
nuclear testing site to halt testing. In another campaign, Greenpeace mem-
bers put themselves in small boats between whalers and whales.

The Rise of International Networks

By the mid-1980s there were thousands of NGOs. Their success across the
globe was encouraging to environmentalists and it was encouraging to a pub-
lic—both national and international—that had begun to see the importance
of NGOs in environmental issues. Danish NGOs won a complete ban on
throwaway beverage packaging while Australian NGOs won concessions on
mining in their national parks. The use of phosphates in detergents was
banned in Switzerland with the help of NGOs. But as pollution became a
major factor in the global debate of acid rain, global warming, and ozone
depletion, NGOs saw a great need to collaborate internationally.
The discovery of a hole in the ozone layer above Antarctica provoked furi-
ous action among American NGOs. Apparent disinterest shown toward the
issue by European NGOs prompted several U.S. NGOs to send representa-
tives to Europe to discuss the consequences of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) on
the atmosphere. As a result of their meeting, the U.K. branch of Friends of the
Earth drew up a campaign to publish its own guide to pollutants. In 1986
Aerosol Connection was a resounding success in communicating to the public
71
Nongovernmental Organizations (NGOs)

how to support non-CFC products. Thousands of people were eager to get

their hands on a copy. Raising public awareness weakened the position of the
chemical companies in the United Kingdom, because they had controlled
most public information about CFCs. The scientific information that NGOs
supplied for the debate over CFCs helped speed negotiations on the Montréal
Protocol, which called for a ban on CFC use. The experience clearly illus-
trated the power of NGOs to successfully lobby internationally.
NGOs experienced greater inclusion in the political arena throughout
the 1990s. NGO pressure on World Bank policy set a precedent for collabo-
ration by the World Bank with NGOs in the international realm. By chal-
lenging the World Bank to support environmentally viable water projects,
NGOs exposed an array of existing problems to the media, to the U.S. gov-
ernment, and to congressional staff. Just a week after collaboration with the
World Bank, NGOs from across the world gathered in Rio de Janeiro for the
1992 Earth Summit. Twenty years earlier, the 1972 UN Conference on the
Human Environment in Stockholm was a major turning point for NGOs.
Because only government officials were invited to the conference, NGOs
gathered around the conference site to debate their own positions. To help
clarify confusion surrounding conference issues, NGOs published a newspa-
per which they delivered to the media, embassy, and hotels where attendees
were staying.

The 1992 Earth Summit

Having learned from the 1972 UN Conference, the planners of the 1992
Earth Summit coordinated a parallel conference for NGOs. Known as the
Global Forum, this satellite conference enabled NGOs across the world to
network, share research, and evaluate their collective role in protecting the
environment. Together, NGOs drafted an extensive collection of treaties
including the Earth Charter, a document meant to parallel the Summit’s Rio
Declaration, an agreement defining the rights and responsibilities of coun-
tries. Five years after the 1992 Earth Summit, five hundred NGOs met in
New York to judge their progress and push for a redrafting of the Earth
Charter. By 2000 a new draft was finalized to express the renewed vision
NGOs hoped to fulfill.
By the mid-1990s NGOs had secured an important position in the envi-
ronmental movement’s crusade against pollution. Organizations large and
small, striving to eradicate pollution, raised the public’s level of awareness.
Because pollution is at the same time a local and international problem, NGOs
have been essential on all levels. Their dedication to issues and their multifac-
eted approaches to disseminating information makes them an important asset
to the cause they represent and to the legislation they are hoping to influence.
International NGO networks only serve to improve the environmental move-
ment as receptivity to NGO work continues to expand worldwide.
Bibliography
Fox, Jonathan, and Brown, L. David. (1998). The Struggle for Accountability: The World
Bank, NGOs, and Grassroots Movements. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Gottlieb, Robert. (1993). Forcing the Spring. Washington, D.C.: Island Press.
Hays, Samuel P. (2000). A History of Environmental Politics Since 1945. Pittsburgh: Uni-
versity of Pittsburgh Press.
Hedblad, Alan, ed. (2003). Encyclopedia of Associations, 39th edition. Detroit: Gale Group.

72
 Nonpoint Source Pollution

Markham, Adam. (1994). A Brief History of Pollution. New York: St. Martin’s Press.
Willets, Peter. (1982). Pressure Groups in the Global System. London: St. Martin’s Press.

Internet Resources
CIESIN. “A Summary of the Major Documents Signed at the Earth Summit and
Global Forum.” Available from http://www.ciesin.org.
Citizens Campaign for the Environment. “Coalitions and Affiliations.” Available from
http://www.citizenscampaign.org.
Global Policy. “NGOs.” Available from http://www.globalpolicy.org/ngos.
Environmental Defense Fund. “Notable Victories.” Available from http://www.envi-
ronmentaldefense.org.
Natural Resources Defense Council. “Environmental Legislation.” Available from
http://www.nrdc.org.
Transformational Movement. “Earth Charter.” Available from http://www.transform-
world.org.
United Nations. “UN Conference on Environment and Development (1992).” Avail-
able from http://www.un.org/geninfo/bp/enviro.html.
Worldwatch Institute. “WTO Confrontation Shows Growing Power of Activist
Groups.” Available from http://www.worldwatch.org.
Christine M. Whitney

Nonpoint Source Pollution

Nonpoint source pollution occurs when rainfall or snowmelt runs over land
or through the ground, picks up pollutants, and deposits them into rivers,
lakes, wetlands, and coastal waters or introduces them into groundwater.
Some of the primary activities that generate nonpoint source pollution
include farming and grazing activities, timber harvesting, new development,
construction, and recreational boating. Manure, pesticides, fertilizers, dirt,
oil, and gas produced by these activities are examples of nonpoint source pol-
lutants. Even individual households contribute to nonpoint source pollution
through improper chemical and pesticide use, landscaping, and other house-
hold practices.
After Congress passed the Clean Water Act in 1972, the water-quality
community within the United States placed a primary emphasis on address-
ing and controlling point source pollution (pollution coming from discrete
conveyances or locations, such as industrial and municipal waste discharge
pipes). Not only were these sources the primary contributors to the degra-
dation of U.S. waters at the time, but the extent and significance of nonpoint
source pollution were also poorly understood and overshadowed by efforts to
control pollution from point sources.
At the beginning of the twenty-first century, nonpoint source pollution
stands as the primary cause of water-quality problems within the United
States. According to the National Water Quality Inventory (published by the
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency), it is the main reason that approxi-
mately 40 percent of surveyed rivers, lakes, and estuaries are not clean
enough to meet basic uses such as fishing or swimming.

Leading Contributors to Nonpoint Source Pollution

States and other jurisdictions reported in the National Water Quality Inventory
that agriculture and urban runoff are among the leading contributors to
73
Nonpoint Source Pollution

A cow drinking in a dried-up deteriorating water quality nationwide. The most common nonpoint source
riverbed. (U.S. EPA)
pollutants causing water-quality problems include nutrients (nitrogen and
phosphorus), siltation (soil particles), metals, and pathogens (bacteria and
viruses).
Agriculture is identified as the leading source of degradation of polluted
rivers, streams, and lakes surveyed by states, territories, and tribes in the
National Water Quality Inventory. Agricultural activities that result in non-
point source pollution include concentrated animal feeding operations
(CAFOs), grazing, plowing, pesticide spraying, irrigation, fertilizing, plant-
ing, and harvesting. A major nonpoint source pollutant from these activities
is an excess of nutrients, which can occur through applications of crop fertil-
izers and manure from animal production facilities. Excessive nutrients may
overstimulate the growth of aquatic weeds and algae, depleting the oxygen
available for a healthy aquatic community.
hydromodification any process Hydromodification that alters the flow of water is the second leading
that alters the hydrologic char- source of damage to U.S. rivers, streams, and lakes, according to the same
acteristics of a body of water
National Water Quality Inventory report. Examples of hydromodification proj-
ects include channelization, dredging, and construction of dams. Excess sedi-
ment due to erosion caused by projects such as building dams can severely alter
aquatic communities by clogging fish gills or suffocating eggs. Sediment may
also carry other pollutants into water bodies (e.g., PCBs or mercury) which can
accumulate in aquatic species, leading to fish consumption advisories.
Habitat modification is identified as the third-largest source of water pol-
lution in surveyed rivers and streams in the National Water Quality Inventory.
74
 Nonpoint Source Pollution

Habitat modification occurs when the vegetation along stream banks is

removed, diminishing buffers that help filter runoff and provide shade for the
adjacent water body. These modifications can result in an increase in the water
temperature (because of less shade) and an increase in quantity and velocity of
runoff, making the river or stream less suitable for the organisms inhabiting it.
Runoff from urban areas is the fourth-largest source of water pollution in
rivers and streams and the third-largest source of water pollution in lakes,
according to the National Water Quality Inventory. Increased urban develop-
ment brings additional roads, bridges, buildings, and parking lots, which can
result in large amounts of runoff that quickly and easily drain into rivers and
lakes. In contrast, the porous and varied terrain of natural landscapes like
forests, wetlands, and grasslands traps rainwater and snowmelt and allows it
to filter slowly into the ground. Urban runoff transports a variety of pollu-
tants, including sediment from new development; oil, grease, and toxic
chemicals from vehicles; and nutrients and pesticides from turf management
and gardening. It can also carry pathogenic bacteria and viruses released from
failing septic systems and inadequately treated sewage, which can result in
closed beaches and shellfish beds, contaminated drinking water sources, and
even severe human illness.

Programs for Nonpoint Source Control

The United States has made significant progress in addressing nonpoint
source pollution since Congress amended the Clean Water Act in 1987 to
establish a national program for controlling nonpoint source pollution.
Under section 319 of the Clean Water Act, states adopted management pro-
grams to control nonpoint source pollution, and since 1990 the EPA has
awarded grants to states to assist them in implementing those management
programs. Other federal agencies also provide technical and financial support
through grants and loans to states, local communities, and farmers and other
landowners, to implement nonpoint source pollution controls. In addition,
many state and local entities are dedicating increasing amounts of funding to
control nonpoint source pollution.

GOLF AND THE ENVIRONMENT

The well-manicured deep green turfs of siting, development, and operation of golf
America’s golf courses are often situated in pris- courses. Through better site analysis and selec-
tine, water-rich environments. However, often the tion, better management and timing of pesti-
process of maintaining these golf courses cides applications, the use of slow-release
involves heavy fertilization, pesticide treatments, fertilizers, employment of buffers to filter turf
and perpetual mowing and watering, which can runoff, and other such practices, the golf indus-
lead to polluted groundwater and drinking water try is making considerable headway in
and damage to aquatic habitat and wildlife. managing the effects of nonpoint source
Proper management of golf courses can reduce pollution.
or prevent many of these problems, and a large
—Source: “Environmental Principles for Golf
coalition of public and private partners (includ-
Courses in the United States,” Second Confer-
ing the EPA and a conglomeration of state and
ence on Golf and the Environment, Pinehurst,
national golf associations) has developed and
NC, Center for Resource Management. 1996.
adopted voluntary guidelines that apply to the

75
Nonpoint Source Pollution

State nonpoint source programs provide for the control of nonpoint

BUZZARDS BAY WATERSHED source pollution primarily through best management practices (BMPs),
Seventeen municipalities make which are on-the-ground technical controls used to prevent or reduce non-
up the Buzzards Bay watershed point source pollution. Common practices used to control nutrients from
in the southeastern region of agriculture include altering fertilizer and pesticide application methods and
Massachusetts. Nonpoint source storing and properly managing manure from confined animal facilities.
pollution from failing septic sys- Developing a buffer of vegetation between the land and the stream bank can
tems, farm animal wastes, and help filter all types of nonpoint source pollutants from entering a receiving
stormwater runoff were contribut- water body, including sediment transported by overland flow. Stream-bank
ing to a decline in water quality protection and channel stabilization practices are also very effective in pre-
in the bay, forcing the closing of venting sediment deposition in the water by limiting the bank erosion
many shellfish beds. Watershed processes and streambed degradation. Urban runoff can be controlled by
partners, including various fed- establishing trenches, basins, and detention ponds at construction sites to
eral (e.g., U.S. Department of hold, settle, and retain suspended solids and associated pollutants. Basic
Agriculture), state (e.g., Massa- pollution-prevention measures introduced around the home can also prevent
chusetts Department of Environ- nonpoint source pollutants from entering storm water. Practices include the
mental Protection), local partners proper storage, use, and disposal of household hazardous chemicals; proper
(e.g., Town of Marion), and area operation and maintenance of onsite disposal systems; and even proper dis-
residents cooperated to support posal of pet waste so that it does not wash into storm drains.
the construction of a wetland
system to help filter the Watershed Approach to Managing Nonpoint
stormwater discharge into the Source Pollution
bay. The success of this effort Nonpoint source pollution derives from many different sources over large
depended on a coordinated geographic areas so regulating and controlling it are challenging. The water-
approach including all partners shed approach to managing nonpoint source pollution, however, is proving
on a watershed basis. to be an effective technique. Everyone lives in a watershed, or an area of land
—Source: Watershed Success in which all water drains. According to the U.S. Geological Survey, the
Stories (2000). Interagency nation can be divided into approximately 2,149 medium-sized watersheds,
Watershed Coordinating Commit- averaging about 1,700 square miles in each area. The watershed approach
tee. Washington, D.C. relies on coordinating all relevant federal, state, and local government agen-
cies, and the stakeholders who live in a particular watershed, to help solve
priority problems in that watershed. Historically, many water-quality prob-
watershed the land area that lems were addressed piecemeal in individual water bodies by individual enti-
drains into a stream; the ties, usually limited by political, social, and economic boundaries. The
watershed for a major river
may encompass a number of
watershed approach, however, relies on the coordination of all entities and
smaller watersheds stakeholders to help solve the watershed’s most serious environmental prob-
lems, which in many instances are caused by nonpoint source pollution.

International Implications
Managing nonpoint source pollution is an international challenge. Like the
United States, many developed countries initially directed resources toward
controlling point source pollution. However, significant nonpoint source
problems remain, especially resulting from an excess of nutrients and sedi-
ment in water bodies. The United Nations Environment Programme has
identified increased nitrogen loadings, resulting mainly from agricultural
runoff and wastewater, as one of the most serious water-quality issues affect-
ing all countries. Sedimentation is a significant concern for other countries,
frequently resulting from deforestation or clear cutting for fuelwood, or agri-
cultural practices. One of the largest threats in developing countries relates
to problems with sewage control, either through poor maintenance of sewage
collection systems or a lack of it, leading to severe waterborne diseases.
76
 Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC)

The increasing world population promises even more challenges for

managing nonpoint source pollution. Some international communities are PERVIOUS (PERMEABLE)
embracing integrated solutions (like the watershed approach) to reduce it. CONCRETE
Agenda 21 adopted at the United Nations Conference on Environment and An increasing number of parking
Development in 1992 is but one example. S E E A L S O Agriculture; Cryp- lots in California are being paved
tosporidiosis; Education; Hypoxia; Phosphates; Sedimentation; Water with pervious concrete to reduce
Pollution; Water Pollution: Freshwater; Water Treatment. runoff and allow water to drain
Bibliography through to underlying soil or
United Nations Environment Programme. (1999). Global Environment Outlook. Lon- groundwater. The concrete is
don: United Nations Environmental Program. made from Portland cement,
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (2000). National Water Quality Inventory: 2000 gravel, and water and consists of
Report. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. up to one-quarter empty spaces
Internet Resources that allow rainfall to penetrate at
Center for Watershed Protection Web site. Available from http://www.cwp.org.
a rate of about three to five gal-
lons per square foot, per minute.
Nonpoint Education for Municipal Officials (NEMO) Web site. Available from
http://nemo.uconn.edu. Beneficial soil microorganisms
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service Web site. break down pollutants, such as
Available from http://www.nrcs.usda.gov. oil and gasoline, trapped in the
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Wetlands, Oceans, and Watersheds voids. In 2002 a Santa Barbara
Web site. Available from http://www.epa.gov/owow/nps. couple made the news as possi-
Stacie Craddock bly the first homeowners in Cali-
fornia to pave their driveway
North American Free Trade Agreement See NAFTA with pervious concrete.

NPDES See National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System

NRC See Nuclear Regulatory Commission

Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC)

The Nuclear Regulatory Commission’s (NRC) primary mission is to protect
public health and safety and to protect the environment from the effects of
radiation from nuclear reactors, materials, and waste facilities. The NRC is
empowered by the Atomic Energy Act of 1954 and its amendments to regu-
late source material (primarily uranium ore and processed uranium), special
nuclear material, including material enriched in plutonium or the isotope
uranium-235 above certain levels, and by-product material, and to regulate
the uses of these materials. Primarily, this means it regulates nuclear power
plants and civilian research reactors, the materials used to make fuel for these
plants, the wastes produced, and other materials and uses of radioactive
material that are derived from these sources.
The NRC is headed by a five-member commission that is appointed by
the president (subject to Senate confirmation). The NRC does not regulate
naturally occurring radioactive materials (NORM) that do not fall into one of
these categories. Such naturally occurring materials include radioactive waste
from oil and gas production. The NRC also does not regulate radiation-pro-
ducing machines, such as x-ray machines, or radioactive materials produced
in accelerators. S E E A L S O Antinuclear Movement; Laws and Regula-
tions; United States.
Matthew Arno

77
Nuclear Waste, Disposal of

Nuclear Waste, Disposal of See Radioactive Waste

Occupational Safety and Health

O Administration (OSHA)
The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), the federal
agency charged with protecting workers’ health and safety, was created by
Congress in 1971 to administer the Occupational Health and Safety Act of
1970. With few exceptions, including some state plans and specific industries,
OSHA oversees all U.S. workers and their employers. OSHA’s duty is to
ensure that workplaces are free from hazards that are likely to cause serious
harm or death to workers.
As part of that duty, OSHA establishes standards for workplace activities
and exposures to hazardous materials. Working in conjunction with the
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), OSHA
uses scientific data to determine acceptable levels of risk for regulated mate-
rials and creates corresponding material safety data sheets (MSDS) for each.
Levels are set forth in the Federal Code of Regulations (CFR), and employ-
ers must prevent workers from being exposed above the CFR’s permissible
exposure limits. Although employers must oversee their own programs,
OSHA requires that records be kept for all workplace exposures, illnesses,
injuries, and fatalities. The agency may only regulate the employer-employee
relationship, but when individuals bring lawsuits against their employers,
courts will generally find the employer negligent if there has been a failure to
comply with OSHA standards. S E E A L S O Hazardous Waste.
Bibliography
Michaud, Patrick A. (1995). Accident Prevention and OSHA Compliance. Lewis Publishers.
2000 OSHA Handbook. (1999). PA: Chamber Educational Foundation.

Internet Resources
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health Web site. Available from
http://www.cdc.gov/niosh.
Occupational Health and Safety Administration Web site. Available from http://
www.osha.gov.
Mary Elliott Rollé

Ocean Dumping
Ocean disposal of society’s waste got its start indirectly long before the Agri-
cultural Age when nearby streams, lakes, and estuaries were useful as waste
repositories. As civilization moved to the coastal zone and navigation began
in earnest, the oceans were viewed as even a larger waste repository. Early
civilizations were located adjacent to bodies of water for sources of food, irri-
gation, drinking water, transportation, and a place to dispose of unnecessary
items. Historically, the disposal of wastes into water by humans was univer-
sally practiced. It was a cheap and convenient way to rid society of food
wastes (e.g., cleaned carcasses, shells, etc.), trash, mining wastes, and human
wastes (or sewage). The advent of the Industrial Age brought with it the new
problem of chemical wastes and by-products: These were also commonly dis-
posed of in the water.
78
 Ocean Dumping

Early dumping started in rivers, lakes, and estuaries, whereas ocean A trash-strewn beach.
(©Claude Charlier/Corbis.
dumping was simply not used because of the distance and difficulty in trans-
Reproduced by permission.)
porting waste materials. The wastes from ships, however, were simply
dumped directly into the ocean. As civilization developed at river deltas and
in estuaries adjacent to the ocean, and these areas soon began to display the estuary region of interaction
effects of dumping, disposal in the ocean became a popular alternative. Over between rivers and near-shore
ocean waters, where tidal
the past 150 years, all types of wastes have been ocean dumped. These action and river flow mix fresh
include sewage (treated and untreated), industrial waste, military wastes and salt water (i.e., bays,
(munitions and chemicals), entire ships, trash, garbage, dredged material, mouths of rivers, salt marshes,
and lagoons). These ecosys-
construction debris, and radioactive wastes (both high- and low-level). It is tems shelter and feed marine
important to note that significant amount of wastes enter the ocean through life, birds, and wildlife
river, atmospheric, and pipeline discharge; construction; offshore mining; oil
and gas exploration; and shipboard waste disposal. Unfortunately, the ocean
has become the ultimate dumping ground for civilization.
It has been recognized over the past fifty years that the earth’s oceans are
under serious threat from these wastes and their “witches’ brew” of chemicals
and nonbiodegradable components. Society has also come to understand that
its oceans are under serious threat from overfishing, mineral exploration, and
coastal construction activities. The detrimental effects of ocean dumping are
physically visible at trashed beaches, where dead fish and mammals entangled
in plastic products may sometimes be observed. They are additionally
reflected in the significant toxic chemical concentrations in fish and other sea
life. The accumulations of some toxins, especially mercury, in the bodies of sea
life have resulted in some harvestable seafood unfit for human consumption.

79
Ocean Dumping

Seriously affected areas include commercial and recreational fishing, beaches,

resorts, human health, and other pleasurable uses of the sea. During the 1960s
numerous groups (global, regional, governmental, and environmental) began
to report on the detrimental impact of waste disposal on the ocean. Prior to
this time, few regulatory (or legal) actions occurred to control or prevent these
dumping activities.

Early U.S. Legislation

Late in the nineteenth century, the U.S. Congress enacted Section 10 of the
River and Harbor Act of 1890, prohibiting any obstruction to the navigation
of U.S. waters. The authority to implement the act through a regulatory per-
mit program was given to the secretary of the army acting through the chief
of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. In the late 1960s the corps enlarged
the scope of its review of permit applications to include fish and wildlife, con-
servation, pollution, esthetics, ecology, and matters of general public interest.
In addition, the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (NEPA)
required the review of policy issues pertinent to the public interest and an
environmental impact statement on activities that might significantly affect
the quality of the environment.
In 1972 the U.S. Congress passed the Marine Protection, Research and
Sanctuaries Act (Ocean Dumping Act or ODA) and the Federal Water Pol-
lution Control Act amendments (Clean Water Act or CWA) that set a global
standard for managing environmental restoration and protection, for main-
taining the environment within acceptable standards, for prohibiting the dis-
posal of waste materials into the ocean, and for regulating the discharge of
wastes through pipelines into the ocean.
With the enactment of these laws, the corps’s regulatory program
became quite complex. The goal of the CWA is to restore and maintain the
chemical, physical, and biological integrity of the nation’s waters, with
the corps responsible for regulating the discharge of dredged material into
inland and coastal waters. The ODA regards oceans in a somewhat similar
manner, requiring the review of all proposed operations involving the trans-
portation or disposal of waste materials and their potential environmental
impact. The corps also manages the ocean dumping permit program. Like
the CWA, the ODA is concerned with the unregulated dumping of materi-
als into ocean waters that endanger human health and welfare, the marine
environment, and the earth’s ecological systems, and that may have dire eco-
nomic consequences. The corps implements these programs in full partner-
ship with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and is subject to their
oversight.
International recognition of the need to regulate ocean disposal from
land-based sources on a global basis was the result of the UN Conference on
the Human Environment in June 1972 and the Inter-Governmental Confer-
ence on the Convention of the Dumping of Wastes at Sea in November
1972. These conferences resulted in a treaty entitled Convention on the Pre-
vention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter—
London Convention 1972 (LC-72). The LC-72 came into effect in 1975 and
currently has approximately eighty member nations. Another treaty address-
ing the issue of wastes disposed of from vessels, the International Convention
for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973 (MARPOL), was adopted
80
 Ocean Dumping

MA J OR G L OBA L AGREEMENTS A ND D O M E STI C L E G I SL A TI O N G O VE R N I N G P R O TE C TI O N

OF T HE M A RINE ENVIRONMENT

Key Global Agreements to Protect the Marine Environment from Dumping

Title Description
1982 UN Convention on The Law of the Sea Provides a framework for the determination of the rights and obligations of states
(UNCLOS 1982) relating to the oceans. Part XII contains provisions with regard to protection and
(entry into force: November 1994); preservation of the marine environment.

International Convention for the Prevention of Provides measures for ships and national administrations to prevent pollution by oil
Pollution from Ships, 1973, as modified by (Annex I), noxious liquid substances in bulk (Annex II), harmful substances in
the protocol of 1978 relating thereto packaged form (Annex III), sewage (Annex IV), garbage (Annex V), and air pollution
(MARPOL 73/78) from ships (Annex VI).

Convention on the Prevention of Marine Provides measures to limit the use of the oceans as disposal area for wastes
Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and other generated on land.
Matter
(London Convention 1972)
(entry into force: August 1975)

Key Domestic Legislation to Protect the Marine and Coastal Environment

Title Description
Federal Water Pollution Control Act To restore and maintain the chemical, physical, and biological integrity of the nation's
Amendments of 1972 (CWA) waters.

Marine, Protection Research, and To regulate the dumping of all types of materials into ocean waters and to prevent or
Santuaries Act of 1972 (ODA) strictly limit the dumping into ocean waters of any material which would adversely
affect human health, welfare or amenities, or the marine environment, ecological
systems, or economic potentialities.

National Environmental Policy Act of To declare a national policy that will encourage productive and enjoyable harmony
1969 (NEPA) between people and the environment; to promote efforts that will prevent or eliminate
damage to the environment and biosphere and stimulate human health and welfare.

in 1973. Countries signing MARPOL agree to enforce bans on dumping oil

and noxious liquids into the ocean from ships, but the disposal of hazardous
substances, sewage, and plastics remains optional. There are dozens of other
international agreements dealing with ocean pollution, but the LC-72 and
MARPOL are the most significant as far as dumping is concerned. The
United States is an active member of both of these treaties.
The LC-72 and domestic ODA are similar in structure and require-
ments, with the U.S. regulation being more stringent. The dumping of
industrial wastes, radioactive wastes, munitions (chemical or biological),
sewage, and incineration at sea are directly prohibited. Moreover, the ocean
disposal of other waste materials containing greater than trace amounts of
certain chemicals (i.e., mercury, cadmium, petroleum hydrocarbons, chlori-
nated chemicals, and nondegradable plastics) is strictly prohibited. Allowed
under strictly regulated conditions are the ocean disposal of dredged material
(harbor sediments), geologic material, and some fish waste; burial at sea; and
ship disposal.
The corps and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) imple-
ment the LC-72 and ODA in the United States. The Corps issues its permits
after careful assessment using environmental criteria developed by the EPA.
About 350 million tons of sediments are dredged annually in U.S. waters for
the purpose of navigation for trade and national defense; approximately 20
percent of this total is disposed of in formally designated sites in ocean
81
Ocean Dumping

waters. A small portion of sediments from major harbor areas (about seven to
ten percent of the national total) is sufficiently contaminated that ocean
placement is not allowed, and the sediment must be contained at regulated
land sites. Proposed ocean disposal is assessed through the use of an effects-
based approach, which evaluates the dredged material as a complex substance
that may contain a wide variety of contaminants. The assessment will iden-
tify those sediments that may be detrimental to ocean biota and human
bioassay a test to determine health. The effects-based approach uses bioassay test organisms to integrate
the relative strength of a sub- the potential effects of all the contaminants present in a combined impact
stance by comparing its effect
on a test organism with that of assessment. This is done through the use of bioassays for acute toxicity and
a standard preparation an estimate of contaminants’ bioaccumulation potential. An assessment is
also made on the potential of sediment contamination to impact water qual-
ity. A decision is then based on the suitability of a material for unrestricted or
restricted ocean disposal, or not. For example, a dredged sediment from a
contaminated portion of a harbor can be prohibited from ocean disposal and
must be placed in a land containment facility.
In highly industrialized harbors such as those in New York or New Jer-
sey, dredging and the disposal of dredged material are often controversial.
Ocean placement is not allowed except in the case of the cleanest sediments
and adding to the controversy, land disposal locations are very limited and
very expensive. In contrast, world trade and shipping, which depend on nav-
igation dredging for deep channels, are a vital component of regional and
national economies. The long-term solution to contaminated sediments will
depend on waste control from land sources and the cleanup of highly con-
taminated sediments that continue to impact the navigation channel.
The ocean placement of suitable dredged material or sediments at care-
fully selected ocean sites may be environmentally safe in relation to other
alternatives. It might even be beneficial to the ocean through proper man-
agement. Eroding beaches, for instance, often receive clean dredged sand as
a routine part of environmental improvement programs. Dredged material
comprises 95 percent or more of all ocean disposal on a global basis. As nav-
igable waterways and their role in world trade and defense continue to be
important components of the economic growth and stability of coastal
nations, the environmentally sound disposal of suitable dredged materials
into the ocean will remain a necessary alternative. Moreover, the beneficial
uses of these dredged sediments (when they are not contaminated with pol-
lutants) for beach replenishment, wetlands, construction, aquatic and upland
habitat improvement, and as construction materials will remain the highest
priority in sediment and ocean disposal management. S E E A L S O Bioaccumu-
lation; Clean Water Act; Dredging; Ocean Dumping Ban Act; Rivers
and Harbors Appropriations Act; Water Pollution; Water Pollution:
Marine.
Bibliography
Committee on Public Works, U.S. House of Representatives. (1973). Laws of the
United States Relating to Water Pollution Control and Environmental Quality, 93-1.
Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office.
Engler, R.M. (1980). “Prediction of Pollution Potential through Geochemical and
Biological Procedures: Development of Guidelines and Criteria for the Discharge
of Dredged and Fill Material.” In Contaminants and Sediments, edited by R.A. Baker.
Ann Arbor, MI: Ann Arbor Science Publications.
Engler, R.M. (1990). “Managing Dredged Materials.” Oceanus 33(2):63–69.

82
 Oil Spills

Engler, R.M.; Saunders, L.; and Wright, Thomas. (1991). “Environmental Effects of
Aquatic Disposal of Dredged Material.” Environmental Professional 13:317–325.
Engler, R.M.; Saunders, L.; and Wright, T. (1991). “The Nature of Dredged Mater-
ial.” Environmental Professional 13:313–316.
Huber, M.E., et al. (1999). “Oceans at Risk.” Marine Pollution Bulletin 38(6):435–438.
International Maritime Organization. (1991). The London Dumping Convention: The
First Decade and Beyond. London.
Nauke, M. (1985). “Disposal at Sea of Dredged Material under the London Conven-
tion.” Dredging and Port Construction May:9–16.

Internet Resources
Greenpeace. Available from http://www.greenpeace.org/~odumping.
London Convention of 1972. Available from http://www.londonconvention.org/
London_Convention.htm.
Robert M. Engler

Ocean Dumping Ban Act

The Ocean Dumping Ban Act, enacted in 1988, significantly amended por-
tions of the Marine Protection, Research and Sanctuaries Act of 1972 and
banned ocean dumping of municipal sewage sludge and industrial waste (with
limited exceptions) by phased target dates. The disposal of sewage sludge in
waters off New York City was a major motivation for its enactment. Eligible
municipalities previously had been allowed to dispose of sewage sludge
beyond the so-called 106-mile ocean waste dumpsite, but are now precluded
from doing so. Ocean disposal of sewage sludge and industrial waste was
totally banned after 1991. Narrow exceptions were created for certain Army
Corps of Engineers dredge materials that are occasionally deposited offshore.
During the interim period from 1989, after the amendments were
enacted, to 1991, when the total ban took effect, limited sewage and indus-
trial waste dumping was allowed for businesses dumping under already exist-
ing permits. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) was directed
to report to Congress on an annual basis regarding the effectiveness of com-
pliance agreements, and the progress made by permitted parties toward
developing alternative systems for managing sewage sludge and industrial
waste. EPA also had to report on its own efforts in identifying and imple-
menting alternative disposal systems and general progress toward the con-
gressional goal of terminating the ocean dumping of sewage sludge and
industrial waste. EPA has interpreted these 1988 amendments to include the
ocean incineration of wastes so that they must be regulated in the same man-
ner as ocean disposal. S E E A L S O Biosolids; Laws and Regulations, Inter-
national; Medical Waste; Ocean Dumping.
Internet Resource
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. “Ocean Dumping Ban Act of 1988.” Available
from http://www.epa.gov/history.
Kevin Anthony Reilly

Ocean Pollution See Water Pollution: Marine

Oil Spills See Disasters: Oil Spills; Petroleum

83
Organic Farming

Organic Farming See Agriculture

OSHA See Occupational Safety and Health Administration

Oxygen Demand, Biochemical

Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) is a measure of how much organic pol-
lution is in water. The BOD test measures the amount of dissolved oxygen in
breakdown degradation into water that is used up due to the breakdown of organic pollutants, such as
component parts sewage, in a certain number of days. Raw sewage has a BOD of forty to 150
milligrams per liter, whereas drinking water has a BOD of less than 0.5 mil-
ligrams per liter.
Engineers and scientists measure the BOD of a lake or river to see how
healthy the water is. The lower the BOD, the healthier the water. Water needs
to have oxygen in it to support aquatic life such as fish and plants. Oxygen in
the water is replenished from the atmosphere through aeration, but if it is used
up faster than it is replenished, the water becomes anaerobic (or hypoxic)—
existing in the deficiency or absence of free oxygen. Anaerobic water cannot
support life. S E E A L S O Fresh Kills; Hypoxia; Water Treatment.
Bibliography
Peavey, Howard S.; Rowe, Donald R.; and Tchobanoglous, George. (1985). Environ-
mental Engineering. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Julie Hutchins Cairn

Ozone
Ozone is a gas found in the atmosphere in very trace amounts. Depending on
where it is located, ozone can be beneficial (“good ozone”) or detrimental
(“bad ozone”). On average, every ten million air molecules contains only
about three molecules of ozone. Indeed, if all the ozone in the atmosphere
were collected in a layer at Earth’s surface, that layer would only have the
thickness of three dimes. But despite its scarcity, ozone plays very significant
roles in the atmosphere. In fact, ozone frequently “makes headlines” in the
newspapers because its roles are of importance to humans and other life on
Earth.

What Is Ozone?
Chemically, the ozone molecule consists of three atoms of oxygen arranged
in the shape of a wide V. Its formula is O3 (the more familiar form of oxygen
that one breathes has only two atoms of oxygen and a chemical formula of
O2). Gaseous ozone is bluish in color and has a pungent, distinctive smell. In
fact, the name ozone is derived from the Greek word ozein, meaning “to
smell or reek.” The smell of ozone can often be noticed near electrical trans-
formers or nearby lightning strikes. It is formed in these instances when an
electrical discharge breaks an oxygen molecule (O2) into free oxygen atoms
(O), which then combine with O2 in the air to make O3. In addition to its
roles in the atmosphere, ozone is a chemically reactive oxidizing agent that is
used as an air purifier, a water sterilizer, and a bleaching agent.
84
 Ozone

Where Is Ozone Found in the Atmosphere?

Ozone is mainly found in the two regions of the atmosphere that are closest
to the earth’s surface. About 10 percent of the atmosphere’s ozone is in the
lowest-lying atmospheric region, the troposphere. This ozone is formed in a
series of chemical reactions that involve the interaction of nitrogen oxides,
volatile organic compounds, and sunlight. Most ozone (about 90%) resides in
the next atmospheric layer, the stratosphere. The stratosphere begins
between 8 and 18 kilometers (5 and 11 miles) above the earth’s surface and
extends up to about 50 kilometers (30 miles). The ozone in this region is
commonly known as the ozone layer. Stratospheric ozone is formed when the
sun’s ultraviolet (UV) radiation breaks apart molecular oxygen (O2) to ultraviolet radiation high-
form O atoms, which then combine with O2 to make ozone. Note that this energy, short-wavelength light
beyond human vision
formation mechanism differs from the one mentioned above for ozone in the
lower atmosphere.

What Roles Does Ozone Play in the Atmosphere

and How Are Humans Affected?
The ozone molecules in the stratosphere and the troposphere are chemically
identical. However, they have very different roles in the atmosphere and very
different effects on humans and other living beings, depending on their
location.
A useful statement summarizing ozone’s different effects is that it is
“good up high, bad nearby.” In the upper atmosphere, stratospheric ozone
plays a beneficial role by absorbing most of the sun’s biologically damaging
ultraviolet sunlight (called UV-B), allowing only a small amount to reach the
earth’s surface. The absorption of ultraviolet radiation by ozone creates a
source of heat, which actually defines the stratosphere (a region in which the
temperature rises as one goes to higher altitudes). Ozone thus plays a key role
in the temperature structure of the earth’s atmosphere. Without the filtering
action of the ozone layer, more of the sun’s UV-B radiation would penetrate
the atmosphere and reach the earth’s surface. Many experimental studies of
plants and animals and clinical studies of humans have shown that excessive
exposure to UV-B radiation has harmful effects. Serious long-term effects
can include skin cancers and eye damage. The UV-absorbing role of stratos-
pheric ozone is what lies behind the expression that ozone is “good up high.”
In the troposphere, ozone comes into direct contact with life-forms.
Although some amount of ozone is naturally present in the lower atmos-
phere, excessive amounts of this lower-atmospheric ozone are undesirable (or
bad ozone). This is because ozone reacts strongly with other molecules,
including molecules that make up the tissues of plants and animals. Several
studies have documented the harmful effects of excessive ozone on crop pro-
duction, forest growth, and human health. For example, people with asthma
are particularly vulnerable to the adverse effects of ozone. Thus, ozone is
“bad nearby.” Earth, showing depletion
of the ozone layer, over
What Are the Environmental Issues Associated Antarctica. This graphic depicts
the largest hole ever recorded,
with Ozone? taken on September 6, 2000.
(Goddard Space Flight Center,
The dual role of ozone links it to two separate environmental issues often National Aeronautics and
seen in the newspaper headlines. One issue relates to increases in ozone in Space Administration.)

85
Ozone

D IST R IB U T I O N O F O Z O N E I N T H E A TMOS P HE RE

35

• Contains 90% of Atmospheric Ozone

• Beneficial Role: Acts as Primary UV Radiation Shield
30 • Current Issues:
Long-Term Global Downward Trends
Stratoshperic Ozone Springtime Antarctic Ozone Hole Each Year
25 (The Ozone Layer) Springtime Arctic Ozone Losses in Several Recent
Altitude (kilometers)

Years

20

15
• Contains 10% of Atmospheric Ozone
• Harmful Impact: Toxic Effects on Humans and
10 Vegetation
Tropospheric Ozone • Current Issues:
Episodes of High Surface Ozone in Urban and Rural
"Smog" Ozone Areas
5

0 5 10 15 20 25
Ozone Amount
(pressure, milliPascals)
SOURCE: Adapted from the Introduction to World Meteorological Organization/United Nations Environment Programme report, Scientific Assessment of Ozone
Depletion: 1998 (WMO Global Ozone Research and Monitoring Project-Report No. 44, Geneva, 1999).

the troposphere (the bad ozone mentioned above). Human activities that add
nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds to that atmosphere, such as
the fossil fuel burning associated with power-generating plants and vehicular
exhaust, are contributing to the formation of larger amounts of ozone near
photochemical light-induced the earth’s surface. This ozone is a key component of photochemical smog,
chemical effects a familiar problem in the atmosphere of many cities around the world.
Higher amounts of surface-level ozone are increasingly being observed in
rural areas as well. Thus, the environmental issue is that human activities can
lead to more of the bad ozone.
The second environmental issue relates to the loss of ozone in the strat-
osphere. Ground-based and satellite instruments have measured decreases in
the amount of stratospheric ozone in our atmosphere, which is called ozone-
layer depletion. The most extreme case occurs over some parts of Antarctica,
where up to 60 percent of the total overhead amount of ozone (known as the
column ozone) disappears during some periods of the Antarctic spring (Sep-
tember through November). This phenomenon, which has been occurring
only since the early 1980s, is known as the Antarctic ozone hole. In the arc-
tic polar regions, similar processes occur that have also led to significant
chemical depletion of the column ozone during late winter and spring in
many recent years. Arctic ozone loss from January through late March has
been typically 20 to 25 percent, and shorter-period losses have been higher,
depending on the meteorological conditions encountered in the Arctic strat-
osphere. Smaller, but nevertheless significant, stratospheric ozone decreases
have been seen at other, more populated latitudes of the earth, away from the
polar regions. Instruments on satellites and on the ground have detected
86
 Ozone

higher amounts of UV-B radiation at the earth’s surface below areas of

depleted ozone.

What Human Activities Affect the Stratospheric

Ozone Layer?
Initially, theories about the cause of ozone-layer depletion abounded. Many
factors were suggested, from the sun to air motions to human activity. In the
1970s and 1980s, the scientific evidence showed conclusively that human-
produced chemicals are responsible for the observed depletions of the ozone
layer. The ozone-depleting compounds contain various combinations of car-
bon with the chemical elements chlorine, fluorine, bromine, and hydrogen
(the halogen family in the periodic table of the elements). These are often
described by the general term halocarbons. The compounds include chloro-
fluorocarbons (CFCs which are used as refrigerants, foam-blowing agents,
electronics cleaners, and industrial solvents) as well as halons (which are used
in fire extinguishers). The compounds are useful and benign in the tropo-
sphere, but when they eventually reach the stratosphere, they are broken
apart by the sun’s ultraviolet radiation. The chlorine and bromine atoms
released from these compounds are responsible for the breakdown of stratos-
pheric ozone. The ozone destruction cycles are catalytic, meaning that the
chlorine or bromine atom enters the cycle, destroys ozone, and exits the cycle
unscathed and therefore able to destroy another ozone molecule. In fact, an
individual chlorine atom can destroy as many as 10,000 different ozone mol-
ecules before the chlorine atom is removed from the stratosphere by other
reactions.

What Actions Have Been Taken to Protect the

Ozone Layer?
Research on ozone depletion advanced very rapidly in the 1970s and 1980s,
leading to the identification of CFCs and other halocarbons as the cause.
Governments and industry acted quickly on the scientific information.
Through a 1987 international agreement known as the Montréal Protocol on
Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer, governments decided to eventu-
ally discontinue production of CFCs (known in the United States by the
industry trade name “Freons”), halons, and other halocarbons (except for a
few special uses). Concurrently, industry developed more ozone-friendly
substitutes for the CFCs and other ozone-depleting halocarbons. If nations
adhere to international agreements, the ozone layer is expected to recover by
the year 2050. The interaction of science in identifying the problem, tech-
nology in developing alternatives, and governments in devising new policies
is thus an environmental “success story in the making.” Indeed, the Montréal
Protocol serves as a model for other environmental issues now facing the
global community.

What Actions Have Been Taken to Reduce the Amount

of Ozone at Ground Level?
Ozone pollution at the earth’s surface is formed within the atmosphere by the
interaction of sunlight with chemical precursor compounds (or starting
ingredients): the nitrogen oxides (NOx) and volatile organic compounds
(VOCs). In the United States, the efforts of the Environmental Protection
87
Packaging

Agency (EPA) to reduce ozone pollution are therefore focused on reducing

the emissions of the precursor compounds. VOCs, a primary focus of many
combustion burning, or rapid regulations, arise from the combustion of fossil fuel and from natural
oxidation, accompanied by sources (emissions from forests). Increasingly, attention is turning to reduc-
release of energy in the form
of heat and light ing the emissions of NOx compounds, which also arise from the combustion
of fossil fuels. The use of cleaner fuels and more efficient vehicles has caused
a reduction in the emission of ozone precursors in urban areas. This has led
to a steady decline in the number and severity of episodes and violations of
the one-hour ozone standard established by the U.S. Environmental Protec-
tion Agency (EPA) (which is 120 parts per billion or ppb, meaning that out
of a billion air molecules, 120 are ozone). In 1999 there were thirty-two areas
of the country that were in violation of the ozone standard, down from 101
just nine years earlier. Despite these improvements, ground-level ozone con-
tinues to be one of the most difficult pollutants to manage. An additional,
more stringent ozone standard proposed by the EPA to protect public health,
eighty ppb averaged over eight hours, was cleared in early 2001 for imple-
mentation in the United States. For comparison, Canada’s standard is sixty-
five ppb averaged over eight hours. S E E A L S O Air Pollution; Asthma;
CFCs (Chlorofluorocarbons); Electric Power; Halon; Montréal Pro-
tocol; NOx (Nitrogen Oxides); Smog; Vehicular Pollution; Ultravio-
let Radiation; VOCs (Volatile Organic Compounds).
Bibliography
World Meteorological Organization. (2003). Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion:
2002. Global Ozone Research and Monitoring Project, Report No. 47. Geneva:
World Meteorological Organization.

Internet Resources
University Corporation for Atmospheric Research. “Cycles of the Earth and Atmos-
phere—Module Review.” Available from http://www.ucar.edu/learn/1.htm.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. “Automobiles and Ozone.” Available from
http://www.epa.gov/otaq/04-ozone.htm.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. “Ozone Depletion.” Available from
http://www.epa.gov/docs/ozone.
Christine A. Ennis

Packaging See Waste Reduction

P Particulates
Particulates, or particulate matter (PM), refer to any mixture of solid parti-
cles or liquid droplets that remain suspended in the atmosphere for appre-
ciable time periods. Examples of particulates are dust and salt particles, and
water and sulphuric acid droplets. The length of time a particle survives in
the atmosphere depends on the balance between two processes. Gravity
forces the particles to settle to the earth’s surface, but atmospheric turbulence
can carry the particles in the opposite direction. Under normal conditions,
only particles with diameters less than 10 micrometers (µm) remain in the
atmosphere long enough to be considered atmospheric particulates. In quan-
tifying particulate matter, it is typical to give the mass of particles less than a
particular size per cubic meter of air. For example, 10 µg/m3 PM2.5 means
that in 1 cubic meter (m3) of air the mass of all particles with diameters less
than 2.5 µm is 10 µg.
88
 Packaging

DIST R IB U T IO N O F PA R TI C U L A T E M A T T E R FROM A LL
CO N T IN E N T AL S O U R C E S ( E X C L U D I N G S EA S A LT EMI S S I ONS ),
1 998

Other Industrial
Processes
On-Road and Non-
Road Engines and
Fuel Combustion– Vehicles
Industrial

9%
19%
Fuel Combustion– 6%
Electrical Utility

8%

14%
Fuel Combustion–
Other 32%

12%
Area Source
Combustion

All Other

SOURCE: Adapted from U.S. EPA, "Air Quality Criteria for Particulate Matter." Available from http://www.epa.gov/ncea.

Most atmospheric particulate comes from natural sources and is mainly

dust or sea salt from mechanical processes such as wind erosion or wave
breaking. Although most of this material is of large size and so is lost from
the atmosphere by gravitational settling, many of the smaller particles can
travel very long distances. For example, dust from Saharan dust storms is car-
ried across the Atlantic Ocean and can be detected in Florida. Similarly,
dust from Asia is regularly detected in Hawaii and sometimes even continen-
tal North America. Adding to the naturally produced dust is a small but
often locally important contribution from the photochemical oxidation of photochemical light-induced
naturally occurring gas-phase hydrocarbons, such as alpha and beta chemical effects
pinene, emitted by trees. These particles frequently give forested areas a hazy
atmosphere.
Although natural processes produce most of the atmospheric particulate
on a global scale, anthropogenic processes are the source of most particulate anthropogenic human-made;
in urban or industrial areas. The major anthropogenic sources are those that related to or produced by the
influence of humans on nature
increase natural loading, such as extra dust due to agriculture or construction.
However, a significant amount of particles are present in factory, power plant,
and motor vehicle emissions, and produced from the reactions of anthro-
pogenic gases present in those emissions.
Primary emissions are those that are produced before being released into
the atmosphere or immediately afterward. They result from condensation
that follows the rapid cooling of high-temperature gases. An example is the
soot that comes from diesel engines. Secondary particles are produced over
a longer time period and derive from gas-phase chemical reactions that
89
Packaging

produce low-vapor-pressure (condensable) products. This process is espe-

cially important, as it produces the ultrafine particles (0.01 µm) that have
been shown to be closely related to human health effects. An example is the
atmospheric oxidation of sulphur dioxide to sulphuric acid, in which sulphur
dioxide is a gas but sulphuric acid exists in the form of droplets. Particles are
an environmental concern because they lower visibility, contribute to acid
rain, and adversely affect human health.
Particulate suspended in the atmosphere has diameters similar to the
wavelengths of visible light, which makes it very good at scattering this light.
In the presence of particulate, scattering reduces the light coming from dis-
tant objects, making it more difficult to see them. This loss of visibility is par-
ticularly important in areas that rely on clear vistas to attract tourists.
Sulphur dioxide emitted from fossil fuel combustion is oxidized to par-
ticulate sulphuric acid or sulphate, which is a major component of acid rain.
Particles can be a major irritant to the human bronchial and pulmonary
systems. The body has natural mechanisms to limit the penetration of
these particles into its sensitive areas. The nose is an effective filter for parti-
cles of greater than about three µm, and blowing the nose expels these.
Smaller particles can penetrate deeper into the bronchial passages where
mucous layers and small hairs called cilia catch the particles, which can then
be expelled by coughing. The smallest particles, however, may penetrate all
the way into the lungs. Irritation of the lung and bronchial tissue by particles
prompts the body to produce mucous in self-defense, which can exacerbate
existing respiratory problems such as bronchitis and asthma. There is also
concern that harmful pollutants in, or attached to, the particles may be
absorbed into the body. Heavy metals and carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic
PAHs polyaromatic hydrocar- hydrocarbons (PAHs) from combustion can be introduced into the body in
bons; compounds of hydrogen this way.
and carbon containing multiple
ring structures Most jurisdictions have, and are continually updating, air-quality stan-
dards for particulate matter. In 1997 the U.S. Environmental Protection
24-hour standard in regula- Agency (EPA) added a new annual PM2.5 standard of 15 µg/m3 and a new 24-
tions: the allowable average hour standard margin of 65 µg/m3, while retaining the annual PM10 stan-
concentration over twenty-four
hours
dard of 50 µg/m3 and making minor technical changes to the 24-hour
standard of 150 µg/m3. Approximately 29 million U.S. citizens live in areas
that do not meet the PM10 standards, but because of the need for three years
of monitoring and the requirements of the clean air act, nonattainment areas
for PM2.5 have not yet been determined. The standards in most industrialized
countries are similar to those in the United States.
Many countries have large areas that exceed the local air-quality stan-
dards, and thus they have instituted control programs to reduce particulate
levels. Fortunately, many of the strategies in place to combat smog, acidic
deposition, and smoke releases are also effective in reducing particle levels.
Most countries now have integrated strategies to reduce common emissions
(e.g., nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons) that contribute to particulate mat-
ter, acid deposition, and smog. S E E A L S O Air Pollution; Asthma; Diesel;
Scrubbers; Smog; Vehicular Pollution.
Bibliography
Finlayson-Pitts, Barbara J., and Pitts, James N. (2000). Chemistry of the Upper and Lower
Atmosphere. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

90
 PCBs (Polychlorinated Biphenyls)

Internet Resource
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. “Air Quality Criteria for Particulate Matter.”
Available from http://www.epa.gov/ncea.
Donald R. Hastie

PBTs See Persistent Bioaccumulative and Toxic Chemicals

PCBs (Polychlorinated Biphenyls)

PCBs, known to cause cancer in animals and believed to cause cancer in
humans, are among the most widespread and hazardous synthetic pollutants.
They comprise a group of 209 structurally similar compounds, so-called
congeners. The individual congeners differ in the degree of chlorination and congener a member of a class
the positions of the chlorine atoms in the molecule. They are numbered from of chemicals having a of simi-
lar structure
one to 209 according to a scheme proposed by Ballschmiter and Zell (hence,
the term BZ numbers).
PCBs are obtained by the controlled reaction of biphenyl with elemen-
tal chlorine under the catalytic influence of iron or iron chloride. The com- catalytic of a substance that
mercial formulations were mixtures of various congeners. They were promotes reaction without
being consumed
marketed under trade names such as Aroclor, Pyranol, and Clophen and were
characterized by their average chlorine content, ranging from 21 to 68 per-
cent. The pattern of congener composition is characteristic for each product
and may serve to identify the source of a local contamination. PCBs are sta-
ble to heat, chemical, and biological decomposition. The mixtures are clear solubility the amount of mass
to yellow nonflammable thick liquids (i.e., of medium to high viscosity) or of a compound that will dis-
waxy solids. With an increasing degree of chlorination the low water solu- solve in a unit volume of solu-
tion; aqueous solubility is the
bility and volatility further decrease, while persistence, lipid solubility, and
maximum concentration of a
thus the capacity for bioaccumulation increase. Boiling limits are between chemical that will dissolve in
270 and 420°C (515 and 788°F) and water solubility ranges from 0.1 µg/L to pure water at a reference tem-
6 mg/L. The electrical conductivity is extremely low. Because of their excel- perature
lent technical properties, PCBs were used extensively as insulating oils in volatility relating to any sub-
electrical components such as transformers and capacitors. Additionally, they stance that evaporates readily
were used in hydraulic fluids, lubricating oils, plasticizers, paints, adhesive bioaccumulation build-up of a
resins, inks, fire retardants, and various other products. chemical within a food chain
when a predator consumes
The industrial production of PCBs started in 1929. From that point, prey containing that chemical
PCBs were produced in many countries, including the United States, China,
France, Germany, Japan, the former Soviet Union, and the United Kingdom.
When their bioaccumulation and adverse health effects became recognized, CHE MI CA L S TRUCTURE
open uses were terminated in the early 1970s. During the late 1970s most OF P CB 1 2 6
(3,3',4,4',5–pentachlorobiphenyl)
countries completely stopped PCB production, for example, the United
States outlawed its manufacture in 1977. Until production ceased, an esti-
mated one million metric tons had been manufactured. A large proportion of Cl Cl

this amount is still in use in closed applications, although some countries

Cl Cl
have set deadlines for the replacement of all PCB-containing transformers
and capacitors. From production, open uses, leaks from closed systems, and
Cl
improper disposal, large amounts of PCBs have entered the environment. As
Dobson and van Esch note, a large part of these PCBs is believed to be
located in aquatic sediments. Despite the termination of production, further
Chemical structure
emissions into the environment are expected from PCBs still in use, from of PCB 126 (3,3’,4,4’,5-
dump sites, and by remobilization from contaminated soils and sediments. pentachlorobiphenyl).

91
PCBs (Polychlorinated Biphenyls)

Once released into the environment, PCBs may continue to exist for
years since they are very resistant to chemical and biological degradation. A
deposit concentration of a constant process of deposition and reevaporation favors combined atmos-
substance, i.e., mineral ore pheric and ocean-borne long-range transport to areas far from known PCB
reevaporate return to the sources. In 2002 PCBs are found virtually everywhere on the planet: in
gaseous state deep-sea sediments as well as in arctic and antarctic environments. Their
affinity physical attraction high affinity for organic material causes adsorption on particles and sedi-
ments, and accumulation in food webs. For the top members of the food
chain, enrichment factors of twenty million and greater have been calculated.
PCBs are stored in fatty tissue. They are transferred to offspring via eggs or
mother’s milk.
Although the acute toxicity of PCBs is rather low, their chronic effects
are severe. They include chloracne, hepatocellular carcinoma, adenofibrosis,
and damage to the nervous system. During the 1990s evidence was presented
by Colborn, Dumanoski, and Myers that PCBs reduce reproductive capacity,
and the numbers and viability of sperms and eggs. Maternal exposure to
neurology medical science PCBs has been linked to neurological and cognitive problems in young
relating to the nervous system children. Furthermore, there are indications that PCBs suppress normal
immune responses. The toxicity of individual congeners varies signifi-
cantly. The most toxic congeners are coplanar (i.e., flat) PCBs, which show
a structural similarity to dioxin. This is taken into account by the system
of toxicity equivalency factors (TEF), relating the toxicity of a com-
pound to that of 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo[1,4]dioxin. A certain percentage
of the toxicity of PCB formulations can be attributed to a compound
class closely related to dioxins known as furans, which are contained as
impurities.
Although UV and biological processes are known to decompose PCBs to
some extent, the most commonly chosen method is thermal deconstruction.
Temperatures above 1,200°C (2,192°F) and an excess of oxygen are necessary
to ultimately destroy PCBs. Temperatures of 600 to 900°C (1,112 to
1,652°F), as typically found in communal waste incinerators, favor the for-
remediation cleanup or other mation of the more toxic chlorinated furans. The remediation of PCB-
methods used to remove or contaminated sites usually consists of removing soil by excavation or
contain a toxic spill or haz-
ardous materials from a Super- sediments by dredging, and disposing of the contaminated material in haz-
fund site or for the Asbestos ardous waste landfills or incinerating them in approved facilities.
Hazard Emergency Response
program In the case of the upper Hudson River in New York State that is heavily
contaminated with PCBs from former General Electric production sites,
there has been much controversy over the benefits of dredging. Although
opponents fear an elevated remobilization of PCBs from dredged sediments,
supporters argue that modern dredging equipment minimizes resuspension
and that PCBs would be slowly released from sediments over the course of
the next several decades if not removed from the river system. Fishing has
been banned in some parts of the Hudson River, and in 2002 the U.S. Envi-
ronmental Protection Agency (EPA) drew up a $500 million plan to dredge
its sediments.
Because of their high persistence, the large amounts deposited in the
environment, and their bioaccumulative and toxic potential, PCBs will
Sign warning people not to eat remain among the priority pollutants for decades. S E E A L S O Bioaccumula-
fish contaminated with PCB.
(Courtesy of Richard Stapleton. tion; Dredging; Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs); Pesticides;
Reproduced by permission.) Superfund; Water Pollution.
92
 Persistent Bioaccumulative and Toxic (PBT) Chemicals

Bibliography
Colborn, Theo; Dumanoski, Dianne; and Myers, John Peterson. (1996). Our Stolen
Future. New York: Dutton.
Dobson, Stuart, and van Esch, G.J. (1993). Polycholorinated Biphenyls and Terphenyls, 2nd
edition. Geneva: World Health Organization.
Erickson, Mitchel D. (1997). Analytical Chemistry of PCBs, 2nd edition. Boca Raton,
FL: Lewis Publishers.
Hutzinger, Otto; Safe, Stephen; and Zitko, V. (1983). The Chemistry of PCBs. Mel-
bourne, FL: Krieger.
Robertson, Larry W., and Hansen, Larry G., eds. (2001). PCBs: Recent Advances in
Environmental Toxicology and Health Effects. Lexington: The University Press of
Kentucky.
Safe, Stephen, and Hutzinger, Otto, eds. (1987). Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs): Mam-
malian and Environmental Toxicology. New York: Springer-Verlag.
Waid, John. (1987). PCBs and the Environment. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.

Internet Resource
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. “The PCB Home Page at EPA.” Available
from http://www.epa.gov/pcb.
Stefan Weigel

Persistent Bioaccumulative and Toxic

(PBT) Chemicals
Persistent bioaccumulative and toxic (PBT) chemicals represent a group of
substances that are not easily degraded, accumulate in organisms, and exhibit
an acute or chronic toxicity. They may therefore pose serious concerns for
human and environmental health. The effects of PBTs range from cancer,
endocrine disruption, reproductive dysfunction, behavioral abnormalities,
birth defects, disturbance of the immune system, damage to the liver and
nervous system, to the extinction of whole populations.
The category PBT was defined by the United Nations Environmental
Programme (UNEP). Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are an integral
part of the PBT group, which additionally includes trace metals and organo-
metal compounds. A large proportion of PBTs are organohalogens—namely,
organochlorine pesticides, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polychlori-
nated naphthalenes (PCN), chloroparaffins, and brominated flame retar-
dants. Further PBTs are polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), metals and
their compounds (e.g., the antifouling tributyltin TBT), and phthalates (plas-
ticizers). In 1999 the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) listed fourteen
priority PBTs, most of which belong to the so-called dirty dozen identified by
the UNEP: six pesticides, PCBs, hexachlorobenzene, octachlorostyrene,
dioxins and furans, benzo(a)pyrene, alkyllead, and mercury and its com-
pounds. The UNEP Stockholm Convention, signed in 2001, established
control and phase-out measures for that initial set of twelve POPs. In
response, some nations devised action plans to prevent the introduction of
new PBTs into the marketplace, to identify further priority PBTs, and to
phase out or reduce the emissions of priority PBTs. S E E A L S O Bioaccumula-
tion; Dioxin; Mercury; PCBs (Polychlorinated Biphenyls); Persistent
Organic Pollutants (POPs); Pesticides.
93
Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)

Bibliography
Bernes, Claes, Naylor, Martin. (1999). Persistent Organic Pollutants: A Swedish View of an
International Problem. Stockholm: Almqvist and Wiksell Internation.
Lipnick, Robert L., ed. (2001). Persistent, Bioaccumulative, and Toxic Chemicals. Wash-
ington, D.C.: American Chemical Society.
Lipnick, Robert L., ed. (2001). Persistent, Bioaccumulative, and Toxic Chemicals II: Assess-
ment and New Chemicals. Washington, D.C.: American Chemical Society.

Internet Resource
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. “Persistent, Bioaccumulative and Toxic (PBT)
Chemicals Program.” Available from http://www.epa.gov/pbt.
Stefan Weigel

Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)

Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are a subset of the more comprehensive
term persistent bioaccumulative and toxic chemicals (PBTs). POPs commonly
stands for organic (carbon-based) chemical compounds and mixtures that
share four characteristics. They are semivolatile, stable under environmental
half-life the time required for conditions (half-lives of years to decades), fat-soluble, and possess the poten-
a pollutant to lose one-half of tial for adverse effects in organisms. Many POPs are organochlorine com-
its original concentration; for
example, the biochemical half- pounds. Among the twelve priority POPs defined by the United Nations
life of DDT in the environment Environmental Programme (and referred to as the “dirty dozen”) are the pes-
is 15 years ticides aldrin, chlordane, DDT, dieldrin, endrin, heptachlor, mirex, and
toxaphene (chlorobornanes); the industrial chemicals polychlorinated
biphenyls (PCBs) and hexachlorobenzene; and the unintentional by-products
dioxins and furans.
POPs’ resistance to chemical and biological degradation and their
propensity to evaporate led to their global distribution. By a constant proc-
ess of deposition and reevaporation, POPs are transported by air and water
currents to regions far from their sources until they ultimately gather in
lipophilicity solubility in or colder climates. Because of their lipophilicity, many POPs concentrate in
attraction to waxy, fatty, or oily organisms and accumulate to high levels in the top members of the food web
substances
such as predatory fish and birds, mammals and humans. Certain chemicals
possess the ability to cross the placenta, while others are retained. Several
contaminants present in the mother’s body are thus handed down to the
developing embryo in the womb—they are transferred to offspring across the
placenta and through mother’s milk. Adverse effects include cancer,
endocrine disruption, reproductive dysfunction, behavioral abnormalities,
birth defects, and interference with the immune and nervous systems. S E E
A L S O Bioaccumulation; Dioxin; PCBs (Polychlorinated Biphenyls);
Pesticides.
Bibliography
Harrad, Stuart, ed. (2001). Persistent Organic Pollutants: Environmental Behaviour and
Pathways of Human Exposure. Boston, MA: Kluwer.

Internet Resource
United Nations Environmental Programme. “Persistent Organic Pollutants.” Avail-
able from http://irptc.unep.ch/pops.
Stefan Weigel

94
 Pesticides

Fumigators walking down a

street in the Sultan Mosque
area of Singapore and spraying
a pesticide to rid the area of
mosquitoes. (©Steve Raymer/
Corbis. Reproduced by
permission.)

Pesticides
Pesticides are substances or a mixture of substances, of chemical or biologi-
cal origin, used by human society to mitigate or repel pests such as bacteria,
nematodes, insects, mites, mollusks, birds, rodents, and other organisms that
affect food production or human health. They usually act by disrupting
some component of the pest’s life processes to kill or inactivate it. In a legal
context, pesticides also include substances such as insect attractants, herbi-
cides, plant defoliants, desiccants, and plant growth regulators.

History of Pesticides
The concept of pesticides is not new. Around 1000 B.C.E. Homer referred to
the use of sulfur to fumigate homes and by 900 C.E. the Chinese were using
arsenic to control garden pests. Although major pest outbreaks have occurred,
such as potato blight (Phytopthora infestans), which destroyed most potato
crops in Ireland during the mid-nineteenth century, not until later that cen-
tury were pesticides such as arsenic, pyrethrum, lime sulfur, and mercuric
95
Pesticides

A bird that died as a result of

pesticide use. (U.S. EPA.
Reproduced by permission.)

inorganic compounds not con- chloride used. Between this period and World War II, inorganic and biolog-
taining carbon ical substances, such as Paris green, lead arsenate, calcium arsenate, selenium
compounds, lime–sulfur, pyrethrum, thiram, mercury, copper sulfate, derris,
and nicotine were used, but the amounts and frequency of use were limited,
and most pest control employed cultural methods such as rotations, tillage,
and manipulation of sowing dates. After World War II the use of pesticides
mushroomed, and there are currently more than 1,600 pesticides available and
about 4.4 million tons used annually, at a cost of more than $20 billion. The
United States accounts for more than 25 percent of this market.

Older Insecticides
organochlorine chemical con- The first synthetic organochlorine insecticide, DDT (dichlorodiphenyl-
taining carbon and chlorine trichloroethane), discovered in Switzerland in 1939, was very effective and
vector an organism, often an used extensively to control head and body lice, human disease vectors and
insect or rodent, that carries agricultural pests, in the decades leading up to the 1970s. Benzene hexachlo-
disease; plasmids, viruses, or
bacteria used to transport ride (BHC) and chlordane were discovered during World War II and
genes into a host cell: a gene toxaphene (and heptachlor) slightly later. Shortly thereafter, two cyclodiene
is placed in the vector; the organochlorines, aldrin and dieldrin, were introduced, followed by endrin,
vector then “infects” the
bacterium
endosulfan, and isobenzan. All these insecticides acted by blocking an insect’s
nervous system, causing malfunction, tremors, and death. All organochlo-
bioconcentrate chemical rines are relatively insoluble, persist in soils and aquatic sediments, can bio-
buildup in an organism, i.e., concentrate in the tissues of invertebrates and vertebrates from their food,
fish tissue, to levels higher
than in the surrounding move up trophic chains, and affect top predators. These properties of per-
environment sistence and bioaccumulation led eventually to the withdrawal of registration
trophic related to feeding and use of organochlorine insectides, from 1973 to the late 1990s, in indus-
trialized nations, although they continued to be used in developing countries.
organophosphate pesticide Organophosphate insecticides originated from compounds developed as
that contains phosphorus; nerve gases by Germany during World War II. Thus, those developed as
short-lived, but some can be
toxic when first applied insecticides, such as tetraethyl pyrophosphate (TEPP) and parathion, had
high mammalian toxicities. Scores of other organophosphates including deme-
ton, methyl schradan, phorate, diazinon, disulfoton, dimethoate,
trichlorophon, and mevinphos have been registered. In insects, as in mammals,
they act by inhibiting the enzyme cholinesterase (ChE) that breaks down the
acetylcholine a chemical that neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ACh) at the nerve synapse, blocking impulses
transmits nerve signals to and causing hyperactivity and tetanic paralysis of the insect, then death. Some
muscles and other nerves
are systemic in plants and animals, but most are not persistent and do not
systemic throughout the body bioaccumulate in animals or have significant environmental impacts.
carbamate class of chemicals Carbaryl, the first carbamate insecticide, acts on nervous transmissions
widely used as pesticides in insects also through effects on cholinesterase by blocking acetylcholine
96
 Pesticides

receptors. Other carbamate insecticides include aldicarb, methiocarb,

methomyl, carbofuran, bendiocarb, and oxamyl. In general, although they
are broad-spectrum insecticides, of moderate toxicity and persistence, they
rarely bioaccumulate or cause major environmental impacts.
Botanical insecticides include nicotine from tobacco, pyrethrum from botanical derived from or
chrysanthemums, derris from cabbage, rotenone from beans, sabadilla from relating to plants
lilies, ryania from the ryania shrub, limonene from citrus peel, and neem
from the tropical neem tree. Most, other than nicotine, have low levels of
toxicity in mammals and birds and create few adverse environmental effects.

Newer Insecticides
Synthetic pyrethroid insecticides, with structures based on the natural com- pyrethroid chemicals derived
from chrysanthemums and
pound pyrethrum, were introduced in the 1960s and include tetramethrin, related plants
resmethrin, fenvalerate, permethrin, lambda-cyalothrin, and deltamethrin,
all used extensively in agriculture. They have very low mammalian toxicities
and potent insecticidal action, are photostable with low volatilities and per-
sistence. They are broad-spectrum insecticides and may kill some natural
enemies of pests. They do not bioaccumulate and have few effects on mam-
mals, but are very toxic to aquatic invertebrates and fish.
In recent years, new classes of insecticides have been marketed, none of
which are persistent or bioaccumulate. They include juvenile hormone mim-
ics, synthetic versions of insect juvenile hormones that act by preventing
immature stages of the insects from molting into an adult, and avermectins,
natural products produced by soil microorganisms, insecticidal at very low
concentrations. Bacillus thuringiensis toxins are proteins produced by a bac-
terium that is pathogenic to insects. When activated in the insect gut, they pathogenic causing illness
destroy the selective permeability of the gut wall. The first strains were toxic
only to Lepidoptera, but strains toxic to flies and beetles have since been devel-
oped. B. thuringiensis has been incorporated into plants genetically.

Nematicides
Soil nematocides, such as dichlopropene, methyl isocyanate, chloropicrin, nematocide a chemical agent
which is destructive to
and methyl bromide, are broad-spectrum soil fumigants. Others, aldicarb,
nematodes
dazomet, and metham sodium, act mainly through contact. All have very
high mammalian toxicities and can kill a wide range of organisms from both
the plant and animal kingdoms. Although transient in soil, they may have transient present for a short
time
drastic ecological effects on soil systems.

Molluscicides
Two molluscicides, metaldehyde and methiocarb, are used as baits against molluscicide chemical that
slugs and snails. Although of high mammalian toxicity, they cause few prob- kills mollusks
lems other than the occasional accidental death of wild mammals. Several
molluscicides, used to control aquatic snails, N-trityl morpholine, copper sul-
fate, niclosamine, and sodium pentachlorophenate, are toxic to fish.

Herbicides
Hormone-type herbicides such as 2,4,5-T; 2,4-D; and MCPA; were discov- herbicide a chemical pesticide
ered during the 1940s. They do not persist in soil, are selective in their toxi- designed to control or destroy
plants, weeds, or grasses
city to plants, are of low mammalian toxicity, cause few direct environmental
problems, but are relatively soluble and reach waterways and groundwater.
97
Pesticides

Contact herbicides, which kill weeds through foliage applications, include

dintrophenols, cyanophenols, pentachlorophenol, and paraquat. Most are
nonpersistent, but triazines can persist in the soil for several years, are slightly
toxic to soil organisms and moderately so to aquatic organisms. Herbicides
cause few direct environmental problems other than their indirect effects, in
leaving bare soil, which is free of plant cover and susceptible to erosion.

Fungicides
fungicide pesticide used to Many different types of fungicides are used, of widely differing chemical
control, deter, or destroy fungi structures. Most have relatively low mammalian toxicities, and except for car-
bamates such as benomyl, a relatively narrow spectrum of toxicity to soil-
inhabiting and aquatic organisms. Their greatest environmental impact is
toxicity to soil microorganisms, but these effects are short term.

Effects on the Terrestrial Environment

Pesticides are biocides designed to be toxic to particular groups of organisms.
They can have considerable adverse environmental effects, which may be
extremely diverse: sometimes relatively obvious but often extremely subtle
and complex. Some pesticides are highly specific and others broad spectrum;
both types can affect terrestrial wildlife, soil, water systems, and humans.
Pesticides have had some of their most striking effects on birds, particu-
larly those in the higher trophic levels of food chains, such as bald eagles,
hawks, and owls. These birds are often rare, endangered, and susceptible to
pesticide residues such as those occurring from the bioconcentration of
organochlorine insecticides through terrestrial food chains. Pesticides may
kill grain- and plant-feeding birds, and the elimination of many rare species
of ducks and geese has been reported. Populations of insect-eating birds such
as partridges, grouse, and pheasants have decreased due to the loss of their
insect food in agricultural fields through the use of insecticides.
Bees are extremely important in the pollination of crops and wild plants,
and although pesticides are screened for toxicity to bees, and the use of pes-
ticides toxic to bees is permitted only under stringent conditions, many bees
are killed by pesticides, resulting in the considerably reduced yield of crops
dependent on bee pollination.
The literature on pest control lists many examples of new pest species
that have developed when their natural enemies are killed by pesticides. This
has created a further dependence on pesticides not dissimilar to drug depend-
ence. Finally, the effects of pesticides on the biodiversity of plants and ani-
mals in agricultural landscapes, whether caused directly or indirectly by
pesticides, constitute a major adverse environmental impact of pesticides.

Effects on the Aquatic Environment

The movement of pesticides into surface and groundwater is well docu-
mented. Wildlife is affected, and human drinking water is sometimes con-
taminated beyond acceptable safety levels. Sediments dredged from U.S.
waterways are often so heavily contaminated with persistent and other pesti-
cide residues that it becomes problematic to safely dispose of them on land.
A major environmental impact has been the widespread mortality of fish
and marine invertebrates due to the contamination of aquatic systems by
98
 Pesticides

pesticides. This has resulted from the agricultural contamination of waterways

through fallout, drainage, or runoff erosion, and from the discharge of industrial
effluents containing pesticides into waterways. Historically, most of the fish in
Europe’s Rhine River were killed by the discharge of pesticides, and at one time
fish populations in the Great Lakes became very low due to pesticide contami-
nation. Additionally, many of the organisms that provide food for fish are
extremely susceptible to pesticides, so the indirect effects of pesticides on the fish
food supply may have an even greater effect on fish populations. Some pesti-
cides, such as pyrethroid insecticides, are extremely toxic to most aquatic organ-
isms. It is evident that pesticides cause major losses in global fish production.

Effects on Humans
The most important aspect of pesticides is how they affect humans. There is
increasing anxiety about the importance of small residues of pesticides, often
suspected of being carcinogens or disrupting endocrine activities, in drink- carcinogen any substances
ing water and food. In spite of stringent regulations by international and that can cause or aggravate
cancer
national regulatory agencies, reports of pesticide residues in human foods,
both imported and home-produced, are numerous. endocrine the system of
glands, hormones, and recep-
Over the last fifty years many human illnesses and deaths have occurred as tors that help control animal
function
a result of exposure to pesticides, with up to 20,000 deaths reported annually.
Some of these are suicides, but most involve some form of accidental exposure
to pesticides, particularly among farmers and spray operators in developing
countries, who are careless in handling pesticides or wear insufficient protective
clothing and equipment. Moreover, there have been major accidents involving
pesticides that have led to the death or illness of many thousands. One instance
occurred in Bhopal, India, where more than 5,000 deaths resulted from expo-
sure to accidental emissions of methyl isocyanate from a pesticide factory.

Testing and Reclassification

New pesticides require extensive laboratory and field testing and may take
about five years to reach market. A pesticide company has to identify uses,
test effectiveness, and provide data on chemical structure, production, for-
mulation, fate, persistence, and environmental impacts. The product is tested
in the laboratory, greenhouse, and field under different environmental con-
ditions. After several years of testing, the company submits a registration data
package to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Data include
studies on acute, chronic, reproductive, and developmental toxicity to mam-
mals, birds, and fish, the pesticide’s environmental fate, rates of degradation,
translocations to other sites, and ecological studies on its harmful effects to,
and on, nontarget plants and animals.
After its review by government and other scientists, the EPA grants reg-
istration of the product for certain uses, with agreed label data and directions
for use. About 1 in 35,000 chemicals survives from initial laboratory testing
to the market, a process that generally takes several years, and involves more
than 140 tests.
The continued use of a pesticide is supervised by the Federal Insecticide,
Fungicide and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA), enacted in 1947 and modified many
times since. A review may be called for when new evidence indicates possible
unreasonable risks to human health or the environment, including toxicity or
99
Pesticides

ill health to humans or animals, hazards to nontarget organisms, and risks to

endangered species and suggests that the risks may outweigh the benefits of
continued registration. After review, the EPA may take no action, alter the
pesticide label to minimize risk, reclassify the approved uses or eliminate spe-
cific uses, or cancel or suspend the pesticide’s registration entirely.

Pesticides and Food Safety

Pesticides are used on food crops and meat produced from domestic animals.
The residues contained within domestically produced food are monitored
closely by the EPA, whereas those for imported food are tracked by the Ani-
mal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) of the U.S. Department of
Agriculture (USDA). Scientists determine the highest dose of a pesticide that
might be ingested by animals (birds and mammals, including humans) to cause
adverse health effects but not death; this is called the maximum tolerated dose
(MTD). They also determine the no-observable-effect level (NOEL) and
identify the amount of pesticides that may be safely consumed by humans, in
terms of milligrams per kilogram of body weight, over a seventy-year lifetime.
In calculating an acceptable exposure for a pesticide, scientists usually include
a safety factor of one hundred below the NOEL, assuming a lifetime of expo-
sure to the pesticide. Such calculations take for granted that a pesticide is
applied to all labeled crops, at recommended rates, and that the treated food
will be consumed daily for a lifetime. Pesticides that have been demonstrated
to cause cancer in laboratory animals are not granted tolerance, or approved
for application to food crops, based on legislation from Section 409, the so-
called Delaney clause, of the federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act.
The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and USDA, in addition to
many states, have monitoring programs for pesticide residues in food. They
sample approximately 1 percent of the national food supply. For every pesti-
cide, the FDA conducts a total diet study (a market-based survey) to more
accurately assess the exposure of the human population to pesticides. Similar
calculations are made for exposure to pesticides that may reach drinking
water through percolation into groundwater or runoff into waterways.
These adverse effects of pesticides on humans and wildlife have resulted
in research into ways of reducing pesticide use. The most important of these
is the concept of integrated pest management (IPM), first introduced in
1959. This combines minimal use of the least harmful pesticides, integrated
with biological and cultural methods of minimizing pest losses. It is linked
with using pesticides only when threshold levels of pest attacks have been
identified. There is also a move toward sustainable agriculture which aims to
minimize use of pesticides and fertilizers based on a systems approach. S E E
A L S O Agriculture; Bioaccumulation; Carson, Rachel; DDT (Dichloro-
diphenyl trichloroethane); Endocrine Disruption; Integrated Pest
Management; Persistent Bioaccumulative and Toxic Chemicals (PBTs);
Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs); Water Pollution.
Bibliography
Bohmart, B.L. (1997). The Standard Pesticide Users Guide, 4th edition. London:
Prentice-Hall International.
Carson, Rachel. (1963). Silent Spring. London: Hamish Hamilton.
Ekstrom, C., ed. (1994). World Directory of Pesticide Control Organizations. Farnham,
U.K.: British Crop Protection Council.

100
 Petroleum

Leng, M.L.; Leovey, E.M.K.; and Zubkoff, P.L., eds. (1995). Agrochemical Environ-
mental Fate: State of the Art. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Pimentel, D., Lehman, H., eds. (1993). The Pesticide Question: Environment, Economics,
and Ethics. New York: Chapman and Hall.
Rand, G.M., ed. (1995). Fundamentals of Aquatic Toxicology: Effects, Environmental Fate
and Risk Assessment. Washington, D.C.: Taylor and Francis.
Smith, R.P. (1992). A Primer of Environmental Toxicology. Philadelphia: Lea and Febiger.
Ware, G.W. (1994). The Pesticide Book, 4th edition. Fresno, CA: Thomson Publications.

Internet Resource
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Web site. “Pesticides.” Available from http://
www.epa.gov/pesticides.
Clive A. Edwards

Petroleum
Petroleum is a naturally occurring liquid oil normally found in deposits
beneath the surface of the earth. It is a type of oil composed of rock miner-
als, making it different from other kinds of oils that come from plants and
animals (such as vegetable oil, animal fat, or essential oils). The word petro-
leum comes from the Latin words petra (rock) and oleum (oil), and so literally
means rock oil. Despite this, petroleum is an organic compound, formed from
the remains of microorganisms living millions of years ago. It is one of the
three main fossil fuels, along with coal and natural gas.

Petroleum Economy
Petroleum, like all fossil fuels, primarily consists of a complex mixture of mol-
ecules called hydrocarbons (molecules containing both hydrogen and carbon).
When it comes out of the ground, it is known as crude oil, and it may have var-
ious gases, solids, and trace minerals mixed in with it. Through refinement
processes, a variety of consumer products can be made from petroleum. Most
of these are fuels: gasoline, jet fuel, diesel fuel, kerosene, and propane are
common examples. It is also used to make asphalt and lubricant grease, and it
is a raw material for synthetic chemicals. Chemicals and materials derived
from petroleum products include plastics, pesticides, fertilizers, paints, sol-
vents, refrigerants, cleaning fluids, detergents, antifreeze, and synthetic fibers.
The modern petroleum industry began in 1859 in Pennsylvania, when a
man named Edwin L. Drake constructed the first oil well, a facility for
extracting petroleum from natural deposits. Since then, petroleum has
become a valuable commodity in industrialized parts of the world, and oil
companies actively search for petroleum deposits and build large oil-
extraction facilities. Several deposits exist in the United States. However,
around 1960 oil production in the country began to decline as oil in the
deposits was being used up and fewer new deposits were being discovered.
Demand for petroleum products continued to increase, and as a result the
United States came to rely more and more on oil imported from other coun-
tries. In 2001 the amount of petroleum extracted from deposits in the United
States was estimated to be only one-third of the amount demanded by U.S.
consumers. A similar pattern exists in other industrialized countries, and
some, like Japan and Germany, import almost all of the oil they use.
101
Petroleum

TEN LARGEST OIL SPILLS IN HISTORY (BY VOLUME)

Location Date Amount Spilled

1. Sea Island Installations, Persian Gulf, Kuwait January 26, 1991 240,000,000 gallons (816,327 tons)
2. Ixtoc I exploratory well, Bahia del Campeche, Mexico June 3, 1979 140,000,000 gallons (476,190 tons)
3. Production well, Fergana Valley, Uzbekistan March 2, 1992 88,000,000 gallons (299,320 tons)
4. Nowruz No. 3 well, Persian Gulf, Nowruz Field, Iran February 4, 1983 80,000,000 gallons (272,109 tons)
5. Tanker Castillo de Bellver, Table Bay, South Africa August 6, 1983 78,500,000 gallons (267,007 tons)
6. Tanker Amoco Cadiz, off Portsall, Brittany, France March 16, 1978 68,668,000 gallons (233,565 tons)
7. Tanker Odyssey, North Atlantic Ocean, November 10, 1988 43,100,000 gallons (146,600 tons)
off St. John's, Newfoundland, Canada
8. Tanker Atlantic Empress, Caribbean Sea, July 19, 1979 42,704,000 gallons (145,252 tons)
Trinidad and Tobago
9. Tanker Haven, Genoa, Italy April 11, 1991 42,000,000 gallons (142,857 tons)
10. Production well D-103, 800 km southeast of August 1, 1980 42,000,000 gallons (142,857 tons)
Tripoli, Libya

SOURCE: Oil Spill Intelligence Report (1999). International Oil Spill Statistics: 1998. New York: Aspen Publishers. Available from www.aspenpublishers.com/
environment.asp

However, on a per capita basis, the consumption in these countries is

nowhere near the consumption in the United States.
The United States and Canada are unique in that, on average, an indi-
vidual in these countries consumes about twice as much petroleum product
as do individuals in most other industrialized nations. People in the United
States and Canada rely more on personal vehicles for their transportation and
tend to drive greater distances, making petroleum their major source of
energy. In the United States, about two-thirds of the petroleum consumed is
transportation fuel, and two-thirds of that (45% of the total) is gasoline for
cars and trucks. About 40 percent of the energy used in the United States
every year comes from petroleum.

Foreign Oil Dependence

Political leaders in the United States have long been gravely concerned
about the country’s growing dependence on foreign oil, which in many
ways puts the country at the mercy of foreign governments, some of them
hostile to the United States. The greatest production of crude oil in the
world is in the Persian Gulf region of the Middle East, where about 65 per-
cent of the world’s known petroleum deposits are located. About half of
U.S. imports come from members of the Organization of the Petroleum
Exporting Countries (OPEC), a group of countries encompassing the Per-
sian Gulf and certain parts of Africa and South America. Events in these often
volatile regions can have a huge impact on oil prices in the United States
and worldwide, and because of the crucial role oil plays in U.S. society
any change in the price can precipitate uncontrollable shifts in the country’s
economy (see chart “World Oil Price 1970-2000”). The most famous
example of this is the Arab Oil Embargo of 1973 to 1974, when U.S. support
for Israel in a conflict in the Middle East led to a decision by OPEC to
impose steep price increases on the sale of oil to the United States. One
response by the U.S. government has been the establishment of the Strate-
gic Petroleum Reserve, an emergency stockpile designed to sustain the coun-
try’s oil needs for approximately three months in the event of a complete
cutoff of imports. There is little doubt, however, that dependence on foreign
oil is both a political liability for the United States as well as a risk to national
security.
102
 Petroleum

Workers using water hoses to

clean oil from a beach
following a spill. (United States
Environmental Protection
Agency. Reproduced by
permission.)

Environmental Pollution
Petroleum-derived contaminants constitute one of the most prevalent
sources of environmental degradation in the industrialized world. In large
concentrations, the hydrocarbon molecules that make up crude oil and petro-
leum products are highly toxic to many organisms, including humans. Petro-
leum also contains trace amounts of sulfur and nitrogen compounds, which
are dangerous by themselves and can react with the environment to produce
secondary poisonous chemicals. The dominance of petroleum products in
the United States and the world economy creates the conditions for distrib-
uting large amounts of these toxins into populated areas and ecosystems
around the globe.
103
Petroleum

Smoke is pouring from a

refinery burnoff vent. (©
Royalty-Free/Corbis.
Reproduced by permission.)

Oil Spills
Perhaps the most visible source of petroleum pollution are the catastrophic
oil-tanker spills—like the 1989 Exxon Valdez spill in Prince William Sound,
Alaska—that make news headlines and provide disheartening pictures of oil-
coated shorelines and dead or oiled birds and sea animals. These spills occur
during the transportation of crude oil from exporting to importing nations.
Crude oil travels for long distances by either ocean tanker or land pipeline,
and both methods are prone to accidents. Oil may also spill at the site where
it is extracted, as in the case of a blowout like the Ixtoc I exploratory well in
1979 (see table “Ten Largest Oil Spills in History”). A blowout is one of the
major risks of drilling for oil. It occurs when gas trapped inside the deposit is
at such a high pressure that oil suddenly erupts out of the drill shaft in a
geyser.
Accidents with tankers, pipelines, and oil wells release massive quantities
of petroleum into land and marine ecosystems in a concentrated form. The
ecological impacts of large spills like these have only been studied for a very
104
 Petroleum

W O R L D O IL P RI C E 1 9 7 0 – 2 0 0 0

45

40

35
Nominal Dollars per Barrel

30

25

20

15

10

0
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000

Over the last three decades, the world has experienced seesaw swings in the price of oil.

SOURCE: World Oil Market and Price Chronologies DOE Energy Information Administration; originally published by the
Department of Energy's Office of the Strategic Petroleum Reserve, Analysis Division

few cases, and it is not possible to say which have been the most environ-
mentally damaging accidents in history. A large oil spill in the open ocean
may do less harm to marine organisms than a small spill near the shore. The
Exxon Valdez disaster created a huge ecological disaster not because of the
volume of oil spilled (eleven million gallons) but because of the amount of
shoreline affected, the sensitivity and abundance of organisms in the area,
and the physical characteristics of the Prince William Sound, which helped to
amplify the damage. The Exxon Valdez spill sparked the most comprehensive
and costly cleanup effort ever attempted, and called more public attention to
oil accidents than ever before. Scientific studies of the effects of oil in Prince
William Sound are ongoing, and the number of tanker accidents worldwide
has decreased significantly since the time of the Valdez spill, due to stricter
regulations and such required improvements in vessel design as double-hull
construction.

Nonpoint Sources
Spills from tankers, pipelines, and oil wells are examples of point sources of pol-
lution, where the origin of the contaminants is a single identifiable point.
They also represent catastrophic releases of a large volume of pollutants in a
short period of time. But the majority of pollution from oil is from nonpoint
sources, where small amounts coming from many different places over a long
period of time add up to large-scale effects. Seventy percent of the oil released
by human activity into oceans worldwide is a result of small spills during
petroleum consumption. These minor unreported spills can include routine
discharges of fuel from commercial vessels or leakage from recreational boats.
105
Petroleum

However, in North America, the majority of the release originates on land.

OIL SEEPS Oil tends to collect in hazardous concentrations in the stream of wastewater
Almost half (45%) of the petro- coming out of cities and other populated areas. Runoff from asphalt-covered
leum entering the marine envi- roads and parking lots enters storm drains, streams, and lakes and eventually
ronment is from natural seeps travels to the ocean, affecting all of the ecosystems through which it passes. As
rather than anthropogenic cities grow, more and more people use petroleum products—lubricants, sol-
sources. At seeps, oil and gas vents, oil-based paint, and, above all, gasoline—and these are often improp-
bubble out of cracks in the erly disposed of down drains and sewage pipes. Industrial plants also produce
seabed creating special environ- small, chronic spills that aren’t noticed individually, but add up over time and
ments in which new organisms enter waterways.
grow. These organisms survive Taken together, land-based river and urban runoff sources constitute
through chemosynthesis rather over half of the petroleum pollution introduced to North American coastal
than photosynthesis. They live in waters due to human activity, and 20 percent of the petroleum pollution
total darkness, more than four introduced to ocean waters worldwide. When wastewater from these sources
hundred meters below sea level, enters the marine environment it is usually by means of an estuary, an area
but survive by feeding directly off where freshwater from land mixes with seawater. Estuaries are especially crit-
the hydrocarbons present in ical habitats for a variety of plants and animals, and are among the ecosystems
seeps or by eating carbon com- most sensitive to pollutants.
pounds resulting from chemosyn-
thetic bacterial degradation of
seep oil. Since 1984 oceanogra-
Petroleum-Contaminated Soil
phers have discovered Not all oil released from land sources is quickly washed away to sea, however.
chemosynthetic communities of Pipeline and oil-well accidents, unregulated industrial waste, and leaking
clams, mussels, tubeworms, bac- underground storage tanks can all permanently contaminate large areas of
terial mats, and other organisms soil, making them economically useless as well as dangerous to the health of
on the seafloor of the Gulf of organisms living in and around them. Removing or treating soil contami-
Mexico. United States Depart- nated by petroleum is especially urgent because the hydrocarbons can leach
ment of the Interior regulations into the underlying groundwater and move into human residential areas. The
protect these chemosynthetic engineering field of bioremediation has emerged in recent decades as a
communities from damage due response to this threat. In bioremediation, bacteria that feed on hydrocar-
to oil and gas drilling activities. bons and transform them into carbon dioxide can be applied to an affected
area. Bioremediation has in many cases made cleaning up petroleum-
contaminated sites a profitable real-estate investment for land developers.

Air Pollution
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) designates six criteria pol-
lutants for determining air quality. These are: carbon monoxide (CO), nitro-
gen oxides (NO and/or NO2, usually referred to as NOx), sulfur dioxide
(SO2), ground-level ozone (O3), particulate matter (including things like soot,
dust, asbestos fibers, pesticides, and metals), and lead (Pb). Petroleum-fueled
vehicles, engines, and industrial processes directly produce the vast majority
of CO and NOx in the atmosphere. They are also the principal source of
gaseous hydrocarbons (also called volatile organic compounds, or VOCs),
which combine with NOx in sunlight to create O3. Ozone, while important
for blocking ultraviolet rays in the upper atmosphere, is also a key component
of urban smog and creates human health problems when present in the lower
atmosphere. Sulfur dioxide is a trace component of crude oil, and can cause
acid rain when released into the air at oil refineries or petroleum power
plants. Particulate matter is directly emitted in vehicle exhaust and can also
form from the reaction of exhaust gases with water vapor and sunlight.
Finally, leaded gasoline is a huge contributor of lead to the atmosphere, and
106
 Petroleum

the use of unleaded gasoline has decreased lead concentrations dramatically.

The EPA and the World Bank are working to encourage the phaseout of
leaded gasoline worldwide.
Petroleum-fueled transportation and coal-burning power plants are con-
sidered the chief causes of global warming. Excess amounts of carbon diox-
ide, methane, and NOx, among other gases, trap heat in the atmosphere and
create the greenhouse effect. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is a main constituent of
petroleum fuel exhaust, even though it is not toxic and therefore not classi-
fied as a pollutant. About one-third of the CO2 emitted into the atmosphere
every year comes from vehicle exhaust. Methane (NH3), although usually
associated with natural gas, is also emitted whenever crude oil is extracted,
transported, refined, or stored.

The Future of Petroleum

The world’s reliance on petroleum is expected to grow, despite widespread
environmental, economic, and political consequences. The U.S. oil extrac-
tion industry continues to aggressively search for new oil deposits and lobby
the federal government to open up restricted areas to drilling. The Arctic
National Wildlife Refuge in Alaska has been on the oil industry agenda for
several decades, creating a long-standing environmental controversy.
Advances in oil well technology have allowed extraction in the deep ocean
beyond the continental shelf, but these have not been enough to reverse the
trend of declining production in the United States.
There are many compelling reasons to decrease society’s dependence on
petroleum for energy, and the most obvious place to begin is in the trans-
portation sector. Energy-efficient engines and hybrid gas/electric cars can
help to reduce some of the need for oil, providing higher gas mileage and less
demand. A variety of alternative fuels have also been developed, such as
ethanol, biodiesel (made from vegetable oil), and hydrogen. Each of these
would produce little or no exhaust pollutants or greenhouse gases, and each
derives from plentiful renewable resources. The United States is now in fact
actively researching hydrogen as a viable alternative to gasoline, and the
hydrogen fuel cell as a substitute for the internal combustion engine.
Petroleum is a useful chemical substance for many important purposes.
But it is also a nonrenewable resource with a highly toxic composition, and it
poses significant problems when used in huge volumes throughout the indus-
trialized world. S E E A L S O Air Pollution; Arctic National Wildlife
Refuge; Coal; Disasters: Oil Spills; Economics; Electric Power;
Energy; Fossil Fuels; Global Warming; Ozone; NOx; Renewable
Energy; Sulfur Dioxide; Underground Storage Tanks; Vehicular
Pollution.
Bibliography
Oil Spill Intelligence Report. (1997). Oil Spills from Vessels (1960–1995): An Interna-
tional Historical Perspective. New York: Aspen Publishers.

Internet Resources
Committee on Oil in the Sea, National Research Council. (2003). Oil in the Sea III:
Inputs, Fates, and Effects. Washington, D.C.: The National Academies Press. Avail-
able from http://www.nap.edu/catalog/10388.html.
Energy Information Administration. “Official Energy Statistics from the U.S. Gov-
ernment.” Available from http://www.eia.doe.gov.

107
Pharmaceutical Waste

Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Trustee Council. “Restoring the Resources Injured by the
Exxon Valdez Oil Spill and Understanding Environmental Change in the Northern
Gulf of Alaska.” Available from http://www.oilspill.state.ak.us.
National Biodiesel Board. “Need a Fill Up?” Available from http://www.biodiesel.org.
National Ethanol Vehicle Coalition. “National Ethanol Vehicle Coalition and E85.”
Available from http://www.e85fuel.com.
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. “Office of Response and Restora-
tion, National Ocean Service.” Available from http://response.restoration.noaa.gov.
Schlumberger Excellence in Educational Development (SEED) Science Center. “Sci-
ence Lab: Oil Well Blowout Simulator.” Available from http://www.slb.com/seed/
en/lab/blowout.
Trench, Cheryl J. (2001). “Oil Market Basics.” Washington, D.C.: Energy Information
Administration. Available from http://www.eia.doe.gov.
U.S. Department of Energy. “Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy.” Available
from http://www.eere.energy.gov.
U.S. Department of Energy. “Fossil.energy.gov: A U.S. Department of Energy Web
Site.” Available from http://www.fossil.energy.gov.
U.S. Department of Energy. “Fossil Fuels: An Energy Education Website.” Available
from http://www.fossil.energy.gov/education.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (1995). Profile of the Petroleum Refining Indus-
try. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. Available from http://
www.epa.gov.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (1999). Profile of the Oil and Gas Extraction
Industry. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. Available from
http://www.epa.gov.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. “Air Quality Where You Live.” Available from
http://www.epa.gov/air/urbanair/index.html.
U.S. Geological Survey. Available from http://www.usgs.gov.
U.S. Geological Survey. (1997). “Bioremediation: Nature’s Way to a Cleaner Envi-
ronment.” Available from http://water.usgs.gov/wid/html/bioremed.html.
Adrian MacDonald

Pharmaceutical Waste See Medical Waste; Resource Conservation

and Recovery Act

Phosphates
Pure phosphorus is rare in nature. It usually combines with oxygen to form
phosphate ions or groups (PO43-). Phosphates are considered organic when
phosphate groups attach to carbon atoms or inorganic when phosphate ions
associate with minerals such as calcium. Organic phosphates provide the
energy for most chemical reactions in living cells.
The weathering of rocks releases inorganic phosphorus into the soil, and
plants take this up and convert it to organic phosphate in their tissue.
Humans and animals eat the plants, and when they die, phosphorus is
returned to the soil by the action of bacteria and then again taken up by
plants. This is the so-called phosphorus cycle.
Phosphates are normally a limiting factor for aquatic plant growth. When
large amounts of phosphorus enter water, for instance, from farm runoff con-
taining fertilizer, plants can grow out of control. Concentrations as low as
0.01 milligrams per liter (mg/L) can greatly impact a stream. This overfeed-
ing is called eutrophication and may cause an algae bloom. The algae even-
tually die and sink to the bottom. Bacteria feeding on the algae remove
108
 Plastic

oxygen from the water for respiration. As oxygen levels become lower, ani-
mals that need high oxygen levels such as fish will die. This is especially a
problem at night when no photosynthesis occurs to replenish the oxygen.
If organic oxygen levels drop sufficiently, aerobic organisms can no
longer survive and anaerobic bacteria take over. The end products of anaer-
obic respiration may smell like rotten eggs, fishy, or wormy. S E E A L S O Agri-
culture; Fish Kills; Health, Environmental; Wastewater Treatment;
Water Pollution.
Internet Resource
University of Maryland. “Impact of Phosphorus on Aquatic Life.” Available from
http://www.agnr.umd.edu/users.
Diana Strnisa

Photochemical Smog See Smog

Phytoremediation See Bioremediation

PIRGs See Public Interest Research Groups

Plastic
Plastics are a subspecies of a class of materials known as polymers. These are
composed of large molecules, formed by joining many, often thousands, of molecule the smallest division
smaller molecules (monomers) together. Other kinds of polymers are fibers, of a compound that still
retains or exhibits all the
films, elastomers (rubbers), and biopolymers (i.e., cellulose, proteins, and properties of the substance
nucleic acids). Plastics are made from low-molecular-weight monomer pre-
cursors, organic materials, which are mostly derived from petroleum, that are
joined together by a process called “polymerization.” Plastics owe their name
to their most important property, the ability to be shaped to almost any form
to produce articles of practical value. Plastics can be stiff and hard or flexible
and soft. Because of their light weight, low cost, and desirable properties,
their use has rapidly increased and they have replaced other materials such as
metals and glass. They are used in millions of items, including cars, bullet-
proof vests, toys, hospital equipment, and food containers. More than a hun-
dred billion pounds of plastic were produced in 2000. Their increased use has
resulted in concern with (1) the consumption of natural resources such as oil,
(2) the toxicity associated with their manufacture and use, and (3) the envi-
ronmental impact arising from discarded plastics.

Pollution Problems
Industrial practices in plastic manufacture can lead to polluting effluents and
the use of toxic intermediates, the exposure to which can be hazardous. Bet-
ter industrial practices have led to minimizing exposure of plant workers to
harmful fumes; for example, there have been problems in the past resulting
from workers being exposed to toxic vinyl chloride vapor during the produc-
tion of polyvinyl chloride. Much progress has been made in developing
“green processes” that avoid the use of detrimental substances. For example,
phosgene, a toxic “war gas,” was formerly used in the manufacture of poly-
carbonates. New processes, now almost universally employed, eliminate its
109
Plastic

Cape fur seal lying on rock, use. Also, the “just in time” approach to manufacture has been made possible
dead of suffocation from a
by computer-controlled processes, whereby no significant amounts of inter-
plastic wire wound around its
neck, South Africa. (©Martin mediates are stored, but just generated as needed. In addition, efforts are
Harvey; Gallo Images/Corbis. ongoing to employ “friendly” processes involving enzyme-catalyzed low-
Reproduced by permission.) temperature methods akin to biological reactions to replace more polluting
high-temperature processes involving operations like distillation.
Spillage of plastic pellets that find their way into sewage systems, and even-
tually to the sea, has hurt wildlife that may mistake the pellets for food. Better
“housekeeping” of plastic molding facilities is being enforced in an attempt to
address this problem. Most plastics are relatively inert biologically, and they
have been employed in medical devices such as prosthetics, artery replace-
ments, and “soft” and interocular lenses. Problems with their use largely result
from the presence of trace amounts of nonplastic components such as
monomers and plasticizers. This has led to restrictions on the use of some plas-
tics for food applications, but improved technology has led to a reduction in
the content of such undesirable components. For example, the use of poly-
acrylonitrile for beverage bottles was banned at one time because the traces of
its monomer, acrylonitrile, were a possible carcinogen. However, current prac-
tices render it acceptable today. There has been concern about endocrine dis-
endocrine disruption disrup-
tion of hormone control sys- ruption from phthalate-containing plasticizers used for plastics such as
tems in the body polyvinyl chloride (PVC). The subject of this possible side effect is controver-
110
 Plastic

P O ST - C O N SU M E R PL A S T I C W A S T E , 2 0 0 0

24
Polyurethane Foam

Packaging
Total Thermoplastics
20
Postconsumer Waste (billions of pounds)

Total Thermosets

Adhesives and Other

16

Consumer and Institutional

Building and Construction

Electrical and Electronics

12

Industrial Machinery
Other Transportation

Furniture
Automobile

0
Sector

SOURCE: Adapted from Oak Ridge National Laboratory.

sial, but caution in use is warranted pending further study. Plastics may also
result in problems resulting from their improper use, and there is need of bet-
ter education concerning limitations of use, for example, precautions that
should be taken with items such as frying pan coatings and microwavable con-
tainers. When exposed to high temperatures, some plastics decompose or oxi-
dize and produce low molecular weight products that may be toxic.

Reduced Use and Recycling

There is growing concern about the excess use of plastics, particularly in
packaging. This has been done, in part, to avoid the theft of small objects.
The use of plastics can be reduced through a better choice of container sizes
and through the distribution of liquid products in more concentrated form.
A concern is the proper disposal of waste plastics. Litter results from careless
disposal, and decomposition rates in landfills can be extremely long. Con-
sumers should be persuaded or required to divert these for recycling or other
environmentally acceptable procedures. Marine pollution arising from dis-
posal of plastics from ships or flow from storm sewers must be avoided. Dis-
posal at sea is prohibited by federal regulation.
Recycling of plastics is desirable because it avoids their accumulation in
landfills. While plastics constitute only about 8 percent by weight or 20 per-
cent by volume of municipal solid waste, their low density and slowness to
decompose makes them a visible pollutant of public concern. It is evident that
the success of recycling is limited by the development of successful strategies
for collection and separation. Recycling of scrap plastics by manufacturers
has been highly successful and has proven economical, but recovering dis-
carded plastics from consumers is more difficult. It is well recognized that
separated plastics can be recycled to yield more superior products than pos-
sible for mixed ones.
111
Plastic

Labeling plastic items with symbols has been employed, which enables
consumers to identify them easily for placement in separate containers for
curbside pickup. However, success depends on how conscientious consumers
are in employing such standards and the ability of collectors to keep various
types of plastic separate. Even a small amount of a foreign plastic in recycling
feedstock can lead to the appreciable deterioration of properties, and it is dif-
ficult to achieve a high degree of purity. Manual sorting at recycling centers
helps, but even trained sorters have difficulty identifying recyclables. Fur-
thermore, manual sorting is an unattractive task and retaining labor willing
to be trained for this is problematic. Automatic sorting techniques have been
developed that depend on various physical, optical, or electronic properties
of plastics for identification. Such methods prove difficult because of the vari-
ety of sizes, shapes, and colors of plastic objects that are encountered.
Although in principle it is possible to create devices that can separate plastics
with varying degrees of success, the equipment generally becomes more
expensive with increasing efficiency. Technology for this continues to
improve, and it is becoming possible to successfully separate mixed plastics
derived from curbside pickup using such equipment.
To separate plastics, it is first necessary to identify the different types as
indicated in the table. One must also distinguish between thermoplastics and
thermosets. The latter, as found in tires and melamine dishes, has molecules
that are interconnected by “crosslinks” and cannot be readily melted for recy-
cling unless they are chemically reduced to low-molecular-weight species.
For tires, recycling has not proved economical so disposal has involved
grinding them up as asphalt additives for roads or burning in cement kilns.
Over 1.5 million pounds of plastic bottles were recycled in 2000, repre-
senting a four-fold increase in the amount of plastic recycled the previous
decade. Nonetheless, the capacity to recycle bottles appreciably exceeds their
supply by about 40 percent, so local governments and environmental groups
need to encourage greater participation in this practice among consumers.
Profitable operations are currently in place for recycling polyethylene
terephthalate (PET) from bottle sources and converting it into products such
as fibers. One persistent problem, though, is obtaining clean enough feed-
stock to avoid the clogging of orifices in spinnerets by foreign particles. This
has limited the ability to produce fine denier fibers from such sources. PET
recycling is also constrained by regulations limiting its use to produce items
in contact with food because there had been concern about contamination in
consideration of improved recycling techniques.
A leading candidate for recycle feedstock is carpets because replacement
carpets are usually installed by professionals able to identify recyclables and
who serve as a ready source for recycling operations. They face the problem,
however, of separating the recyclable carpet components from other parts
such as jute backing and dirt. Such recycling operations have been only mar-
ginally profitable.
Polystyrene (PS) is another potentially recyclable polymer, but identify-
ing a readily collectable source is problematic. One had been the Styrofoam
“clamshells” fast-food chains use to package hamburgers. Recyclers were able
to profitably collect polystyrene from such sources and produce salable prod-
ucts. However, largely because of public pressure, this use of polystyrene has
112
 Plastic

MAJOR TYPES OF PLASTICS BY S.P.I. CODES

SPI Code Type of Resin Example Products % of Plastic

1 PET - Polyethylene terephthalate Soft drink bottles, medicine containers 0.5%
2 HDPE - High-density polyethylene Milk and water bottles, detergent bottles, toys 21%
3 PVC - Polyvinyl chloride Pipe, meat wrap, cooking oil bottles 6.5%
4 LDPE - Low-density polyethylene Wrapping films, grocery bags 27%
5 PP - Polypropylene Syrup bottles, yogurt tubs, diapers 16%
6 PS - Polystyrene Coffee cups, "clamshells" 16%
7 Other 8.5%

TYPES OF PLASTIC PACKAGING

Other
Coatings 3.4
7.5% PVC
Films & bags LDPE 4.6
37% 32.5%
Closures PETE
5% 9.1%

PP
HDPE 10.3
Containers
29.4% PS
50%
10.7%

By Type of Use By Type of Resin

• A one gallon plastic milk container that weighed 120 grams in 1960 now weighs just 65 grams.
• The average 1992 American car contains 300 pounds of plastic made from about 60 different resins.
• Every year, we make enough plastic film to shrink-wrap the state of Texas.
• 10% of the average grocery bill pays for packaging (mostly paper and plastics)—that's more than goes to the farmers.
• In 1993, plastics accounted for 11.5% of the U.S. municipal waste stream by weight (23.9% by volume). In 1994, plastics comprised
9.5% (by weight) of the waste stream.
• The rate of plastic soda bottle recycling rose from 33% in 1990 to 50% in 1994.
• 0.9 million tons of plastics (4.7%) were recycled in the U.S. in 1994.
• Products made from recovered plastic bottles include drainage pipes, toys, carpet, filler for pillows and sleeping bags, and cassette
casings.

SOURCE: Modern Plastics, January, 1992

declined, so related recycling practices have largely disappeared too. Cafete-

ria items from school lunchrooms are another potential, but the collection of
such objects involves the development of an infrastructure, often not in
place. In these cases, it is necessary to separate the polystyrene from paper
and food waste, but washing and flotation techniques have been developed
for this purpose.
Increasing amounts of plastic components appear in automobiles, and
their recovery from junked cars is a possibility. Its success depends on the
ability of a prospective “junker” to identify and separate the plastic items.
Three efforts may aid in this accomplishment:
1. The establishment of databases to enable junkers to learn what kinds of
plastic are used in what parts of what model cars.
2. A reduction in the number of different plastics used for car construction.
3. The design of cars such that plastic parts may be removed easily (this
would require special types of fasteners).
113
Plastic

This illustrates a general need—the design of plastic-containing products

with the ability to recycle in mind. As a consequence of public concern about
the environmental problems arising from plastic use, industry is responding
to these needs. The effort continues to use fewer different kinds of plastics
and to adopt designs that allow for easier recycling but still retain desirable
properties.
There are, however, some worthwhile products that can be produced
from mixed plastic, such as “plastic lumber” used for picnic benches and
marine applications such as docks and bulkheads that successfully replace
wooden lumber which often contains toxic preservatives and arsenic. But, the
market for such a product is limited, so efforts to obtain separated plastics are
preferred.

Degradable Plastics
Discarded plastics are hard to eliminate from the environment because they
do not degrade and have been designed to last a long time. It is possible to
design polymers containing monomer species that may be attacked by chem-
ical, biological, or photochemical action so that degradation by such means
will occur over a predetermined period of time. Such polymers can be made
by chemical synthesis (as with polylactic acid) or through bacterial or agri-
cultural processes (as with the polyalkonates). Although such processes are
often more expensive than conventional ones, cost would undoubtedly drop
with increased production volume. One success story was the introduction of
carbonyl groups into polyethylene by mixing carbon monoxide with ethylene
during synthesis. These carbonyl groups are chomophores that lead to chain
breaking upon the absorption of ultraviolet light. The polymer is then bro-
ken down into small enough units that are subject to bacterial attack. This
approach has been successful, for example, in promoting the disappearance of
rings from beverage cans, which are potentially harmful to wildlife.
A problem with the degradation of plastics is that it is probably undesir-
able in landfills because of the leachants produced that may contaminate water
supplies. It is better in these instances to ship the plastics to composting facil-
ities. This requires the separation of degradable plastics from other materials
and the availability of such facilities. In most cases, the infrastructure needed
for such an approach is not in place. This has discouraged its use for dispos-
able diapers that are said to constitute 1 to 2 percent of landfill volume.
Degradable polymers may have limited use in the reduction of litter and
production of flushable plastics, for example, feminine hygiene products, but
it seems unlikely that the use of such materials will be a viable means of dis-
posal for large amounts of plastic products. Degradation leads to the loss of
most of the potential energy content of plastics that might be recovered by
trash-to-energy procedures.

Trash to Energy
A method of plastic disposal with more positive environmental implications is
burning and recovering the energy for power generation or heating. Plastics
contain much of the energy potential of the petroleum from which they are
made, and they, in a sense, are just borrowing this energy that may be recov-
ered when the plastic is burned. Environmentalists and the public have
114
 Point Source

objected to this procedure, leading to legislative restrictions. This has arisen,

in part, because of the image of “old-fashioned” incinerators polluting the air
with toxic fumes and ash. However, it is possible to construct a “high-tech”
incinerator designed to operate at appropriate temperatures and with suffi-
cient air supply that these problems are minimized. Remaining toxic sub-
stances in fumes may be removed by scrubbing, and studies have shown that
no significant air pollution results. Toxic ash, for the most part, does not arise
from the polymer components of the feedstock, but rather from other mate-
rials mixed with the polymers as well as from fillers, catalyst content, and pig-
ments associated with the polymers. Proper design of the polymers and crude
separation of the incinerator feedstock can reduce this problem. Furthermore,
if the feedstock was not incinerated but placed in landfills, contaminants
would ultimately enter the environment in an uncontrolled way. Incineration
reduces the volume, so that the ash, which may contain them, can be disposed
of under more controlled conditions. Also, it is possible to insolublize the ash
by converting it into a cementlike material that will not readily dissolve.
Facilities for converting trash to energy in an environmentally acceptable
way are expensive and at present not cost-effective when considering short-
range funding. However, in the long run, they are environmentally desir-
able and reduce the need for alternative means for plastic waste disposal.
It is imperative that legislators and taxpayers soon adopt this long-range
perspective. S E E A L S O Endocrine Disruption; Recycling; Solid Waste;
Waste.
Bibliography
American Plastics Council. (2001). “2000 National Post Consumer Plastics Recycling
Report.” Arlington, VA: Author.
Gerngross, T.U., and Slater, S.C. (2000). “How Green Are Green Plastics.” Scientific
American August.
Hocking, M.B. (1991). “Paper vs. Polystyrene, a Complex Choice.” Science 251.
Limbach, B.M. (1990). Plastics and the Environment, Progress and Commitment. Wash-
ington, D.C.: Society of the Plastics Industry.
Piaecki, B.; Rainry, D.; and Fletcher, K. (1998). “Is Combustion of Plastics Desirable?”
American Scientist 86: 364.
Stein, R.S. (1992). “Polymer Recycling: Opportunities and Limitations.” Proceedings of
the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 89: 835.
Stein, R.S. (2002). “Plastics Can Be Good for the Environment.” NEACT Journal 21:
10–12.
Vesilind, P.A. (1997). Introduction to Environmental Engineering. Boston, MA: PWS
Publishing.
Richard S. Stein

Point Source
Point source pollution is contamination that enters the environment through
any discernible, confined, and discrete conveyance, such as a smokestack,
pipe, ditch, tunnel, or conduit. Point source pollution remains a major cause
of pollution to both air and water. Point sources are differentiated from non-
point sources, which are those that spread out over a large area and have no
specific outlet or discharge point. Point source pollution in the United States
is regulated by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).
115
Point Source

Point Sources of Water Pollution

Point sources of water pollution include municipal sewage treatment plant
discharges and industrial plant discharges. Municipal sewage treatment plant
point sources can contribute pollution in the form of oxygen-depleting nutri-
ents and in the form of pathogens that cause serious health hazards in drink-
ing water and swimming areas. Industrial point sources can contribute
pollution in the form of toxic chemicals and heavy metals. Examples of non-
point source water pollution include agricultural and urban runoff, and
runoff from mining, and construction sites.
The Clean Water Act (CWA), passed by Congress in 1972, provides the
basic structure for regulating the discharge of pollutants from point sources
to waters of the United States. The CWA gives the EPA the authority to
establish effluent limits. Effluent is the outflow from a municipal or industrial
treatment plant. The CWA also requires the acquisition of a National Pollu-
tion Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit prior to the discharge
of pollutants. States may be authorized to implement CWA programs, but
the EPA retains oversight responsibilities.
The EPA manages effluent limits for point sources in two ways: through
technology-based controls and through water quality-based controls. Industry-
wide effluent limits are established on a technology basis. These are minimum
standards based on available treatment technology and pollution prevention
measures. Effluent limits are also established on a water-quality basis. Water
quality-based criteria are scientifically defensible standards that ensure protec-
tion of designated uses of a receiving water. Either standard may be superceded
by the more stringent standard, as determined by the control authority.
Municipal point sources are the result of community sewage treatment
systems. At the sewage treatment plant, wastewater is treated to remove solid
and organic matter, disinfected to kill bacteria and viruses, and then often dis-
charged to a surface water. Not all solids and organic matter are removed dur-
ing treatment, resulting in degraded receiving water quality, due to a reduction
dissolved oxygen (DO) the in dissolved oxygen. Nutrients such as phosphorus that are not removed dur-
oxygen freely available in ing treatment can cause overgrowth of algae and other organisms, also leading
water, vital to fish and other
aquatic life and for the preven- to lower dissolved oxygen. Many toxic substances can pass through conven-
tion of odors; DO levels are tional municipal treatment systems. Improperly treated sewage can be released
considered a most important as a result of upsets to the treatment process or as a result of operator error.
indicator of a water body’s
ability to support desirable During heavy rain, discharges from sewage treatment systems can be a
aquatic life; secondary and serious problem. In many municipalities, storm-water runoff is combined
advanced waste treatment are
generally designed to ensure
with municipal sewage in a common system. The increased water volume
adequate DO in waste-receiv- leads to reduced treatment. Combined sewer overflows occur when water
ing waters flow exceeds treatment plant capacity, resulting in untreated sewage being
discharged directly to rivers, lakes, or the ocean.
Industrial point sources are the result of industries using water in their
production processes, and then treating the water prior to discharge. Some of
the industries requiring process waters include pulp and paper mills, food
processors, electronic equipment manufacturers, rare metal manufacturers,
textile manufacturers, pharmaceutical manufacturers, forest product produc-
ers, leather tanners, and chemical manufacturers.
priority pollutant a designated
set of common water The National Pretreatment Program is charged with controlling the 126
pollutants priority pollutants from industries that discharge into sewer systems. These
116
 Point Source

pollutants fall into two categories: metals and toxic organics. The metals
include lead, mercury, chromium, and cadmium. The toxic organics include
solvents, pesticides, dioxins, and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs).
Unlike municipal treatment methods, which are similar across the coun-
try, industrial treatment methods are industry-specific. For example, electro-
plating wastewater may require cyanide removal through oxidization. In
general, physical processes may be used to remove solids and biological
processes to remove organics. Chemical treatment, such as precipitation and
neutralization, is also widely used.
The National Water Quality Inventory: 2000 Report is compiled based on
the water quality reports required to be submitted to the EPA by states every
two years. The report identifies “impaired” waters: water that cannot support
its designated use, such as fishing or swimming, due to contamination.
According to the report, municipal point sources contributed to 37 percent
and industrial discharges contributed to 26 percent of reported water-quality
problems in the impaired portion of estuaries. Municipal point sources were
the leading cause of contamination in 21 percent of the impaired ocean
shorelines, and industrial discharges were the leading cause in 17 percent.
Municipal point sources were a leading source of contamination in 10 per-
cent of the impaired river miles and 12 percent of the impaired lake acres.
These figures are improved over the percentages recorded in the 1992 Report
when municipal point sources were a leading contamination source in 15 per- river mile one mile, as meas-
cent of the impaired river miles and 21 percent of the impaired lake acres. ured along a river’s centerline
lake acre an acre of lake
The NPDES permit program can be credited with achieving significant surface
improvements to the water quality of the United States. Immediately follow-
ing passage of the CWA, efforts focused mainly on regulating traditional point
sources, such as municipal sewage plants and industrial facilities. In the late
1980s, efforts to address “wet weather point sources,” such as urban storm
sewer systems, began. Currently, there is a greater focus on nonpoint source
pollution. The EPA is moving away from a source-by-source and pollutant-
by-pollutant approach to a watershed-based approach. A watershed, or “place-
based,” approach is a process that emphasizes addressing all stressors within a
hydrologically defined boundary or drainage basin. Equal emphasis is placed
on protecting healthy waters and restoring impaired waters.

Point Sources of Air Pollution

Point sources of air pollution include stationary sources such as power plants,
smelters, industrial and commercial boilers, wood and pulp processors, paper
mills, industrial surface coating facilities, refinery and chemical processing
operations, and petroleum storage tanks. Examples of nonpoint sources of air
pollution include: on-road mobile sources such as cars and trucks; nonroad
mobile sources such as construction and recreation equipment engines; and
natural sources such as windstorms and fires. Exposure to air pollution is
associated with adverse effects on human health including respiratory prob-
lems and lung diseases. Air pollution can also significantly affect ecosystems.
The Clean Air Act (CAA) was passed by Congress in 1970 and amended
in 1990. Under the CAA, EPA sets limits on how much of a pollutant is
allowed in the air anywhere in the United States. Each state is required to
develop a state implementation plan (SIP) to explain how it will do its job
117
Point Source

Smoke is pouring from the

smokestack of an incinerator.
(U.S. EPA. Reproduced by
permission.)

under the CAA. A permit must be obtained for large sources that release pol-
lutants into the air. The permits require information on which pollutants are
being released, how much pollutant is released, what steps are being taking to
reduce pollution, and plans for monitoring.
The EPA has set national air quality standards for six principal air pollu-
tants (also known as criteria pollutants): carbon monoxide (CO), lead (Pb),
nitrogen dioxide (NO2), ozone (O3), particulate matter (PM), and sulfur diox-
ide (SO2). CO, Pb, NO2, and SO2 result from direct emissions from a variety
of sources, including point sources. PM can result from direct emissions or
can form when emissions and other gases react in the atmosphere. Ozone is
not emitted directly, but forms when nitrogen oxides (NOx) and volatile
organic compounds (VOCs) react in the presence of sunlight. The EPA
refers to chemicals that cause serious health and environmental impacts as
hazardous air pollutants (HAPs) or air toxics. Currently, 189 air toxics have
been identified, including chemicals such as benzene, chloroform, and
mercury.
The EPA tracks air pollution in two ways: (1) emissions form all sources
going back thirty years and (2) air quality measured from monitoring stations
around the country going back twenty years. The EPA summarizes its most
recent evaluations in the report Latest Findings on National Air Quality: 2000
Status and Trends. Since 1970, the total emissions for the six criteria pollutants
have been reduced 29 percent. National air quality levels measured at moni-
toring stations across the country have also shown improvements over the
past twenty years for all six criteria pollutants. Over 160 million tons of pol-
lution (from both point sources and non-point sources) are emitted into the
air each year in the United States.
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 Politics

In 2000 Status and Trends, the EPA reports an increasing focus on track-
ing and controlling ground-level ozone and fine particles, key components of
smog and haze. Progress has been slowest for ground-level ozone. In some
regions of the United States, ozone levels have actually increased in the past
ten years. The ozone increase correlates to the increase in NOx emissions
from power plants and other sources. NOx emissions also contribute to acid
rain, haze and particulate matter. Sulfates, formed mainly from coal-fired
power plant emissions, are the main source of particles in the eastern United
States. The emissions also contribute to the formation of acid rain. The EPA’s
emissions trading program successfully reduced these air pollutants, resulting
in improved visibility in the eastern United States.
While point source pollution is declining in the United States, it remains
a global environmental concern. According to the UN report Global Envi-
ronment Outlook 2000, rapid urbanization and industrialization in many
developing countries is creating high levels of air and water pollution. S E E
A L S O Air Pollution; CWA; CAA; Cuyahoga River; Disasters; Donora,
Pennsylvania; National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System
(NPDES); Nonpoint Source Pollution; Thermal Pollution; Toxic
Release Inventory; Wastewater Treatment; Water Pollution.
Bibliography
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (2000). National Water Quality Inventory: 2000
Report. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Wastewater Management. (1999).
Introduction to the National Pretreatment Program. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Govern-
ment Printing Office.
Vigil, Kenneth M. (1996). Clean Water: The Citizen’s Complete Guide to Water Quality
and Water Pollution Control. Portland, OR: Columbia Cascade Publishing Company.

Internet Resources
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. National Pollutant Discharge Elimination
System. Available from http://www.epa.gov/npdes.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Science and Technology. Available
from http://www.epa.gov/OST.
United Nations Environment Programme. Global Environment Outlook 2000. Available
from http://www.unep.org/geo2000.
Denise M. Leduc

Politics
Beginning in 1970, the “environmental decade,” a swift and sweeping trans-
formation in American law radically reshaped U.S. pollution control policies.
This regulatory revolution was mounted on three political foundations: skill-
ful pressure-group politics, effective legislative advocacy, and aroused public
concern about environmental degradation. These traditional American polit-
ical techniques promoted, and continue to shape, contemporary pollution
control through U.S. political governmental institutions.

The Political Foundations: Pressure-Group Politics

Americans and their public officials paid scant attention to growing evidence
of environmental degradation across the nation until the late 1960s. Air and
water pollution control was considered the responsibility of state and local
119
Politics

Antoine Waechter (at center), governments. Most states did little more than set drinking water standards to
French Green Party member,
protect public health from a few contaminants like bacterial diseases, fearing
participating in a
demonstration against the that more aggressive control of air and water pollutants would inhibit eco-
building of the Serre de la Fare nomic growth and drive resident business and industry to other states. Such
dam, along the Loire mounting environmental degradation as the Cuyahoga River fire and Love
headwaters. (© Bernard
Bisson/Corbis. Reproduced by Canal focused national attention on the need for environmental restoration.
permission.) This was translated into bold new governmental policies largely by environ-
mental pressure groups during the 1960s and 1970s.
The strength of the new environmental movement lay in organized
political activism, coalition building, and legislative advocacy—the funda-
mentals of effective group politics. The focus of this political pressure was
primarily the federal government with its vast authority and resources for
creating nationwide pollution control. No single event dramatized the envi-
ronmental movement’s rise to national importance more than the first Earth
Day in April 1970—a nationally televised Washington rally witnessed by 35
million Americans—that swiftly elevated public awareness of environmental
degradation while advertising, especially for public officials, environmental-
ism’s newly acquired political clout.

Pressure-Group Politics Old and New

Environmentalism’s political strength depends on its leadership’s skill in creat-
ing a broad and diverse alliance of interests to support environmental advocacy.
The environmental movement embraces a great diversity of influential
120
 Politics

organizations, including traditional conservation groups like the Sierra Club

and the National Wildlife Federation, established public health advocates like
the American Cancer Society, newly formed environmental pressure groups
like the Environmental Defense Fund and Friends of the Earth, major labor
unions, public interest science organizations, and countless local organizations.
Additionally, environmentalists are proficient recruiters. After the first Earth
Day, environmentalist organizations multiplied and enriched their political
resources, often creating innovative new organizational forms and strategies.
Prior to 1970, fewer than twenty-five significant national environmental groups
existed with a combined membership approaching 500,000—of these, perhaps
a half-dozen organizations were important participants in national policymak-
ing. Several hundred influential national environmentalist groups are politically
active; five of the most important—the Audubon Society, Sierra Club, Envi-
ronmental Defense Fund, National Wildlife Federation, and Wilderness
Society—alone have a combined membership exceeding seven million.
Although all the major organizations use the sophisticated resources of
pressure-group politics—mass-mailing technology, skilled media specialists,
and full-time legislative lobbyists—the environmental movement has also ben-
efited by developing specialized legal advocacy groups, like the National
Resources Defense Council, staffed primarily with lawyers and scientific experts
committed exclusively to litigation that establishes important legal precedents
and enforces pollution-control regulations for environmental protection.

Creating and Mobilizing Public Opinion

The radical transformation of U.S. pollution-control laws would have been
impossible without strong, consistent public pressure on federal and state
governments, especially on the Congress and state legislators. Current pub-
lic opinion polls suggest that more than 80 percent of Americans agree with
the goals of the environmental movement. The strength of this support is
suggested by other polls consistently reporting since 1980 that more than
two-thirds of the public believe environmental protection should be a major
government priority, even at the risk of reducing economic growth. The
breadth and depth of this ecological consciousness are remarkable, consider-
ing that few Americans understood the implications of ecology or the nature
of domestic environmental pollution only a few decades ago. The most
important political impact of this vigorous public environmentalism is on the
electoral system: Candidates for major federal and state office are now cus-
tomarily expected to support strong pollution controls and other ecologically
protective policies, at least in principle. While Americans often disagree vig-
orously over pollution control methods, air and water pollution regulation
itself is now an enduring component of the “American political consensus”—
those policies Americans overwhelmingly view as the essential responsibility
of their government.

A Regulatory Revolution: The Environmental Decade

The design of U.S. air and water pollution control was crafted in federal law
during the “environmental decade” between 1970 and 1980. Responding to
dramatic media revelations of ecological deterioration, growing environmen-
tal group pressure, and voter concerns, Congress laid the legislative founda-
tion for all contemporary regulation through six statutes: The Clean Air Act
Amendments (1970), the Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments
121
Politics

(1972), the Safe Drinking Water Act (1974), the Toxic Substances Control Act
(1976), and the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and
Liability Act (Superfund) in 1980. Altogether, the Congress wrote or amended
nineteen major environmental laws in this remarkable decade. And by chang-
ing the law, Congress also reordered its political underpinning.

Federal Leadership
The laws listed above radically recast the U.S. approach to pollution man-
agement. Most important, the federal government assumed the primary
responsibility for air and water pollution regulation; Washington set national
pollution standards and supervised their implementation, thus defining pol-
lution control priorities and prescribing acceptable control methods. The
Clean Air Act, for example, now requires all states to control at least six dan-
gerous pollutants (sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, lead, par-
ticulates, and volatile organic compounds) and a rapidly growing list of other
substances currently believed to be “air toxins.” The act additionally man-
dates that car manufacturers install pollution-control devices on all new
automobiles. The new pollution laws also extended federal protection to the
natural environment instead of exclusively to human health and safety. The
Toxic Substances Control Act, for example, authorizes the federal govern-
ment to regulate the manufacture, sale, or use of any chemical presenting “an
unreasonable risk of injury to health or the environment.”

Regulatory Federalism
Regulatory federalism has become a fundamental regulatory principle. This
means that Washington prescribes national pollution standards and control
procedures, but allocates the appropriate resources to states so they assume
the primary responsibility for implementing and enforcing these require-
ments. States are then said to exercise “delegated authority.” Using delegated
authority, for instance, thirty-eight states as of 2002 issue permits for water
pollution discharges required by the Federal Water Pollution Control Act
Amendments and forty-nine states certify pesticides for local use as required
by the Federal Environmental Pesticides Control Act (1972). Thus, the
states assume an essential and highly influential role in national pollution
regulation; pollution policymaking continually requires negotiation, conflict,
and cooperation between the states and Washington.

New Regulatory Agencies

New federal agencies were created, and others reorganized, to implement
these new control programs. The most important federal pollution control
entity is now the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), created in
1972. The EPA is the nation’s largest regulatory agency with 18,000 employ-
ees, a 2002 budget exceeding $7.5 billion, and responsibility to fully or par-
tially implement all the nation’s important pollution control laws. In 1970 the
President’s Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ), a much smaller
agency, was created within the White House to advise the President on envi-
ronmental affairs. At the same time, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA) was created within the U.S. Department of Com-
merce to conduct research on and monitoring of ocean and atmospheric
pollution. The authority and staff of many other federal agencies concerned
122
 Politics

with environmental quality, such as the Department of the Interior, were also
vastly expanded to implement new pollution control programs. These agen-
cies also provide research support and grants to the states to facilitate the
enforcement of pollution control laws. The EPA, for instance, has distributed
more than $150 billion in grants to state and local governments to upgrade
their sewage treatment systems.

New Policymaking Procedures

Federal pollution laws created new, often controversial, regulatory proce-
dures. The most contentious of these is risk assessment—the process used by
regulatory agencies to determine if a substance constitutes a sufficient threat
to human health and safety, or to the environment, to require control. Fed-
eral pollution laws, including the Toxic Substances Control Act, the Safe
Drinking Water Act, and Superfund, require the EPA or other responsible
agencies to conduct such risk assessments—usually focused on the risk of
cancer—on thousands of chemicals never previously evaluated according to
the rigorous new standards. Risk assessments proceed slowly due to the huge
number of substances involved, a lack of basic information about their distri-
bution and impact, and intense controversy about the appropriate procedures
for the assessments.
Federal pollution legislation has also vastly increased opportunities for
the public, and particularly environmental advocacy groups, to become
informed and involved in federal environmental decision making. Major fed-
eral pollution laws such as the Clean Air and Clean Water Acts removed a
major legal impediment to public involvement in pollution control by grant-
ing individuals and organizations standing to sue federal and state agencies standing the legal right to
for failure to enforce pollution control laws. Almost all federal environmen- pursue a claim in court
tal laws also require the responsible federal and state agencies to actively
inform the public and to provide numerous opportunities for public com-
ment and review of contemplated regulations.
At the beginning of the twenty-first century, it is apparent that the envi-
ronmental movement permanently and comprehensively altered the law and
politics of U.S. pollution regulation. Pressure-group politics, public opinion,
and congressional legislation were the powerful driving forces in this change.
The result was unprecedented, aggressive federal leadership in an active
national program of pollution control based on federally mandated pollution
standards and pollution controls. By promoting new national pollution con-
trol laws and agencies, expanded opportunities for public involvement in pol-
lution regulation, and vigorous public concern for environmental degradation,
the environmental movement has created a continuing “environmental era.”
S E E A L S O Activism; Brower, David; Carson, Rachel; Citizen Suits; Earth
Day; Environmental Impact Statement; Government; Industry; Laws
and Regulations, United States; Legislative Process; National Envi-
ronmental Policy Act (NEPA); New Left; Progressive Movement; Pub-
lic Participation; Public Policy Decision Making; Risk.
Bibliography
Buck, Susan J. (1996). Understanding Environmental Administration and Law, 2nd edi-
tion. Washington, D.C.: Island Press.
Cohen, Richard E. (1995). Washington at Work: Back Rooms and Clean Air, 2nd edition.
Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

123
Pollution Prevention

Graham, Mary. (1999). The Morning after Earth Day: Practical Environmental Politics.
Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press.
Marzotto, Toni; Moshier Burnor, Vicky; and Bonham, Gorden Scott Bonham. (2000).
The Evolution of Public Policy: Cars and the Environment. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rien-
ner Publishers.
Rosenbaum, Walter A. (2002). Environmental Politics and Policy, 5th edition. Washing-
ton, D.C.: CQ Press.

Internet Resource
Project on Teaching Global Environmental Politics Web site. Available from http://
webpub.alleg.edu/employee.
Walter A. Rosenbaum

Pollution Prevention
One key to achieving a sustainable society and tackling the complex environ-
mental challenges of the twenty-first century is pollution prevention (P2),
reducing or eliminating pollution before it is created. The idea has been dis-
cussed since 1976, but has only lately gained widespread support from both
the private and public sectors. It is an environmentally sound and cost-
effective practice.
In 1990 Congress passed a federal statute, the Pollution Prevention Act
of 1990. The act defined pollution prevention (i.e., source reduction) as a
practice that
1. Reduces the amount of any hazardous substance, pollutant, or contam-
inant entering any waste stream or otherwise released into the environ-
ment (including fugitive emissions) prior to recycling, treatment, or
disposal; and
2. Reduces the hazards to public health and the environment associated
with the release of such substances, pollutants or contaminants. The
term includes equipment or technology modifications, process or
procedure modifications, reformulation or redesign of products, substi-
tution of raw materials, and improvements in housekeeping, mainte-
nance, training or inventory control.
Since the Industrial Revolution, U.S. environmental policy has focused
on end-of-pipe environmental remediation, control, and disposal. The end-
of-pipe approach involves combatting pollution, regardless of what form
(solid or hazardous waste, air emissions, or water discharge), only after it has
been created.
To control end-of-pipe pollution, society issues permits. These permits
set threshold limits for how much pollution a facility is allowed to create, tak-
ing into consideration the ecosystem in which the company operates. The
more fragile the environment, the more consideration, presumably, is given
to the allowable level of pollutant discharge. The result is that a company
may obtain a permit to emit a certain amount of carcinogenic chemicals into
the air or water as a by-product of its operations. The same system also holds
true for communities. A community, for instance, acquires a permit to oper-
ate a landfill. The permit will stipulate certain types of waste for disposal, as
well as place limits on the quantity that may be dumped on a daily basis.
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 Pollution Prevention

DECADE OF P2 RESULTS, FROM 1990 TO 2000

(QUANTITATIVE PRELIMINARY DATA FROM SELECTED STATES)*

State Pollution prevented (lb unless otherwise noted) Total cost savings
Illinois 3.73 × 109 overall pollutant reduction. $27 million
Maine 220 toxic-use companies reduced 105 million lb. toxic chemicals/5.6 million lb of waste reduced at Hazardous waste reduction overall
167 hazardous waste generators—63 toxic-release companies have reduced releases by 12.7 million lb. has generated $50 million in cost
savings to Maine businesses.
New Jersey 50% reduction in toxic/waste/nonproduct output for TRI chemicals. $8 million
Massachusetts Reduction in toxic chemical waste generation by 60 million lb or 57%, reduction in total chemical
use by 317 million lb or 41%, reduction in toxic releases to the environment by 18 million lb
or 87%.
New Hampshire P2 assistance provided to 43 companies resulted in cost savings of $2.8 million per year for a total
(7 years) of $19,600,000.
Vermont Reduction in 38% in the total amount of hazardous waste generated through the end of 1998.
Rhode Island RI DEM performed more than 250 site assessments that resulted in elimination of more than $40
million tons of industrial waste.
North Carolina Since 1993 air pollutants reduced by 122,000 lb, water pollutants reduced by 11,836,500 lb, waste $55,318,400 estimated
reduced by approx. 64 million lb. In 1999 energy conserved: 344,000 kW; water conserved: approx. total cost savings from
77,296,000 gallons. P2 efforts.
Iowa Iowa Waste Reduction Center at the Univ. of Northern Iowa has conducted more than 2,100 on-site
reviews at Iowa small businesses since its inception in 1988. Approx. 87 million lb of hazardous and
solid waste have been reduced as a result.
Alaska Since 1994 the Alaska Dept. of Environmental Conservation’s Compliance Assistance Office has Cost savings are estimated
helped businesses reduce waste by 201,500 lb. at $1,752,000.
Virginia From 1998–2001 Virginia Department of Environmental Quality reports that more than 1.5 million lb
of air pollutants, 488 million lb of water pollutants, and 710 million lb of waste have been reduced as
a result of P2 efforts in the state.
Kentucky Has achieved a 50% reduction in hazardous waste generation/releases based on TRI and hazardous Estimated cost savings of
waste data using the state’s voluntary 1989 goals. $500,000 annually since
1991.
Maryland Maryland Dept. of Environment reported a reduction of 17,780,109 million lb of waste for the period Cost savings during same
of 1997–2000. period estimated to be
$125,863,000.
*As of 2002, the information listed above is being compiled into a comprehensive study and evaluation of P2 efforts over the past decade. The data listed
here were reported by individual state agencies and are only intended to present baseline data, by which future P2 efforts can be measured. These numbers
were the result of a survey conducted by NPPR from 1990 through 2000. Some programs submitted surveys, others reports. In no way should these numbers
be used to compare programs. Unless otherwise noted, results date from the period when the state commenced its P2 program. Some states have had assis-
tance programs much longer than others, and some may have smaller operating budgets for their programs.

Even recycling efforts, important as they are, focus attention on the back
end of the pollution process, after waste has been produced. Recycling is an
end-of-pipe solution.
Another outdated aspect of U.S. environmental policy is the single-
medium approach to environmental problems. Single-medium approaches
focus on one specific environmental medium (i.e., land, water, or air) at a
time, generally to the exclusion of other media. Air pollution experts, for
example, do not typically investigate other facets of a facility, such as its over-
all operation, waste generation, or water discharges. They view their one
medium in isolation and may recommend new procedures or remedies that
can adversely impact other media. It is not uncommon to see an inspector
recommend measures to improve air quality that affect water quality or
waste generation—thus simply transferring pollution from one medium to
another.
The United States takes the single-medium approach because major
environmental statutes are single-medium in scope. The Clean Air Act,
Clean Water Act, and Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA)
each focus on individual media. They contain strong requirements that focus
on end-of-pipe approaches to meet them. These statutes are at the core of
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Pollution Prevention

U.S. environmental protection strategy. They have produced admirable

results over the years, but are now facing the law of diminishing returns in
the face of new complex environmental challenges such as global climate
persistent bioaccumulative change, energy and water shortages, and persistent bioaccumulative toxics
toxics a group of substances that pass easily from one medium to the next. Today’s challenges demand the
that are not easily degraded,
accumulate in organisms, and more innovative and vigorous approach of pollution prevention.
exhibit an acute or chronic
toxicity Low-Hanging Fruit
There are many ways pollution can be prevented. Some of the simplest, the
“low-hanging fruit” involve basic housekeeping and maintenance modifica-
tions that do not include major capital investments, but may produce signif-
icant dividends in terms of cost savings for compliance and operations.
In an industrial setting, low-cost options can involve simply changing the
filters on equipment more frequently, improving the maintenance of machin-
ery, or replacing a solvent with a water-based alternative that performs just as
well. In an office setting, it may involve requiring that all documents are
printed on both sides of paper and that mugs are used instead of disposable
cups. Less toxic alternatives, whether they be cleaners or office paper pro-
green choice a product that duced without chlorine, are green choices. A farming operation can reduce
is not harmful for the its use of toxic pesticides or explore the economic feasibility of becoming an
environment
organic operation.
organic referring to or derived
from living organisms; in Energy efficiency is a major component of pollution prevention and an
chemistry, any compound increasingly important issue as we face shortages throughout the United
containing carbon States and global climate change. Again, low-hanging fruit opportunities
abound. Options exist for more energy-efficient lighting and computer
equipment. Simple business practices like turning equipment off at night can
have a positive net environmental and cost outcome.
Even choosing an office building or a plant location can have dramatic
environmental implications. Is the facility located near mass transit? If it is,
it gives employees the option of using public transportation and reduces the
emissions of greenhouse gases from automobiles.
Every state offers some type of pollution prevention assistance to aid
companies and communities in identifying P2 opportunities. Because P2 is
often not intuitive, government programs help provide a menu of available
options to develop comprehensive programs. Many state agencies have engi-
neers and planners on staff who have a wealth of expertise in working with a
wide variety of industries. They provide training to company and community
officials and disseminate technology, the sharing of information on technical
issues and equipment. See the table for the results of P2 efforts in selected
states over the past decade.

Identifying Systemic Pollution Prevention Opportunities

The next phase of pollution prevention is to focus on more systemic changes.
These may involve more capital investment and a major cultural change on
the part of an organization—none of which can happen without the support
of senior management.
This is one reason why many companies are making sure that their inno-
vative programs are integrated into their core business decisions. The lone
environmental officer who focuses a company on complying with regulations
126
 Pollution Prevention

still exists, but he or she is in many cases more actively involved in the daily
business decisions being made by that company. This is crucial if serious proc-
ess and operational changes are going to be adopted to help reduce pollution.
Companies are investigating the use of pollution prevention equipment
and comprehensive process changes that are less toxic and generate less
waste. Utilizing equipment that is more efficient in its use of materials is a
common pollution prevention practice.
As stated, effective prevention will not occur without the backing of sen-
ior management, whether it be in the public or private sector. Many organi-
zations create an official policy document, or expand their mission statement
to incorporate innovative and cleaner production initiatives. Some organiza-
tions go as far as making a senior budget officer responsible for their com-
pany’s P2 efforts. That way, there is a commitment from top management,
particularly those who control the company’s purse strings.

Regulatory and Public Information

Right-to-Know Programs
TRI and other types of right-to-know programs publicly highlight chemical
releases that industrial facilities release to the environment. These public dis-
closure programs force a company to evaluate its production process and the
pollution it generates. The public component of the program helps put the
spotlight on these firms, making it more likely that they will try to reduce
future releases.
Some environmentalists have also advocated reforming environmental
report and permit programs so that reporting facilities essentially perform a
pollution prevention audit—identifying waste streams and exploring oppor-
tunities to reduce them—in the process of complying with regulatory
requirements.

P2 Partners
The public and private sectors play different, but equally important, roles in
the effort to promote P2. Government regulatory drivers (statutes and regu-
lations) provide incentives for companies to minimize pollution and thus
avoid requirements in the first place. An example of an excellent regulatory
measure is the use of P2 and a Supplemental Environmental Project (SEP).
A SEP essentially means that an agency can require a company to implement
a P2 program as part of their settlement. A state agency can also stipulate that
a P2 program be part of an operating permit. There are a number of states
conducting this kind of green permit program.
State and local governments also offer critical technical assistance to
companies and communities in identifying P2 options tailored to their needs.
There are numerous tools available, including public information clearing-
houses, on-site assessments, and a score of publications featuring case stud-
ies and guidebooks. Government can also offer market-based incentives,
including low-interest loans for P2 equipment, reduction in reporting
requirements, and public recognition programs that promote a company’s
environmental performance.
The private sector plays the unique role of being the laboratory.
Companies are able to experiment with different P2 practices and
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Pollution Prevention

techniques within their facility. Given the proper flexibility and support, they
can provide some of the major technical and cost data necessary for P2 to
expand.
Nongovernmental organizations such as community councils and envi-
ronmental groups play an important advocacy role in the world of preven-
tion. In the past, they have frequentlyprovided visionary leardership, helping,
for instance, to shepherd the Pollution Prevention Act into reality in 1990.

Future Legislative Action

As stated earlier, the single-medium approach to environmental protection is
an impediment to progress. Many attempts have been made to change laws
or regulations on the federal, state, and local levels to leverage more oppor-
tunities for prevention and cleaner production without dismantling the cur-
rent regulatory framework. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) has overseen several initiatives designed to allow more flexibility
within the current system, in the hope of attaining more creativity and inno-
vation. The Common Sense Initiative, 1994 to 1998, was an industry-based
approach involving the automobile manufacturing, computers and electron-
ics, iron and steel, metal finishing, petroleum refining, and printing indus-
tries. The program initiated more than forty-five projects, half of which,
according to the EPA, are still ongoing. Similarly, the no-longer-funded Pro-
ject XL allowed communities or businesses to test alternate ways of reducing
environmental pollution. The National Environmental Performance Track is
the current (2003) EPA program that encourages environmental solutions.
This program recognizes and gives incentives to more than three hundred
business members that go beyond regulatory environmental compliance and
develop economically sound initiatives that further increase environmental
protection. At the state level, environmental agencies can apply to the Per-
formance Partnership Grants Program, authorized by Congress in 1996. It
allows states to combine funds from up to sixteen environmental program
grants into a single grant, for example, to address issues such as sprawl. In
addition, state voluntary programs have proliferated and included recogni-
tion and environmental management system programs.
The Pollution Prevention Act of 1990 provided a good foundation for
pollution prevention in the United States. It established much-needed defi-
nitions, contained provisions to set up an information clearinghouse and
awards programs, and most important, provided start-up funds for states and
the EPA to work on dedicated P2 programs. Unfortunately, many provisions
of the act were never fully implemented and appropriations were insufficient
to orchestrate a comprehensive program. For example, less than one percent
of federal grant monies to states for other media programs such as air, waste,
and water goes to P2.
Real change will come only by modifying key single-medium statutes.
One idea, long proposed, is a unified organic statute. The existing statutes
would be woven into a more holistic law, which is multimedia in scope, with
prevention as the foundation. Others advocate the consolidation of only spe-
cific aspects of existing legislation.
As of 2002, the National Pollution Prevention Roundtable (NPPR) is
undertaking a major study to help quantify the results of pollution prevention
efforts over the past ten years. Although the study is not complete, its raw
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 Pollution Shifting

data indicating significantly reduced or eliminated pollution and cost savings

are impressive, considering the minimal resources that are available nation-
wide for prevention efforts. The table highlights some of the data provided
by state programs. S E E A L S O Abatement; Energy, Alternative; Pollution
Shifting; Recycling; Reuse; Technology, Pollution Prevention; Waste
Reduction.
Bibliography
Hirschhhorn, Joel S.; and Oldenburg, Kirsten U. (1997). Prosperity without Pollution:
The Prevention Strategy for Industry and Consumers. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Theodore, Louis; Dupont, Ryan; and Ganesan, Kumar. (1999). Pollution Prevention:
The Waste Management Approach to the 21st Century. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Marcus, Alfred A.; Sexton, Ken; and Geffen, Donald A. (2002). Reinventing Environ-
mental Regulation: Lessons from Project XL. Washington, D.C.: Resources for the
Future.

Internet Resources
Canadian Center for Pollution Prevention. Available from http://www.c2p2online.com.
National Pollution Prevention Roundtable. Available from http://www.p2.org.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. National Environmental Performance Track.
Available from http://www.epa.gov/performancetrack.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Pollution Prevention Home Page. Available
from http://www.epa.gov/p2.
Natalie Roy

Pollution Shifting
Pollution shifting is defined as the transfer of pollution from one medium
(air, water, or soil) to another. Early legal efforts to control pollution focused
on single media. For example, in the United States, the Clean Air Act covers
air and the Clean Water Act covers water. However, pollution is not con-
strained by statute; it can shift between media by both natural and human
action. Pollution management is improved when all media are considered.
Intentional pollution shifting may occur to destroy a pollutant, convert it
to a safer form, or reduce its quantity or concentration. Examples of inten-
tional pollution shifting include combustion, air stripping, air scrubbers, air stripping a treatment sys-
and adsorption. Intentional pollution shifting is accomplished by chemical tem that removes volatile
organic compounds (VOCs)
reaction and/or mass transfer. Chemical reactions can convert reactants in from contaminated ground-
one media into products in a different media. In mass transfer shifting, dif- water or surface water by forc-
ferences in concentration are used to transfer pollutants from one media to ing an airstream through the
water and causing the com-
another. For example, volatile compounds will transfer from relatively con- pounds to evaporate
taminated water to relatively clean air.
air scrubbers pollution-control
devices that remove pollutants
Combustion, Air Stripping, and Adsoprtion from waste gases before
release to the atmosphere
Combustion is the process of burning, a chemical reaction. It involves com-
bining combustible material with oxygen under conditions that produce light adsorption removal of a pollu-
tant from air or water by col-
and heat in addition to by-products. The combustion of wastes, such as lecting the pollutant on the
municipal solid waste, sludge, or hazardous waste, results in gaseous emissions surface of a solid material;
and a solid ash residue. It significantly reduces the volume and mass of waste e.g., an advanced method of
treating waste in which acti-
requiring disposal, by shifting some wastes to gaseous form. Although carbon vated carbon removes organic
dioxide has been implicated in global warming, many of the gaseous emissions matter from wastewater
have no negative health impact, such as nitrogen gas, carbon dioxide, and
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Pollution Shifting

water vapor. However, pollutants can also be present, including nitrogen

oxides, sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, particulate matter, metals, acid gases,
dioxins, and furans. Contaminants in exhaust gases are minimized by opti-
mization of the combustion process, for example, maintaining proper tem-
perature and oxygen levels. They can also be captured with pollution-control
equipment, such as air scrubbers and filters. In addition, the ash may contain
hazardous compounds, such as heavy metals.
In air stripping, contaminates dissolved in water are transferred to
gaseous form by contact with relatively clean air, an example of mass trans-
fer. Air stripping works best with volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and
dissolved gases. VOCs are compounds with high vapor pressures, that is,
compounds that tend to evaporate quickly. A common application of air
stripping is the cleanup of groundwater contaminated by leaking fuel storage
tanks. Air stripping is optimized by maximizing the surface area between the
contaminated water and clean air, accomplished by creating fine water
droplets in air or small air bubbles in water. Systems can be located away
from the contamination (e.g., a system cleaning groundwater that is located
on the earth’s surface), or located within the contaminated zone (e.g., a sys-
tem located in wells installed in contaminated groundwater). In some cases,
the contaminated air from air stripping is released to the atmosphere, where
the pollutants are destroyed by sunlight or reaction with other chemicals,
adsorbed into soil or water, or diluted. Preferably, the organics in the exhaust
from air stripping are destroyed by incineration or oxidation, or captured by
adsorption.
The air stripping process may also be reversed. In air scrubbing, pollu-
tants are transferred from contaminated air to clean water. However, a chem-
ical reaction is often incorporated into air scrubbing, converting pollutants to
a safer form. For example, sulfur dioxide produced during coal combustion
can be removed from exhaust gas by mass transfer to water containing
sodium hydroxide or carbonate, which converts the sulfur dioxide to calcium
carbonate. Natural air stripping and air scrubbing also occur. Surface waters,
such as lakes and oceans, serve as sinks for pollutants released to the atmos-
phere. Contaminated water left exposed to the atmosphere will release
VOCs.
The final pollution shift considered here is adsorption, in which a con-
taminant in water or air is adsorbed onto a solid material. Adsorption is used
off-gas control control of for off-gas control, groundwater remediation, landfill leachate treatment,
gases released into the air industrial wastewater treatment, and water treatment for drinking or indus-
trial purposes. The most commonly used adsorbent is granular activated car-
bon (GAC). GAC has a tremendous amount of surface area per mass, on the
order of one thousand square meters per gram. Its surface attracts many
organic compounds; thus, a small amount of GAC can adsorb a significant
amount of organic material. GAC may be regenerated, during which con-
taminants are destroyed.

Multimedia Approach
The multimedia approach to environmental management considers all
media. It can be applied to single facilities, entire companies, and regions.
According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Multimedia
Enforcement Division, it can result in:
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 Popular Culture

• Improved detection and resolution of environmental compliance

problems
• achievement of optimal enforcement results
• more effective enforcement
• more efficient use of resources
• fundamental changes in the regulated community’s perceptions and
behavior regarding environmental compliance
Such benefits are realized by considering an entire pollution system, that
is, all media. S E E A L S O Air Pollution; Technology, Pollution Preven-
tion; Waste; Water Pollution.
Bibliography
LaGrega, M.; Buckingham, P.; and Evans J. (1994). Hazardous Waste Management, New
York: McGraw-Hill.
Tchobanoglous, G.; Theisen, H.; and Vigil, S. (1993). Integrated Solid Waste Manage-
ment. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Internet Resources
Canadian Centre for Pollution Prevention Web site. Available from http://
www.C2P2online.com.
Reshkin, K. (2002). EPA Student Center Web site. Available from http://www.epa.gov/
students.
Jess Everett

Polychlorinated Biphenyls See PCBs

POPs See Persistent Organic Pollutants

Popular Culture
Popular culture can be thought of as a composite of all the values, ideas, sym-
bols, material goods, processes, and understandings that arise from mass
media, such as the advertising and entertainment industries, as well as from
other avenues, such as games, food, music, shopping, and other daily activi-
ties and processes.

Understanding Circumstances
For many people, popular culture may be the primary way of understanding,
reinforcing, and modifying the circumstances of their lives. Most of the
everyday knowledge and experiences that are shared by people (in the form
of reading, watching, wearing, using, playing, working, talking, and so forth)
make up the concept of popular culture. Popular culture, however, is distin-
guished from such traditional institutions as education, politics, and religion,
although the distinction often becomes hazy. Over time, and with repeated
exposure to societal norms (through, for instance, mass media), people form
conscious and unconscious impressions of various aspects of life, including
attitudes about pollution.

Chronicling the Good Life

Popular culture in the United States and much of the Western world has con-
centrated on the reoccurring major theme of the search for “the good life.”
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Popular Culture

Since the establishment of the United States, there have been two opposing
themes of popular culture. The first theme, a materialistic one, emphasized
a belief in happiness and success through technology, material wealth, and
upward social mobility, while the second theme, a simpler one, sought hap-
piness and success in a life of simplicity, one with few possessions, and a spir-
itual connection. Over the 230-plus years that these two themes permeated
American society, they have alternated between being the majority and
minority views. During years of prosperity, the materialistic theme domi-
nated, whereas during more modest times the simpler theme was empha-
sized.

Social Values, Awareness, and Preferences

As the world’s population continues to increase dramatically, and as issues
The recycle symbol. such as global warming, ozone depletion, and the extinction of species garner
worldwide attention, popular culture becomes more intertwined with peo-
ple’s environmental beliefs and values. The social values, awareness, and pref-
erences of people are enmeshed in the fundamental moral and religious views
between nature and humanity: Is it right to manipulate nature? What is the
responsibility of society to future generations? Are the rights of other species
more or less important than human rights, or are they equally important?
These and many other questions are fundamental to the cultural beliefs and
values that guide how people live.

Attitudes about Pollution

Popular culture helps to shape people’s general understanding about pollu-
tion and the environment. Poll results released in the 1990s have consistently
shown that from 50 to 75 percent of all Americans consider themselves to be
“environmentalists.” Moreover, from extensive survey results analyzed by
Riley Dunlap and Rik Scarce, three major conclusions have been made about
Americans: (1) they have become much more proenvironment since the
1960s; (2) since the 1980s, their environmentalism extends beyond opinions
into their basic values and fundamental beliefs; and (3) their attitude about
the environment affects the way they interact, consume, and vote.

Images of Pollution in Popular Culture

Images of the natural environment have been prominent in American popu-
lar culture since the ecology movement of the 1970s and 1980s. Music and
art focusing on human interaction with the environment became popular
beginning in the 1960s. Some popular early images of pollution that are now
rooted into popular culture:
• A public service TV advertisement, which features a Native American
with a tear running down his cheek (sometimes called “the crying
Indian”). After paddling his canoe up a polluted river with dirty
smokestacks crowding the shores, he comes ashore to a littered river-
bank only to have more trash tossed carelessly out of a car and land at
his feet. The narrator for the Keep America Beautiful television pub-
lic service advertisement then declared, “People start pollution, peo-
ple can stop it.” (It premiered on the second Earth Day in 1971.)
• The song “Calypso,” by John Denver, which was about French
explorer and environmentalist Jacques Cousteau’s ship, the Calypso. It
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 Popular Culture

included the lines “To light up the darkness and show us the way / For
though we are strangers in your silent world / To live on the land we
must learn from the sea.”
• The song “Mercy Mercy Me,” by Marvin Gaye, which laments: “Oh
mercy mercy me / Oh, things ain’t what they used to be no, no /
Where did all the blue sky go? / Poison is the wind that blows from
the north and south and east.”
• The song “Big Yellow Taxi,” by Joni Mitchell, released on her 1970
album Ladies of the Canyon. The song’s lyrics include, “Don’t it always
seem to go / That you don’t know what you’ve got ’til it’s gone / They
paved paradise and put up a parking lot.”
• The Smokey the Bear advertisement campaign by the U.S. Forest Ser-
vice. Over the years (starting in the 1940s), the campaign reminded
people: “Remember—Only YOU can prevent forest fires.”
• The recycling symbol, with the familiar three colored arrows that rep-
resent three recycling-related actions: (1) The red arrow stands for
separating recyclables from garbage and recycle them, (2) the blue
Iron Eyes Cody, the teary-eyed
arrow stands for manufacturing new products from the recyclables, Native American man that was
and (3) the green one represents purchasing products made from for many years a part of the
recycled materials (“green products”). Keep America Beautiful
campaign. (Keep America
The relationship between popular culture and popular opinion is circu- Beautiful, Inc.)
lar. Nowhere is this more apparent than in the movie business. Hollywood
needs good stories and bad guys. Awareness of environmental issues provided
it with a wealth of both.
In what was arguably Hollywood’s first environmental thriller, life mim-
icked theater. In The China Syndrome (1979), a TV reporter (played by Jane
Fonda) and her cameraman (Michael Douglas) collaborate with a whistle-
blower (Jack Lemmon) to expose the risk of a meltdown at a California
nuclear power plant. Within weeks of its release, reactor number two at
Pennsylvania’s Three Mile Island nuclear plant suffered a partial meltdown.
It did not take long for Hollywood to find drama involving real-life whis-
tle-blowers. Silkwood (1983), starring Meryl Streep, Kurt Russell, and Cher,
told the story of Karen Silkwood, a chemical technician at the Kerr-McGee
plutonium fuels production plant in Crescent, Oklahoma, and a member of
the Oil, Chemical and Atomic Workers Union. Silkwood was an activist crit-
ical of plant safety who was inexplicably exposed to plutonium. She was gath-
ering evidence to support her claim that Kerr-McGee was negligent in
maintaining plant safety when she was killed in a suspicious one-car crash.
The movie was a box-office success; Kerr-McGee settled out of court with
Silkwood’s family for $1.3 million.
Two later blockbuster movies focused on legal fights against corporate
bad guys:
• A Civil Action (1999) (based on the book of the same name), star-
ring John Travolta and Robert Duvall, portrayed the true story of a
dedicated—some would say obsessed—lawyer, Jan Schlichtmann, who
took on a case involving drinking water contaminated by industrial
pollution from two highly regarded corporations, which caused the
deaths of innocent children in Woburn, Massachusetts.
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Popular Culture

• Erin Brockovich (2000), starring Julia Roberts and Albert Finney, tells
the story of an unlikely real-life heroine, Erin Brockovich, who built a
powerful case based on suspicious connections between a powerful
electric utility, its abuse of toxic chromium, and the poisoned water
supply of Hinkley, California, whose residents had suffered a legacy of
death and disease.

Language
The increase in environmental awareness is reflected in the common vernac-
ular: What were once called swamps are now called wetlands; what were once
called jungles are now called rain forests; and what was once called a round
globe is now called Mother Earth. A shift of perception from insignificant
pieces of land to valuable components of an overall ecosystem has shown a
fundamental change in cultural awareness. Language, though, is only one
example of how a rising awareness of the effects of pollution and a greater
understanding of ecosystems has been reflected in U.S. society. An average
day contains many small examples of how the environment crisscrosses
American lives.

A Typical Day of Enviro-Culture

A day in the life of an average American is filled with popular culture’s rep-
resentations of pollution and the environment. A person makes breakfast
with cereal from a company that touts itself as environmentally conscious.
Flipping channels while eating breakfast, an individual learns from CNN that
an oil spill has occurred overnight near a sensitive coastline, while the
Weather Channel reports that beach erosion caused by a hurricane off the
coast of North Carolina is harming the natural resources of the sensitive
Outer Banks. This average American drives to work in a sport utility vehicle
(SUV), which was bought on its ability to drive up rugged mountain roads,
but declined to buy a compact car that was advertised to help save the envi-
ronment because of its fuel economy. This individual arrives in a crowded,
concrete parking lot that surrounds a multiple-story office building, as do the
other thousands of employees who also drive up singly and sometimes in
pairs. The person stops by the grocery store on the way home from work in
order to pick up prepared food that has been processed in a factory, but that
is heralded as the right way to feed oneself in a wholesome and nutritious
manner. And so it goes.
The American individual is exposed daily to images and ideas from pop-
ular culture (oftentimes unknowingly) in prepackaged advertisements on tel-
evision, in newspapers and magazines, on the side of food products, on the
Internet, and from hundreds of other sources. Certainly, most people’s
understanding of pollution issues and policies is formed from such brief tid-
bits—news reports, literature, and entertainment they encounter throughout
their busy day.

American Lore: The Ecology of Images

The use of environmental images in popular culture has figured distinctly in
American lore. Included in a paper titled “Ecology of Images,” cultural the-
orist Andrew Ross calls the use of environmental images in popular culture
the “ecology of images.” The negative images of the natural environment
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 Popular Culture

included within the popular culture since the ecology movement emerged in
the 1970s have included burning rivers, oil-slick waterfowl, and dirty smoke-
stacks. The positive images include a green planet, rushing, clear waters, and
white-peaked mountains. The negative images are often used by activists,
who often direct blame onto the industrial sector of the community. The
positive images are often shown by the business sector, in an effort to demon-
strate how well they get along with nature and the environment. Nature and
the environment are used as the means to produce the material goods that are
needed and desired in society, but they are often abused as a result of in this
materialistic way of living.

Commercialism
Popular culture is a world in which everything is for sale one way or
another—a world of commercialism. The environment is often thought of as
a product to be consumed, and, as a result, pollution becomes one facet of an
ever-growing concern of the American popular culture. Companies involved
in the capitalization and industrialization of the United States increasingly
promote their products, and themselves, as being in tune with nature.
Greenwashing. D.C. Kinlaw states in Competitive and Green: Sustainable
Performance in the Environmental Age, published in 1993, that businesses
increasingly associate themselves with nature (sometimes called the “green-
washing” of the environment). Kinlaw continues by saying that only “by
making the environment an explicit part of every aspect of the organization’s
total operation, can the leaders of an organization expect to maintain its com-
petitive position and ensure its survival.” By associating themselves with a
good environmental policy (even though they may have a poor environmen-
tal record), companies can incorporate these advertised ideals into the popu-
lar culture for economic gain and for a supposed improvement in the quality
of life. Major department stores and name brands promise the “good life”
when they advertise a seemingly endless array of clothes, electronics, home
furnishings, kitchen appliances, or whatever other material goods they offer.
Similarly, Arkansas officials advertise that their state is “the Natural State,”
Texans can say “Don’t Mess with Texas,” and Midwesterners can say their
states are “America’s Breadbasket,” but in reality these lands must be used
(and often they are environmentally abused) to produce the lumber, oil,
wheat, corn, cattle, and pigs necessary to support the economy and economic
standards of the United States.
Two Sides of Nature. Nature must be used to fulfill the needs of people, as
they endlessly demand new and better products with which to live the good
life. Sometimes called “eco-pornography,” the pollution that results from
manufacturing is not always evident in everyday life, in the blue skies and
clear waters of the images seen in popular culture in the form of television
commercials, greeting cards, corporate promotions, and in books, magazines,
calendars, travelogues, and videos.
The perspective of the environment as a commodity is found throughout
the domain of popular culture. The cultural realm shapes and reflects the val-
ues, awareness, and preferences concerning pollution. Whether the vehicle is
advertising, music, slogans, symbols, or mascots, the power of popular cul-
ture to shape society’s behaviors and thoughts with respect to pollution is
significant.
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Population

Bibliography
Anderson, Alison. (1997). Media, Culture, and the Environment. New Brunswick, NJ:
Rutgers University Press.
Dunlap, Riley E.; and Scarce, Rik. (1991). “The Polls—Poll Trends: Environmental
Problems and Protection.” Public Opinion Quarterly 55:713–734.
Grossberg, Lawrence; Wartella, Ellen; and Whitney, D. Charles. (1998). Media Mak-
ing: Mass Media in a Popular Culture. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.
Kempton, Willett; Boster, James S.; and Hartley, Jennifer A. (1995). Environmental Val-
ues in American Culture. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Kinlaw, D.C. (1993). Competitive and Green: Sustainable Performance in the Environmen-
tal Age. San Diego, CA: Pfeiffer & Company.
Rushkoff, Douglas. (1994). Media Virus! Hidden Agendas in Popular Culture. New York:
Ballantine Books.
Ross, Andrew. (1994). The Chicago Gangster Theory of Life: Nature’s Debt to Society. New
York: Verso.

Internet Resources
America Remembers. “Iron Eyes Cody: The ‘Crying Indian.’” Available from http://
www.americaremembers.com/FI09100-2.htm.
Dyer, Judith C. “The History of the Recycling Symbol: Gary Anderson, Recycling
Dude Extraordinaire.” Available from http://home.att.net/~DyerConsequences/
recycling_symbol.html.
Earth Odyssey. “Recycling Symbols.” Available from http://www.earthodyssey.com/
symbols.html.
Federal Trade Commission. “Part 260: Guides for the Use of Environmental Market-
ing Claims.” Available from http://www.ftc.gov/bcp/grnrule/guides980427.htm.
FOX.com “The Simpson’s: Official Web Site.” Available from http://www.thesimp-
sons.com.
Keep America Beautiful. “Public Service Announcements.” Available from
http://www.kab.org/psa1.cfm.
Snopes.com. “Urban Legends Reference Pages: Movies (Iron Eyes Cody).” Urban
Legends Reference Pages. Available from http://www.snopes.com/movies/actors/
ironeyes.htm.
STLyrics. “Friends—Soundtrack Lyrics (Mitchell, Joni—Big Yellow Taxi [Traffic Jam
Mix]).”Available from http://www.stlyrics.com/lyrics/friends/bigyellowtaxitraffic-
jammix.htm.
U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, the National Association of State
Foresters, and the Advertising Council. “Smokey’s Vault: History of Campaign.”
Available from http://www.smokeybear.com/vault/history.asp.
Wood, Harold. “Earth Songs.” Available from http://www.planetaryexploration.net/
patriot/earth_songs.html.
Yamhill County Building and Planning Department, McMinnville, OR. “Yamhill
County Solid Waste.” Available from http://www.ycsw.org/index.asp.
William Arthur Atkins

Population
Throughout most of human history, the world’s population has grown grad-
ually. It took thousands of years for the global population to reach one billion
people (around 1800). Then, in a little more than a century, the population
jumped to two billion (by 1960), and to three billion by 1980. In just twenty
years—between 1980 and 2000—the world’s human population doubled
from three billion to six billion people.
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 Population

The human population explosion during the past century was the result of Billboard promoting birth
control, China, 1984.
several factors. Fertility rates remained high, while medical and agricultural
(UPI/Corbis-Bettmann.
advances such as antibiotics, immunizations, clean water, and improved food Reproduced by permission.)
availability reduced mortality rates—especially among infants and children.
It is difficult to predict how rapidly the human population will continue
to increase, due to the many factors that affect population growth. Another
important question that scholars ask is “How many people can the earth sup-
port?” While the human population grows, the earth’s size and resources
remain the same. Technology can increase the amount of food that can be
produced on a piece of land, but it cannot increase the amount of land and
water on the planet. Many people regard population growth as the single
most serious global issue, because population size is closely linked to envi-
ronmental and human health conditions.
Environmental problems are aggravated by population explosions. More
people means more resources and energy are consumed and more pollution
is created and more waste is sent to landfills. More land is needed to grow
crops and build houses. More trees are cut down for new homes. More cars
are built, more fossil fuels are used, and more gases are released into the envi-
ronment. More natural wilderness areas or beautiful landscapes are destroyed
to provide resources and cropland. In short, population growth makes other
environmental problems harder to solve.

Projecting Population Change

Scholars have spent centuries trying to find reliable ways to predict popula-
tion change. One of the most famous population researchers was Thomas
Malthus, a British clergyman who studied population growth in the 1770s. In
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Population

his famous 1798 Essay on the Principle of Population, Malthus argued that
human populations tend to grow exponentially, while food production is lim-
ited by land available for agriculture. In short, human populations tend to
increase faster than food supply, leading to an imbalance.
Malthus projected that population increases in England would quickly out-
strip the available food supplies, leading to famine and misery. Malthus’s pre-
dictions for England never occurred in his lifetime. England’s population did
increase, but advances in science and technology enhanced food production.
Malthus’s theory also failed to take into account colonial growth as a result of
other factors. Still, scholars use Malthus’s concepts of geometric population
growth today, though new models of population change are far more complex.
Researchers who study population change consider many factors for
each country. Population change for any group of people is determined by
fertility, mortality, and migration rates. What is the average number of chil-
dren per family? What is the life expectancy? Are people migrating into or
out of a country? Each of these is, in turn, affected by other factors.
It is important to remember that population projections are just esti-
mates based on past information; they do not account for unknowns such as
future wars, epidemics, or the effects of climate change. However, the schol-
ars who make the projections attempt to improve their accuracy by revising
projections as new information is collected. The United Nations Population
Division is one of the organizations responsible for making population pro-
jections. After considering the potential impact of the current AIDS epi-
demic, the United Nations recently lowered its population projection for
2050 by more than one billion people.

United Nations Projections

WO R L D P O P U L AT IO N
(billions) At the beginning of the twenty-first century, the world population is still
growing at a rate of 1.2 percent annually. This is the same as adding 77 mil-
9
lion people (roughly the population of France) to the world each year. A
8
? world population projection published by the United Nations in 2002 esti-
7 mates that the world’s human population will reach 8.9 billion by 2050.
6
This population increase is not expected to occur evenly across the globe.
5
4
The populations of some nations are shrinking while those of other nations
3 are swelling. During the past few decades, reproduction rates have decreased
2 in countries where the standard of living has improved; these improved living
1 standards are generally associated with higher education levels across a popu-
lation and access to birth control. Today, as many as thirty-three countries are
00

50

00

50

00

witnessing population declines due to lower birthrates. Japan, Bulgaria, Italy,

18

18

19

19

20

Bulgaria, Estonia, and the Russian Federation are among the countries that
have achieved negative population growth.
Population explosions tend to occur in regions already struggling with
hunger. Africa is expected to undergo the most rapid growth, increasing from
784 million people in 2000 to nearly 1.8 billion in 2050. Eight countries—
India, Pakistan, Nigeria, the United States, China, Bangladesh, Ethiopia, and
the Democratic Republic of Congo—are expected to account for half of the
world’s population increase during the next fifty years. India may overtake
China as the most populous country, rising from just over one billion to more
than 1.5 billion between 2000 and 2050. Birthrates are not the only reason
138
 Population

for the anticipated rises. The United States has a low birthrate, but a high
immigration rate. “Population, when unchecked,
increases in a geometrical ratio.
How Many People Can the Earth Support? Subsistence increases only in an
arithmetical ratio. A slight
Is there a limit to the number of people the world can support? Some people
acquaintance with numbers will
contend that new technologies will make it possible for the earth to support
show the immensity of the first
ever-larger human populations. They describe the earth’s resources as virtu-
power in comparison of the
ally inexhaustible, due to the potential of technology. They point to the sci-
second.”
entific advances that helped increase crop yields across India and China as an
example of the human ability to adapt through technology. —Thomas Robert Malthus, An
Essay on the Principle of Popula-
Other scholars believe that there are limits to how much technology can
tion, (1798)
accomplish. They argue that the earth’s capacity to support human popula-
tion growth is finite—because natural resources can be damaged or depleted.
For example, India’s increased crop production has not keep pace with its
growing population. India’s per-person food production is actually dropping
as the food supply is shared among more and more people.
Water shortages may be the most insurmountable obstacles for human
survival, as populations continue to grow. On every continent (including
North America), rising demands for water are already causing water tables to
drop to dangerously low levels, depleting future water supplies. Several of the
world’s major rivers are being drained dry before running their courses. Most
of this water is used for irrigation (to grow food); less is used for industry and
domestic use.
Water scarcity is already a serious survival problem for people living in
the more populous and arid regions of the world. Scholars predict that most
of the world will face water scarcity as human demands on the earth’s
resources continue to rise. Despite hope for technologies such as desaliniza-
tion to solve the world’s water shortages, the prospects to solve global prob-
lems are unlikely. So far, desalinization is too expensive for most nations.
A second challenge the world faces is food production. There is hope
that breakthroughs in plant genetics and other sciences will continue to
improve food production. Yet many scholars argue that even the most
remarkable advances in agricultural technology, aquaculture, and ranching
could not raise food production enough to meet the world’s growing needs.
Food production is also limited by the availability of fresh water and land that
can be farmed—two finite resources.
Malnutrition is already a growing problem in many regions that depend
on grains. Likewise, countries that depend on fish as a primary protein
source are also faced with shrinking food supplies as the world’s fish popula-
tions are further depleted.

Impact on Human Health and the Environment

Population growth affects almost every element of human health and the
environment by exacerbating preexisting problems. For example, if a nation
is already struggling to provide food, education, and healthcare to its people,
the needs of an even larger population may exhaust the nation’s ability to pro-
vide for anyone. As a result, the rate of poverty, homelessness, and disease are
likely to rise. In most cases, rapid population growth results in a decline in
human living standards.
139
Poverty

The impact of human population on the environment is complex. A pop-

ular theory is that the degree of human impact on the environment is deter-
mined by three factors: population size, how much each person consumes, and
how much waste each person produces. India may have a much larger popu-
lation than the United States, but people in United States tend to consume
and waste far more goods than people in any other part of the world. Accord-
ing to this theory, a rise in the U.S. population would have a greater impact on
the environment than would a similar increase in India’s population.

What Is Being Done?

There are many views on what to do about global population growth. Several
advocacy groups, such as Negative Population Growth, Zero Population
Growth, Planned Parenthood, and the Carrying Capacity Network, focus on
raising public awareness about birth control and the need to lower fertility
rates. At least one group (Negative Population Growth) advocates that the
U.S. government should provide incentives for smaller families and should
limit immigration in the United States. The world’s most populous country,
China, has been exploring a variety of laws and incentives to limit urban fam-
ilies to one child per family, with the goal of reversing the country’s unsus-
tainable population growth. However, due to the government’s inability to
restrict family size in rural areas, where the overwhelming majority of China’s
population lives, and other factors, China’s population growth is not expected
to turn around until at least 2020.
Slowing population growth is also a priority for many environmental
organizations, including the National Audubon Society, the Sierra Club, the
Wilderness Society, the National Wildlife Federation, and the Environmen-
tal Defense Fund. Most of these groups have policy statements and/or edu-
cation programs that deal with population issues. S E E A L S O Earth Summit;
Ehrlich, Paul; History; Lifestyle; Malthus, Thomas; Popular Culture;
Poverty; Zero Population Growth.
Bibliography
Brown, Lester R.; Gardner, Gary; and Halweil, Brian. (1999). Beyond Malthus: Nineteen
Dimensions of the Population Challenge. New York: Norton.
Cohen, Joel E. (1995). How Many People Can the Earth Support? New York: Norton.

Internet Resources
United Nations Population Division. World Population Prospects: The 2002 Revision Pop-
ulation Database. Available from http://esa.un.org/unpp/sources.html.
Corliss Karasov

Poverty
Continuing industrialization and technological advances benefit many
(though not all) of the people in the developed countries, but the gap
between the rich and poor countries is significant and increasing. In general,
poverty deprives people of adequate education, health care, and of life’s most
basic necessities—safe living conditions (including clean air and clean drink-
ing water) and an adequate food supply. The developed (industrialized) coun-
tries today account for roughly 20 percent of the world’s population but
control about 80 percent of the world’s wealth. Poverty and pollution seem to
140
 Poverty

operate in a vicious cycle that, so far, has been hard to break. Even in the
developed nations, the gap between the rich and the poor is evident in their
respective social and environmental conditions.

Poverty, the Environment, and Pollution

Regardless of the reason or the area of the world in which a poor population
lives, certain reciprocal elements will act on the population and its environ-
ment. Lack of education, oppression, lack of appropriate infrastructure—from
water-treatment facilities to better roads and communication—all exacerbate
the twin problems of poverty and environmental degradation. One cannot ask
people to heal the environment, or even just mind it, if they can barely sustain
themselves. For example, tropical fish are considered to be either delicacies or
exotic pets by people who can pay for them and people in tropical regions can
earn good money for catching these fish. But to catch the fish more easily they
use cyanide or dynamite to stun the fish. The former pollutes (and moves up
the food chain) and the latter destroys the reef environment. Agricultural prac-
tices that tax the soil lead to soil erosion, which lowers crop yields and pollutes
rivers and streams with silt. The accumulation of the silt—from the loose
eroded soil—kills the fish in the river and streams. Another cause of soil ero-
sion is the cutting down of trees, in massive numbers, either for use as firewood
(because the winters are harsh and there is no other way to stay warm) or to sell
for much needed cash. Eventually, not only will the soil erode to a point where
it can no longer sustain agriculture, but the trees would be gone too. The above
examples show that practices that fail to consider environmental health per-
petuate the poverty cycle, thereby further destroying the environment.
The environment as a whole tends to be jeopardized more in the poorer
areas. In the United States, Louisiana is a poor state in which there is an area
known as “Cancer Alley.” It is a stretch on the lower Mississippi River that is
home to 125 companies, many of which manufacture products that result in
highly hazardous waste. Cancer rates in the area are higher than the national
average, and respiratory illnesses, as well as incidents of liver and kidney tox-
icity, are rampant. In one typical area, Ascension Parish, environmental jus-
tice activist Robert Bullard points out, “eighteen petrochemical plants are
crammed into a nine and a half square mile area” (Bullard, p. 106).
Poor people tend to be less well educated (because they do not have the
time and resources to obtain an education), and less politically powerful.
Many people in Louisiana’s Cancer Alley were never aware of the dangers of
hazardous waste as industries started moving in. Many of them, after years of
discrimination, are distrustful of politicians and public officials. Their land is
cheap, and Louisiana provides the big industries with tax breaks, which
appeal to companies looking at the bottom line.
Globally, the large industries find the same advantage in poor nations.
Pollution controls and hazardous-waste-disposal regulations are stricter, and
more expensive, in the developed nations. Many companies find it cheaper to
export their waste to the developing countries, which are starving for cash.
The hazardous waste disposal in those countries is unsafe and dangerously
polluting. The people handling the waste are poorly educated, and therefore
may suffer severe health consequences as a result of their work. However, if
they are paid a salary they are better off than many others. In addition, the
developing countries themselves, eager to grow economically, may develop
141
Poverty

heavy industry but not the controls or infrastructure necessary to contain the
pollution. It is easy to see, therefore, that there is a huge divide, economically
and ideologically, between the developed and developing countries.

The North–South Divide

Economists talk about the North–South divide when referring to the economic
growth and development of nations. The developed, or industrialized, coun-
tries, most of which are in the northern hemisphere, are referred to as the
North. The developing countries, which are economically underdeveloped to
varying degrees, are referred to as the South. When it comes to pollution and
environmental preservation, the North and South have different priorities that
seem to put them at odds with each other.
The concept of sustainable development is crucial to understanding the con-
flict between the North and South. The United Nations, in a 1987 report of its
World Commission on Environment and Development, defines sustainable
development as the ability to grow economically and improve quality of life in
such a way that “meets the needs of the present without compromising the abil-
ity of future generations to meet their own needs.” (Nebel, p. 16)
As mentioned above, the most pressing priority for the southern hemi-
sphere nations is economic growth: the poverty rate in the developing coun-
tries can reach 90 percent (by comparison, the North has a poverty rate,
on average, of 15 percent). Environmental conservation and pollution con-
trol are far less a priority in the South. The priority in the North is sustain-
able development—the ability to continue on the course of consumption and
energy use while ensuring a healthy environment. The developing countries
feel this attitude is elitist, even racist (most poor nations or groups are not
white). They contend that the developed countries’ demands for environ-
mental regulations place an undue burden on the developing nations. Worse
yet, the largest polluters are the developed countries, which also consume the
most global resources. Many of the problems of environmental destruction in
the poor countries are a direct result of consumption levels in the developed
countries (poaching for ivory in Africa is but one example, albeit extreme).
Historically, European colonization disrupted those societies that nor-
mally lived in balance with their environment. Mostly hunting, agricultural, or
fishing in nature, the people grew or consumed enough to sustain themselves,
never taking more than they needed. The European settlers diverted the
native agriculture to grow certain target crops (sugarcane and tobacco, for
example) that were valuable in Europe. Not rotating the crops depleted the
soil and reduced crop yields. It also made the colonized countries’ economies
wholly dependent on the fluctuations in cash-crop prices. The settlers also
mined and deforested the environment, causing heavy damage. To this day,
developing nations are in the ironic position of exporting a big percentage of
their agricultural yield, while having to import food. Even after gaining their
independence, many of these countries were unable to build an economy
independent of European and U.S. consumption patterns. The developing
nations are heavily in debt to the developed countries, and their cash crops
and other commodities (such as diamonds in Africa) are controlled by inter-
national corporations. The entire set of circumstances creates severe tension
between the North and the South and is getting renewed attention with the
emphasis now being given to environmental justice.
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 Poverty

Environmental Equity
A study prepared for the Califor-
In 1997 a study by the Harvard Center for Population and Development nia state Waste Management
Studies found that life expectancy for people living in poor communities in Board, known as the Cerrell
the United States was markedly lower than life expectancy for people living Report, concluded that trash
in wealthier communities, sometimes by as much as fifteen years. While incinerators should not be built
many factors contribute to this alarming discrepancy, it has become clearer within five miles of “middle and
since the 1980s that poor communities, which are also predominantly non- higher socioeconomic strata
white, bear the brunt of adverse pollution affects. In 1983, for example, a neighborhoods.” The report,
U.S. General Accounting Office report found that in eight southeastern “Political Difficulties Facing
states that were studied, “Blacks make up the majority of the population in Waste-to-Energy Conversion Plant
three out of four communities where landfills are located.” (U.S. GAO, p. 1) Siting,” says that plans to build
Worldwide, the trend is similar. Big corporations find it easier and cheaper to such plants will face less opposi-
export trash and to build polluting factories in poor developing nations. tion if placed in poor neighbor-
Environmental justice is, to use the U.S. Department of Energy’s defini- hoods instead of wealthy ones.
tion, “the fair treatment and meaningful involvement of all people regardless The report provides personality
of race, color, national origin, or income with respect to the development, profiles of people most likely
implementation, and enforcement of environmental laws, regulations, and and least likely to fight an incin-
policies” (http://www.epa.gov/compliance/environmentaljustice/index.html). eration plant.
In the United States, the 1980s saw the beginning of an environmental jus-
tice movement that started focusing attention on the undue burdens
placed on poor communities when it comes to living in a polluted environ-
ment. Fighting what some refer to as environmental racism, the grassroots
environmental justice movements at times clashed with older environmen-
tal groups, who formed around the idea of conservation, and whose concern
for the natural environment seemed elitist. There was a perception that
organizations such as the Sierra Club concerned themselves with the conser-
vation of the natural environment but did not care about pollution in
inner cities and poor rural communities. Much more research is being done
on the connection between hazardous living conditions and poverty—
not only on the effects, but also on the causes. Among the environmental
justice group’s many victories was Executive Order 12898, signed by
President Bill Clinton on February 11, 1994, directing federal agencies to
correct the “disproportionately high and adverse human health or environ-
mental effects” that their operations have on the minorities and low-income
populations.

Earth Summit and Agenda 21

Environmental justice and the connection between poverty and pollution have
been gaining increased attention globally, both from governmental and non-
governmental organizations (NGOs). In 1992 the United Nations Conference
on Environment and Development (UNCED) met in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil,
in what came to be known as the Earth Summit (June 3 to 14). Unprecedented
in size, the meeting focused on sustainable development, and its main result
was a document of goals and plan of action known as Agenda 21. The docu-
ment was adopted by over 170 governments represented at the conference.
One of the principles on which Agenda 21 is based is recognizing that “[a]ll
States and all people shall cooperate in the essential task of eradicating poverty
as an indispensable requirement for sustainable development” (Rio Declara-
tion, Principle 5). Chapter 3 of Agenda 21 is dedicated to the issue of poverty.
In it, the document acknowledges that sustainable development is not possible
143
Poverty

without a sweeping, global effort to eradicate poverty, and certain recommen-

dations are made as to how to achieve this goal.
Following the Earth Summit, the United Nations noted that poverty was
in fact increasing. In a follow-up meeting to the Earth Summit, the UN Gen-
eral Assembly in its 1997 Programme for the Further Implementation of
Agenda 21 called for refocusing sustainable development efforts on the erad-
ication of poverty as an overriding priority. In 1995 the United Nations also
declared 1997 to 2006 to be “the First United Nations Decade for the Erad-
ication of Poverty” (http://www.un.org/esa/socdev/poverty/poverty.htm).
The disappointing decade that followed the Earth Summit, especially
with the increase in poverty, led to the World Summit on Sustainable Devel-
opment, a meeting in Johannesburg, South Africa, that took place between
August 26 and September 4, 2002. While the document resulting from the
meeting was only fifty pages long, it contained concrete goals, and as such has
more practical value than Agenda 21, in the opinion of many participants. In
addition to the goals, over three hundred international partnerships were
formed to launch an initiative that would improve access to safe drinking
water, improve sanitation, address toxic-waste management, and address
many other sustainable development issues.
According to the World Bank, at the start of the twenty-first century 1.2
billion people lived in absolute poverty, a condition defined by the United
Nations as “characterized by severe deprivation of basic human needs” (UN
Report of the World Summit for Social Development, p. 44), including access
to safe water, sanitation, food, and appropriate health care. Economically, the
World Bank defines absolute poverty as living on less than one dollar per day.
An additional 2.8 billion people lived on less than two dollars per day. Eight out
of one hundred children didn’t live to see their fifth birthday. While strides have
been made in the fight against poverty, these advances were not uniformly dis-
tributed around the globe. It is well understood that the ecological crisis our
planet is facing—one that includes pollution, scarcity of resources, environ-
mental degradation, and loss of biodiversity—cannot be addressed without
addressing, and alleviating, the problem of poverty. To do that, an integrated
approach, one that addresses the entire poverty cycle, is needed. Such an
approach would have to include the eradication of gender bias in community
participation and access to education; equal representation to all citizens,
regardless of economic status; access to safe drinking water, proper sanitation,
and proper health care (including family-planning resources); universal access
to education; and improved employment opportunities. It is obvious from this
partial list that only committed international cooperation can bring about these
changes. In maintaining the status quo, we pay a tremendous price in human
suffering and in an environmental crisis that will affect generations to come.
The good news is that more people are refusing to pay the price these days, and
are taking steps to form partnerships that will bring about a positive change. S E E
A L S O Agenda 21; Cancer; Cancer Alley, Louisiana; Chávez, César E.; Dis-
asters: Chemical Accidents and Spills; Disasters: Environmental Mining
Accidents; Disasters: Natural; Disasters: Nuclear Accidents; Disasters:
Oil Spills; Earth Summit; Environmental Racism; Health, Human.
Bibliography
Bullard, Robert D. (2000). Dumping in Dixie: Race, Class, and Environmental Quality.
Boulder, CO: Westview.

144
 Precautionary Principle

Ehrlich, Paul R.; Ehrlich, Anne H.; and Daily, Gretchen C. (1995). The Stork and the
Plow. New York: G.P. Putnam’s Sons.
Nebel, Bernard J.; and Wright, Richard T. (2000). Environmental Science: The Way the
World Works, 7th edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Ponting, Clive. (1992). A Green History of the World. New York: St. Martin’s Press.
Olden, Kenneth. (1998). “The Complex Interaction of Poverty, Pollution, Health Sta-
tus.” The Scientist 12(4):7.
United Nations Report of the World Summit for Social Development (Copenhagen,
March 6-12, 1995).
U.S. General Accounting Office. (1983). “Citing of Hazardous Waste Landfills and
Their Correlation with Racial and Economic Status of Surrounding Communi-
ties.” RCED-83-168, June 1, 1983.

Internet Resources
Online Ethics Center for Engineering and Science at Case Western Reserve Univer-
sity. Ethics and Values in Pre-College Science Instruction. “Case #6: Love Canal.” Avail-
able from http://onlineethics.org/edu/precol/classroom/cs6.html.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Office of Environmental Justice. Available
from http://www.epa.gov/compliance/environmentaljustice/index.html
United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs. “Economic and Social
Development.” Available from http://www.un.org/esa.
United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Division for Social Pol-
icy and Development. “First United Nations Decade for the Eradication of Poverty
1997-2006.” Available from: http://www.un.org/esa/socdev/poverty/poverty.htm.
United Nations Rio Declaration on Environment and Development. Available from
http://www.unep.org/documents/default.asp?documentid=78&articleid=1163.
World Bank Group. “World Bank Poverty Net.” Available from http://www.
worldbank.org/poverty/index.htm.
Adi R. Ferrara

Precautionary Principle
The precautionary principle, also referred to as the precautionary approach,
justifies the use of cost-effective measures to prevent environmental degra-
dation even in the absence of full scientific certainty. This principle has obvi-
ous applications to various forms of environmental pollution. The principle
can be traced to German national law in 1976, which states, “[e]nvironmen-
tal policy is not fully accomplished by warding off imminent hazards and the
elimination of damage which has occurred. Precautionary environmental
policy requires furthermore that natural resources are protected and
demands on them are made with care.”
The principle’s first applications beyond national boundaries came in
1987. It was quickly adopted into numerous multilateral treaties and inter- multilateral treaty treaty
national declarations, including the 1987 Montréal Protocol on Substances between more than two gov-
ernments
that Deplete the Ozone Layer, the 1990 Bergen Declaration on Sustainable
Development, the 1992 Convention on Biological Diversity, and the 1999
Treaty of Amsterdam, which has broadened and redefined the goals and insti-
tutions of the European Union.
The principle’s scope varies dramatically in these documents as well as in
national legislation that contains it. In some, it is limited to toxic substances
that are persistent and can bioaccumulate. In others, like the Bergen Decla- bioaccumulation buildup of a
chemical within a food chain
ration, it covers all government policies with the potential to degrade the when a predator consumes
environment, even when some causal relationships have not been fully prey containing that chemical

145
President’s Council on Environmental Quality

established scientifically. Some critics contend that the Principle restricts

technology. It has been a focus of U.S.–European Union (EU) trade disputes,
as Europeans have argued for its application to genetically modified foods,
hormone a molecule released animal-growth-promoting hormones, and phthalates (softeners) in poly-
by one cell to regulate devel- vinyl chloride (PVC) children’s toys. The U.S. government also contends
opment of another
that the principle is a nontariff barrier, that is a policy that interferes with
phthalate particular class of exports or imports other than a simple tariff such as quota. S E E A L S O Laws
complex carbon compounds
and Regulations, International; Laws and Regulations, United
polyvinyl chloride (PVC) class States; Treaties and Conferences.
of complex carbon compounds
containing chlorine Bibliography
Goklany, Indur M. (2001). Precautionary Principle: A Critical Appraisal of Environmental
Risk Analysis. Washington, D.C.: Cato Institute.
Michael G. Schechter

President’s Council on
Environmental Quality
The Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ) was created by the National
Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) in 1969 during the first term of President
Richard Nixon. The primary role of the council is to advise the President on
environmental policy. Because it is limited to an advisory role, CEQ does not
have a highly visible public profile. It is composed of three members, includ-
advise and consent the formal ing a chairperson, who are appointed by the president with the advise and
responsibility of a government consent of the Senate. CEQ’s importance in environmental policy has fluc-
body to provide counsel and
approval for the actions of tuated significantly over the years of its existence.
another body, especially the The NEPA is the federal law that requires federal agencies to prepare
Senate to the President
environmental impact statements (EISs) prior to undertaking or approving
any action that might have a significant effect on the quality of the environ-
ment. In adopting NEPA, Congress realized that a wide range of federal
activity had an impact on environmental quality. In practice, one of the most
important functions of CEQ is to oversee the implementation of the EIS
process by other federal agencies. Initially, the oversight took the form of
guidelines for implementing the EIS process; the guidelines were advisory
and not mandatory. In 1979, at the request of President Jimmy Carter, the
CEQ issued mandatory regulations that had to be followed by all agencies.
Since there had been many court cases interpreting the language of NEPA,
codify put into law the CEQ regulations essentially codified the case law created by the courts.
Generally, government regulations interpret and explain confusing statutory
language, but unfortunately they themselves are often very confusing. CEQ’s
regulations under NEPA are an exception to this rule; they are written in
clear and concise language. The extensive and clearly written regulations are
most likely a factor in the reduced number of court cases filed under NEPA
since 1979.
The CEQ was required by law to provide the president with an annual
report on the state of the nation’s environment. The report would establish
the status and condition of the natural environment, the current and fore-
seeable environmental trends, the adequacy of natural resources for fulfilling
the nation’s needs, a review of other relevant programs and activities of gov-
ernment and nongovernment organizations, and a program for remedying
146
 Progressive Movement

existing environmental deficiencies. Throughout the 1970s, CEQ’s annual

report to the president was a treasure trove of information for citizens inter-
ested in environmental issues. Since then, CEQ has generally been under-
funded, and as a consequence, its annual reports have shrunk in size and are
not issued in a timely fashion.
Finally, CEQ acts as a referee in disputes between federal agencies imple-
menting various aspects of NEPA. Although the statute assigns other general,
environmentally related tasks to CEQ, the three noted above are the most
important and most visible.
CEQ has had a checkered existence. Though active and visible through
1980, President Ronald Regan saw little need for it and sought to eliminate
the CEQ. Failing in this endeavor, the President cut CEQ’s funding by over
80 percent and failed to appoint any members to the council until the latter
years of his presidency. President Bill Clinton prepared legislation that would
eliminate CEQ, and transfer its functions to a new cabinet-level Department cabinet in government: collec-
of the Environment. That legislation failed too. In 1995 the president reju- tive name for the heads of fed-
eral departments that report
venated the CEQ. Its greatest visibility in the Clinton years evolved when its directly to the president
chair, Kathleen McGinty, became the Executive Director of the President’s
Council on Sustainable Development (PCSD). The PCSD developed, and
even began the implementation of, a broad plan for leading the country
toward a more environmentally sustainable lifestyle. Though no activity on
the part of CEQ may be currently apparent, President George W. Bush
appointed a CEQ chairperson in 2001. S E E A L S O Environmental Impact
Statement; National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA).
Internet Resource
Executive Office of the President, Council on Environmental Quality. Available from
http://www.whitehouse.gov/ceq.
James P. Karp

Progressive Movement
The Progressive Era, a term used to describe the period between approxi-
mately 1890 and 1920, witnessed an explosion of reform efforts in America.
A great number of people, for a variety of reasons, participated in a vast num-
ber of diverse reforms, including women’s suffrage, political reform, and pro-
hibition. Progressive reformers initiated these changes in reaction to the
increased level of, and problems associated with, urbanization and industri-
alization in late-nineteenth-century America. Taking advantage of new tech-
nological developments in transportation, communication, and organization,
industry grew tremendously and immigrants flooded into unprepared cities
for new jobs. With no government oversight or regulations, numerous prob-
lems erupted: Housing became overcrowded, dilapidated, and disease-
ridden; industries failed to protect their employees financially, physically, or
health-wise; and pollution became rampant.
Environmental activities formed part of progressive reformers’ efforts.
These environmental reformers generally viewed the environmental
problems of the city in two different ways. The conservation and preser-
vation activists, led by Gifford Pinchot and John Muir, respectively,
pressed for the improvement and protection of “nature” outside the city.
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Progressive Movement

They worked to set aside land either as undeveloped wilderness for its
aesthetic values, or to maintain resources like forests for future use by
humans.
Others interested in environmental problems, however, pressed for solu-
tions within urban areas rather than outside of them. Jacob Riis, a muckrak-
ing journalist, published photographs of slum housing and their immigrant
residents. His work outraged many and produced some reforms in living con-
ditions. Upton Sinclair, perhaps one of the most famous muckrakers of the
Progressive Era, published The Jungle in 1906, a startling, thinly fictionalized
exposé of the meat-packing industry. Filled with stories of vile, unsanitary,
and dangerous conditions for workers, the book led to legislative action in
the form of the Meat Inspection Act and the Pure Food and Drug Act. In
addition, reformers strived to improve working conditions in factories,
resulting in factory inspection laws and child-labor laws.
Women also played a pivotal role in the antipollution movement of the
Progressive Era. Alice Hamilton increased public awareness of toxic chemi-
cals and their health effects. The Settlement House movement, led by
women like Jane Addams, worked to better city services and conditions
within immigrant neighborhoods. Smoke pollution also greatly concerned
women at this time. Reacting to their increased laundry load in filthy condi-
tions, as well as concerns about their husbands’ and children’s health, women
dramatically altered the general public’s conceptions of smoke. Up to this
time, many had conceived of smoke as either a disinfectant or the necessary
cost of progress. Women educated their fellow citizens on the health dangers
of smoke, and their activism led to smoke-pollution-control laws in every
major city in the United States by 1912. Men took control of this issue within
legislative circles, stressing technology as a way to reduce smoke or burn the
coal more efficiently.
Although progressive reformers generally raised awareness of environ-
mental problems and changed public perceptions of pollution, their activism,
in fact, remained quite limited. Reformers of this time generally accepted the
beliefs of capitalism and industry. This caused them to limit their search for
solutions to technological means, such as finding cleaner methods of burning
coal, rather than examining consumption patterns of energy or other prod-
ucts. S E E A L S O Activism; Addams, Jane; Environmental Movement;
Hamilton, Alice; Industry; Lead; Occupational Safety and Health
Administration (OSHA); Point Source; Politics; Settlement House
Movement; Solid Waste; Water Pollution; Workers Health Bureau.
Bibliography
Hoy, Suellen. (1995). Chasing Dirt: The American Pursuit of Cleanliness. New York:
Oxford University Press.
Melosi, Martin, ed. (1980). Pollution and Reform in American Cities, 1870–1930. Austin,
TX: University of Texas Press.
Stradling, David. (1999). Smokestacks and Progressives: Environmentalists, Engineers, and
Air Quality in America, 1881–1951. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University
Press.

Internet Resource
Library of Congress, Memory Gallery C. “The Progressive Era.” Available from
http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/treasures/tr11c.html#prog.
Elizabeth D. Blum

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 Property Rights Movement

Property Rights Movement

The property rights movement has had a significant impact on the nation’s
environmental policies since 1980. The groups identified with the movement
commonly oppose federal regulation or intrusion on land that is privately
held, especially in cases where federal involvement is in the form of environ-
mental laws that limit the owner’s full or partial use of the land. The move-
ment began with the Sagebrush Rebellion of the mid-1970s, when legislators
from states in western United States sought the transfer of federal public
lands to state control.
Researchers have identified numerous groups and organizations that fall
under the general classification of the environmental opposition, one of
which is the property rights movement. These groups commonly oppose fed-
eral regulation or intrusion related to land that is privately held, especially
environmental laws that limit the owner’s full or partial use of the land. This
segment of activists is distinct from the wise use movement, which grew out
of the Sagebrush Rebellion of the mid-1970s. Wise use advocates support an
antigovernment regulatory agenda related to the use of public land and
resources, where the property rights movement is based on the use of pri-
vately held land.
The property rights movement first surfaced in the early 1990s with local
grassroots organizations made up of individuals seeking to develop their own
property, usually by building a home, clearing out trees or brush, or draining
a wetland. Many of the landowners had been unaware of federal regulations wetland an area that is satu-
and permits that could thwart their efforts, such as provisions of the Clean rated by surface or ground
water with vegetation adapted
Water Act or the Endangered Species Act. After being prohibited from for life under those soil condi-
developing their properties by the federal government, they often joined tions, as swamps, bogs, fens,
other frustrated property owners, usually in their area or neighborhood, who marshes, and estuaries
were similarly prohibited from doing what they wanted with their land. The
“members” of the movement rarely joined a specific, formal organization;
more commonly, they shared grievances against the government based on
their individual disputes. They would, however, rely upon an organization for
legal advice and updates on land regulations that would affect them.
The property rights movement has been most active in regions in the east-
ern and southern United States, where title to land is often in a family’s name
for many generations. Historically, there has been an assumption that the right
to control the land belongs to the titleholder, regardless of changes in the law titleholder the person or entity
or public policy. Many activists are farmers, ranchers, or rural or beachfront holding the legal title or deed
to a property
property owners who are unaware of the ecological value of their land until
they decide to develop it. This has led to a national debate over competing
land-related interests—the rights of the property owner to use the land versus
the government’s interest in controlling pollution, protecting wildlife and their
habitat, and managing ecosystems or even other landowner’s property.
Property rights stem from English common law and the Magna Carta, Magna Carta English charter
although there has been an evolution in legal interpretation of those rights giving landowners rights under
the king’s authority
since the 1920s. Most of the recent litigation has dealt with the concept of
federalism, and more specifically, the Fifth Amendment to the U.S. Consti-
tution. One of the clauses in the amendment refers to “takings”—a require-
ment that the government cannot take privately owned land for public use
without compensating the owner for the value of the land. University of
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Public Interest Research Groups (PIRGs)

Chicago law professor Richard Epstein created an intellectual basis for the
property rights movement in 1985 in Takings: Private Property and the Power
of Eminent Domain. This book placed the takings clause in the context of
wilderness designations, endangered species, and wetlands protection.
The takings issue has often resulted in a private property owner seeking
compensation from the government by filing a suit before the U.S. Court of
Federal Claims or the U.S. Supreme Court. Since 1987, the courts have fre-
quently ruled that federal regulations like the Clean Water Act that deny the
owner the economically viable use of the land must pay the owner for the loss
of the use of the land. The government further expanded the rights of prop-
erty owners with an executive order by President Ronald Reagan and with
regulations that called for government agencies to evaluate the risk of unan-
ticipated takings. The 1988 policy calls for the federal government to budget
takings impact analysis analy- funds for a takings impact analysis that property owners feel protects their
sis of the impacts due to gov- constitutional rights, although the law continues to evolve over these issues
ernment restriction on land
use as movement activists continue to press for what they believe are their con-
stitutional right to compensation. S E E A L S O Activism; Economics; Politics;
Wise Use Movement
Bibliography
Epstein, Richard. (1985). Takings: Private Property and the Power of Eminent Domain.
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Wise, Charles R. (1992). “The Changing Doctrine of Regulatory Taking and the Exec-
utive Branch.” Administrative Law Review 44 (Spring):404.
Yandle, Bruce, ed. (1995). Land Rights: The 1990s’ Property Rights Rebellion. Lanham,
MD: Rowman and Littlefield.

Internet Resource
Meltz, Robert. (1995). “The Property Rights Issue.” CRS Reports for Congress.
Available from http://cnie.org/NLE.
Jacqueline Vaughn Switzer

Public Interest Research Groups (PIRGs)

Early in his career as a consumer advocate, Ralph Nader struck on an idea for
a new type of organization. “How about a law office that worked for the pub-
lic’s interest—not that of corporations or just individuals?” he thought.
Out of this concept evolved the Public Interest Research Group (PIRG).
It began its genesis with a staff of twelve lawyers and a physician, each bring-
ing his or her expertise in a different field to the effort.
“It was like a law office, but for public interest,” Nader said in Ralph
Nader: Battling for Democracy, an authorized biography written by Kevin
Graham. “We broke open a lot of new areas for several years. For instance,
we were the first to bring action to create nonsmoking sections on public
transportation. We presented the idea that nonsmokers had prior rights to
those of smokers, which was unheard of back then.”
In PIRG’s early days, Donald Ross and Jim Welch—two of its original
members—focused on organizing students on college campuses across the
nation. With Nader’s help, they created a student-led movement that still
exists today. In its efforts, PIRG spread the notion that young people could
make a difference in government and corporate America.
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 Public Participation

Nader’s appearance at the University of Oregon in the fall of 1970

helped launch the idea of student activism and provided a successful example
for other campuses to follow. Soon, all seven schools in the state college sys-
tem approved the establishment of the Oregon Student Public Interest
Research Group, known as OSPIRG. Students in other states then followed
Oregon’s lead.
Each student PIRG was financed and run by students, but guided by a
small professional staff of attorneys, scientists, organizers, and other workers.
The PIRGs distinguished themselves from many other movements at the
time by actually participating in government processes, not by simply
protesting against them. They became important players within the frame-
work of the existing system and quickly discovered they could affect the out-
come of government decisions.
For example, in Massachusetts, the Massachusetts Student Public Inter-
est Research Group (MASSPIRG) placed an initiative on the state’s ballot in
1986 aimed at reducing the use of toxic chemicals. Voters approved the
measure by the largest margin of any initiative in the state’s history. In 2002
a national set of laws and system of regulations are in place to deal with this
same issue.
Other PIRGs tackled issues such as recycling, pollution, and public
health and safety. The groups also provided training for thousands of
students—training that continues today, producing wave after wave of stu-
dents working to solve numerous environmental and other societal problems.
PIRGs currently exist in twenty-four states, and seventeen more operate in
Canada. Each is independent in operation, yet all share similar agendas and
goals. S E E A L S O Nader, Ralph.
Bibliography
Isaac, Katherine, and Nader, Ralph. (1995). Ralph Nadar Presents Practicing Democracy:
A Guide to Student Action. New York: St. Martin’s Press.

Internet Resource
State PIRGs. Available from www.pirg.org.
Kevin Graham

Public Participation
Public participation is the general term for diverse formal processes by which
public concerns, needs, and values are incorporated in governmental deci-
sions. Public participation involves the use of techniques such as public
meetings and hearings, advisory committees, interactive workshops, inter-
views, questionnaires, focus groups, and other methods to identify public
concerns and preferences and address them during decision making. It does
not include nonformal means of public involvement ranging from lobbying
to letter campaigns and protests.
Most recent federal laws authorizing or establishing federal programs,
including the latest environmental laws, contain requirements that agencies
consult with the public during the design and implementation of the pro-
gram. If money is given to the states, then these public participation require-
ments are also passed on to the states.
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Public Participation

Who Is the “Public” in Public Participation?

Public participation does not mean taking a vote. The agencies offer the
opportunity to participate, and people choose whether or not to participate.
Because participation is self-selecting, most people who participate are those
who have a “stake” in the issue (hence the term stakeholders). They may be
affected economically, they may already use or want to use a resource (i.e.,
land or water), they may live in close proximity to a proposed project (and
could be impacted by dust, noise, or traffic), or they may have a legal mandate
that would be influenced by a project (i.e., a local government or regulatory
agency). Often, the stake that people have in a decision primarily involves
political philosophies or values. Because public participation typically involves
only those who have a stake in the decision, some agencies have begun to use
the term stakeholder involvement instead of the term public participation.
The public that is involved in public participation processes changes
from issue to issue. People who are deeply concerned about environmental
issues may not be involved in education issues, or decisions about welfare
programs. People who live near a project may be very concerned about that
project, but have little interest in similar issues elsewhere.
Despite these limitations, if some level of agreement (or at least accept-
ance) of a decision can be reached among the people who care most deeply,
the agency has a stronger political mandate to act. Implementation of the
decision is far less likely to be delayed by lawsuits or continued political
opposition. One of the problems with public participation is that it is some-
times easier to inspire the participation of a small group of people who would
be affected negatively, whereas it is difficult to motivate the participation of
a much larger group who might benefit from a project, but not so greatly that
it inspires them to participate.

What Does “Participation” Mean?

Some people use the term public participation when what they really mean is
providing information to the public. Every good public participation pro-
gram involves disseminating complete and objective information to the pub-
lic, so people can participate on an informed basis. But public information
alone is one-way communication. Public participation requires two-way
communication.
Sometimes, the term public participation is used to describe a process
whereby the public has a formal opportunity to comment on a proposed
action, just before an agency announces its decision. The agency may or may
not change any part of its decision in response to public input.
Another form of public participation occurs when an agency decides to ful-
fill only its minimum legal requirements. A number of agencies follow such an
approach. For example, if an agency is making a decision that requires the
preparation of an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS), it must meet three
basic requirements:
1. It must conduct a “scoping process,” typically a public meeting, to dis-
cuss the scope of the study.
2. Hold a public hearing after a draft version of the EIS has been distrib-
uted to the public.
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 Public Participation

3. Announce a public comment period (usually thirty days) with the

agency providing a response to each comment in a final environmental
report.
But if an issue is controversial, procedural public participation alone
rarely resolves the issue. It is true that people may have been “heard,” but
when an agency goes ahead with a decision, that decision may still remain
sufficiently controversial that it will never be implemented.
That is why, beginning in the 1980s, some agencies began to move
beyond minimal procedural requirements to public participation that is char-
acterized by genuine consultation or collaboration between the agency and
the public, in an effort to address as many of the public’s concerns as possi-
ble. The agency still makes the decision, but typically it does so by endorsing
a solution that addresses as many of the public’s concerns as the agency can,
within the confines of its legal authorities, regulations, and budget. If there is
still a minority who oppose the action, there has been enough interaction that
the minority understands the decision-making process was fair and open, and
why the decision was reached.
There are reasons why it is important that agencies retain this final
decision-making authority. First, “the public” that participates on a particu-
lar issue consists of those people who choose to participate, not the entire
public. A project that may have many undesirable impacts on a local com-
munity may benefit the country as a whole, and government agencies have to
consider the broader state or national interest as well. Agencies operate
within legal mandates, that is, authorities and budgets that constrain their
options. Sometimes, this means they cannot implement options promoted by
an advocacy group that fall outside their legal authority and would require
the agency to violate legal requirements or far exceed their budget. Finally,
the issue may be controversial not because of what the agency wants, but
because the public itself is bitterly divided over the issue.
Sometimes, even this consultative approach to public participation will
not result in sufficient agreement that an agency is able to make a decision
which will ever be implemented. Opponents may throw up legal or political
barriers that block any action. In recent years, agencies have experimented
with a number of techniques, including mediation, arbitration, negotiated
rule making, and interest-based negotiation to resolve such issues. These
techniques are sometimes referred to as dispute resolution or alternative dis-
pute resolution techniques, because they are frequently used as an alternative
to litigation. Each of these techniques has proven to have value in special
circumstances.

Why Should the Public Be Involved in “Technical”

Decisions?
Many decisions that agencies think are “technical” involve choices between
more than one thing society thinks is good. For example, when a regulatory
agency sets a standard, such as air pollution standards, these standards can
only be achieved by installing very expensive equipment, and sometimes only
by shutting down existing factories, putting people out of work. The agency
finds itself having to decide which is more important: clean air or jobs. If an
agency creates a regulation prohibiting smoking in public buildings, it is
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Public Participation

making a choice about the relative importance of public health compared

with freedom of choice. Both health and freedom of choice are good; the
question is what weight or importance should be given to one over the other
in a particular circumstance.
Many government agencies must make these kinds of value choices, and
legislation alone does not provide sufficient guidance to determine what
choice should be made in a particular decision. Although these decisions need
to be informed with technical information, there is nothing about technical
training that makes experts more qualified than the public in deciding which
values are most important for society. Agencies need to consult with the pub-
lic on these important value choices.

The Evolution of Public Participation

From the 1930s onward, the size of the U.S. federal government grew very
rapidly, and government became involved in making many decisions that
affected people’s lives. As government grew, decisions previously made in a
political process were increasingly delegated to technical experts. Over time,
many people began to feel that impersonal bureaucrats were making deci-
sions which controlled their lives.
After the Depression and World War II, there was broad general agree-
ment in the United States that economic development should be the primary
objective of domestic national policy. Leaving decisions to the experts
worked well so long as this broad social consensus existed.
But in the 1960s, that consensus began to dissipate. The civil rights
movement challenged the existing system of segregation, and when the pub-
lic saw nightly images on television of African-Americans being brutalized by
the police during nonviolent marches or demonstrations, and the aftermath
of church bombings and other racially motivated violence, the social consen-
sus began to change. Riots in Watts, a low-income area in Los Angeles,
and the riots that spread throughout major cities following the assassination
of the Rev. Martin Luther King Jr., caused many government officials to
believe that the country was in serious trouble and the old ways needed to be
reconsidered.
It was during this same time of turmoil and reflection that the environ-
mental movement also began to grow. Many environmentalists questioned
the belief that economic development should always be the primary goal.
The environmental movement learned much from the civil rights movement
and adopted a form of grassroots activism that challenged the existing polit-
ical system. Natural resource agencies always seen as “the good guys” found
themselves under increasing attack.
The controversy over the Vietnam War also challenged basic beliefs
about America and its role in the world. The ensuing Watergate scandal dur-
ing President Richard M. Nixon’s first term, and other revelations concern-
ing political corruption and dishonesty, further engendered public mistrust of
government. The “leave it to the experts” mentality was effectively chal-
lenged on all fronts.
In response, Congress passed a series of laws designed to provide greater
openness in governmental decision making, and a dialogue with the public
before decisions are made. The key laws are shown in the table. In addition,
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KE Y L AW S PE R TA I N I N G T O PU B L I C P A RTI CI P A TI ON

Year Law Significance

1946 Administrative Procedures Act Established minimum standards for participation in agency rule making, including public
notice, opportunity for group representation during trial-like hearings (adjudications),
maintenance of a public record during such hearings, and holding public hearings (at the
agency's discretion) on other matters.

1964 Economic Opportunity Act Required "maximum feasible participation" of the poor in decisions about community action
("War on Poverty") programs. Agencies were obligated to encourage involvement of "target" populations.

1966 Demonstration Cities and Required widespread participation among those affected by its program grants.
Metropolitan Development
Act ("Model Cities")

1966 Freedom of Information Act Provided public access to most documents of government agencies.

1969 National Environmental Policy Established the Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ), required intergovernmental
Act consultation, and provided funding for citizen groups. CEQ implementing regulations (10
CFR 1500 through 1508 and 10 CFR 1021) established many of the public participation
procedures that are the minimum standards for public participation in environmental
decision-making.

1972 Federal Advisory Committee Established procedures that must be followed by federal agencies when creating and
Act working with citizen advisory groups.

1972 Federal Water Pollution Control Stated that public participation was also required by states implementing programs under
Act of 1972 the law. Similar language was used in many subsequent laws affect environment,
transportation, and social services.

1977 Government in the Sunshine Required many government agencies, particularly regulatory agencies and advisory
Act committees, to open most of their meetings to the public.

1986 Emergency Planning and Ensured that the public was informed about pollutant emissions from factories, energy
Community Right to Know facilities, and industrial operations (including privately owned enterprises) in their
Act community.

1996 Administrative Dispute Encouraged the use of alternative dispute resolution (ADR) techniques, and required
Resolution Act agencies to designate an ADR officer and provide training in ADR.

1996 Executive Order 12988 – Civil Encouraged and authorized the use of alternative dispute resolution (ADR) techniques in
Justice Reform resolution of civil claims against federal agencies.

1998 Environmental Policy and Created the U.S. Institute for Environmental Conflict Resolution, a new federal agency to
Conflict Resolution Act support conflict prevention and resolution when a federal agency is involved.
SOURCE: James L. Creighton.

many agencies have issued policies and regulations concerning public partic-
ipation that have created additional requirements.
Public participation has now developed sufficiently that many agencies
require their planners and decision makers to attend public participation
training. Public participation has also become a professional specialty. The
International Association for Public Participation (IAP2) was established in
1992 and as of 2002 has approximately one thousand members. Some of
these members define themselves as public participation practitioners, and
provide these services on a full-time basis within agencies, or as consultants.
Many of IAP2’s members, however, are planners, engineers, or program
managers who see public participation as an important tool for being effec-
tive in those professions.
In 1998 Congress created a new federal agency to promote and support
processes to prevent and resolve conflict when a federal agency is involved.
The U.S. Institute for Environmental Conflict Resolution is housed within
the Udall Foundation in Tucson, Arizona.
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Public Participation

Issues Facing the Field of Public Participation

Like any new field, the public participation field faces many challenges.
Environmental activists and business leaders tend to be both white and
middle class. Racial and ethnic minorities are underrepresented in many pub-
lic participation processes. Language and cultural differences may account
for some of the underrepresentation. But other barriers include a general fear
of government agencies (who were sometimes sources of outright oppression
in immigrants’ countries of origin) and the belief that participation will not
necessarily change the outcome.
The Internet provides a powerful new tool for participation, although all
its potential uses are still being discovered. In the near future, agencies will
not only use the Internet to provide information to the public, but almost all
information repositories (places where copies of government documents are
stored and made available to the public) are likely to become “virtual.”
Increasingly, the Internet is being explored as a tool for gathering public
input and information. There is considerable concern, however, about a “dig-
ital divide,” as the number of people with access to the Internet in the
African-American, Latin, and Native American communities, and the poor in
general, is considerably lower than in the public at large. People fear that the
heavy use of the Internet by agencies will mean that minorities and the poor
will not have the same access to the decision-making process as those people
who are connected digitally. Activist groups, on the other hand, have
embraced the Internet enthusiastically, and use it extensively for organizing
and communication with other groups across the country.
Some developers and business have filed so-called strategic litigation
against public participation (SLAPP) suits against citizen activists whose
involvement in the decision-making processes may have caused delays or
blocked issuance of building or environmental permits. Often, SLAPP suits
have little basis in the law, but activists must hire lawyers to defend them-
selves in such actions, frequently at great personal expense. Many private
individuals are unable to afford this, even if they would win ultimately,
whereas large companies usually have the resources to hire attorneys and
keep the process going as a threat against future participation. Several state
courts have rejected SLAPP suits summarily, and this may begin to curtail
their use. S E E A L S O Activism; Agencies, Regulatory; Arbitration; Citizen
Suits; Consensus Building; Environmental Impact Statement; Envi-
ronmental Justice; Government; Mediation; National Environmental
Policy Act (NEPA); Nongovernmental Organizations; Politics; Public
Policy Decision Making; Regulatory Negotiation; Right to Know;
Warren County, North Carolina.
Bibliography
Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations. (1979). Citizen Participation in
the American Federal System. Washington, D.C..
Carpenter, Susan L., and Kennedy, W.J.D. (2001). Managing Public Disputes. New
York: John Wiley & Sons.
Creighton, James L. (1981). Involving Citizens in Community Decision Making. Wash-
ington, D.C.: National Civic League.
Gray, Barbara. (1989). Collaborating. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
Herrman, Margaret S., ed. (1994). Resolving Conflict. Washington, D.C.: International
City/County Management Association.

156
 Public Policy Decision Making

Langton, Stuart, ed. (1978). Citizen Participation in America. Lexington, MA: Lexing-
ton Books.
Susskind, Lawrence; McKearnan, Sarah; and Thomas-Larmer, Jennifer, eds. (1999).
The Consensus Building Handbook. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Thomas, John Clayton. (1995). Public Participation in Public Decisions. San Francisco,
CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers.

Internet Resources
Creighton, James L. (1999). How to Design a Public Participation Program. Washington,
D.C.: U.S. Department of Energy. Available from http://www.e.doe/ftlink/public.
Creighton, James L.; Delli Priscoli, Jerome; and Dunning, C. Mark, et al., eds. (1998).
Public Involvement and Dispute Resolution, Vols. 1 and 2. Alexandria, VA: Institute for
Water Resources. Available from http://www.iwr.usace.army.mil/iwr/products.
International Association for Public Participation (IAP2) Web site. Available from
http://www.iap2.org.
U.S. Institute for Environmental Conflict Resolution Web site. Available from http://
www.ecr.gov.
James L. Creighton

Public Policy Decision Making

Public policy decision making refers to actions taken within governmental
settings to formulate, adopt, implement, evaluate, or change environmental
policies. These decisions may occur at any level of government.

The Scope of Environmental Policy

At the most general level, environmental policies reflect society’s collective
decision to pursue certain environmental goals and objectives and to use par-
ticular means to achieve them. Public sector decision making incorporates a
diversity of perspectives on environmental problems, from those of industry
to the views of activist environmental organizations. Ultimately, policies
reflect the inevitable compromises over which environmental goals to pursue
and how best to achieve them.
Private decision making by corporations and individuals also affects soci-
ety’s ability to respond to environmental challenges. Indeed, critics of gov-
ernmental performance look to the private sector for initiatives. Yet, as a
nation, the United States relies heavily on public decision making because
only governments possess the necessary financial resources or have the req-
uisite legal authority or political legitimacy.
Environmental policy is complex. Beyond the laws, regulations, and
court rulings on the subject, it is strongly affected by agency officials who are
charged with implementing and enforcing environmental law. Their deci-
sions, in turn, are influenced by a range of political and economic forces,
including the policy beliefs of elected officials, the health of the economy,
anticipated costs and benefits of laws and regulations, federal–state relations,
public opinion, media coverage of environmental issues, and efforts by cor-
porations, environmental groups, and scientists to influence public policy.
The environmental quality standards that are set in laws and regulations
reflect the uncertain and changing base of environmental science, as well as
policy judgments concerning the extent of risk from air or water pollution or
toxic chemicals that is acceptable to society. How clean is clean enough? A
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significantly safer or cleaner environment may be harder to achieve with

existing technologies. Moreover, the effort may be both more costly and
more controversial. Confronting tradeoffs among competing social values
lies at the heart of environmental policy decision making.
Environmental policy covers a wide range of issues and has had a perva-
sive and growing impact on modern human affairs. It also goes well beyond
federal and state actions on air and water pollution or control of hazardous
waste and toxic chemicals. Increasingly, these actions are linked to decision
making in many related areas that also affect environmental quality and
human health. These include such disparate concerns as energy use, trans-
portation, population growth, and agriculture and food production. Scien-
sustainable able to be prac- tists and scholars use the concepts of sustainability and sustainable
ticed for many generations development to link these varied human influences on the natural environ-
without loss of productivity
or degradation of the ment. Reports from the 1992 Earth Summit and the President’s Council on
environment Sustainable Development firmly endorsed this more comprehensive and
sustainable development integrated view of environmental challenges.
economic development that At an even more fundamental level, environmental policy concerns the
does not rely on degrading
the environment protection of vital global ecological, chemical, and geophysical systems that
scientists increasingly believe to be put at risk through certain human activi-
ties. Climate change and loss of biological diversity are examples of such
threats. Thus, environmental policy decision making addresses both long-
term and global as well as short-term and local risks to health and the envi-
ronment. For all these reasons, it has become one of the most important
functions of government in both industrialized and developing nations.

Evolution of U.S. Environmental Policies

The fundamental framework for U.S. environmental policies, especially
those dealing with pollution control, was established during the 1970s with
the adoption of the Clean Air Act, Clean Water Act, Safe Drinking Water
Act, Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (the major hazardous waste
law), and Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Lia-
bility Act (Superfund), among others. With later amendments, these statutes
mandated a public policy system in which the federal government, usually the
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), set national environmental
quality standards. Together with states, the EPA enforced those standards
through direct regulation, or what critics call a “command-and-control” sys-
tem. These same critics fault the pollution control system for its high costs
and inefficiencies, a focus on remedial rather than preventive actions, and its
complex, cumbersome, and adversarial rule-making and enforcement
processes. Those who defend the prevailing approach cite evidence of its
effectiveness and maintain that the decision-making processes on which it
depends are essential to ensure fair treatment of all stakeholders. Public opin-
ion has generally supported strong environmental protection activities, and
environmental organizations have been reluctant to endorse many of the pol-
icy changes favored by industry and political conservatives.
Throughout the 1980s and 1990s and into the twenty-first century, new
approaches to pollution control have been proposed, debated, and in some
cases adopted. For instance, the federal government and states have experi-
mented with market-based incentives such as the use of “green taxes” and
marketable pollution allowances or permits, most notably in the acid rain
158
 Public Policy Decision Making

control program established by the Clean Air Act amendments of 1990. In

addition, industry often has advanced the idea of voluntary pollution preven-
tion initiatives, including the use of new environmental management systems
and disclosure of pollution information to the public. These are seen as sup-
plements or alternatives to regulation.
The federal government has also encouraged such changes. For example,
during the Clinton administration, the EPA attempted to improve pollution
control through the use of more flexible and collaborative decision-making
arrangements under the banner of “reinventing” regulation to make it
“cleaner, cheaper, and smarter.” These efforts continued under President
George W. Bush, with some in his administration describing them as repre-
senting a “new era” in environmental protection. In both cases, emphasis was
placed on improving federal–state relations. The fifty states handled most
routine implementations of major federal pollution control statutes, although
there was wide variation in the ability and commitment of individual states to
assume these duties.

The Challenge of Environmental Policy Reform

Despite criticism of existing environmental policies and doubts about the
capacity of the EPA and states to achieve the objectives outlined in these poli-
cies, reform has proved to be difficult. Studies continue to find fault with con-
ventional pollution control policies and urge the adoption of new approaches
(e.g., reports issued by the National Academy of Public Administration).
However, conflicting political pressures on members of Congress have led
more often to political stalemate than to constructive reform of existing
statutes. These policies continue to result in substantial improvements in the
nation’s air and water quality, and thus in public and environmental health.
Nonetheless, environmentalists and the business community usually are in
substantial disagreement over most reform proposals, from greater reliance
on benefit-cost analysis to increased dependence on the states for environ-
mental enforcement.
The general verdict among both scholars and practitioners is that reform
of U.S. environmental policy remains a much desired yet elusive goal. Envi-
ronmentalists fear that such reform will come at the price of weakened exist-
ing laws and regulations. Industry representatives are equally adamant about
the imperative to reduce what they believe to be excessively high costs for
compliance. Compromise typically is difficult, particularly because few stud-
ies can point clearly to the absolute consequences of adopting proposed
reforms—that is, whether reforms will improve the regulatory system as
anticipated. Thus, policy change is seen as something of a gamble that many
defenders of strong environmental protection are unwilling to take.
Despite these important constraints, one encouraging development in
efforts to improve U.S. environmental policies can be found in the hundreds
of initiatives taken at the state and local levels to reconcile environmental
protection and economic development under the rubric of sustainability.
Removed from the intense ideological battles in Congress, environmental-
ists, industry representatives, state and local officials, and concerned citizens
have pioneered new collaborative arrangements that offer much promise for
the future. These range from actions to promote “smart growth” land use
practices, to efforts to improve air quality through better urban design and
159
Racism, Environmental

transportation initiatives, to collaborative efforts to clean up local rivers and

bays and restore damaged habitat. S E E A L S O Activism; Government;
National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA); Nongovernmental Orga-
nizations (NGOs); Public Participation.
Bibliography
Davies, J. Clarence, and Mazurek, Jan. (1998). Pollution Control in the United States:
Evaluating the System. Washington, D.C.: Resources for the Future.
Kraft, Michael E. (2001). Environmental Policy and Politics, 2nd edition. New York:
Addison Wesley Longman.
Mazmanian, Daniel A., and Kraft, Michael E., eds. (1999). Toward Sustainable Commu-
nities: Transition and Transformations in Environmental Policy. Cambridge, MA: MIT
Press.
Portney, Paul R., and Stavins, Robert N., eds. (2000). Public Policies for Environmental
Protection, 2nd edition. Washington, D.C.: Resources for the Future.
Rosenbaum, Walter A. (2002). Environmental Politics and Policy, 5th edition. Washing-
ton, D.C.: CQ Press.
Sexton, Ken; Marcus, Alfred A.; Easter, K. William; and Burkhardt, Timothy D., eds.
(1999). Better Environmental Decisions: Strategies for Governments, Businesses, and
Communities. Washington, D.C.: Island Press.
Sitarz, Daniel, ed. (1998). Sustainable America: America’s Environment, Economy and Soci-
ety in the 21st Century. Carbondale, IL: Earth Press.
United Nations. (1993). Agenda 21: The United Nations Programme of Action from Rio.
New York: United Nations.
Vig, Norman J., and Kraft, Michael E., eds. (2000). Environmental Policy, 4th edition.
Washington, D.C.: CQ Press.

Internet Resources
Center for American Politics and Public Policy Web site. Available from
http://depts.washington.edu/ampol.
National Academy of Public Administration. (2000). Environmental Government: Trans-
forming Environmental Protection for the 21st Century. Washington, D.C. Available
from http://www.napawash.org.
Michael E. Kraft

Racism, Environmental See Environmental Racism

R Radioactive Fallout
The term radioactive fallout, or just fallout, refers to the debris and radioac-
tive materials that settle out of the air after the detonation of a nuclear
weapon or after a nuclear accident that produces a cloud of airborne material,
or plume. Detonation of a nuclear weapon results in the immediate propaga-
tion of a shock wave and intense heat. As the superheated fireball rises, a vac-
uum is formed that draws in scorched building material, soil, and other
radionuclide radioactive materials from the epicenter of the blast. In addition, radionuclides pro-
particles, human-made or duced in the nuclear chain reaction leading to the explosion and any weapon
natural, with a distinct atomic
weight number; can have material not consumed in that reaction will also be a part of the subsequent
a long life as soil or water plume. Any similar thermal process, such as the intense fire during the Cher-
pollution nobyl I reactor accident in 1986, will introduce radioactive and other mate-
rials into the atmosphere, as well.
The direction and distance the fallout travels depends largely on weather
conditions. Wind speed, wind direction, atmospheric stability, and the amount
of rain all factor into the extent and timing of the fallout and subsequent
160
 Radioactive Waste

contamination. The amount of radioactive contamination depends on the ini-

tial amount of radioactive material contained, for instance, in a nuclear
weapon. In the case of a reactor fire or steam explosion, the damage to the
reactor, the amount of material at risk, and the length of time until the event
is under control are all factors.
Exposure to radioactive materials, either while still in the plume, or after
the fact as contamination, is the basis for potential health concerns. While
alpha-emitting fallout material is not the external hazard that beta-, gamma-
and x-ray-emitting materials can be, all of these materials are a potential inter-
nal hazard concern when the contamination spreads to sources of groundwa-
ter and surface water, livestock, crops, and other foodstuffs. Fallout effects can
be long lasting, contaminating an area for hundreds or even thousands of
years. Fallout also enters the food chain. Cows eating contaminated grass pro-
duce contaminated milk, which can pose a widespread health risk.
As with anything to do with radiation, it is the amount of absorbed
energy, or the radiation absorbed dose, that matters. Remaining indoors,
with doors and windows shut and air conditioning systems turned off until
the plume has passed, can reduce exposure to fallout. Traveling out of the
path of an incoming plume, if this can be predicted accurately, may also help
avoid or reduce exposure to the fallout. Certain foodstuffs, especially water
and milk, may have to be brought in from unaffected areas. Time will be one
of the best countermeasures should such an event occur. The “seven–ten”
rule for nuclear detonations states that for every seven-fold increase in time
after a weapon detonation, there will be a concomitant tenfold decrease in
the amount of dose afforded by the fallout. S E E A L S O Cancer; Disasters:
Nuclear Accidents; Nuclear Energy; Terrorism; War.
Ian Scott Hamilton

Radioactive Waste
Radioactive waste (or nuclear waste) is a material deemed no longer useful
that has been contaminated by or contains radionuclides. Radionuclides are
unstable atoms of an element that decay, or disintegrate spontaneously, emit-
ting energy in the form of radiation. Radioactive waste has been created by
humans as a by-product of various endeavors since the discovery of radioac-
tivity in 1896 by Antoine Henri Becquerel. Since World War II, radioactive
waste has been created by military weapons production and testing; mining;
electrical power generation; medical diagnosis and treatment; consumer
product development, manufacturing, and treatment; biological and chemi-
cal research; and other industrial uses.
There are approximately five thousand natural and artificial radionu-
clides that have been identified, each with a different half-life. A half-life is a
measure of time required for an amount of radioactive material to decrease
by one-half of its initial amount. Half-life values for each known radionuclide
are unique. The half-life of a radionuclide can vary from fractions of a second
to millions of years. Some examples of radionuclides with a range of differ-
ent half-lives include sodium-26 (half-life of 1.07 seconds), hydrogen-3 (half-
life of 12.3 years), carbon-14 (half-life of 5,730 years), and uranium-238
(half-life of 4.47 billion years). The decay process of a radionuclide is the
161
Radioactive Waste

Workers at a nuclear power

plant standing near a storage
pond filled with spent
fuel. (©Tim Wright/Corbis.
Reproduced by permission.)

mechanism by which it spontaneously releases its excess energy. Typical

mechanisms for radioactive decay are alpha, beta, and gamma emission.
Alpha decay is a process that is usually associated with heavy atoms, such as
uranium-238 and thorium-234, where excess energy is given off with the
ejection of two neutrons and two protons from the nucleus. Beta decay
involves the ejection of a beta particle, which is the same as an electron, from
the nucleus of an excited atom. A common example of a beta-emitter found
in radioactive waste is strontium-90. After an alpha or beta decay, the nucleus
of an atom is often in an excited state and still has excess energy. Rather than
releasing this energy by alpha or beta decay, energy is lost by gamma emis-
sion—a pulse of electromagnetic radiation from the nucleus of an atom.
Everything on Earth is exposed to radiation. However, exposure to radi-
ation at levels greater than natural background radiation can be hazardous.
162
 Radioactive Waste

Exposure to certain high levels of radiation, such as that from high-level

radioactive waste, can even cause death. Radiation exposure can also cause
cancer, birth defects, and other abnormalities, depending on the time of
exposure, amount of radiation, and the decay mechanism. High-level
radioactive waste from nuclear reactors can be hazardous for thousands of
years. Radioactive waste can be categorized by its source or point of origin.
Because of this, the governments of many nations have developed waste clas-
sification systems to regulate the management of radioactive waste within
their borders. The proper treatment, storage, and disposal of radioactive
waste are prescribed based on the waste classification system defined in a
nation’s laws, rules, and regulations. The table outlines common categories of
radioactive waste.

Radioactive Waste Description

Radioactive waste can vary greatly in its physical and chemical form. It can be
a solid, liquid, gas, or even something in between, such as sludge. Any given
radioactive waste can be primarily water, soil, paper, plastic, metal, ash, glass,
ceramic, or a mixture of many different physical forms. The chemical form of
radioactive waste can vary as well. Radioactive waste can contain radionuclides
of very light elements, such as radioactive hydrogen (tritium), or of very heavy
elements, such as uranium. Radioactive waste is classified as high, intermedi-
ate, or low level. Depending on the radionuclides contained in it, a waste can
remain radioactive from seconds to minutes, or even for millions of years.

Radioactive Waste Management

Radioactive waste management includes the possession, transportation, han-
dling, storage, and ultimate disposal of waste. The safe management of
radioactive waste is necessary to protect public health. If handled improperly,
potential exposures of humans to high-level radioactive waste can be danger-
ous, even deadly. Some radioactive wastes such as certain types of transuranic transuranic waste waste con-
waste can cause biological effects in humans only if the radionuclides con- taining one or more radioac-
tive elements heavier than
tained in the waste are directly inhaled or ingested. Most low-level radioactive uranium, created in nuclear
wastes can be handled by humans without any measurable biological effects. power plants or processing
Nevertheless, good handling practices of all radioactive materials and waste facilities
should be the goal to provide optimum protection to humans and the envi-
ronment. There have been historic practices associated with the use of
radioactive material where workers were unaware of potential risks. The
radium watch dial painters of the 1920s illustrate the health effects that can be
associated with improper handling practices. The painters experienced high
occurrences of cancer of the larynx and tongue due to ingestion of radium.
The transportation of radioactive waste can occur via roadway, aircraft,
ship/barge, and rail. The classification and physical size of radioactive waste
dictate the method of transport, the packaging required, and the labeling
necessary to allow for the shipment of a specific waste. There are interna-
tional transportation requirements for radioactive waste, as well as more spe-
cific regulations in individual countries.

Radioactive Waste Disposal

Various methods to manage and dispose of radioactive waste have been con-
sidered. Proposed management and disposal methods have included the
163
Radioactive Waste

CO MMO N C AT E G OR I E S O F R A D I O A C TI V E W A S TE

Common Radionuclides in Waste

Waste Category Description of Waste Category Common Sources of Waste and Their Half-Life (y=years)
High-Level Radioactive Waste Highly radioactive material that is deemed a Partially used fuel from nuclear strontium-90
waste that requires special precautions by power reactors; liquid waste half-life: 29.78 y
humans, including remote handling and from the reprocessing of spent
use of shielding; also includes spent fuel fuel taking place outside the cesium-137
and waste resulting from the reprocessing United States half-life: 30.07 y
of used fuel

Transuranic Waste Material that is deemed a waste that Weapons-production waste plutonium-238
contains radionuclides with an atomic included mixed transuranic half-life: 87.7 y
number greater than that of uranium (92) waste
americium-241
half-life: 432.7 y

Mixed Waste Material that is deemed a waste that Weapons-production waste and plutonium-239
contains both radionuclides and a some research wastes half-life: 24,100 y
characteristic or listed hazardous waste
plutonium-241
half-life: 14.4 y

Naturally Occurring Material that is deemed a waste that Scale buildup on pipe walls that radium-226
Radioactive Material contains radionuclides that are present on carry petroleum products half-life: 1,599 y
(NORM) Waste Earth without any human interaction
radium-228
half-life: 5.76 y

Uranium or Thorium Mill The tailings material created as a by-product Production exclusively at the radium-226
Tailings Waste by the extraction of uranium or thorium site of milling for rare earth half-life: 1,599 y
from natural ore formations extraction
thorium-230
half-life: 75,400 y

Low-Level Radioactive Waste Material that is deemed a waste that Industrial trash from nuclear hydrogen-3
(LLRW)(and Intermediate generally has been contaminated by or power plants; medical, half-life:12.32 y
Waste outside U.S.) contains short-lived radionuclides or research, and academic trash
longer-lived radionuclides in relatively low such as paper, plastic, and cobalt-60
concentrations. Low-level radioactive glass half-life: 5.27 y
waste is further segregated into classes
(see below)

Class A: Lowest level of LLRW,

generally decays in 100 y
Class B: Moderate level
of LLRW, generally decay in 300 y
Class C: Special controls required for this high level
of LLRW, including shielding/barriers that
must isolate for 500 y
Greater than Class C: Exceed the Class C limits and cannot be
disposed in LLRW facilities; must be
disposed with high-level radioactive waste

Exempt Material or Very Low Material that is deemed a waste that Various medical procedures iodine-131
Activity Waste contains trace concentrations of short half-life: 8.027 days
half-life radionuclides that are considered
below regulatory concern

following scenarios: shallow land burial; engineered disposal vaults; vertical

shafts drilled into granite, salt, basalt, or volcanic rock; disposal cavities
mined into specific rock formations such as salt; deeper-earth disposal into
the submantle layer; above-ground isolation in engineered, concrete struc-
tures; recycling and reuse of waste material; radionuclide transmutation into
nonradioactive material; ocean and seabed disposal; ice-sheet disposal; isola-
tion disposal on a remote island; and even disposal in space.
Most of the civilian high-level radioactive waste throughout the world is
currently being stored at nuclear power reactor sites. The spent nuclear fuel
generated from the 103 operating civilian power reactors in the United
164
 Radioactive Waste

States is currently being stored on-site at the point of generation. In Europe,

prior to on-site storage, spent fuel is first sent to either the Sellafield site in
the United Kingdom or the La Hague site in France to be reprocessed in
order to recover usable fuel. No reprocessing of commercial spent fuel is
being conducted in the United States. In the United States, spent fuel and
other high-level radioactive waste awaits the construction of a central, per-
manent repository. It is currently stored in spent fuel pools or, in some cases,
in dry casks. Spent fuel pools are water-filled, lead-lined chambers that are
adjacent to reactors on civilian power reactor sites. Dry-cask storage has
become necessary in some cases where the on-site spent fuel pools have
reached capacity. The Office of Civilian Radioactive Waste Management at
the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) is charged with developing this fed-
eral repository. Amid local opposition, Yucca Mountain, Nevada, is presently
under study to evaluate its suitability as a central repository for all U.S. high-
level radioactive waste. The Yucca Mountain site has been officially desig-
nated by President George W. Bush and Congress for full-scale studies.
There has been further emphasis placed on the security of spent fuel, and in
general on nuclear reactor sites following the September 11, 2001, terrorist
attacks. Nuclear reactor sites that store spent fuel have been identified as pos-
sible terrorist targets and, therefore, have been subject to heightened security
and debate over potential vulnerabilities. France, Germany, the United King-
dom, and Japan also have plans to develop centralized repositories for high-
level radioactive waste at various times in the future.
Transuranic waste generated by the DOE has an operational final repos-
itory. The Waste Isolation Pilot Project located near Carlsbad, New Mexico,
accepts transuranic waste and mixed transuranic waste (i.e., transuranic waste
that also has a hazardous waste component) from federal facilities through-
out the United States. This facility is comprised of disposal cavities mined
into a salt formation some 2,150 feet underground.
The disposal method used in the 1960s and 1970s for low-level radioac-
tive waste was shallow land burial in earthen trenches. The infiltration of
water into these trenches resulted in the migration or movement of certain
radionuclides into surrounding soil and groundwater. To respond to such
problems, engineered disposal units have been developed to replace shallow
land burial, utilizing enhanced cover systems to reduce the potential for water
infiltration. The trial-and-error nature of early radioactive waste disposal
sites has rendered new facility development a slow and cautious process.

Historical Perspective
The first commercial site for the disposal of low-level radioactive waste was
opened in Beatty, Nevada, in 1962. Within the next ten years, five more sites
opened in the United States: in Washington, Illinois, South Carolina, New
York, and Kentucky. Private companies operated these sites on land leased
from state governments. Prior to 1979, the DOE routinely used commercial
sites for the disposal of federal waste.
Migration problems at commercial disposal sites in the United States
were first discovered in the late 1960s. Four of the six commercial low-level
radioactive waste disposal sites in the United States closed. Three of the four
sites that closed developed leaks due to erosion by surface water, subsidence
on tops of trenches, or buried waste immersed in water. Several of these
165
Radon

Superfund the fund estab- locations became federal Superfund sites due to radionuclides migrating
lished to pay for the cleanup beyond the disposal trenches, complicated by the presence of hazardous
of contaminated sites whose
owners are bankrupt or cannot waste within the same facilities.
be identified The historical problems experienced with commercial radioactive waste
disposal in the United States resulted in the development of new regulatory
requirements for site selection, construction parameters, operating practices,
and waste-acceptance criteria at future disposal sites. A new U.S. disposal reg-
ulation, Title 10, Code of Federal Regulations, Part 61, “Licensing Require-
ments for Land Disposal of Radioactive Wastes” was introduced in 1982. This
regulation outlines the requirements necessary to ensure public health, safety,
and the long-term protection of the environment. Since the development of
this new regulation in the United States, only one site, in Clive, Utah, has
been licensed and opened for disposal of low-level radioactive waste.

Summary
Radioactive waste is being generated in the United States and throughout the
world as a result of research, mining, electricity production, nuclear weapons
production, and medical uses. There are many possible beneficial activities
due to the use of radioactive material. Laws, rules, and regulations are made
on a global scale to help ensure the safe handling of radioactive waste to pro-
tect human and environmental health. However, the question of the safe final
deposition of all radioactive waste generated worldwide is still problematic.
S E E A L S O Cleanup; Energy, Nuclear; Superfund; Waste, Transportation
of; Yucca Mountain.
Bibliography
League of Women Voters Education Fund. (1993). The Nuclear Waste Primer. New
York: Lyons & Burford, Publishers.
Murray, Raymond L. (1994). Understanding Radioactive Waste, 4th edition. Columbus,
OH: Battelle Press.
Parrington, Josef R.; Knox, Harold D.; Breneman, Susan L.; Baum, Edward M.; and
Feiner, Frank. (1996). Nuclides and Isotopes, 15th edition. San Jose, CA: General
Electric Company.

Internet Resources
International Atomic Energy Agency. “World Atom.” Available from http://
www.iaea.or.at/worldatom.
U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Civilian Radioactive Waste Management. “The
Yucca Mountain Project.” Available from http://www.ymp.gov.
U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission. “Radioactive Waste.” Available from http://
www.nrc.gov/waste.html.
Waste Link Directory. “Guide to Radioactive Waste.” Available from http://www
.radwaste.org/general.htm.
Susan M. Jablonski

isotope a variation of an ele-

ment that has the same atomic
number of protons but a differ-
ent weight because of the
Radon
number of neutrons; various Radon is an odorless, colorless, radioactive, though chemically unreactive
isotopes of the same element
gas. It has an atomic number of eighty-six, which corresponds to the number
may have different radioactive
behaviors, some are highly of protons found in the nucleus of any isotope of radon. There are more
unstable than thirty known isotopes of radon, and each one emits some combination
166
 Radon

PA TH W A Y F O R R A D O N E NTERI NG THE HOME

J
K

H
A

B I
C A
D G
F D

A. Cracks in concrete slabs

B. Spaces behind brick veneer walls that rest on uncapped hollow block foundation
C. Pores and cracks in concrete blocks
D. Floor–wall joints
E. Exposed soil, as in a sump
F. Weeping (drain) tile, if drained to open sump
G. Mortar joints
H. Loose fitting pipe penatrations
I. Open tops of block walls
J. Building materials such as some rocks
K. Water (from some wells)

SOURCE: Adapted from Texas A & M University.

of alpha, beta, and gamma radiation when undergoing radioactive trans- alpha radiation fast-moving
particle composed of two pro-
formation, commonly referred to as “decay.”
tons and two neutrons (a
Radon gas is ubiquitous in the natural environment. This is because the helium nucleus), emitted by
radioactive decay
precursors to radon, such as the aforementioned radium isotopes, and others
such as radium, thorium, and uranium isotopes, are present in some rock for- beta radiation high-energy
electron, emitted by radioac-
mations. Radon is also found in the man-made environment because many of tive decay
the materials, consumer products, and foodstuffs of everyday life come from
gamma radiation very high-
the naturally radioactive environment. energy light with a wavelength
Radon is one of the few examples in nature of a gaseous element that shorter than x rays
results from the decay of a solid element and then decays into another solid
element. This increases its potentially harmful effect in humans. For example,
167
Radon

radon-222, the most common isotope of radon, is a product of the alpha decay
of radium-226 atoms, found in rocks. Radon-222 atoms subsequently produce
polonium-218 in a similar alpha-decay process, and it is this solid substance
that can lodge in human tissue.
Solid-state radionuclides remain where created by decay processes unless
they are redistributed by dissolving in groundwater or by becoming airborne.
Given the chemically inert nature of radon, there are no known compounds
that include this element. Thus isotopes of radon may diffuse away from their
place of origin and usually end up dissolved in ground water or mixed with air
above the soil and rocks that bear their solid precursors.
People’s exposure to radon primarily occurs when radon seeps out of air
spaces above soil or rocks and into surrounding indoor or outdoor air, such
as the basements of houses built over radium-bearing rocks. It is not exposure
to radon gas that actually may lead to harm, but exposure to the decay prod-
half-life the time required for ucts of radon, specifically the ones with short half-lives that emit alpha radi-
a pollutant to lose one-half of ation. Radon-222 offspring, like polonium-218 and polonium-214, become
its original concentration; for
example, the biochemical half- attached to dust particles that may be breathed in by people exposed to the
life of DDT in the environment gas and become lodged in the respiratory tract. Decay of the radon progeny
is fifteen years while in the lungs is the means by which the radiation dose is delivered to the
lungs. This dose, which is the energy of alpha particles absorbed by cells that
line the lungs, is what gives rise to the potential for lung cancer associated
with exposure to radon.
Radon has been labeled by the Environmental Protection Agency as the
second-leading cause of lung cancer in humans (after tobacco smoke), based
on mathematical risk estimates derived from many published studies of expo-
sure of subsurface uranium miners to highly elevated levels of the gas, pri-
marily radon-222. Many radiation health scientists have challenged such
findings because of the vast difference in exposure levels between homes and
buildings on the one hand, and subsurface mines on the other. However, a
variety of action levels and exposure limits for radon gas exposure have been
recommended or set into law for the protection of the public. The Surgeon
General and the EPA recommend that radon levels of four picocuries or
more inside homes be reduced. The EPA states that radon levels less than
four picocuries still pose a risk, especially for smokers.
Methods to both detect and mitigate indoor radon exposure have been
devised as well. Detection and measurement methods usually make use of a
device to collect radon gas atoms or the offspring particles. The simplest
real-time method would be a “grab sample,” in which air is drawn into an
evacuated flask that is then taken back to a laboratory for analysis. The most
popular short-term measurement device is the activated charcoal canister, a
small container of steam-treated charcoal that is opened and left at the sam-
pling location for a prescribed time. Radon is adsorbed by the charcoal, and
the decay products of the radon are analyzed after the canister has been
mitigation measures taken to resealed and retrieved. The simplest mitigation methods include sealing
reduce adverse impacts cracks and penetrations through foundations, as well as diverting the radon
away from the slab or out of the ground, with vacuum or ventilation systems.
S E E A L S O Cancer; Health, Human; Risk.

Bibliography
National Research Council. (1999). Health Effects of Exposure to Radon—BEIR VI.
Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.

168
 Recycling

National Research Council. (1999). Risk Assessment of Radon in Drinking Water. Wash-
ington, D.C.: National Academy Press.
Other Resources
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. “Indoor Air Quality: Radon.” Available from
http://www.epa.gov/radon.
Ian Scott Hamilton

Recycling
Recycling is any process that involves the recovery and reuse of materials that
were once considered trash. Recycling can be as simple as reusing some-
thing—such as a coat or computer—by passing it on for someone else to use.
Or, it can be as involved as reprocessing materials in metals, plastics, paper,
or glass to make new products.

An Old Idea Is Rediscovered

There is nothing new about recycling. People have found ways to reuse pot-
tery, gold, silver, and bronze for thousands of years. Old swords were melted
and reshaped to use as plows. Gold and silver jewelry were melted down and
reshaped into other forms. As recently as one hundred years ago, traveling
peddlers in the United States and Europe collected rags, bones, and scrap
metal waste from household garbage and sold them to manufacturers to
make into new products.
During the early twentieth century, Americans relied less and less on
recycling. By the 1950s the United States was labeled a “throw-away econ-
omy” because Americans were consuming increasing amounts of goods that
ended up in garbage landfills.
Recycling was revived in many Western countries back in the 1960s and
1970s as the public became interested in conservation and looked for ways to
reduce damage to the environment. In the United States, the first Earth Day
in 1970 is often viewed as the official beginning of the modern recycling
movement. On that day, hundreds of new recycling centers opened across the
country.
The recycling movement caught on in many other Western countries
during the next thirty years. Today, Germany recycles 30 percent of all of its
trash. Japan recycles over 50 percent of its trash, half of all wastepaper and
glass bottles, and more than 60 percent of its drink and food cans.
At the start of the twenty-first century, the United States recycling efforts
are behind many European nations. Americans generate twice the amount of
trash as Germans, but recycle less. According to the Environmental Protec-
tion Agency, the United States recycled 28 percent of its waste in 2002.
States vary widely in their recycling programs. Minnesota is the nation’s
leader in recycling with a rate of recycling 45 percent of all domestic waste.
Montana and Wyoming are at the bottom of the list, recycling less than 5
percent.

Why Recycle?
Recycling is one of the easiest steps anyone can take to reduce the impact
of humans on the environment. On average, each American produces
169
Recycling

approximately 3.5 pounds of garbage per day. That is 1,500 pounds per per-
son each year—or 90,000 pounds in a lifetime. Without recycling, all this
trash ends up in landfills.
In the 1970s many people believed that recycling’s greatest benefit was
the reduction of the number of landfills because this would reduce the pollu-
tion associated with landfills and preserve the land. More recently,
researchers have found multiple benefits to recycling.
1. Recycling saves natural resources. Recycling reduces the demand for
new materials from the environment. For example, by recycling paper,
fewer trees are needed to produce new paper.
2. Recycling saves habitats such as rain forests. By reducing the
demand for new materials (such as metals that must be mined and
refined) from the environment, more land and habitats can be preserved
and/or conserved.
3. Recycling saves energy and reduces emissions. In most cases, it
Aluminum cans in recycling bin
takes less energy to make new products from recycled materials than
at Portsmouth Recycling from virgin raw materials. For example, it takes 95 percent less energy
Center. (©Ian Harwood; to produce aluminum products from recycled aluminum than from the
Ecoscene/CORBIS. Reproduced raw materials of bauxite ore. In general, recycling of materials also pro-
by permission.)
duces less pollution than processing raw materials.
4. Recycling can be economical. Recycling is often less expensive than the
combined cost of processing new materials and managing waste disposal.
5. Recycling reduces the need for new landfills and incinerators.
Landfills and incinerators can emit hazards to the environment. When
landfills leak, hazardous solvents can contaminate underlying ground-
water—water that may be used for agriculture or as drinking water.
Landfills and incinerators also emit pollution into the air.
6. Recycling reduces the improper disposal of trash, such as littering.

Internal and External Recycling

Most people associate recycling with items such as newspapers, magazines,
plastics, aluminum, and glass. The recovery, reprocessing, and reuse of materi-
als from used items is called external recycling and requires public participation.
A second type of recycling, internal recycling, is the reuse of waste mate-
rials from manufacturing and does not involve the general public. For exam-
ple, the manufacture/production of copper items results in wasted copper
pieces; with internal recycling, these pieces are melted down and recast.
Although internal recovery is possible in many industries, it is most common
in the metal industry.
Because industrial waste accounts for 98 percent of all waste in the
United States, many critics of recycling advocate that more attention should
be paid to internal recycling than external recycling.

How External Recycling Works

External recycling involves three basic steps:
1. Recovery. Recovery is the collection of used items that can be recycled.
Many cities have drop-off centers or special curbside pickup programs
170
 Recycling

to collect recyclables. Recovery may include sorting and separation of

collected materials.
2. Reprocessing. Reprocessing is the conversion of used items into
reusable products. For example, glass is melted down and molded into
new bottles or paper is reprocessed into new paper. There are three
kinds of reprocessing: primary, secondary, and tertiary:
• Primary recycling is the reprocessing of materials into the same type
of product, such the recycling of used glass bottles into new glass
bottles.
• Secondary recycling is the reprocessing of materials into different
but similar products, such as processing corrugated cardboard boxes
into cereal boxes.
• Tertiary recycling is the reprocessing of a material into a product that
cannot be recycled again—for example, when mixed office paper is
reprocessed into bathroom tissue.
3. Marketing and sale of new items. One of the most challenging parts
of recycling is creating markets for recycled items. Recycling programs
depend on their ability to advertise and sell recycled items at competi-
tive prices. Recycling does not accomplish its goals if recycled items are
not used.

What Things Are Recycled?

There are four groups of materials that are commonly recycled today.
1. Standard recyclables. The most commonly recycled materials are alu-
minum, glass, paper products, steel, and plastics.
2. Hazardous wastes. Hazardous wastes include items such as antifreeze,
motor oil, paint, and batteries. Many cities have special centers to recy-
cle hazardous wastes.
3. Newer products. Some recycling centers have systems to reprocess
newer products such as compact and floppy disks.
4. Used automobiles and parts.
Aluminum. Aluminum cans are the most widely recycled metal. In 1999
roughly two-thirds of all aluminum cans produced in the United States were
recycled. However, not all forms of aluminum are recycled. For example, alu-
minum foil can be recycled, but not all recycling centers are set up to proc-
ess it.
Paper. Paper recycling is one of this country’s most successful recycling
programs. By weight, more paper is recycled each year than all other mate-
rials combined. The success of this program is in part due to the successful
marketing and sale of recycled paper. Recycled paper is widely used today.
Unfortunately, paper can only be recycled a limited number of times, because
the paper fibers become too short to continue reprocessing after awhile.
Newspaper. Every part of a newspaper can be recycled—including the
newspaper and inserts. Newspaper recycling has been profitable for decades.
Steel. Steel cans can be recycled many times. Recycled steel is used for
many products such as tin cans.
171
Recycling

R ECYC L IN G R AT E S O F S E L E C TE D M A T E R I A LS , 1 9 9 4

100%
93.7%

80%

60% 55.0%
53.1%

40% 35.3%

25.8%
22.9%
19.3%
20%
15.1%

0%
Auto Aluminum Steel Paper and Glass Yard Plastic Tires
batteries packaging cans paperboard containers waste containers

SOURCE: EPA Waste Characterization Report, Franklin Assoc., 1995

Plastics. Plastics are not biodegradable, so the best choice is to recycle

them. But plastics are a challenge for recycling centers. There are so many
different kinds of plastics that they are difficult for recycling centers to
reprocess; in fact, many plastics cannot be recycled. Those plastics that can
be recycled can only be recycled a few times. Today, most plastic containers
are marked on the bottom with a number in a triangle. Each number indi-
cates a different kind of plastic. This information allows recycling center staff
to identify plastic containers that can or cannot be recycled. Containers
marked one or two are the most commonly accepted plastics for recycling.
Hazardous wastes. Hazardous wastes include toxic materials such as
paints, solvents, motor oil, antifreeze, herbicides, and batteries. If these mate-
rials end up in landfills, the risk exists that they may leak into underlying
groundwater which people use for drinking. If incinerated, these materials
end up in the air. Many recycling centers have special programs for handling
hazardous wastes.
Batteries. Batteries contain many toxic ingredients, such as lead and cad-
mium, which can cause serious environmental damage if they are buried in
landfills. Many recycling centers direct customers to special dealers who
accept used batteries.
Computers. Used computers are a challenge for recycling, because they
need to be completely disassembled. Recently, a number of companies have
172
 Recycling

R E C YC L I N G R A T E S O F K E Y H O U S EHOLD I TEMS
(Post-consumer)

68% 66%
64% 1990 1992 1994
60%
53%
50%
47% 45%
40% 41%
40% 38%
33%
30%
23% 23% 27% 27%

20% 17%
12%

0%
Aluminum Yard Old Steel Plastic Soda Glass Bev.
Bev. Cans Waste Newsprint Cans Bottles Containers
SOURCE: Characterization of MSW Report, Franklin Assoc., 1995

started exploring ways to do this efficiently and cost effectively. Recycling of

computers is becoming increasingly important as the number of used com-
puters continues to grow. One computer manufacturer, Dell, is now offering
to take back old computers for reuse or recycling.
Automobile Recycling. For years, the economic incentives of recycling
parts from cars, trucks and other motor vehicles has made automobile recy-
cling a big business. In the United States, each year, more than eleven million
vehicles are sent to the junkyard because they have been damaged in acci-
dents or have reached the end of their life. About three-quarters of the
scrapped vehicles are recycled or their parts are resold. Every part from the
doors and windows to engines and transmissions are sold; other recyclable
metal parts are magnetically separated from other materials. The rest are
shredded and buried in landfills.
In the future, a smaller percentage of automobile parts will be recyclable
as cars are built with more nonmetal, nonrecyclable materials, unless the
automobile makers give serious attention to designing new cars that can be
recycled. New cars are being built with more and more high-tech gear and
hundreds of different materials that cannot be recovered.
Countries in the European Union have been exploring ways to encour-
age automobile manufacturers to take greater responsibility for the recycling
of “end of life” automobiles. Several countries have already implemented
“end of product responsibility” programs. For example, in the Netherlands,
car manufacturers are liable to pay a recycling fee when they market a vehi-
cle. The fee is then used to cover possible recycling costs.

Composting—Recycling Organic Materials

Composting is a method of recycling organic materials, such as certain food
waste and yard clippings, directly into the soil. Although there are many ways
to make composts, the basic idea is to mix yard clippings and food waste into
a pile with soil and let it decompose; worms, insects, and other organisms
173
Regulatory Negotiation

help break it down. Once the material in a compost has broken down, the
RECYCLING degraded material can be tilled into the soil and applied as nutrient-rich
The Netherlands recycled more mulch or material for plants.
than three quarters (77%)of the Composting offers an opportunity to provide a rich source of nutrients
approximately 65 million tons of for gardens and to reduce the amount of waste taking up space in landfills.
garbage it generated in 2000. Food and yard wastes currently make up about 30 percent of all wastes going
Public pressure to reduce dioxin into landfills. The airtight design of landfills slows down the decomposition
emissions from incineration of organic materials because they need oxygen to decompose. One commu-
plants and pollution from land- nity that has taken composting seriously is Halifax, Nova Scotia. Roughly 30
fills led to landfill taxes begin- to 50 percent of their waste is organic matter. In 1997 the Nova Scotia
ning in 1995 and a landfill ban Department of Environment passed a law banning the disposal of food, leaf
on combustible waste in 1997. In and yard waste from landfills. Through heightened use of composting and
addition, government-owned other programs, between 1989 and 2000, Nova Scotia’s per capita waste pro-
incineration plants were operated duction dropped from 720 kg to 356 kg. S E E A L S O Composting; Plastics;
below full capacity at the same Pollution Prevention; Reuse; Solid Waste; Waste Reduction.
time as incentives to expand the
Bibliography
recyclables market and encour-
age end-of-life producer respon- Ackerman, Frank. (1997). Why Do We Recycle? Washington, D.C.: Island Press.
sibility were initiated. Mandatory Cothran, Helen, ed. (2003). Garbage and Recycling: Opposing Viewpoints. Chicago:
Greenhaven Press.
separation of different types of
The Earthworks Group. (1989). 50 Simple Things You Can Do to Save the Earth. Berke-
industrial wastes, with recycling ley, CA: The Earthworks Press.
of construction and demolition
The Earthworks Group. (1990). The Recyclers Handbook: Simple Things You Can Do.
waste within a government Berkeley, CA: The Earthworks Press.
financed infrastructure, and League of Women’s Voters. (1993). The Garbage Primer: A Handbook for Citizens. New
municipal curbside pickups of York: Lyons and Burford Publishers.
organic waste for composting, Mc Donough, William, and Braungart, Michael. (2002). Cradle to Cradle: Remaking the
along with separated household Way We Make Things. New York: Northpoint Press.
recyclables, has decreased land- Nova Scotia Department of the Environment. (2001). Status Report 2001 of Solid
filling from 35 percent in 1985 to Waste-Resource Management in Nova Scotia. Halifax, NS: Nova Scotia Department of
the Environment.
9 percent in 2000.
Thompson, Claudia G. (1992). Recycled Papers: The Essential Guide. Cambridge, MA:
The MIT Press.

Internet Resources
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. “Municipal Solid Waste.” Available from
http://www.epa.gov/epaoswer/non-hw/muncpl/recycle.htm.
Global Recycling Network Web site. Available from http://grn.com.
Recycling Today Web site. Available from http://www.recyclingtoday.com.
Corliss Karasov

Regulatory Negotiation
Regulatory negotiation (also called negotiated rule making, policy dialogue,
shared decision making, or “reg-neg”) is a consensus-building process in
which representatives of affected parties and sectors of the public (termed
“stakeholders”) work together with government officials to develop policies or
regulations. Issues subjected to regulatory negotiation include car-emission
levels, risk from lead exposure, and contamination cleanup levels. These com-
plex interest-based processes utilize impartial process facilitators—often peo-
ple who are experienced mediators. Those interests participating in the
process are expected to abide by any resulting agreement and implement its
174
 Renewable Energy

terms. This agreement-seeking process usually occurs only after a thorough

conflict assessment has been conducted, and is generally undertaken with the
assistance of a skilled neutral mediator or facilitator. S E E A L S O Arbitration;
Consensus Building; Enforcement; Litigation; Mediation; Public Pol-
icy Decision Making.
Bibliography
Cormick, Gerald; Dale, Norman; Emond, Paul; Sigurdson, Glenn; and Stuart, B.
(1996). Building Consensus for a Sustainable Future: Putting Principles into Practice.
Ottawa, ON: National Round Table on the Environment and Economy.
Susskind, L., and Cruikshank, J. (1987). Breaking the Impasse: Consensual Approaches to
Resolving Public Disputes. New York: Basic Books.

Internet Resource
U.S. Institute for Environmental Conflict Resolution Web site. Available from
http://www.ecr.gov.
Susan L. Senecah

Remediation See Abatement; Cleanup

Renewable Energy
Renewable energy is energy that is regenerative or, for all practical pur- regenerative able to be regen-
poses, virtually inexhaustible. It includes solar energy, wind energy, erated or created anew
hydropower, biomass (derived from plants), geothermal energy (heat from
the earth), and ocean energy. Renewable energy resources can supply energy
for heating and cooling buildings, electricity generation, heat for industrial
processes, and fuels for transportation. The increased use of renewable
energy could reduce the burning of fossil fuels (coal, petroleum, and natural
gas), eliminating associated air-pollution and carbon dioxide emissions, and
contributing to national energy independence and economic and political
security.

Historical and Current Use

Before the 1900s, the world as a whole used wood (including wood converted
to charcoal) for heat in homes and industry, vegetation for feeding draft ani-
mals, water mills for grinding grain and milling lumber, and wind for marine
transportation and grain milling and water pumping. By the 1920s, however,
coal and petroleum had largely replaced these energy sources in industrial-
ized countries, although wood for home heating and hydroelectric power
generation remained in wide use. At the end of the twentieth century, nearly
90 percent of commercial energy supply was from fossil fuels.
Renewable energy, however, makes important contributions to world
energy supplies. Hydroelectric power is a major source of electrical energy in
many countries, including Brazil, Canada, China, Egypt, Norway, and Rus-
sia. In developing countries many people do not have access to or cannot
afford electricity or petroleum fuels and use biomass for their primary energy
needs. For example, most rural people in Africa use wood, scrub, grass, and
even animal dung for cooking fuel. Small-scale renewable energy technolo-
gies are often the only practical means of supplying electricity in rural areas
of these countries. The table indicates the relative consumption of energy
sources in the United States.
175
Renewable Energy

Eric Hassett, general manager

of Palo Alto Hardware,
Major Types of Renewable Energy Sources
standing next to solar panels Biomass. Biomass includes wood, agricultural crops and residues, munici-
on top of his store in
California. (AP/Wide World
pal refuse, wood and paper products, manufacturing process waste, and
Photos. Reproduced by human and livestock manure. It can be used to heat homes and buildings,
permission.) produce electricity, and as a source of vehicle fuel. Wood and paper manu-
facturers and sugar mills use biomass residues for process heat and electric-
ity production. There are power plants that burn wood, agricultural residues,
and household trash to produce electricity. Biogas (composed of methane,
anaerobic a life or process carbon dioxide, and other gases) produced by decomposing biomass in
that occurs in, or is not anaerobic conditions is captured from landfills, municipal sewage treatment
destroyed by, the absence of
oxygen plants, and livestock waste management operations. This gas can be used for
heat or to generate electricity.
Ethanol is used as a transportation fuel in the United States, Brazil, and
a few other countries. Nearly all the fuel ethanol in the United States is made
from corn, although it can also be produced from other sources, including
wastepaper. There is a small but growing consumption of “biodiesel” made
from grain oils and animal fats.
Geothermal systems. Geothermal energy (heat from the earth) created
deep beneath the earth’s surface is tapped to produce electricity in twenty-
two countries, some of which include the United States, Iceland, Italy,
Kenya, and the Philippines. Geothermal hot springs can also heat buildings,
greenhouses, fish farms, and bathing pools.
176
 Renewable Energy

Hydropower. Hydropower, produced from flowing water passing through An acid rain monitor,
monitoring in a high elevation
hydroelectric turbines, is the leading renewable energy source, contributing in forest. (U.S. EPA.)
to approximately 9 percent of the electricity generated in the United States.
Most hydropower is produced at large dams, although there are many small turbine machine that uses a
systems operating around the world, such as the small hydropower plant in moving fluid (liquid or gas) to
Namche Bazar, Nepal, which provides power for the tourist and market town gas to turn a rotor, creating
mechanical energy
near Mt. Everest. The production of hydroelectricity from year to year
varies with precipitation.
Ocean energy. The world’s oceans are a vast and practically untapped
source of energy. There are a few operating wave and tidal power plants
around the world, and several experimental ocean thermal energy conversion
(OTEC) plants have also been built. A small wave power plant in Norway
captures water from waves in a dam and lets the water out through a turbine.
A 240-megawatt tidal power facility on the Rance River in France produces
electricity as tidal flows move back and forth through turbines located at the
mouth of the river. In Hawaii, a small OTEC plan was built which uses the
temperature of warm surface water to evaporate cold seawater in a vacuum to
produce steam that turns a turbine and generator.
Solar energy systems. The simplest uses of solar energy are for drying
crops, and heating buildings and water. Solar-heated homes and solar water
heaters can be found in nearly every country around the world. Crops can be
simply laid in the sun to dry, or more sophisticated collectors can be used to
heat air to dry food stored on drying racks. Solar water heaters use collectors
177
Renewable Energy

to heat water that is stored in a tank for later use. Homes can be heated by
using a masonry floor to absorb sunshine coming through windows, or by
using solar collectors to heat a large tank of water than can be distributed for
heating at night.
Concentrated sunlight can be used to produce high-temperature heat
and electricity. Nine concentrating solar parabolic trough power plants, with
a combined generation capacity of 354 megawatts, are located in the Mojave
Desert in California. (A megawatt is 1 million watts, or 1,000 kilowatts.) The
U.S. Department of Energy built and tested a ten-megawatt solar thermal
central receiver power plant near Barstow, California, which operated suc-
cessfully for about seven years. Another type of concentrating solar thermal
power system is a parabolic dish. Systems with a capacity of up to twenty-five
kilowatts have been developed.
Photovoltaic (PV) systems are based on solar electric cells, which convert
sunlight directly to electricity. They can be used to power hand calculators or
in large systems on buildings. Many PV systems are installed in remote areas
where power lines are expensive or unfeasible, although the number of sys-
tems connected to electricity transmission systems is increasing, and range in
size from 1 to several kilowatts on houses, to systems over one hundred kilo-
watts on large buildings. PV systems are very suitable for use in developing
countries where people have no electricity from electric power lines.
Wind energy systems. Water-pumping and grain-milling windmills have
evolved into electric power turbines. There are now tens of thousands of
wind turbines operating around the world. They range in size from tiny tur-
bines on the back of sailboats to very large units that can produce as much as
178
 Renewable Energy

U.S. ENERGY CONSUMPTION AND ELECTRICITY

GENERATION, 1999

Energy Source (Quads*) (%Total) (Bill. kWh**) (%Total)

Total 96 85 3,641
Coal/Coal Coke 22 23 1,891 52
Petroleum 38 39 116 3
Natural Gas 22 23 546 15
Nuclear 8 8 674 19
Renewables (Total) 7.2 7.5 419 12
Hydro 3.5 3.6 339 9.4
Biomass/Biofuels 3.2 3.3 58 1.6
Geothermal 0.4 0.4 17 0.46
Solar 0.07 0.07 0.85 0.02
Wind 0.05 0.05 4.5 0.12
*A quad is quadrillion British Thermal Units (BTUs), and is the equivalent of about 180 million barrels of crude oil.
**Bill. kWh = a billion kilowatt-hours; One kilowatt-hour (kWh) is the equivalent of running a 100-watt lightbulb for 10
hours.
Note: values are rounded.

SOURCE: Energy Information Administration, U.S. Department of Energy.

2 to 3 megawatts of electricity, with 100-foot (30-meter) blades. They can be

installed on land and in shallow water in coastal areas.

The Future for Renewable Energy

Renewable energy has many advantages that will help to maintain and expand
its place in world energy supply:
• Renewable energy resources are enormous—hundreds of times
beyond the needs of world energy consumption in 2000.
• Advances in technologies are reducing manufacturing costs and
increasing system efficiencies, thereby reducing the cost of energy
from renewable resources.
• Negative environmental and health impacts of renewable energy use
are much fewer than those of fossil fuels and nuclear power.
• Many renewable energy technologies can produce energy at the point
of use, allowing homeowners, businesses, and industry to produce
their own power.
• There is strong support for renewable energy from people around the
world.
• Many governments have programs that support renewable energy use
to limit the emission of greenhouse gases and thereby reduce the
threat of global warming.
As fossil fuels such as oil and natural gas become scarce, they will become
more expensive. Some experts believe that demand for oil will exceed pro-
duction capability within the next twenty years.
Using energy conservatively and efficiently, no matter how it is produced
or where it comes from, is the most economical way to consume energy. Sim-
ply turning off lights and computers when they are not in use can save an
individual household or business money and reduce the environmental
impact associated with producing electricity.
179
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act

Bibliography
U.S. Energy Information Administration. (2001). Annual Energy Review 2000. Wash-
ington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Energy.
U.S. Energy Information Administration. (2001). International Energy Annual 1999.
Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Energy.
U.S. Energy Information Administration. (2001). Renewable Energy Annual 2000, with
Data for 1999. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Energy.

Internet Resource
Renewable Energy World. London: James & James Science Publishers. Available from
http://www.jxj.com.
U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy.
Available from http://www.eren.doe.gov.
Paul Philip Hesse

Resource Conservation and Recovery Act

The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) of 1976 is a federal
law aimed at protecting human health and the environment by safely man-
aging and reducing hazardous and solid nonhazardous waste. It gives the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) the task of controlling hazardous
waste, through safety regulations, permits, and inspections, from its creation
to disposal or from “cradle to grave.” RCRA also aims to conserve energy and
natural resources by giving states or regions the job of developing programs
for nonhazardous waste, such as recycling and waste reduction programs.
RCRA is an amendment to the 1965 Solid Waste Disposal Act. It became
effective in 1980 but does not apply to sites abandoned before this date,
which are addressed by the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Com-
pensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA).
The 1984 Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments (HSWA) to RCRA,
sometimes called the “land ban,” were a response to concern about hazardous
wastes leaking into groundwater. HSWA states that only treated hazardous
wastes may be disposed of on or beneath the ground, unless it can be guar-
anteed that they will not leak out. It also imposes safety requirements on
landfills and other land-based hazardous waste disposal facilities. These
include leakproof liners and systems to monitor and capture leachate. One
consequence of the costly treatment requirements for land disposal of haz-
ardous waste has been a reduction in the amount of hazardous waste; manu-
facturers have been motivated to substitute nonhazardous materials. HASW
also regulates the three to five million underground storage tanks (USTs)
containing petroleum and hazardous products, as distinct from waste. In Sep-
tember 1988 the EPA gave tank owners and operators ten years within which
to replace, upgrade, or close existing USTs. Regular inspections are required
to help prevent leaks.
In 2002, in one of the largest-ever hazardous waste settlements, Mobil
Oil Corporation agreed to pay $11.2 million for the alleged mismanagement
of benzene-contaminated waste in Staten Island, New York. Despite this and
other successes, many facilities holding hazardous waste permits have not
been inspected between 2000 and 2002, as required by RCRA, according to
information made public by the EPA. S E E A L S O Underground Storage
Tank.
180
 Reuse

Internet Resource
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. “Enforcement and Compliance History.”
Available from http://www.epa.gov.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. “RCRA.” Available from http://www.epa.gov.
Patricia Hemminger

Reuse
The reuse of products, materials, and parts can have significant environmen-
tal and economic benefits. Waste is not just created when consumers throw
items away. Waste is generated throughout the life cycle of a product, from
extraction of raw materials, to transportation to processing and manufactur-
ing facilities, to manufacture and use. Reusing items or making them with
less material decrease waste dramatically. Ultimately, less material will need
to be recycled or sent to landfills or waste-combustion facilities.
Used goods are widely available to industries, businesses, institutions,
and individuals. There are secondhand markets for entire industrial produc-
tion facilities, such as breweries and chemical production plants, as well as for
industrial, construction, and medical equipment. Used goods for individuals
include cars, clothes, books, furniture, household items, sports equipment,
and musical instruments. Sources of used goods include on-line auctions and
markets, secondhand merchandise stores, classified advertisements, estate
sales, auctions, rummage sales, yard sales, salvage yards, materials exchanges,
trash salvaging or “dumpster diving.”

Amount of Reuse
In the United States, several secondhand markets are $100 billion dollar IRISH PLASTIC BAG TAX
industries, and several more fall in the $1 to $10 billion range. Each year 40
In March 2002, stores across Ire-
million used cars are sold in the United States, nearly three times the num-
land began to charge an extra fif-
ber of new cars purchased. Overall, secondhand markets are almost as large
teen euro-cents for each plastic
as consumer recycling in terms of the amount of material processed (approx-
shopping bag, formerly given
imately fifty million tons of paper and ten million tons of glass are recycled
away to hold purchased mer-
annually in the United States), and the economic value of secondhand mar-
chandise. Before the “green” tax
kets is far greater than those for recycling.
was implemented, Ireland’s 3.9
A considerable percentage of secondhand goods are exported from the million people used about 1.2
United States, especially clothing; automobiles; and industrial, construction, billion plastic bags each year.
and medical equipment. In a number of countries, including the Czech After just five months, this num-
Republic, Nigeria, Uganda, and Zimbabwe, imports of used clothing com- ber was cut by ninety percent
pete strongly with the domestic production of new clothes. and 3.5 million euros had been
raised by the tax program to be
Theory of Reuse spent on environmental projects.
Reuse can reduce the pollution and resource use associated with manufactur- Shoppers now bring sturdy
ing a new item, and can delay or eliminate disposal of the item. In order to reusable shopping bags along
experience the greatest environmental benefits, reuse of an item needs to and enjoy the beautiful Irish
replace, at least partially, the purchase and production of a new item. In some countryside without the eyesore
situations, reuse may not incur any real benefits. For example, if a car owner of plastic bags caught on
sells or gives a car to someone who would not otherwise possess a car, and hedgerows and blown into
then buys a new car to replace the old one, the result is that there are now two gutters.
operating cars rather than one. In other situations, the reuse of an item may
181
Reuse

A woman donating clothes to

the Salvation Army at a
deposit drop-off site. (M.
Stone, U.S. EPA. Reproduced
by permission.)

have zero effect on the production or purchase of new items. For example, if
someone buys a “white elephant” at a rummage sale (perhaps a necklace or a
used compact disc), that purchase will not in any way prevent or replace the
purchase of a new item. However, even if reuse has no tangible environmen-
tal benefits, it can have economic and social welfare benefits. If the car exam-
ple above is reconsidered, for instance, two people, not just one, now own a
useful vehicle. In the compact disc example, the buyer acquires another disc
for his or her pleasure, and the seller earns some perhaps much needed cash.
Reuse can replace the production and purchase of new items, especially
when the first owner does not sell in order to be able to buy a new item.
Examples of this sort include clothes and furniture, which are typically given
away or sold at low prices by the first owners, and which second-hand buyers
often buy instead of new items.

Role of Government and Industry

The U.S. government is one of the largest purveyors of used goods in the
United States; it regularly sells surplus items through sealed bids, auctions,
182
 Right to Know

silent auctions, and fixed-price sales. On the other hand, government regula-
tions largely prevent the purchase of used items by the U.S. government and By reclaiming parts from eleven
require the labeling of products containing used parts in a way that may dis- million vehicles each year, auto-
courage the use of used parts by industry. motive salvage yards in North
America save both raw materials
There are both incentives and disincentives for reuse by industry. Reuse,
and millions of barrels of oil that
remanufacturing, repair, and refurbishment of products and parts can be eco-
would otherwise be used to
nomically beneficial for industry. For example, used copiers are often reman-
manufacture new replacement
ufactured and refurbished. A number of companies now sell modular,
parts. Municipal collection pro-
reusable carpet. On the other hand, firms in some cases have an incentive to
grams for latex paints have pro-
discourage reuse of their products, in order to maintain and increase pro-
vided considerable savings in
duction of new goods.
hazardous waste disposal fees
while providing usable paints to
Reuse by the Individual nonprofit organizations. Many
Individuals can maximize the environmental and economic benefits of their reuse activities such as thrift
own reuse efforts by carefully contemplating their reuse strategies, by devel- shops and rummage sales bene-
oping the ability to make repairs, and by learning about local sources of used fit charities and provide low-cost
goods and replacement parts. The environmental and economic benefits of or free goods to those in need.
reuse typically increase as the size and cost of the item increase. For example,
—Source: Reuse Development
new furniture is both resource-intensive and expensive. Repair, repainting,
Organization (ReDo). Available
and reupholstering of used furniture can replace the purchase of new furni-
from http://www.redo.org.
ture. The regular repair of shoes can considerably extend their life. Used
clothing, ranging from designer clothes at consignment stores to basic items
at rummage sales, is widely available. Used books, sports equipment, and
musical instruments are also available at local stores and on-line. Used build-
ing materials (doors, windows, hardware, etc.) are increasingly available at
salvage yards such as Urban Ore in Berkeley, California.
Reuse can have significant environmental and economic benefits by
replacing the purchase of a new item. Secondhand items range from large
industrial facilities and equipment to cars, sports equipment, clothes, and
toys for individuals. Businesses can benefit from secondhand markets both by
buying secondhand equipment and by selling surplus equipment for reuse.
Individuals can make a valuable contribution to the environment and their
own finances by learning to make repairs, by wisely shopping for secondhand
goods, and by selling or donating their unwanted goods so that others may
use them. S E E A L S O Recycling; Waste; Waste Reduction.
Bibliography
Dacyczyn, Amy. (1998). The Complete Tightwad Gazette: Promoting Thrift as a Viable
Alternative Lifestyle. New York: Villard Books.
Goldbeck, Nikki and David. (1995). Choose to Reuse. Woodstock, NY: Ceres Press.

Internet Resources
Reuse Development Organization (ReDO). Available from http://www.redo.org.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Solid Waste. “Source Reduction and
Reuse.” Available from http://www.epa.gov/epaoswer.
Valerie M. Thomas

Right to Know
An industrial democracy requires well-informed citizens. The use of public
information as a means of reducing harm from pollution evolved throughout
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Right to Know

the twentieth century. The Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906 and the Insec-
ticide Act of 1910 established mandatory content labeling for all products.
Consumers remained the primary recipients of such information until pres-
sure from unions and public interest groups led to the enactment of the Haz-
ardous Communication Standard Regulations in 1983, administered by the
Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). These regulations
required all private employers using hazardous substances to label containers
in the workplace, to train employees in safe practices, and to provide readily
available, action-oriented material safety data sheets (MSDS) for each con-
trolled substance. Each MSDS explains health risks from exposure and pro-
vides step-by-step procedures for accident response.
Nine months after the 1984 disaster in Bhopal, India, an accidental
release at a pesticide factory in West Virginia injured 150 people. It became
readily apparent that communities near industrial sites were both ignorant
about substances used in factories and poorly prepared for emergency
response. In the 1986 reauthorization of the Superfund Act (SARA), the U.S.
Congress added Title III, the Emergency Planning and Community Right to
Know Act (EPCRA). EPCRA requires states to establish local emergency
response planning committees that include elected officials and representa-
tives from emergency agencies, industry, the mass media, and the public.
Companies using regulated substances must provide an inventory of materi-
als to the local committee along with the corresponding MSDSs. A separate
section of EPCRA requires facilities to annually provide states with a Toxic
Release Report. These reports specify the quantity of toxic material released
or disposed of and where it ends up (landfill, underground injection, air,
water, and recycling). States forward these reports to the Environmental Pro-
tection Agency (EPA) for analysis and public distribution in what is known as
the annual Toxic Release Inventory (TRI), available on the Internet.
Citizens now have access to information regarding potentially harmful
substances in the products they buy, those used in their workplace, and those
released in their community. These data are used in making individual deci-
sions about place of employment and residence, as well as schools. Since
expenditures for operating each emergency planning committee are a local
decision, citizens and community groups play a critical role in generating ade-
quate support. Releases reported in TRI, except for emergency spills, are reg-
ulated by discharge permits. TRI can help reveal when the permits are being
violated or government enforcement is lax. This may be the basis for a citizen
lawsuit. The negative publicity associated with media coverage, coupled with
the pressure exerted by well-organized and persistent community groups, has
led many companies to reduce emissions well below legally permissible limits.
Numerous examples demonstrate the power of a well-informed public to
create change. A Michigan-based nongovernment organization (NGO), the
Ecology Center, has acted in conjunction with the Great Lakes Auto Pollu-
toluene carbon-containing tion Alliance to work with industry to implement major reductions in toluene
chemical used in fuel and as a air releases, the source of noxious community odors. Combined with U.S.
solvent
Census data on the population, TRI now plays a central role in “environmen-
tal justice” analyses of the distribution of pollution in low-income and minor-
ity communities. Since 1993, businesses in Canada have also been required to
report similar releases. These data are available on the Internet as the Cana-
dian National Pollution Release Inventory (NPRI). They play a critical role in
184
 Risk

local and regional environmental initiatives. For example, a Montréal NGO

used NPRI to compare discharges from local refineries. It found one facility
with double the benzene emissions of a similar facility. Public pressure led the
refineries to voluntarily pledge a reduction in emissions.
The right to know (RTK) laws have led to significant increases in
worker safety, the emergency preparedness of communities, and some major
voluntary reductions in facility emissions. Citizens can obtain company
inventory and MSDS information from their local emergency planning
committee. Via the Internet they can access TRI and MSDS information
from the EPA. Many environmental organizations also provide on the Inter-
net TRI or NPRI information combined with additional analysis tools such
as geographic information system maps. Users should be cautioned, how-
ever, about the limits of the data. Not all chemicals are regulated, and uses
below specified quantities are exempt. Some facilities fail to meet the self-
reporting requirements. A complete hazard assessment involves the analysis
of releases, pathways (such as an air plume), human exposures, and
dose–response relationship by population type. Most RTK information only
includes estimates of annual source releases. S E E A L S O Activism; Compre-
hensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act
(CERCLA); Environmental Justice; Government; Information, Access
to; Nongovernmental Organizations (NGOs); Occupational Safety
and Health Administration (OSHA); Public Participation.
Bibliography
Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act (EPCRA). SARA Title III,
42 U.S.C. 11001 et seq.
Hadden, Susan. (1989). A Citizen’s Right to Know. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

Internet Resources
Environment Canada. “National Pollutant Release Inventory.” Available from
http://www.ec.gc.ca/pdb.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. “Toxic Release Inventory: Community Right
to Know.” Available from http://www.epa.gov/tri.
Wolf, Sidney. (1996). “Fear and Loathing about the Public Right to Know: The Sur-
prising Success of the Emergency Planning and Community Right to Know Act.”
Journal of Land Use and Environmental Law 11(2):218–319. Also available from
http://www.law.fsu/edu/journals.
John P. Felleman

Risk
Risk is the potential for harm. Although the concept of risk—and some of the
same analytic tools—are also used in finance and actuarial science, as well as
to describe threats from natural events, this discussion focuses on risks to
human health and the environment from toxic pollution.

risk=f(hazard, exposure)
The magnitude and severity of risk are a function of the types of harm (i.e.,
the hazards, or what can go wrong) and the extent and likelihood of exposure.
If the elements of hazard and exposure are not both in play, there is no bio-
physical risk to health or the environment. However, the perception of risk can
be as damaging, with potential for destroying trust and sapping resources and
185
Risk

C H A R T DEP I CTI NG RELA TI ONS HI P BETWEEN LI K ELI HOOD A ND

C O N S E QUENCE

High
Risk Rating
High: Requires individual management
IR Tech. Cost attention and may require a separate
development phase or parallel develop-

Likelihood
Senior ment activities with a low risk fallback.
Medium X
Design
Medium: Requires a mitigation plan
and special management processes.

Low: No special risk mitigation

Low activities are required.

Low Medium High

Consequence

emotional energy. Maintaining an appropriate balance between the level of

social concern about a threat on the one hand and the extent of its social
impact or risk on the other hand is an ongoing challenge for risk communi-
cators, an engaged citizenry, and policymakers.

Hazards
Hazards to human health include cancers, asthma, skin rashes, infectious dis-
eases, eye and lung irritation, developmental problems, and broken bones.
Population hazards also include habitat destruction, resource degradation,
threats to public health from contamination of drinking water, bacterial
resistance to antibiotics, famine, and such macroconcerns as global climate
change. Of greatest consequence are hazardous effects that are irreversible or
long lasting, or which seriously compromise the length or quality of lives in
current and future generations. Hazards that will affect future generations, or
groups spatially removed from the root of the problem, may go unidentified
or be discounted in formulating an assessment of risk.

The Dose–Response Concept

The toxicity or severity of a hazard can be described by a dose–effect (also
called dose–response) relationship. This concept is conveyed graphically by
plotting dosage (amount or concentration of a toxin) against population.
Data for describing dose–response relationships are gathered from tests
in which groups of organisms are exposed to a toxin at a range of doses. Typ-
ically, as the dose increases, the toxic effect of concern is produced in more of
the population.
The dosage at which the specified effect is measured is called the effective
dose (ED). The percentage of the population affected is indicated by a sub-
script. So for example, ED10 refers to the dose at which 10 percent of the
population would be affected by the toxin. When the measured effect is mor-
tality, the term lethal dose (LD) or lethal concentration (LC) is used. An LD50 is
the dose at which 50 percent of a population is killed.
186
 Risk

CANCER CLUSTERS
When a number of people in a neighborhood or or with symptoms that are dissimilar or not obvi-
workplace develop the same disease within a ous, real disease clusters may not be noticed.
short period of time, it may signal a disease Conversely, clusters may be suspected due to
cluster. A disease cluster is defined by having misperception of a higher-than-average incidence
more cases of an illness within a particular geo- of cases, or when different diseases are per-
graphic area and time period than would be sta- ceived to be the same or to have stemmed from
tistically expected for a population with the the same cause.
same characteristics. Disease clusters can result
Cancer clusters are particularly difficult to prove
from exposures to hazardous materials in the
because (1) there are more than one hundred
local environment or from similar lifestyle risk
types of cancer, each with different associated
factors (i.e., people who live or work together
risk factors; (2) there is a typically long lag time
may have similar eating, exercising, or smoking
between exposure to environmental risk factors
habits).
and noticeable development of the cancer; and
Disease clusters can provide clues to the (3) the location of the suspected cluster may be
cause—or risk factors—associated with a dis- different than where a diseased person lived,
ease. They are easier to identify when a number worked, or went to school at the time they were
of people show the same symptoms soon after exposed. Cancer clusters are more likely to be
exposure, such as when nausea follows soon identified if a large number of individuals are
after eating spoiled food in a restaurant. With a diagnosed with a rare cancer or one that is rare
longer lag time or small number of sick people, for their age group.

At the same dose, chemicals that are more hazardous affect a greater pro-
portion of the population than do chemicals that are less hazardous. Thus
chemicals that are less hazardous have a higher ED50 or LD50 than do those
that are more hazardous.
While human beings are the population of ultimate interest in
dose–response studies of human health hazards, rodents are typically used as
surrogates in lab tests of the effects of the toxic materials. The process of
extrapolating results from rodents (or other indicator organisms) to people
introduces layers of uncertainty because of physiological, developmental, and
size differences between the species. Hazardous effects on plants and animals
are also studied using the same conceptual methods, both because of the
intrinsic value of these species and also, in some cases, because they are indi-
cators of indirect effects on the human population.

Population Variability
As dose–response relationships show, populations are not equally susceptible to
toxic hazards. Differences among individuals are due to gender, age, inherited
genetic makeup, and the wear and tear and immunities that develop during the
course of life. For example some people have inherited the genes that enable
them to detoxify certain pesticide poisons. These people do not get sick from
exposure at levels that make other people ill. Current research is linking bio-
markers for genetic risk factors to disease outcomes. As it becomes clearer why
people are differently vulnerable (or resistant), it also becomes more apparent
that the same risk-based standards may not be applicable across populations.
For example dietary iron is a risk factor for heart disease among middle-aged
men at concentrations considered beneficial to women of reproductive age.
187
Risk

D O SE– E F F E C T R E L A TI O N S H I P

50 x

40 Below
% Showing specified effect

detectable
limit
30

20
Safety factor,
e.g. 0.1, 0.01,
0.001 x NOEL
10 x

x x x
0
Lowest Regulation No Observable Effective ED25—i.e., ED50—i.e.,
Measurable Threshold: Effect Level Dose10 dose dose
Dose e.g. Reference (NOEL) (ED10)— affects 25% affects 50%
Dose (RfD) i.e., dose
affects 10%

Concentration or dose

Vulnerability to hazards also changes during our lifetimes, with greater

sensitivity to many toxins during fetal development, the rapidly developing
stages of early childhood, and puberty—although negative effects may not be
manifest until much later in life. For these reasons, among others, exposures
are not easily tied to disease outcomes (see sidebar). Just try to imagine, for
example, how you or your parents would struggle to respond accurately to a
survey asking which pesticides you were exposed to in early childhood, and in
what quantities! Some toxins and infections are particularly hazardous to
those with weakened immune systems and defenses, such as the elderly and
those whose systems are compromised due to other diseases or by interactive
effects with medical treatments or other chemical pollutants.

Exposure
Individuals are not at risk from the consequences of a hazard if they are not
exposed to it. The critical factor linking exposure to risk is the quantity of
toxin that is bioavailable to vulnerable organs or processes. However,
bioavailability degree of bioavailability is difficult to measure directly, so various measurement end-
ability to be absorbed and points are used as surrogates for exposure. For pesticides, these have included
ready to interact in organism
metabolism sales and use data, application dosages, residues on food, and fate-and-
transport data (i.e., what happens to a pesticide after application, where it
goes, and how fast it degrades). Exposures are sometimes estimated from
mathematical or simulation models that extrapolate from data collected by
empirical studies (e.g., the amount of pesticide reaching skin or clothing,
tracked indoors on shoes, or leached through soil into groundwater).
Estimates of exposure can vary widely, depending on the method for col-
lecting data, the surrogate indicator used, and whether the assumed range of
possible exposures is limited to permitted quantities or also includes acci-
dental or purposeful exposures at much higher levels.
188
 Risk

Risk-Based Decisions
The “X” factor is a major stum-
Whereas risk assessments are a product of the quality and choice of input bling block in communicating
data and the assumptions incorporated into the assessment model, the use- risk. Health standards are
fulness and relevance of a risk characterization depend largely on how the expressed in terms of 1 × 10–4 or
risk problem is perceived and formulated. A well-formulated problem must 1 × 10–6. This is a shorthand way
engage the perspectives of multiple “publics” and be integrated with of expressing the increased num-
decision-management options. Perceived options for risk management are ber of deaths that exposure to
constrained by societal values that determine what are considered acceptable the contaminant of concern is
risks and by the resources invested for risk mitigation (i.e., for preventing or likely to cause over a given
remediating the problem). period of time. A 1 × 10–4 risk is a
The National Research Council framework for using risk to “inform 1 in 10,000 (4 zeroes) risk; a
decisions in a democratic society” (1996) iteratively builds from a multifac- 1 × 10–6 risk is a 1 in 1,000,000
eted formulation of the problem incorporating all aspects of risk analysis. As risk. Since risk is dose (level of
defined by the Society for Risk Analysis, the premier professional organiza- exposure) times time (length of
tion in the field, these components include risk assessment—or the quantifi- exposure), a 30-year 1 × 10–6
cation and description of hazards and exposure, risk characterization, risk health standard for cancer risk is
communication, risk management, and policy relating to risk. Criteria for a the level of exposure that would
successful risk-based decision process are listed in the following table. be expected to cause one addi-
tional case of cancer in a popula-
The assessment and regulation of sewage-sludge disposal provides a tion of one million people
good illustration of the potential and foibles of risk-based decision making, exposed at that level for 30
underscoring the importance of a participatory and iterative analytical and years.
deliberative process in setting risk standards and developing protective envi-
ronmental policies.

Risks from Sewage Sludge:

A Cross-Country Comparison
Sewage sludge is the semisolid or concentrated liquid residue generated dur-
ing the treatment of wastewater. In addition to biodegradable organic mate-
rial, sludges can contain pathogens (disease organisms) and industrial
pollutants (such as heavy metals) that can be damaging to human health.
Among the means for disposing of sludges—by incineration, landfilling, or
spreading across farmland and other open space—only land application has
the benefit of returning the fertilizing nutrients in sludge to the soil.
However, land application also has associated risks, including the long-
term effects of increasing the concentration of nondegradable contaminants
in the soil. These elements can be taken up into food plants, ingested by chil-
dren who put soiled hands into their mouths, eroded into surface waters, or
leached into groundwater.
The benefits and risks of sludge disposal accrue to different groups: The
advantages of cheap disposal are reaped by those generating waste. The ben-
efits from fertilizing nutrients are reaped by farmers and other land man-
agers. Risks accrue to those who may ingest the toxins through the media of
food, soil, water, or air, now and especially in the future, when toxins will
have accumulated to higher levels.
In 1993 the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency established stan-
dards for land-application of sludge, setting limits for permitted quantities of
nine pollutants—arsenic, cadmium, copper, lead, mercury, molybdenum,
nickel, selenium, and zinc—on the basis of a risk assessment. A maximum
189
Risk

C R I T E R I A FOR S UCCES S FUL RI S K -BA S ED DECI S I ON P ROCE S SES

Criterion Measurement Procedure

Getting the science right Ask risk analytic experts who represent the spectrum of
interested and affected parties to judge the technical adequacy
of the risk-analytic effort

Getting the right science Ask representatives of the interested and affected parties how
well their concerns were addressed by the scientific work that
informed the decision

Getting the right participation Ask public officials and representatives of the interested and
affected parties if there were other parties that should have
been involved

Getting the participation right Ask representatives of the parties whether they were adequately
consulted during the process; if there were specific points
when they could have contributed but did not have the
opportunity

Developing accurate, balanced, Ask representatives of the parties how well they understand the
and informative synthesis bases for the decision; whether they perceived any bias in
information coming from the responsible organization

SOURCE: National Research Council (1996). Understanding Risk: Informing Decisions in a Democratic Society.
Washington D.C., National Academy Press.

concentration load (MCL) per unit quantity of sludge was derived from an
assessment of how much of each element a person could be exposed to in
their lifetime without causing unacceptable harm. To calculate the MCL,
assumptions were made about the body size of this person and what they
would eat in the course of a lifetime (and therefore how much of each pollu-
tant would be consumed). The model person used for the calculations was a
young adult male who did not eat many vegetables (the food group that accu-
mulates the heavy metals). Some therefore argue that this risk assessment is
not sufficiently protective of children and of people who eat many vegetables
or would otherwise be exposed to greater contaminant levels.
Several European countries (as well as Canadian provinces) have estab-
lished more conservative standards, permitting only much lower contaminant
levels in sludges that will be recycled through land application. The policy
objective of these standards is to prevent the concentration of contaminants
from accumulating above the level in soils where sludge has not been applied
(i.e., above background levels). However, this approach lacks risk-based cri-
teria, since background levels of contaminants vary greatly with the type of
soil and how they have been used over time. (European soils have been the
site of industrial and agricultural activities for centuries.)
It is entirely possible that comparably protective standards could have
emerged in the United States from a risk-based policy that was more appro-
priately sensitive to vulnerable subpopulations, that incorporated protective
buffers to compensate for current scientific uncertainties about the hazards of
these elements, and that assumed higher levels of possible exposure through
food, soil, and airborne particles.
The summary lesson to be taken from this comparison is that no matter
what framework or assumptions are used—whether it be risk analysis or some
other—decisions regarding health and the environmental protection are
based on an intermixed combination of social values and science, neither of
190
 Rivers and Harbors Appropriations Act

which is objective nor without uncertainty. While the view and measure of
“risk” are not the same for all, the concept of “risk” remains meaningful and
useful; “risk reduction” is a critical objective across all policy arenas; and the
framework and tools of risk analysis offer a structured approach for evaluat-
ing, prioritizing, and acting on environmental and health issues.
Bibliography
Harrison, E.Z.; McBride, M.B.; and Bouldin, D.R. (1999.) “Land Application of
Sewage Sludges: An Appraisal of the US Regulations.” International Journal of
Environment and Pollution 11(1):1–36.
National Research Council. (1996). Understanding Risk: Informing Decisions in a Demo-
cratic Society. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.

Internet Resources
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. “Cancer Clusters.” Available from http://
www.cdc.gov/nceh/clusters.
Cornell University, Environmental Risk Analysis Program. “Links to Risk Analysis
Resources & Organizations.” Available from http://environmentalrisk.cornell.edu/
ERAP/RiskLinks.cfm.
National Cancer Institute. “Cancer Clusters, Cancer Facts.” Available from http://
cis.nci.nih.gov/fact/3_58.htm.
Society for Risk Analysis. “Risk Glossary.” Available from http://www.sra.org/
glossary.htm.
Lois Levitan

Rivers and Harbors Appropriations Act

The modern form of the Rivers and Harbors Act was enacted in 1890, and
amended by the Rivers and Harbors Appropriation Act of 1899, also known
as the Refuse Act. It was amended again several times during the twentieth
century. In general, the act prohibits the dumping of refuse into navigable
waters or the creation of any navigational obstruction, and it regulates the
construction of wharves, piers, jetties, bulkheads, and similar structures in
ports, rivers, canals, or other areas used for navigation.
Although the Clean Water Act now predominates in the regulation of
surface water pollution, the Rivers and Harbors Act remains valid law. It pro-
vides useful supplemental jurisdiction for addressing certain kinds of water
pollution, and especially for dredge and fill activities. As with the Clean
Water Act, discharges of refuse or fill material, or construction activities in
waterways, require a permit. The permitting agency is the Army Corps of
Engineers rather than the Environmental Protection Agency, reflecting the
essentially navigational concerns of this legislation.
The Rivers and Harbors Appropriations Act imposes civil and criminal
penalties. Criminal convictions discourage activities that either directly or
indirectly seek to evade permitting requirements. Statutory shortcomings
include the absence of a state role and the act’s inapplicability to municipal dis-
charges. In addition, earlier case law restricted its application to actual inter-
ference with navigation, rather than construing the act as widely applicable to
activities in navigable waters. More recent case law, however, has broadly rein-
terpreted the act’s purpose and specifically the term “obstruction.”
As a result of this trend, the U.S. Army Corps’ inclusion of environmental
considerations, such as the effect of a structure on vegetal habitat and the
191
Sagebrush Rebellion

impacts of resulting shadows, in reaching its permitting decisions has been

upheld. Nonetheless, recent law has also upheld, against environmental chal-
lenges, Army Corps’ environmental assessments and environmental impact
statements that minimized or rejected claims of adverse impacts, even when the
Army Corps differed with the EPA on practical alternatives. As a consequence,
the Rivers and Harbors Appropriations Act is useful for environmental chal-
lenges, especially in view of its criminal penalties, but challengers should not
assume that the statute will always be successful in a legal setting in achieving
environmental goals. Its usefulness as a means of reducing or eliminating pol-
lution is restricted. S E E A L S O Laws and Regulations, United States.
Bibliography
Weinberg, Philip, and Reilly, Kevin A. (1998). Understanding Environmental Law. New
York: Matthew Bender & Co.

Internet Resource
Hudson Watch Web site. “The Nation’s Original Environmental Statute.” Available
from http://www.hudsonwatch.net/fyi.html.
Kevin Anthony Reilly

Sagebrush Rebellion See Wise Use Movement

S Science
Scientists collect samples of air, water, soil, plants, and tissue to detect and
monitor pollution. Pollutants are most often extracted from samples, then
chromatography means of isolated by a technique called chromatography and analyzed by appropriate
resolving a chemical mixture detection methods. Many pollutants are identified by their spectral finger-
into its components by pass-
ing it through a system that
prints, unique patterns of absorbed or emitted radiation in the ultraviolet
retards each component to a (UV), visible, or infrared (IR) region of the electromagnetic spectrum.
varying degree Biomonitoring and technologies including satellite observation, sidescan
electromagnetic spectrum the sonar, and bioluminescent reporter chips are also used for pollution moni-
range of wavelengths of light toring. In the United States, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
energy, including visible light, (EPA) approves the methods for monitoring regulated pollutants such as pes-
infrared, ultraviolet, and radio
waves ticide residues and those in air and drinking water.
biomonitoring the use of living
organisms to test the suitabil- Sampling and Extraction
ity of effluents for discharge
into receiving waters and to Air can be actively or passively sampled. Actively sampled air is
test the quality of such waters pumped through a filter or chemical solution. For example, airborne lead,
downstream from the dis- mostly originating from metals processing plants, is collected on filters by
charge; analysis of blood,
urine, tissues, etc. to measure active sampling and then analyzed spectroscopically. Air that is not pumped
chemical exposure in humans but allowed to flow or diffuse naturally is passively sampled. Nitrogen
bioluminescence release of oxides, resulting from vehicle emissions and combustion, can be monitored
light by an organism, usually in passive sampling tubes by their reaction with triethanolamine to form
a bacterium nitrates. The tubes are taken to a laboratory and the amount of nitrate
adherence substances: stick- analyzed.
ing to; regulation: abiding by
Liquid or solid extraction removes a mix of pollutants from samples. In
absorption the uptake of liquid extraction, samples are shaken with a solvent that dissolves the pollu-
water, other fluids, or dissolved
tants. Solid extraction involves the adherence or absorption of pollutants to
chemicals by a cell or an
organism (as tree roots absorb a solid that is then heated to release a mix of vaporized pollutants which are
dissolved nutrients in soil) subsequently analyzed.
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 Science

S E L E C T E D IN S T R U M E N TA L D E TE C T I O N M E THODS

Chemical Method
Anions in water (e.g., Ion exchange chromatography/conductivity detector
nitrate, phosphate,
sulfate, bromide, fluoride,
chloride)

Criteria pollutants sulfur Ultraviolet absorption spectroscopy

dioxide, ozone, nitrogen
oxides

Dioxins and furans High-resolution gas chromatography/high-resolution mass

spectrometry

Greenhouse gases carbon Infrared absorption spectroscopy

dioxide, methane and
nitrous oxide

Herbicides diquat and High-performance liquid chromatography/ultraviolet spectroscopy

paraquat in drinking water

Chlorinated disinfection by- Gas chromatography/electron capture detector or mass

products, haloacetic acids spectrometry

Hydrocarbons in vehicle Infrared absorption spectroscopy

emissions

Metals Inductively coupled plasma–atomic emission spectrometry or

mass spectrometry or graphite furnace atomic absorption
spectrometry for trace amounts (e.g. arsenic and lead)

Mercury Cold vapor atomic absorption spectrometry

Organophosphate Gas chromatography/nitrogen/phosphorus detector

pesticides (e.g. malathion,
parathion)

PCBs, chlorinated pesticides Gas chromatography/electron capture detector or mass

(e.g. DDT, lindane) and spectrometry
herbicides in water

Phthalates in water or Gas chromatography/electron capture or photoionization detector

biological samples or mass spectrometry

Toxic gases such as Ultraviolet or infrared absorption spectroscopy

hydrogen sulfide, ammonia,
styrene, hydrogen fluoride

Volatile organic compounds Gas chromatography/photoionization and electrolytic conductivity

(VOCs) in water detectors in series

Volatile organic compounds Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy

in air

Chromatography
Chromatography is the method most often used in environmental chemistry
to separate individual pollutants from mixtures. The mixture to be analyzed
is added to a liquid or gas, depending on whether liquid or gas chromatogra-
phy is employed. The liquid or gas, called the mobile phase, is then forced
through a stationary phase, often a column packed with solid material that
can be coated with a liquid. The stationary and mobile phases are chosen so
that the pollutants in the mixture will have different solubilities in each of
them. The greater the affinity of a pollutant for the stationary phase, the
longer it will take to move through the column. This difference in the migra-
tion rate causes pollutants to separate.
A chromatogram is a graph of intensity peaks that are responses to a
detection method, indicating the presence of a pollutant, plotted against time.
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D I A G R A M OF A GA S CHROMA TOGRA P H

Flow Injector
controller port

Recorder

Detector
Column

Column oven
Carrier
gas

Individual pollutants are identified by comparing their chromatogram to one

for the suspected compounds under the same conditions. The pollutant con-
centration is determined from the height of the peaks and area under them.
Different kinds of chromatography work best for different pollutants.
Gas chromatography separates organic chemicals that vaporize easily
(VOCs). Benzene and ethylbenzene are VOCs in vehicle exhaust and are
monitored in drinking water. Many pesticides, polychlorinated biphenyls
(PCBs), and dioxin are separated by gas chromatography. Less volatile sub-
stances such as the herbicide diquat are isolated by high-performance liquid
chromatography (HPLC). Ion exchange chromatography separates inor-
ganic ions such as nitrates that can pollute water when excess fertilizer or
leaking septic tanks wash into it.

Detectors
Chromatographic methods are routinely automated. A detector that
responds to the pollutants’ physical or chemical properties analyzes the gas or
liquid leaving the column. Detectors can be specific for individual pollutants
or classes of pollutants, or nonspecific.
Nonspecific Detectors. Flame ionization, thermal conductivity, and mass
spectrometry are common nonspecific detection methods that detect all mol-
ecules containing carbon and hydrogen. In mass spectrometry, molecules of
a gas are energized in a variety of ways, such as bombardment with electrons
or rapid heating, causing them to gain or lose electrons. Because they have
different masses and charges, the resulting ions are separated when they pass
through magnetic and electric fields. The size and distribution of peaks for
ions with different mass-to-charge ratios, known as the mass spectrum, iden-
tify the gas and determine its concentration. Gas chromatography coupled
with high-resolution mass spectrometry definitively identifies PCBs and is
the most accurate way to determine their concentration. Portable gas chro-
matograph/mass spectrometers can measure VOCs in soil and water to parts
per billion (ppb).
Specific Detectors. Methods that detect classes of pollutants include nitro-
gen/phosphorous detectors for organophosphate pesticides, thermionic
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ionization detectors that detect molecules containing NO2, nitro groups,

such as dinitrotoluene and electron capture. Electron capture is particularly
sensitive to compounds, such as organohalide pesticides that contain the
halogen atoms, chlorine, bromine, or fluorine. These atoms strongly attract
electrons. The electron capture detector emits electrons that are captured by
the halogens atom. The reduction in electric current corresponds to the con-
centration of pollutant. Chlorinated disinfection by-products, haloacetic
acid, and phthalates in drinking water can be separated by gas chromatogra-
phy and measured by electron capture. Sulfur hexafluoride, an ozone-
depleting gas, can be measured to parts per trillion (ppt) by electron capture.
Spectroscopic detection methods including IR, UV, and atomic absorption
and emission spectroscopy are unique for specific compounds.
Spectroscopic Detection. The electromagnetic spectrum encompasses all
forms of electromagnetic radiation from the most energetic cosmic and
gamma rays to the least energetic radio waves. The part of the spectrum that
is particularly useful in identifying and measuring pollutants consists of radi-
ation that interacts with the atoms and molecules that make up life on Earth.
This includes radiation in the UV, visible, and IR regions.
Atomic Spectra. Atoms of different elements may be thought of as having
different arrangements of electrons around the nucleus in increasing energy
levels. When metals such as lead, copper, and cadmium are vaporized at high
temperatures, some electrons jump to higher energy levels. When the elec-
trons drop to their original levels, the metal atoms emit radiation in a range
of wavelengths from IR to UV, including visible light. The colors in fire-
works result from such emissions. The wavelengths emitted constitute a
unique “fingerprint” for each element and their intensity reflects the metal
concentration. Inductively coupled plasma emission spectra (ICP–AES), in
which a high-temperature gas or plasma excites metal atoms, are used to
identify and quantify heavy metal contamination.
The same spectral fingerprint is obtained from the wavelengths of light
that each element absorbs. Trace amounts of certain metals such as mercury
and arsenic are more accurately measured from their absorption, rather than
their emission spectra.
UV and IR Spectra. Many pollutants can be identified by their UV and IR
spectra because all molecules that absorb strongly at specific wavelengths
exhibit spectral fingerprints. Pollutants separated by liquid chromatography
are often detected by spectroscopy. Gases such as those from vehicle emis-
sions, landfills, industrial manufacturing plants, electric power plants, and
hazardous incineration smokestacks can be monitored by spectroscopic
methods. Gas and chemical leaks may also be monitored by spectroscopy.
UV Absorption Spectra. Toxic gases such as hydrogen sulfide, ammonia,
and styrene can be monitored by their UV absorption spectra. Open path open path monitor detection
monitors emit UV radiation from a source, such as a bulb containing excited device that employs a beam of
light passing through an open
xenon gas, across the area to be monitored. Detectors record the absorbed space
wavelengths to produce a spectral fingerprint for each gas. Ammonia is often
used as a coolant for turbine generators in power plants. It can be monitored
for worker safety by its UV spectrum. The EPA has established National
Ambient Air Quality standards for the six criteria pollutants: carbon monox-
ide, lead, nitrogen dioxide, ozone, particulate matter, and sulfur dioxide.
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D IAG R AM O F T H E E L E C T R O M A G N E TI C S P E CTRUM

Visible

Radio Microwaves Infrared Ultraviolet X-ray Gamma Ray

Low Frequency High Frequency

Long Wavelength Short Wavelength

Satellite instruments monitoring stratospheric ozone generally measure

the decrease in intensity in UV solar radiation due to ozone absorption. The
total ozone mapping spectrometer on the Earth probe satellite (TOMS/EP)
scans back and forth beneath the satellite to detect six individual frequencies
of UV light that are scattered by air molecules back through the stratosphere.
The more ozone in the stratosphere, the more “backscattered” UV radiation
will be absorbed compared to UV radiation directly from the sun.
Some IR open path monitors use a tunable diode laser source in the near
IR. The laser emits the specific frequency at which a monitored gas absorbs,
so there is no interference from other gases or particles such as rain or snow.
Such lasers are widely employed in the telecommunications industry. Pollu-
tants that absorb at specific wavelengths in this range include hydrogen fluo-
ride, an extremely toxic gas used in the aluminum smelting and petroleum
industries. Hydrogen fluoride can be monitored to one part per million
(ppm) for worker safety by this method.
The greenhouse gases carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, and methane may
also be monitored by IR spectroscopy. Currently, emissions of carbon diox-
ide from power plants are not generally measured directly but are estimated.
However, the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere over Mauna Loa
has been measured continuously by IR spectroscopy since 1958. The Mauna
Loa Observatory is located on the earth’s largest active volcano on the island
of Hawaii. It is relatively remote from human activity and changes in carbon
dioxide concentration above it are considered a reliable indicator of the
trend of carbon dioxide concentration in the troposphere. Data from Mauna

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Loa show a 17.4 percent increase in carbon dioxide concentration from

315.98 parts per million (ppm) by volume of dry air in 1959 to 370.9 ppm
in 2001.
Remote sensors for vehicle emissions contain units that detect and meas-
ure carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and hydrocarbons by their IR spectra.
Because IR absorption bands from water and other gases found in car exhaust
interfere with the IR spectrum of NOx, the sensor also contains a unit that
measures NOx from their UV absorption spectra.
Fourier transform IR spectroscopy (FTIR) analyzes the absorption absorption spectrum “finger-
spectrum of a gas mixture to detect as many as twenty gases simultaneously. print” of a compound gener-
ated when it absorbs
The technique involves analyzing the spectra mathematically and then com- characteristic light frequencies
paring the observed fingerprints with calibrated reference spectra stored on
the hard drive of the computer to be used for analysis. Reference spectra for
more than one hundred compounds are stored, including most of the VOCs
considered hazardous by the EPA. Instruments that use UV Fourier trans-
form analysis are now available. The instruments are generally installed at
one location, but are portable and can be battery operated for short-term sur-
veys. Multiple gas-monitoring systems are used in a variety of industries,
including oil and gas, petrochemical, pulp and paper, food and beverage,
public utility, municipal waste, and heavy industrial manufacturing.

Biomonitoring
Biomonitoring is the study of plants, vertebrate, and invertebrate species to
detect and monitor pollution. Moss and lichens absorb heavy metals, mainly
from air, and have been analyzed by scientists studying air pollution.
Water pollution can be studied by recording changes in the number and
type of species present and in specific biochemical or genetic changes in indi-
vidual organisms. Blue mussels accumulate metals in certain tissues over time
and are monitored in the United States and international waters for changes
in pollution levels. The index of biotic integrity (IBI), first developed by
James Karr in 1981 to assess the health of small warmwater streams, uses fish
sampling data to give a quantitative measure of pollution. Twelve indicators
of stream health, appropriate to the geographical area, including the total
number of fish, the diversity of species, and food chain interactions, are
numerically rated with a maximum of five points each. An IBI close to sixty
corresponds to a healthy stream, whereas a rating between twenty and twelve
implies a considerable pollution. Versions of the IBI with appropriate indica-
tors are used to assess rivers and streams in France, Canada, and different
regions of the United States.

Bioluminescent Reporter Technology

In bioluminescent reporter technology, bacteria that break down pollutants
are genetically modified to emit blue green light during the degradation
process. The bacteria are embedded in a polymer porous to water and com- polymer a natural or synthetic
bined with a light sensor integrated with a silicon computer chip. The sensor chemical structure where two
or more like molecules are
measures the intensity of the glow to determine the amount of pollution, and joined to form a more
that information is transmitted to a central computer. complex molecular structure
(e.g., polyethylene)
Bioluminescent reporter technology is still being studied by researchers,
but is currently employed in some wastewater treatment plants in the United
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Kingdom. Incoming wastewater is monitored for chemicals that inhibit the

When New Jersey inventors John bacterial activity necessary for efficient wastewater treatment. The incoming
Mooney and Carl Keith invented water is automatically sampled and mixed with freeze-dried luminescent
the three-way catalytic converter bacteria from the treatment plant. A reduction in light intensity compared to
in 1974, the Wall Street Journal a control with pure water indicates the chemical inhibition of wastewater
called it a $20 million mistake. microorganisms. This technology is also being used to identify petroleum
Industry estimates today credit pollutants, such as napthelene.
the catalytic converter with pre-
venting fifty million tons of car- Sidescan Sonar
bon monoxide and fifty million
Sidescan sonar instruments bounce sound off surfaces both vertically and at an
tons each of hydrocarbons and
angle to produce images of sea and riverbeds. Because PCBs tend to stick pref-
nitrogen oxides from polluting
erentially to organic matter, there is a greater possibility of finding them in
the air worldwide. In addition,
small-grain aquatic sediments, since these contain more organic material. The
the use of catalytic converters
EPA has analyzed sound reflection patterns from sidescan sonar data to iden-
required that lead be removed
tify areas of small grain size and selectively sample for PCBs in the Hudson
from gasoline.
River, New York. Sidescan sonars are also used to detect sea grass, an indica-
tor of marine health, and sewage or oil leaks from underwater pipelines.

Regulations
Once a potentially harmful pollutant is measured in trace amounts, then reg-
ulators, such as the EPA, have to decide on a safe limit. Risk analysis is the
method used to set limits on harmful pollutants in the United States. Risk is
epidemiological epidemiology: calculated based on laboratory tests, sometimes on animals, and epidemio-
study of the incidence and logical studies that relate human health to exposure.
spread of disease in a
population Risk analysis is conducted for individual pollutants, but people can be
exposed to multiple pollutants simultaneously, such as pesticides, heavy met-
als, dioxins, and PCBs. Even though a person’s exposure to individual chem-
icals may fall within regulated limits, the pollutants may interact to cause as
yet unknown adverse health effects. It is known, for instance, that exposure
to both asbestos and tobacco smoke geometrically increases the risk of can-
cer. Because there are so many potentially harmful chemicals in the environ-
ment scientists cannot predict all their possible interactions and consequent
health effects on the body. S E E A L S O Air Pollution; Arsenic; Dioxin;
Greenhouse Gases; Heavy Metals; Lead; Mercury; Ozone; PCBs (Poly-
chlorinated Biphenyls); Pesticides; Risk; Vehicular Pollution; VOCs
(Volatile Organic Compounds); Water Treatment.
Bibliography
Csuros, Maria. (1997). Environmental Sampling and Analysis Lab Manual. Boca Raton,
FL: Lewis Publishers.
Manahan, Staley E. (2001). Fundamentals of Environmental Chemistry, 2nd edition. Boca
Raton, FL: Lewis Publishers.
Schnelle, Kard B., Jr., and Brown, Charles A. (2002). Air Pollution Control Technology
Handbook. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.

Internet Resources
Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center Web site. “Atmospheric Carbon Diox-
ide Record from Mauna Loa.” Available from http://cdiac.esd.ornl.gov/trends/co2/
sio-mlo.htm.
Goddard Space Flight Center Web site. “Ozone Measurements, TOMS on Earth
Probe Satellite.” Available from http://toms.gsfc.nasa.gov/eptoms.
University of Tennessee. Center for Environmental Biotechnology Web site. “Bio-
reporter Research Projects.” Available from http://www.ceb.utk.edu.

198
 Scrubbers

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water. “Approved Methods for

Inorganic Chemicals and Other Parameters.” Available from http://www.epa.gov/
safewater.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Technology Transfer Network Emissions
Measurement Center. “CFR Promulgated Test Methods.” Available from http://
www.epa.gov/ttn.
U.S. Geological Survey. National Environmental Methods Index Web site. Available
from http://www.nemi.gov.
Patricia Hemminger

Scrubbers DI A GRA M OF A S CRUBBER

Scrubbers are air-pollution-control devices that remove harmful gases and
particulates from the smokestacks of incinerators, chemical manufacturing
"Clean"
facilities, and electric power plants before they enter the atmosphere. There Gas Out
are different types of scrubbers, including wet and dry, regenerative and non-
regenerative. Regenerative scrubbers recycle the material that extracts the
pollutants.
Column Packed
The nonregenerative wet scrubber is most commonly used to capture with Calcium
sulfur dioxide emitted from coal and oil burning power plants. It works by Hydroxide

spraying limestone and water slurry into the flue gases. Sulfur dioxide reacts
with limestone to form gypsum or calcium sulfate. The gypsum sludge is dis-
posed of in landfills or recycled in saleable byproducts such as wallboard,
concrete, and fertilizer. Regenerative scrubbers can also be used; one reacts Liquid Out
sodium sulfite with sulfur dioxide to form sodium bisulfite, from which
sodium sulfite is recovered by adding alkali. The released sulfur is trapped in
water to produce sulfuric acid, which is sold to offset the cost of installing the
scrubber.
Particulates can be removed using venturi and centrifugal or condensa-
tion scrubbers. Flue gas enters through the top of the cone-shaped venturi "Dirty"
scrubber and water, injected horizontally, forms droplets that absorb dust and Gas In

other particles. The resulting slurry discharges from the bottom of the unit
SOURCE: Adapted from the Department of Chemistry,
or can be separated from the clean gas by centrifugation or spinning at high University of Kentucky.

speed. Copper oxide regenerable scrubbers that absorb sulfur and simultane-
ously convert nitrogen oxides to nitrogen are being researched.
In 1971 the EPA set a maximum limit on sulfur dioxide in air. To help
meet this limit, revisions to the Clean Air Act in 1977 required all new power
plants to install scrubbers to remove sulfur dioxide. Most spray tower scrub-
bers remove at least 90 percent of sulfur dioxide, according to the EPA. In
1990 further revisions to the Clean Air Act under the Acid Rain Program
allotted allowable amounts of sulfur dioxide emissions to electric utilities,
which could trade allowances to meet their quotas. Sulfur dioxide emissions
from power plants in 2001 were 33 percent lower than in 1990 and 5 percent
lower than in 2000 according to the EPA. S E E A L S O Air Pollution; Clean
Air Act.
Bibliography
Schnelle, Karl B. Jr., and Brown, Charles A. (2002). Air Pollution Control Technology
Handbook. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.

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La Secretaría del Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales

Internet Resources
EPA Air Pollution Technology Fact Sheets. “Condensation Scrubbers” and “Spray-
Chamber/Spray-Tower Wet Scrubber.” Available from http://www.epa.gov/ttn.
Illinois Clean Coal Institute Annual Report (2002). Available from http://www.icci.org.
Patricia Hemminger

La Secretaría del Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales

See Mexican Secretariat for Natural Resources

Sedimentation
Sediments in the aquatic ecosystem are analogous to soil in the terrestrial
substrate surface on which an ecosystem as they are the source of substrate nutrients, and micro- and
organism, i.e. mold, grows macroflora and -fauna that are the basis of support to living aquatic resources.
Sediments are the key catalysts of environmental food cycles and the dynam-
ics of water quality. Aquatic sediments are derived from and composed of nat-
ural physical, chemical, and biological components generally related to their
watersheds.
Sediments range in particle distribution from micron-sized clay particles
through silt, sand, gravel, rock, and boulders. Sediments originate from bed
bed load transport movement load transport, beach and bank erosion, and land runoff. They are naturally
of sediments that remain at sorted by size through prevalent hydrodynamic conditions. In general, fast-
the bottom of a moving water
body moving water will contain coarse-grained sediments and quiescent water will
contain fine-grained sediments. Mineralogical characteristics of sediments
hydrodynamic condition
related to flow of water vary widely and reflect watershed characteristics. Organic material in sedi-
ments is derived from the decomposed tissues of plants and animals, from
aquatic and terrestrial sources, and from various point and nonpoint waste-
water discharges. The content of organic matter increases in concentration as
the size of sediment mineral particles decreases. Dissolved chemicals in the
pore waters water present in overlying and sediment pore waters are a product of inorganic and organic
the pores or cavities in sedi- sedimentary materials, as well as runoff and ground water that range from
ments, soil, and rock
fresh to marine in salinity. This sediment/water environment varies signifi-
cantly over space and time and its characteristics are driven by complex bio-
biogeochemical interaction geochemical interaction between the inorganic, living, and nonliving
interactions between living organic components. The sediment biotic community includes micro-,
and nonliving components of
the biosphere meso-, and macrofauna and -flora that are interdependent of each other and
their host sediment’s biogeochemical characteristics.
host in genetics, the organism,
typically a bacterium, into Sedimentation is the direct result of the loss (erosion) of sediments from
which a gene from another other aquatic areas or land-based areas. Sedimentation can be detrimental or
organism is transplanted; in
medicine, it is an animal beneficial to aquatic environments. Moreover, sediment impoverishment
infected or parasitized by (erosion or lack of replenishment) in an area can be as bad as too much sedi-
another organism mentation. Sedimentation in one area is linked to erosion or impoverishment
in another area and is a natural process of all water bodies (i.e., lakes, rivers,
estuaries, coastal zones, and even the deep ocean). As an example, detrimen-
tal effects can be related to the burial of bottom-dwelling organisms and ben-
eficial effects can be related to the building of new substrates for the
development of marshes. These natural physical processes will continue
whether or not they are influenced by the activities of humankind.
Human activities, however, have significantly enhanced sedimentation
as well as sediment loss. Sedimentation activities can be land-based (i.e.,
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 Sedimentation

agriculture, forestry, construction, urbanization, recreation) and water-based

(i.e., dams, navigation, port activities, drag fishing, channelization, water
diversions, wetlands loss, other large-scale hydrological modifications). Sed- hydraulic related to fluid flow
iment impoverishment or loss is generally due to retention behind dams,
bank or beach protection activities, water diversions, and many of the aquatic
activities cited here. Morphological changes (physical changes over a large
area) to large aquatic systems can also result in major changes in natural sed-
iment erosion and sedimentation patterns. As an example, the change in the
size and shape of a water body will result in new water flow patterns leading
to erosion or sediment removal from sensitive areas.
The environmental impacts of sedimentation include the following: loss
of important or sensitive aquatic habitat, decrease in fishery resources, loss of
recreation attributes, loss of coral reef communities, human health concerns,
changes in fish migration, increases in erosion, loss of wetlands, nutrient bal-
ance changes, circulation changes, increases in turbidity, loss of submerged turbid containing suspended
vegetation, and coastline alteration. particles

Abatement or control of sedimentation can be successful if implemented

on a broad land area or watershed scale and is directly related to improvement
in land-use practices. Agriculture and forestry (logging) improvements where
soil loss is minimized are not only technically feasible: They can be carried out
at a moderate cost and with net benefits. The U.S. Department of Agriculture
has a wide range of training and implementation programs for these types of
activities. The United Nations Environmental Programme also has global
programs, their Regional Seas activities, to guide countries in the manage-
ment of land-based activities negatively impacting the coastal zone. Improved
land-use practices are the primary measures to control sediment sources: ter-
racing, low tillage, modified cropping, reduced agricultural intensity (e.g., low tillage reduced level of
no-till buffer zones), and wetlands construction as sediment interceptors. plowing
Forestry practices such as clear-cutting to the water’s edge without replace-
ment tree planting must be seriously curtailed because base soil in exposed
areas will erode and import sediment to sensitive aqueous areas. Wetlands that
separate upland areas from aquatic areas serve as natural filters for the runoff
from the adjacent land. Wetlands thus serve to trap soil particles and associ-
ated agricultural contaminants. The construction of natural buffer zones and
wetlands replenishment adjacent to logging areas are effective techniques.
Watershed construction activities such as port expansion, water diversions,
channel deepening, and new channel construction must undergo a complete
environmental assessment, coupled with predictive sediment resuspension
and transport modeling, so alternative courses of action and activities to min-
imize the negative impacts of sedimentation may be chosen.
Sediment impoverishment is equally important in coastal areas, such as sediment impoverishment loss
coastal Louisiana where twenty-five to thirty square miles of wetlands are being of sediment
lost each year. This loss primarily results from the Mississippi River levee sys-
tem halting the annual natural replenishment of sediments that rebuilds the
marsh system. Engineered water diversion can replace sediment in the natural
system to decrease losses due to dams, levees, jetties, and other structures built
to control the flow of water and thus sediments. Proper placement of sediments
from navigation dredging can also be a useful abatement technique.
Sediments are absolutely necessary for aquatic plant and animal life. Man-
aged properly, sediments are a resource; improper sediment management
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Septage

results in the destruction of aquatic habitat that would have otherwise

depended on their presence. The United Nations Group of Experts on the
Scientific Aspects of Marine Environmental Protection recently recognized
that on a global basis, changes in sediment flows are one of the five most seri-
ous problems affecting the quality and uses of the marine and coastal envi-
ronment. S E E A L S O Disasters: Environmental Mining Accidents;
Dredging; Particulates; Water Pollution.
Bibliography
Huber, M.E., et al. (1999). “Oceans at Risk.” Marine Pollution Bulletin 38 (6):435–438.
Fischetti, Mark. (2001). “Drowning New Orleans.” Scientific American 285 (4):76–85.

Internet Resource
Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine Environment Protection.
(2001). “Sea of Troubles.” GESAMP Study No. 70. Geneva: United Nations Envi-
ronmental Programme. Also available from http://gesamp.imo.org/no70.
USDA-ARS National Sedimentation Laboratory. Available from http://www.sedlab
.olemiss.edu.
Robert M. Engler

Septage See Wastewater Treatment

Settlement House Movement

As more women gained access to a college education in the late nineteenth
century, many hoped to use their skills and talents for more than homemak-
ing and child rearing. Jane Addams, born in 1860 to a Quaker miller in Illi-
nois, was one of these women who hoped to improve the life of others and
society at large. After completing her education, Addams took a trip to
Europe, where social activism in the slums of London had a dramatic effect
on her. She returned to Chicago to found her own version of London’s “set-
tlement houses” in 1889. The British settlement houses, which inspired
Addams, were residences located within destitute neighborhoods with pro-
grams designed to improve living conditions. Addams’s Hull House, located
in an immigrant area of the city with appalling living conditions, provided
numerous women with the opportunity to serve the poor neighborhood and
reform conditions there. Environmental reforms became an important com-
ponent of their work, but settlement houses also organized kindergartens for
immigrant children; provided classes on ethnic culture and art; and gave
immigrants a place to meet, visit, bathe, and see health professionals.
Addams incorporated a large number of environmental reforms in her
agenda for Hull House. One of the most notable included her efforts to
address the unhealthy piles of garbage in immigrant neighborhoods because
of a lack of municipal attention. The mayor of Chicago eventually appointed
Addams garbage inspector for her area, a job she took very seriously. Addams
supervised garbage collectors and took violators of garbage regulations to
court. Although Addams and her cohorts often initiated reforms, the immi-
grants played an active role too, assisting in information gathering and its
communication to their neighbors. Alice Hamilton, also a resident of Hull
House, worked extensively on occupational health and safety issues, demon-
strating the dangers of lead and other toxic substances.

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 Sick Building Syndrome

The Settlement House Movement, begun by Addams and a part of

national Progressive Era reform movements, spread quickly to other indus-
trial urban areas. Lillian Wald established Henry House in New York. Ini-
tially hoping to focus on the delivery of modern health care, Wald quickly
became outraged over immigrant living conditions and shifted her focus to
improving city services, establishing parks for children, and educating immi-
grants about sanitation issues.
Although the most famous settlement house workers were middle- and
upper-class white women, African-American women also participated in the
movement throughout the United States. They focused on issues similar to
those of white women, but had to cope with the additional problems of racism,
segregation, disfranchisement, and discrimination facing black communities in
general. They worked tirelessly to educate other African-Americans about san-
itation and health issues and to improve neighborhoods by pressing for
garbage pickup and better city services like sewers and lighting.
Although settlement houses failed to eliminate the worst aspects of
poverty among new immigrants, they provided some measure of relief and
hope to their neighborhoods. Nonetheless, historians have found that settle-
ment house workers held a very condescending attitude toward immigrant
populations, one that dismissed native cultures and sought to impose decid-
edly white middle-class values. Despite any such limitations, settlement
house workers raised public awareness of pollution issues, especially in the
areas of health, sanitation, and city services. They influenced politicians and
forced them to consider issues of importance to immigrants. Finally and
equally importantly, settlement house workers provided a legitimate venue
for women to become active in city politics and other national issues, such as
the burgeoning women’s suffrage movement. S E E A L S O Activism; Addams,
Jane; Environmental Movement; Hamilton, Alice; Industry; Lead;
Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA); Politics;
Progressive Movement; Solid Waste; Workers Health Bureau.
Bibliography
Addams, Jane. (1911). Twenty Years at Hull House, with Autobiographical Notes. New
York: Macmillan.
Lasch-Quinn, Elisabeth. (1993). Black Neighbors: Race and the Limits of Reform in the
American Settlement House Movement, 1890–1945. Chapel Hill: University of North
Carolina Press.
Levine, Daniel. (1971). Jane Addams and the Liberal Tradition. Madison: State Histori-
cal Society of Wisconsin.

Internet Resources
“Settlement Houses: New Ideas in Old Communities.” Available from http://
www.socialworker.com/sethouse.pdf.
United Neighborhood House Web site. Available from http://www.unhny.org.
Elizabeth D. Blum

Settling Ponds See Wastewater Treatment

Sewage Sludge See Biosolids

Sick Building Syndrome See Indoor Air Pollution

203
Smart Growth

Smart Growth
The “smart growth” movement arose in the 1990s to combat the perceived
negative aspects of the dominant growth patterns of the time: rapidly spread-
ing development that tended to draw people and resources away from existing
neighborhoods and created new, look-alike communities where vehicle use
was mandatory and walking was discouraged. Proponents of smart growth—
a group that includes city planners, environmentalists, urban designers, neigh-
borhood activists, and others—do not try to stop development, but instead
work to make development improve life in existing cities and towns, rather
than degrade it. They generally agree on several core principles:
1. Revitalizing communities by directing public investment toward areas
infrastructure the basic facili- where the infrastructure to support development is already in place or
ties, services and installations planned.
needed for the functioning of a
system, i.e., the various com- 2. Creating walkable neighborhoods by locating housing, shopping,
ponents of a water supply
system schools, and offices in closer proximity to each other and providing
sidewalks and attractive streetscapes.
3. Offering a choice in transportation modes, whether by foot, car, bike,
bus, or train.
4. Involving citizens in deciding how and where their community should
grow.
5. Fostering distinctive, attractive communities with a unique sense of
place.
6. Providing housing for people of all income levels in close proximity to
jobs and activities.
7. Preserving open space, farmland, natural beauty, and critical environ-
mental areas.
8. Saving taxpayers the unnecessary cost of building the infrastructure
required to support spread-out development.
SEE ALSO Sprawl.
Internet Resource
Smart Growth Online. Available from http://www.smartgrowth.org.
David Goldberg

Smelting
Mined ores are processed to concentrate the minerals of interest. In the case
of metal ores, these mineral concentrates usually need to be further processed
to separate the metal from other elements in the ore minerals. Smelting is the
process of separating the metal from impurities by heating the concentrate to
a high temperature to cause the metal to melt. Smelting the concentrate pro-
duces a metal or a high-grade metallic mixture along with a solid waste prod-
uct called slag.
The principal sources of pollution caused by smelting are contaminant-
laden air emissions and process wastes such as wastewater and slag.
204
 Smelting

SU D B U RY D I V I S I O N A N N U A L S O 2 EMI S S I ONS A ND CONTROL ORDER

400
Acutal Emissions
Target
Regulation

300
Kilotonnes SO2 Emitted

200

MOE Control Order

100

66

0
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005

One type of pollution attributed to air emissions is acid rain. The smelt-
ing of sulfide ores results in the emission of sulfur dioxide gas, which reacts
chemically in the atmosphere to form a sulfuric acid mist. As this acid rain
falls to the earth, it increases the acidity of soils, streams, and lakes, harming
the health of vegetation and fish and wildlife populations.
In older smelters, air emissions contained elevated levels of various met-
als. Copper and selenium, for example, which can be released from copper
smelters, are essential to organisms as trace elements, but they are toxic if they
are overabundant. These metals can contaminate the soil in the vicinity of contaminant any physical,
smelters, destroying much of the vegetation. In addition, particulate matter chemical, biological, or radio-
logical substance or matter
emitted from smelters may include oxides of such toxic metals as arsenic that has an adverse effect on
(cumulative poison), cadmium (heart disease), and mercury (nerve damage). air, water, or soil

When compared to pollution caused by air emissions, process wastes and particulate fine liquid or solid
particles such as dust, smoke,
slag are of less concern. In modern smelters, much of the wastewater gener- mist, fumes, or smog, found in
ated is returned to the process. If the economic value of the metal concen- air or emissions; they can also
trate in slag is high enough, the slag may be returned to the process, thereby be very small solids sus-
pended in water, gathered
reducing the amount requiring permanent disposal. together by coagulation and
flocculation
New technologies are playing an important role in reducing or even pre-
venting smelter pollution. Older smelters emitted most of the sulfur dioxide
generated, and now almost all of it is captured prior to emission using new
technologies, such as electrostatic precipitators, which capture dust particles
and return them to the process. Raw material substitution or elimination,
205
Smog

such as recycling lead batteries and aluminum cans, decreases the need to
process ore, which reduces pollution.
Some of the major federal statutes and regulations that apply to smelting
are the same as those that have applied to mining since the Clean Air Act
(CAA) of 1970 became law. The CAA established nationally uniform stan-
dards that control particular hazardous air pollutants.
Sudbury, in Ontario, Canada, is one of the world’s largest smelting com-
plexes, with an international reputation as a highly polluted area that has
been mined for more than one hundred years. The environmental impact
was completely or partially denuded vegetation on over 46,000 hectares and
7,000 acid-damaged lakes. Smelting caused much of the ecological damage
via acid rain and elevated levels of copper and nickel in the vicinity of the
smelters. Efforts by government and industry since the 1970s have elimi-
nated most of the sulfur dioxide emissions in the area, and there has been sig-
nificant progress toward achieving sustainable ecosystems. S E E A L S O Acid
Rain; Air Pollution; Lead; Mining; Superfund.
Bibliography
Gunn, John M. (1995). Restoration and Recovery of an Industrial Region. New York:
Springer-Verlag.
Weiss, Norman L., ed. (1985). SME Mineral Processing Handbook. Kingsport, TN:
Kingsport Press.

Internet Resources
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (1995). “EPA Office of Compliance Sector
Notebook Project: Profile of the Nonferrous Metals Industry.” U.S. EPA Docu-
ment No. EPA/310-R-95-010. Available from http://es.epa.gov.
U.S. Geological Survey. (2001). “Mine and Mineral Processing Plant Locations—
Supplemental Information for USGS Map I-2654.” Available from http://
pubs.usgs.gov.
U.S. Geological Survey. (2001). “USGS Tracks Acid Rain.” Fact Sheet FS-183-95.
Available from http://pubs.usgs.gov.
Michael J. McKinley

Smog
Originally, the term smog was coined to describe the mixture of smoke and
fog that lowered visibility and led to respiratory problems in industrial cities.
More recently, the term has come to mean any decrease in air quality
whether associated with reduced visibility or a noticeable impact on human
health. Smog occurs when emissions of gases and particles from industrial or
transportation sources are trapped by the local meteorology so the concen-
trations rise and chemical reactions occur. It is common to distinguish
between two types of smog: London smog and Los Angeles smog.
London, or sulphurous, smog was noted following the introduction of
coal into cities. It is most prevalent in the fall or winter when cool conditions
naturally produce a thick surface fog. This fog mixes with the smoke and
gases from burning coal to produce a dark, thick, acrid sulphurous atmos-
phere. Normally, the unpolluted fog would disperse during the day and be
reformed at night. However, the presence of smoke particles makes the fog
so thick that sunlight cannot penetrate it and so only a major change in mete-
orology can disperse it. The smog has been shown to contribute to an
206
 Smog

increased death rate, primarily due to respiratory problems. The most A thick cloud of smog covering
Santiago, Chile. (AP/Wide
notable example of this kind of smog occurred in London, from December 4
World Photos. Reproduced by
to 10, 1954, when some four thousand deaths in excess of normal averages permission.)
resulted. A similar episode in Donora, Pennsylvania, in 1948 involved
approximately twenty excess deaths. Most jurisdictions have instituted con-
trol measures to prevent this level of disaster from happening again. They
have moved industries out of cities, demanded lower industrial emissions,
and increased the heights of smokestacks so emissions are not trapped by
local meteorology. These approaches have been largely successful, at least in
controlling the most extreme events.
Los Angeles, or photochemical, smog first became apparent in the late
1940s in warm sunny cities that did not have significant coal-burning indus-
tries. It is a daytime phenomenon characterized by a white haze and contains
oxidants, such as ozone, that cause eyes to water, breathing to become
labored, and plants to be damaged. It results from the action of sunlight on
the combination of hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides (NOx), known as pre- hydrocarbon compounds of
cursor gases. These are emitted from combustion sources to produce a range hydrogen and carbon
of oxidized products and oxidants. These compounds have been shown to
produce respiratory and cardiac problems in individuals sensitive to pollu-
tion, and the damage inflicted on crops can cause significant decreases in
207
Snow, John

yield. In most cities, the automobile is the primary contributor of smog’s pre-
cursor gases. As the name would suggest, the most notable example of this
type of smog occurs in Los Angeles, California, but it has also been experi-
enced in a large number of cities where the weather is dry, sunlight is plenti-
ful, and there are many automobiles or petroleum industries (e.g., Houston,
Athens, and Mexico City.)
The control of photochemical smog is more difficult than for sulphurous
smog because the compounds responsible for human and crop impacts are
not directly emitted, but produced by chemistry in the atmosphere. Thus,
greater knowledge on the emissions of gases, their reactions in the atmos-
phere, and their lifetime is needed. Most jurisdictions continue to focus their
control strategies on reducing ozone concentrations, although particle con-
centrations are receiving increasing attention. Because smog results from the
sunlight-initiated chemistry of hydrocarbons and nitrous oxides, the most
common approach to smog control is to decrease the emission of these com-
pounds at their source. Lower volatility gasolines and systems to capture
gasoline vapors are used to reduce hydrocarbon emissions while tailpipe con-
trols (catalytic converters) reduce emissions of both hydrocarbons and nitro-
gen oxides. The emission control systems of the twenty-first century mean
that a car typically emits 70 percent less nitrogen oxides and 80 to 90 percent
less hydrocarbons than the uncontrolled cars of the 1960s. The expected
improvement in air quality, as a result of increasing controls, is estimated by
using computer models of the atmosphere and its chemistry. S E E A L S O Air
Pollution; Asthma; Donora, Pennsylvania; Health, Human; Ozone.
Bibliography
Brimblecombe, Peter. (1987). The Big Smoke: A History of Air Pollution in London since
Medieval Times. London: Methuen.
Turco, Richard. (1997). Earth under Siege. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Internet Resources
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. “Air Quality Index: A Guide to Air Quality
and Your Health.” Available from http://www.epa.gov/airnow/aqibroch.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. “National Air Pollutant Emission Trends,
1900–1998.” Available from http://www.epa.gov/ttn.
Donald R. Hastie

Snow, John
BRITISH ANESTHESIOLOGIST
(1813–1858)

In 1854, John Snow was a well-regarded London anesthesiologist, tending to

Queen Victoria, among others. He was born in 1813 of humble stock, but
through education and intellectual perseverance—he obtained his M.D.
degree in 1844—was able to rise to a position of scientific prominence. Snow
epidemiology study of the became interested in the emerging field of epidemiology, especially as it
incidence and spread of dis- applied to cholera, a disease of unknown cause (attributed thirty years later by
ease in a population
Dr. Robert Koch to Vibrio cholerae). Two population-based studies—both
occurring in 1854—established Snow’s reputation, and focused scientific
attention away from the fallacious notion of airborne transmission towards
the role of contaminated water in the spread of cholera.
208
 Soil Pollution

Snow’s first study occurred after the government had mandated that
water companies along the polluted Thames River should move their inlets
upstream where the quality of water was better. One company moved its
intake pipes in 1852 but still maintained the same local water distribution sys-
tem. A second company kept its intakes in place (but finally moved in 1855),
providing contaminated water to portions of the same area as the first com-
pany. When cholera next arrived in London in 1853 and 1854, Snow was able
to compare cholera among households according to water source. The pop-
ulations were very similar—consumers of the two water companies lived side
by side. Using existing mortality data, Snow was able to measure the impact
the two companies had on cholera, thereby linking water source and quality
to the disease.
His second study took place in 1854 near his home in the Soho region of
London. It followed what he described as: “The most terrible outbreak
of cholera which ever occurred in this kingdom.” With skillful assembling of
data, analysis, and use of maps, he identified a single water pump on Broad
Street as the likely source, suggesting that the pump water was contaminated
with an unseen microbial agent. Water pumps, at that time, were hand-
operated pumps with spigots—people pumped their water into buckets to be
carried home. There was no “running water,” as we know it, in people’s
homes. Snow recommended to local politicians that the pump handle be
removed, which was done during the declining days of the outbreak. For this,
he is remembered as a public health hero.
John Snow died in 1858 at age forty-five. During his short life, he
became a pioneer in both anesthesiology and epidemiology, and clarified the
role of water, rather than air, in cholera transmission.
Ralph R. Frerichs

Soil Pollution
Soil pollution comprises the pollution of soils with materials, mostly chemi-
cals, that are out of place or are present at concentrations higher than normal
which may have adverse effects on humans or other organisms. It is difficult
to define soil pollution exactly because different opinions exist on how to
characterize a pollutant; while some consider the use of pesticides acceptable
if their effect does not exceed the intended result, others do not consider any
use of pesticides or even chemical fertilizers acceptable. However, soil pollu-
tion is also caused by means other than the direct addition of xenobiotic
(man-made) chemicals such as agricultural runoff waters, industrial waste PAHs polyaromatic hydrocar-
materials, acidic precipitates, and radioactive fallout. bons; compounds of hydrogen
and carbon containing multiple
Both organic (those that contain carbon) and inorganic (those that don’t) ring structures
contaminants are important in soil. The most prominent chemical groups of PCBs polychlorinated
organic contaminants are fuel hydrocarbons, polynuclear aromatic hydro- biphenyls; two-ringed com-
carbons (PAHs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), chlorinated aromatic pounds of hydrogen, carbon,
and chlorine
compounds, detergents, and pesticides. Inorganic species include nitrates,
phosphates, and heavy metals such as cadmium, chromium and lead; inor- radionuclide radioactive parti-
cle, man-made or natural, with
ganic acids; and radionuclides (radioactive substances). Among the sources
a distinct atomic weight num-
of these contaminants are agricultural runoffs, acidic precipitates, industrial ber; can have a long life as
waste materials, and radioactive fallout. soil or water pollutant

209
Soil Pollution

Soil pollution can lead to water pollution if toxic chemicals leach into
groundwater, or if contaminated runoff reaches streams, lakes, or oceans. Soil
also naturally contributes to air pollution by releasing volatile compounds
into the atmosphere. Nitrogen escapes through ammonia volatilization and
denitrification. The decomposition of organic materials in soil can release
sulfur dioxide and other sulfur compounds, causing acid rain. Heavy metals
and other potentially toxic elements are the most serious soil pollutants in
sewage. Sewage sludge contains heavy metals and, if applied repeatedly or in
large amounts, the treated soil may accumulate heavy metals and conse-
quently become unable to even support plant life.

An area of Karabache, Russia, In addition, chemicals that are not water soluble contaminate plants that
where soil has been poisoned grow on polluted soils, and they also tend to accumulate increasingly toward
by high concentrations of lead, the top of the food chain. The banning of the pesticide DDT in the United
arsenic, nickel, cobalt, and
cadmium. (©Gyori Antoine/ States resulted from its tendency to become more and more concentrated as
Corbis Sygma. Reproduced by it moved from soil to worms or fish, and then to birds and their eggs. This
permission.) occurred as creatures higher on the food chain ingested animals that were
already contaminated with the pesticide from eating plants and other lower
denitrification the biological
animals. Lake Michigan, as an example, has 2 parts per trillion (ppt) of DDT
reduction of nitrate or nitrite
to nitrogen gas, typically by in the water, 14 parts per billion (ppb) in the bottom mud, 410 ppb in
bacteria in soil amphipods (tiny water fleas and similar creatures), 3 to 6 parts per million
(ppm) in fish such as coho salmon and lake trout, and as much as 99 ppm in
herring gulls at the top of the food chain.
The ever-increasing pollution of the environment has been one of the
greatest concerns for science and the general public in the last fifty years. The
rapid industrialization of agriculture, expansion of the chemical industry, and
the need to generate cheap forms of energy has caused the continuous release
of man-made organic chemicals into natural ecosystems. Consequently, the
atmosphere, bodies of water, and many soil environments have become pol-
luted by a large variety of toxic compounds. Many of these compounds at
high concentrations or following prolonged exposure have the potential to
produce adverse effects in humans and other organisms: These include the
danger of acute toxicity, mutagenesis (genetic changes), carcinogenesis, and
teratogenesis (birth defects) for humans and other organisms. Some of these
man-made toxic compounds are also resistant to physical, chemical, or bio-
logical degradation and thus represent an environmental burden of consid-
erable magnitude.
Numerous attempts are being made to decontaminate polluted soils,
including an array of both in situ (on-site, in the soil) and off-site (removal of
contaminated soil for treatment) techniques. None of these is ideal for reme-
diating contaminated soils, and often, more than one of the techniques may
be necessary to optimize the cleanup effort.
The most common decontamination method for polluted soils is to
remove the soil and deposit it in landfills or to incinerate it. These methods,
however, often exchange one problem for another: landfilling merely con-
fines the polluted soil while doing little to decontaminate it, and incineration
removes toxic organic chemicals from the soil, but subsequently releases
them into the air, in the process causing air pollution.
For the removal and recovery of heavy metals various soil washing tech-
niques have been developed including physical methods, such as attrition
210
 Solid Waste

scrubbing and wet-screening, and chemical methods consisting of treat-

ments with organic and inorganic acids, bases, salts and chelating agents. For PHYTOREMEDIATION
example, chemicals used to extract radionuclides and toxic metals include Plants can absorb, accumulate
hydrochloric, nitric, phosphoric and citric acids, sodium carbonate and and in some cases break down
sodium hydroxide and the chelating agents EDTA and DTPA. The problem pollutants such as heavy metals,
with these methods, however, is again that they generate secondary waste pesticides, and explosives in soil
products that may require additional hazardous waste treatments. and groundwater. Now the United
In contrast to the previously described methods, in situ methods are used States Department of Agriculture
directly at the contamination site. In this case, soil does not need to be exca- and the Department of Energy
vated, and therefore the chance of causing further environmental harm is are conducting pilot studies to
minimized. In situ biodegradation involves the enhancement of naturally investigate whether plants can
occurring microorganisms by artificially stimulating their numbers and activ- also remove radionuclides from
ity. The microorganisms then assist in degrading the soil contaminants. A soil. By adding soil amendments
number of environmental, chemical, and management factors affect the such as ammonium compounds,
biodegradation of soil pollutants, including moisture content, pH, tempera- the pigweed plant, Amaranthus
ture, the microbial community that is present, and the availability of nutri- retroflexus, will absorb cesium-
ents. Biodegradation is facilitated by aerobic soil conditions and soil pH in 137 that contaminates soil at
the neutral range (between pH 5.5 to 8.0), with an optimum reading occur- some DOE sites due to above-
ring at approximately pH 7, and a temperature in the range of 20 to 30°C. ground nuclear testing during the
These physical parameters can be influenced, thereby promoting the Cold War era.
microorganisms’ ability to degrade chemical contaminants. Of all the decon-
tamination methods bioremediation appears to be the least damaging and
most environmentally acceptable technique. S E E A L S O Abatement; Biore-
mediation; Cleanup; DDT (Dichlorodiphenyl trichloroethane); Sci-
ence; Superfund; Technology.
Bibliography
Adriano, D.C.; Bollag, J.-M.; Frankenberger, W.T.; and Sims, R.C., eds. (1999). Biore-
mediation of Contaminated Soils. Agronomy monograph 37. American Society of
Agronomy.
Miller, R.W., and Gardiner, D.T. (1998). Soils in Our Environment, 8th edition. Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Pierzynski, G.M.; Sims, J.T.; and Vance, G.F. (2000). Soils and Environmental Quality,
2nd edition. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.

Internet Resources
Ministry of the Environment Web site. “Environmental Quality Standards for Soil
Pollution.” Available from http://www.env.go.jp/en/lar/regulation/sp.html.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Web site. “Soil and Groundwater Pollution
Remediation Act.” Available from http://www.epa.gov.tw/english/laws/soil.htm.
Brigitte Bollag and Jean-Marc Bollag

Solar Energy See Renewable Energy

Solid Waste
The garbage that is managed by local governments is known as municipal
solid waste (MSW). Specifically, MSW is waste generated by commercial and
household sources that is collected and either recycled, incinerated, or dis-
posed of in MSW landfills. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) separates MSW into several categories, including containers and pack-
aging, yard wastes, durable goods, and nondurable goods. Examples of
211
Solid Waste

A bulldozer moving on top of a durable goods, which are designed to last longer than three years, include
large mound of garbage.
appliances, tires, batteries, and electronic equipment. Newspapers, clothing,
(United States Environmental
Protection Agency. Reproduced disposable tableware, office paper, wood pallets, and diapers, which all have
by permission.) a lifetime of less than three years, are types of nondurable goods. MSW does
not include domestic sewage and other municipal wastewater treatment
sludges, demolition and construction debris, agricultural and mining
residues, combustion ash, and wastes from industrial processes. These types
of waste, known collectively as industrial solid waste, are largely excluded
from hazardous waste regulation; programs addressing industrial solid waste
are still in their infancy.
During the 1980s, solid waste management issues emerged in the United
States due to the increasing amounts of solid waste generated, shrinking
landfill capacity, rising disposal costs, and strong opposition to the siting of
new solid waste facilities. This problem was illustrated by the much-
publicized Mobro garbage barge, which traveled on a six-month odyssey
before the garbage was finally disposed of in New York state, where it was
originally generated.
With millions of households and businesses generating garbage in the
United States, developing a national management program is challenging.
Instead of federal regulations dictating how solid wastes should be managed,
solid-waste programs are managed by states and municipalities on the local
level according to individual community needs. With the exception of feder-
ally mandated landfill design and operating criteria to ensure the protection
of groundwater and requirements for the federal purchase of products
212
 Solid Waste

containing recovered materials, the EPA’s role in implementing solid-waste

management programs includes setting national goals, providing leadership
and technical assistance, and developing educational materials.

MSW Stream
The generation of MSW has grown steadily over the past thirty years, from
88 million tons per year, or 2.7 pounds per person per day in 1960, to 229.9
million tons, or 4.62 pounds per person per day in 1999. The largest com-
ponent of the MSW stream is paper and paperboard products (38.1%), with
yard trimmings the second most predominant component (12.1%). The top
of two pie charts on the next page breaks down this waste by material cate-
gory. While the generation of waste has grown steadily, so too have its recy-
cling and recovery. In 1960 about 7 percent of MSW was recycled, and in
1999 this figure had increased to 27.8 percent. How MSW is managed is
shown in the bottom of two pie charts on the next page. Although the major-
ity of solid waste is still sent to landfills, statistics indicate that there is a clear
trend away from reliance on this method. Combustion of MSW and recov-
ery through recycling are now a common practice in the United States.

MSW Management
In response to mounting solid waste problems, EPA published The Solid
Waste Dilemma: An Agenda for Action in 1989, which presents goals and rec-
ommendations for action by the EPA, state and local governments, industry,
and consumers to address the solid waste problems facing the United States.
The EPA recommends an integrated, hierarchical approach to waste man-
agement using four components: source reduction, recycling, combustion,
and landfills. This comprehensive approach addresses critical junctures in the
manufacture, use, and disposal of products and materials to minimize waste-
fulness and maximize value. This strategy favors source reduction to source reduction reducing the
decrease the volume and toxicity of waste and to increase the useful life of amount of materials entering
the waste stream from a spe-
products. After source reduction, recycling, including composting, is the pre- cific source by redesigning
ferred waste management approach to divert waste from combustors and products or patterns of pro-
landfills. Combustion is used to reduce the volume of waste being disposed as duction or consumption (e.g.,
using returnable beverage con-
well as to recover energy, whereas landfills are used for the final disposal of tainers); synonymous with
nonrecyclable and noncombustible material. waste reduction
The goal of the integrated management hierarchy is to use a combina-
tion of all these methods to handle the MSW stream safely and effectively
with the least adverse impact on human health and the environment. The
EPA encourages communities to develop community-specific assessments of
potential source reduction, recycling, combustion, and landfill programs and
to customize programs according to local needs, keeping in mind the strate-
gies preferred in the national hierarchical structure. Because each commu-
nity’s waste profile (i.e., the amounts and types of waste generated),
infrastructure, social and economic structure, and policies differ, decision
makers at the local level are the most qualified to assess community needs and
develop an appropriate solid waste management strategy.

Source Reduction
Source reduction, also known as waste prevention, is a front-end approach to
addressing MSW problems by changing the way products are made and used.
213
Solid Waste

(top) Breakdown of the 229.9

million tons of MSW generated Composition of Municipal Solid Waste in the United States in 1999
in the United States in 1999 by
material category. Generation
Yard Waste
amounts represent the percent 12%
of total generation by weight 27.7 million tons
in millions of tons. (bottom)
Demonstrates how 229.9
million tons of MSW generated
in the United States in 1999
were managed: via
Paper Food Waste
combustion, recovery for 38.% 10.9%
recycling (including 87.5 million tons 25.2 million tons
composting), and shipment to
landfills. Described by the
percent of total generation by
weight. (Both based on
statistics from EPA, Municipal Plastics
Solid Waste in the United 10.5%
States: 1999 Facts and 24.2 million tons
Figures.)

Metals
7.8%
Other 17.8 million tons
3.2%
8.2 million Wood Rubber, Leather
tons 5.3% & Textiles
12.3 million Glass 6.6%
tons 5.5% 15.3 million
12.6 million tons
tons

Management of Municipal Solid Waste in the United States in 1999

Combustion
14.8%
34 million tons

Landfill, other
57.4%
131.9 million tons
Recovery for recycling
(including composting)
27.8%
63.9 million tons

It represents an attempt to move away from the traditional “end-of-the-pipe”

waste management approach used in the past. Source reduction at the
“beginning of the pipe” is defined as the design, manufacture, and use of
products in a way that reduces the quantity and toxicity of waste produced
when products reach the end of their useful lives. Waste-prevention activities
include product reuse (e.g., reusable shopping bags), product material vol-
ume reduction (e.g., eliminating unnecessary product packaging), reduced
214
 Solid Waste

toxicity of products (e.g., use of substitutes for lead, mercury, and other toxic
substances), increased product lifetime (e.g., design of products with a longer
useful life), and decreased consumption (e.g., changing consumer buying
practices, bulk purchasing). In 1996 the EPA reported that 23 million tons of
MSW had been source-reduced, approximately 11 percent of the 209.7 mil-
lion tons of MSW generated that year. Businesses, households, and state and
local governments all play an active role in implementing successful source
reduction programs.

Recycling
Recycling refers to the separation and collection of wastes and their subse-
quent transformation or remanufacture into usable or marketable materials.
Recycling, including composting, diverts potentially large volumes of mate-
rial from landfills and combustors, and prevents the unnecessary waste of nat-
ural resources and raw materials. Other environmental benefits offered by
recycling include a reduction in greenhouse gas emissions, energy conserva-
tion, and the preservation of biodiversity and habitats that would otherwise
be exploited for virgin materials. In addition, recycling programs create new
manufacturing jobs, boost the economy, and facilitate U.S. competitiveness
in the global marketplace.
Like any other part of the integrated waste management hierarchy, recy-
cling programs should be carefully designed and implemented to address the
needs of the community, including attention to their cost-effectiveness.
Recycling collection and separation programs vary in degree of implementa-
tion: Some may be simple drop-off programs, whereas others may involve
comprehensive curbside collection and complex source separation at a recov-
ery facility. Successful recycling, however, requires more than the separation
and collection of postconsumer materials. Recycling programs must identify
and develop markets for recovered material; only when the materials are
reused is the recycling loop complete.
Although markets and uses for recovered materials are constantly
expanding, reuse opportunities will vary by material. For example, recycling
options for plastic are contingent on the type of resin used. Soft drink bottles
are currently incorporated into products such as carpeting, household cleaner
bottles, and fiberfill for coats and pillows, whereas polystyrene food contain-
ers and cups are being recycled into insulation, cafeteria food trays, and chil-
dren’s toys. Depending on their condition, tires can be used for artificial
reefs, playground equipment, floor mats, and road construction materials.
Recycled-content newspapers, stationery, corrugated containers, and toilet
paper are some examples of how discarded paper is recycled.
Recycling activities also include centralized composting of yard and food
wastes. Composting refers to the controlled decomposition of organic mat-
ter by microorganisms into a stable humus material that is used primarily on humus rich soil component
the land to improve soil quality. Many communities conduct large-scale cen- derived from plant breakdown
and bacterial action
tralized composting of yard waste in an effort to save landfill capacity. Indi-
viduals are also helping to reduce waste by composting yard waste in their
backyards, and by not bagging grass clippings or other yard wastes—these
activities are actually classified as source reduction. The composting of yard
waste has seen tremendous growth in the past ten years. In 1980 the amount
of yard waste recovered was negligible (less than 5,000 tons, or 0.05%). By
215
Solid Waste

1999 the amount of yard waste recovered had grown to 12.6 million tons, or
45.3 percent.

Combustion
Burning has been a popular method of reducing the volume and odor of
garbage for centuries. With the onset of the 1970s energy crisis and the
Clean Air Act, a more sophisticated system of incineration was developed
that could use waste as a fuel to produce energy. Modern combustion facili-
ties no longer just destroy garbage, but instead are designed to recover
energy that is used to produce steam and electricity. Developing a successful
waste-to-energy system involves numerous decisions that will dictate
whether such a project is effective in a given community. Over the past two
combustion burning, or rapid decades communities have demonstrated an increased interest in combus-
oxidation, accompanied by tion as a waste management option. Between 1980 and 1999, the combustion
release of energy in the form
of heat and light of solid waste increased 5.8 percent, with approximately 2.6 million tons of
MSW burned in 1999. In addition to the benefits of energy recovery, com-
bustion residues consume less landfill space; combustion ash amounts to
approximately 25 percent (dry weight) of the MSW input. However, citizens
often oppose the building of incinerators close to communities and farmland
because of the perception of health risks due to emission of pollutants includ-
dioxin any of a family of com- ing mercury and dioxin that are toxic, persistent, and bioaccumulate.
pounds known chemically as
dibenzo-p-dioxins. Concern
about them arises from their Landfills
potential toxicity as contami-
nants in commercial products; Even with the use of source reduction, recycling, and combustion, there will
tests on laboratory animals always be waste that ultimately must be disposed of in landfills. According to
indicate that it is one of the the EPA’s Municipal Solid Waste in the United States: 1999 Facts and Figures,
more anthropogenic (human-
made) compounds landfill disposal still remains the most widely used waste management
method (accounting for approximately 57.4% of the total). Many communi-
ties now face difficulties siting new landfills largely because of increased cit-
izen and local government concerns about the potential health risks and
aesthetics of situating a landfill in their neighborhoods. The EPA issued new
technical standards for MSW landfills in 1991. These addressed several
aspects of landfill management, including location restrictions, design and
operating criteria, and groundwater monitoring. Even with national landfill
standards, decreasing landfill capacity and the difficulties associated with the
construction of new landfills remain significant issues.
The EPA has explored several solutions to conserving landfill capacity,
including the viability of engineering materials such as plastics to be less
resistant to degradation or, in other words, biodegradable. Biodegradable
materials can be broken down into simpler substances (e.g., elements and
compounds) by bacteria or other natural decomposers. Paper and most
organic wastes such as food and leaves are biodegradable. In contrast, non-
biodegradable substances cannot be broken down in the environment by nat-
ural processes. In general, degradation in landfills occurs very slowly due to
modern landfill design criteria, which minimize waste exposure to sunlight,
air, and moisture. In fact, even biodegradable organic materials might take
decades to decompose in a landfill; carrots and cabbage have been discovered
in recognizable form after several years of burial. Studies indicate that
biodegradable materials may help diminish risks to wildlife and aesthetic
damage (i.e., discarded six-pack beverage rings and wrappers), but will not
216
 Solid Waste

reduce the volume or toxicity of waste nor provide a solution to decreasing

landfill capacity.
In continuing efforts to conserve landfill space and reduce waste toxicity,
the EPA is currently investigating the potential benefits and drawbacks asso-
ciated with the use of bioreactor landfills. Bioreactor landfills are designed to
transform and more quickly stabilize the decomposable organic constituents
of the waste stream through the controlled injection of liquid or air to
enhance microbiological degradation processes. In other words, by control-
ling the moisture content, bioreactor landfills facilitate microbial decompo-
sition of waste. Recent findings show that bioreactor landfills successfully
expedite the degradation process (e.g., from decades to years), offer a 15 to 30
percent gain in landfill space, and may reduce postclosure care and leachate leachate water that collects
disposal costs. In addition, the bioreactor technology significantly increases contaminants as it trickles
through wastes, pesticides, or
landfill gas emissions, which are captured and often used beneficially for fertilizers; leaching may occur
energy recovery. Due to their complexity, however, bioreactor landfills may in farming areas, feedlots, and
be more costly, and concerns have been raised regarding increased odors, landfills, and may result in
hazardous substances entering
liner instability, and surface seeps. Working in conjunction with state and surface water, ground water, or
local governments and private companies, the EPA has initiated several soil
research and pilot projects to examine the effectiveness of this innovative
technology.

International Solid Waste Management

Because solid waste is generated everywhere, addressing the environmentally
safe management of solid waste is not limited to the United States. Manage-
ment strategies vary by country and region, although most programs address
waste issues with models consisting of some combination of source reduc-
tion, combustion, recycling, and landfills. For example, the European Envi-
ronment Agency (EEA) offers solid-waste management guidance analogous
to EPA’s integrated hierarchy. Specifically, the Community Strategy on Waste
recommends that the agency’s eighteen-member countries make waste pre-
vention their top priority, followed by materials recovery, energy recovery,
and, finally, the safe disposal of waste.
The international Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Devel-
opment (OECD) compiles worldwide data, including environmental statis-
tics, for its thirty member countries. The bar graphs on the next page
compare the total amount of municipal waste generated annually and the
annual amount of municipal waste generated per capita, respectively, by the
United States and other selected OECD member countries in 1997. Per
capita waste generation rates vary significantly by country; factors contribut-
ing to such discrepancies may include individual lifestyle and national eco-
nomic structure. Although individual national definitions may differ, for the
purpose of analysis here, OECD regards municipal waste as waste collected
by or on the order of municipalities, including that originating from house-
holds, commercial activities, office buildings, institutions such as school and
government buildings, and small businesses.
The environmentally safe management of municipal solid waste may
always be an issue, simply because societies will continue to generate trash
due to increasing populations and the growing demands of modern society.
Working together, federal, state, and local governments, industry, and citi-
zens have made substantial progress in effectively responding to solid waste
217
Solid Waste

(top) Comparison of annual

amounts of MSW generated by Municipal Solid Waste Generated by Country in 1997
the United States and other
selected OECD countries in 200,000
1997. Generation amounts are
in 1,000 tons. (bottom) 180,000
Comparison of annual amounts 160,000
of MSW generated per capita
140,000
by the United States and other
selected OECD countries in 120,000
1997. Generation amounts are
100,000
in kilograms per capita. (Both
based on statistics from OECD 80,000
Environmental Data 1999.)
60,000

40,000

20,000
0
tes

da

ark

ria

ce

any

Italy

ay

nd

gal

Spain

nd
Mexic

Japa

Norw
Fran
Cana

Pola

Irela
Aust

Portu
Denm
d Sta

Germ
Unite

Municipal Solid Waste Generated per Capita by Country in 1997

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100
0
tes

da

ark

ria

ce

any

Italy

ay

nd

gal

Spain

nd
Mexic

Japa

Norw
Fran
Cana

Pola

Irela
Aust

Portu
Denm
d Sta

Germ
Unite

issues through source reduction, recycling, combustion, and landfill pro-

grams. Such community-tailored programs provide possible long-term solu-
tions to decreasing the amount of waste that is produced and ultimately
placed in landfills. S E E A L S O Composting; Incineration; Landfill; Plas-
tic; Recycling; Reuse; Waste; Waste Reduction.
Bibliography
Christiansen, Kim Michael. (1999). Waste Annual Topic Update: 1998. Copenhagen:
European Environmental Agency.
O’Leary, Philip R., and Walsh, Patrick H. (1995). Decision Makers Guide to Solid Waste
Management, Vol. II. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
EPA530-R95-023.
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. (1999). OECD Environ-
mental Data: Compendium 1999 Edition. Organisation for Economic Co-operation
and Development.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (1994). Composting Yard Trimmings and Munic-
ipal Solid Waste. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
EPA530-R-94-003.

218
 Space Pollution

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (1990). Environmental Fact Sheet: The Facts on
Degradable Plastics. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
EPA530-SW-90-017D.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (1990). Environmental Fact Sheet: The Facts on
Recycling Plastics. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
EPA530-SW-90-017E.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (1992). “Green” Advertising Claims. Washing-
ton, D.C.: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. EPA530-f-92-024.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (1991). Markets for Scrap Tires. Washington,
D.C.: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. EPA530-SW-90-074A.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (1997). Measuring Recycling: A Guide for State
and Local Governments. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
EPA530-R-97-011.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (2001). Municipal Solid Waste in the United
States: 1999 Facts and Figures. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency. EPA530-R-01-014. Also available from http://www.epa.gov/epaoswer/
non-hw/muncpl/mswfinal.pdf
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (1999). National Source Reduction Characteri-
zation Report for Municipal Solid Waste in the United States. Washington, D.C.: U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency. EPA530-R-99-034. Also available from
http://www.epa.gov/epaoswer/non-hw/reduce/r99034.pdf.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (1998). Puzzled About Recycling’s Value? Look
Beyond the Bin. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
EPA530-K-98-008. Also available from http://www.epa.gov/epaoswer/non-hw/
recycle/benefits.pdf.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (1998). RCRA Orientation Manual: 1998 Edi-
tion. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. EPA530-R-98-004.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (1999). Recycling Works! State and Local Solu-
tions to Solid Waste Management Problems. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency. EPA530-K-99-003. Also available from http://www.epa.gov/
epaoswer/non-hw/recycle/recycle.pdf.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (1989). The Solid Waste Dilemma: An Agenda
for Action. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. EPA530-
SW-89-019.
Office of Solid Waste/U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

Space Pollution
In the most general sense, the term space pollution includes both the natural
micrometeoroid and man-made orbital debris components of the space envi-
ronment; however, as “pollution” is generally considered to indicate a
despoiling of the natural environment, space pollution here refers to only
man-made orbital debris. Orbital debris poses a threat to both manned and
unmanned spacecraft as well as the earth’s inhabitants.

Environmental and Health Impacts

The effects of debris on other spacecraft range from surface abrasion due to
repeated small-particle impact to a catastrophic fragmentation due to a col-
lision with a large object. The relative velocities of orbital objects (10 kilo-
meters per second [km/s] on average, but ranging from meters per second up
to 15.5 km/s) allow even very small objects—such as a paint flake—to dam-
age spacecraft components and surfaces. For example, a 3-millimeter (mm)
aluminum particle traveling at 10 km/s is equivalent in energy to a bowling
ball traveling at 60 miles per hour (or 27 m/s). In this case, all the energy
219
Space Pollution

FR A G M ENTA TI ON DE BRI S

Rocket Operational Breakup Anomalous

Payloads Bodies Debris Debris Debris Totals

LEO 1,612 758 651 3,232 119 6,372

MEO 126 28 2 0 0 156
GEO 587 116 1 2 0 706
Elliptical 249 515 135 167 0 1,066
Unknown 171 120 185 0 0 476
Totals 2,745 1,537 974 3,401 119 8,776

SOURCE: Anz-Meador, P.D., "History of On-Orbit Satellite Fragmentations", 12th ed., NASA Johnson Space Center
Report JSC-29517, 31 July 2001.

would be distributed in an area of the same size as the particle, causing cra-
tering or penetration, depending on the thickness and material properties of
the surface being impacted. There has been one accidental collision between
cataloged objects to date, but surfaces returned from space and examined in
the laboratory confirm a regular bombardment by small particles. Space
Shuttle vehicle components, including windows, are regularly replaced due
to such damage acquired while in orbit. Debris also poses a hazard to the sur-
face of the Earth. High-melting-point materials such as titanium, steel,
ceramics, or large or densely constructed objects can survive atmospheric
reentry to strike the earth’s surface. Although there have been no recorded
fatalities or severe injuries due to debris, reentering objects are regularly
observed and occasionally found.
Debris is typically divided into three size ranges, based on the damage it
may cause: less than 1 centimeter (cm), 1 to 10 cm, and larger than 10 cm.
Objects less than 1 cm may be shielded against, but they still have the poten-
tial to damage most satellites. Debris in the 1 to 10 cm range is not shielded
against, cannot easily be observed, and could destroy a satellite. Finally, col-
lisions with objects larger than 10 cm can break up a satellite. Of these size
ranges, only objects 10 cm and larger are regularly tracked and cataloged by
surveillance networks in the United States and the former Soviet Union. The
other populations are estimated statistically through the analysis of returned
surfaces (sizes less than 1 mm) or special measurement campaigns with sen-
sitive radars (sizes larger than 3 mm). Estimates for the populations are
approximately 30 million debris between 1 mm and 1 cm, over 100,000
debris between 1 and 10 cm, and 8,800 objects larger than 10 cm.
The number, nature, and location of objects greater than 10 cm in size
are provided in the fragmentation debris table and in the image of space
debris around Earth. Low Earth orbit (LEO) is defined as orbital altitudes
below 2,000 km above the earth’s surface and is the subject of the image of
space debris around Earth. Middle Earth orbit (MEO) is the province of the
Global Positioning System (GPS) and Russian navigation satellite systems
and is located at approximately 20,000-km altitude, whereas the geosynchro-
nous Earth orbit (GEO) “belt” is inhabited primarily by communications and
Earth—observation payloads around 35,800 km. The majority of objects in
these orbital regions are in circular or near-circular orbits about the earth. In
contrast, the elliptical orbit category includes rocket bodies left in their
transfer (payload delivery) orbits to MEO and GEO as well as scientific,
communications, and Earth-observation payloads. Of all objects listed in the
220
 Space Pollution

fragmentation debris table, the vast majority are “debris”—only about 5 per- A NASA map showing man-
made orbital debris in low
cent of objects in orbit represent operational payloads or spacecraft. Also, of
Earth orbit. (©NASA/Roger
the approximately 28,000 objects that have been tracked, beginning with the Ressmeyer/Corbis. Reproduced
launch of Sputnik 1 in October 1957, those not accounted for in the frag- by permission.)
mentation debris table have either reentered the earth’s atmosphere or have
escaped the earth’s influence (to land on Mars, for example). The distribution
of debris smaller than 10 cm is predicated on the orbits of the parent objects
and is assumed to be very similar to the distributions presented in the image
of space debris around Earth.

Remediation Strategies
Remediation takes two courses: protection and mitigation. Protection seeks to
shield spacecraft and utilize intelligent design practices to minimize the effects
221
Sprawl

of debris impact. Mitigation attempts to prevent debris from being created.

Active mitigation techniques include collision avoidance between tracked and
maneuverable objects and the intentional reentry of objects over the oceans.
Passive techniques include venting residual fuels or pressurized vessels aboard
rockets and spacecraft, retaining operational debris, and placing spacecraft
into disposal orbits at the end of a mission. Space salvage or retrieval, while an
option, is currently too expensive to employ on a regular basis.
The United States and international space agencies recognize the threat
of debris and are cooperating to limit its environmental and health hazards.
The Interagency Space Debris Coordination Committee (IADC), sponsored
originally by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA),
has grown to include all major space-faring nations. The IADC charter
includes the coordination and dissemination of remediation research, and
strategies based on research results are being adopted by the worldwide space
community.
Remediation strategies have resulted in a decline in the rate of debris
growth in the 1990s although the overall population continues to grow.
Continued work is necessary, however, to reduce the orbital debris hazard for
future generations and continue the safe, economical utilization of space.
Bibliography
Committee on Space Debris, Aeronautics and Space Engineering Board, Commission
on Engineering and Technical Systems, National Research Council. (1995). “Orbital
Debris: A Technical Assessment.” Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press. Also
available from http://pompeii.nap.edu/books/0309051258/html/index.html
Johnson, Nicholas L. (1998). “Monitoring and Controlling Debris in Space.” Scientific
American 279(2):62–67.

Internet Resources
Interagency Space Debris Coordination Committee (IADC) Web site. Available from
http://www.iadc-online.org.
Phillip Anz-Meador

Sprawl
A term used in debates about urban growth, sprawl does not have a precise,
academic definition. As a noun, it most often refers to spread-out development
that requires people to use a car for every activity, because it strictly separates
housing, shopping, schools, offices, and other land uses from each other. The
commercial sprawl landscape features wide roads flanked by parking lots that
surround mostly single-story buildings; there are usually many cars but few
pedestrians. As a verb, sprawl most often refers to metropolitan areas that are
consuming land at a faster rate than the population is growing. Sprawl is said
to be worst in cities that are spreading out even though their population is
stagnant or declining. Some people criticize sprawling growth because it cre-
ates traffic congestion, air quality, water pollution, and the revitalization of
older neighborhoods harder to address. S E E A L S O Smart Growth.
Internet Resource
Smart Growth Online. “The Cost of Sprawl: How Much Does It Cost to Drive to
Work?” Available from http://www.smartgrowth.org/news/article.asp?art=3071.
David Goldberg

222
 Strong, Maurice

A sprawling neighborhood in
Corona, California. (AP/Wide
World Photos. Reproduced by
permission.)

Strong, Maurice
CANADIAN ENVIRONMENTAL ADVOCATE; FIRST EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR
OF THE UNITED NATIONS ENVIRONMENT PROGRAMME
(1929–)
No single international civil servant has contributed more to global attention
to environmental problems, including those relating to air and water pollu-
tion, than has Maurice F. Strong. Born in Manitoba, Canada, by the age of
twenty-two Strong had acquired a small fortune from the Alberta oil boom.
His lifelong ambition, however, was public service. After serving as director-
general of the Canadian External Aid Office (later the Canadian International
223
Sulfur Dioxide

Development Agency), he agreed to head the United Nations Conference on

the Human Environment (1972). As conference secretary-general and United
Nations (UN) undersecretary-general for environmental affairs, he began his
lifelong quest to focus the world’s attention on a future environmental catas-
trophe. He sought to reconcile environmental concerns with development
needs and the need of the present generation for sustainable growth with the
necessity of leaving a clean environment for future generations. Knowing that
the key to successful conferences was their follow up, he agreed to serve as the
first executive director of the United Nations Environment Programme
(UNEP) (1973 to 1975). In 1992, the Canadian government nominated him
as secretary-general of the UN Conference on Environment and Develop-
ment (UNCED), commonly known as the Earth Summit, held in Rio de
Janeiro, Brazil. In both global environmental conferences, he encouraged par-
ticipation by nongovernmental organizations.
In his capacity as undersecretary-general and senior advisor to the UN
secretary-general, Strong is assisting UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan in
reforming the United Nations (something he has long advocated) and serv-
Maurice Strong. (©Robert
Patrick/Corbis. Reproduced by
ing as a member of the Commission on Global Governance (1992 to 1996).
permission.) In his 2000 best-selling autobiography, Where on Earth Are We Going?, he
vowed to continue his lifelong quest. S E E A L S O Activism.
Bibliography
Strong, Maurice (2000). Where on Earth Are We Going? Toronto: Vintage.
Michael G. Schechter

Sulfur Dioxide
Sulfur dioxide (SO2) is an air pollutant known primarily for its role in acid
anthropogenic human-made; rain. SO2 is emitted naturally from volcanoes. Anthropogenic emissions
related to or produced by the arise largely from the production of electricity, particularly coal-fired power
influence of humans on nature
plants (65%). The sulfur in the coal reacts with oxygen during combustion,
converting it to SO2. Scrubbers, using a slurry of limestone and water, are
used to extract the SO2 before it exits the stack.
Once in the atmosphere, SO2 is converted to other compounds such as
sulfuric acid (H2SO4), the primary contributor to acid rain. SO2 also reacts to
form sulfate aerosols. These tiny airborne particles are the major cause of
haze in U.S. national parks.
Both SO2 gas and sulfate aerosols cause breathing problems, particularly
for people with existing respiratory illnesses such as asthma. For health rea-
sons, to reduce acid rain, and to improve visibility, SO2 emissions are regu-
lated by a market-based allowance trading system established by the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). S E E A L S O Acid Rain; Coal; Elec-
tric Power; Scrubbers.
Bibliography
Turco, Richard P. (1997). Earth under Siege: From Air Pollution to Global Change. New
York: Oxford University Press.

Internet Resource
Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR). “ToxFAQ for Sulfur
Dioxide.” Available from http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/tfacts116.html.

224
 Superfund

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Web site. Available from http://epa.gov.

Marin Sands Robinson

Superfund
Superfund is a term used for the monies available to the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) to clean up abandoned or inactive hazardous waste
sites. Such sites may involve soil and/or groundwater contamination, and are
often contaminated with heavy metals, such as arsenic, cadmium, chromium, heavy metals metallic ele-
lead, mercury, and zinc; pesticides, including aldrin, dieldrin, chlordane, and ments with high atomic
weights (e.g. mercury,
DDT; and chlorinated solvents such as carbon tetrachloride, methylene chlo- chromium, cadmium, arsenic,
ride, and tetra and trichloroethylene. Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and lead); can damage living
cyanide, benzene, toluene, vinyl chloride, and radionuclides, including stron- things at low concentrations
and tend to accumulate in the
tium, plutonium, and uranium are also found at hazardous waste sites. The food chain
$1.8 billion Superfund was established in 1980 by federal legislation under the
DDT the first chlorinated
Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act hydrocarbon insecticide
(CERCLA). It was created with taxes imposed by the federal government on (chemical name: Dichlor0-
major oil and chemical companies. At that time, common belief was that suf- Diphenyl-Trichloroethane); it
ficient funds and technology existed to clean up all abandoned hazardous has a half-life of 15 years and
can collect in fatty tissues of
waste sites by 1985. certain animals; for virtually all
but emergency uses, DDT was
Historical Perspective banned in the U.S. in 1972
PCBs polychlorinated
By 1985, although work had started at many sites, only approximately six sites biphenyls; two-ringed com-
had been completely remediated, and it soon became clear that revisions to pounds of hydrogen, carbon,
legislation were needed to streamline cleanup efforts and additional taxes for and chlorine
Superfund were required to provide funding. In 1986 Superfund was replen-
ished under the Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act (SARA).
As a result of SARA, Superfund totaled $8.5 billion.
Under CERCLA and SARA, the EPA is given the authority and
resources to clean up hazardous waste sites. EPA’s priority is to identify
responsible parties—those companies that have caused contamination—and
require them to clean up, at their own expense, any corresponding hazardous
waste sites. EPA thus reserves the use of Superfund monies for sites in which
responsible parties are not identified or have claimed bankruptcy. As of 1999,
responsible parties have contributed over $16 billion toward the cleanup of
hazardous waste sites.
The EPA follows a detailed procedure to evaluate hazardous waste sites
and ranks them according to the severity of risk to human health and the
environment. The national priorities list (NPL) includes those sites that are
deemed eligible for cleanup by Superfund. In 1987 it listed 1,187 sites and
nearly 30,000 sites remained to be assessed. As of March 2002, 1,223 sites
remained on the NPL and were eligible for cleanup under Superfund. In
addition, 810 sites had achieved “construction completed” status which
means that all the measures to clean up the sites, as outlined in the EPA
Record of Decisions, have been taken.

Site Cleanup Remedies

Technologies employed to clean up sites include procedures that have been
used for decades in treating water and air pollution; also, novel techniques
225
Superfund

Map illustrating Superfund have been developed to clean up specific contaminants in groundwater and
sites in the United States,
soil. Environmental engineers, geologists, chemists, and biologists consider
illustration. (Gale.)
alternatives to clean up sites depending on what medium is contaminated
(e.g., groundwater, surface or subsurface soil, surface water, or air), and the
nature of the contaminants. Community involvement is also sought as part of
the decision process.
Contaminants that are biodegradable may be completely converted to
environmentally acceptable products. An example of this would be using
microorganisms to biodegrade gasoline components in water or soil to car-
bon dioxide and water. Alternatively, depending on cost and time constraints,
other technologies are employed that transfer the contamination from one
medium to another. Air stripping and soil vapor extraction are examples of
such technologies. Air stripping involves spraying contaminated water into
the top of a vertical tower while air is pumped from the bottom to the top of
volatile any substance that the tower. Chemicals that are volatile will be transferred in the tower from
evaporates readily the water to the air. In soil vapor extraction, perforated pipes are drilled into
contaminated subsurface soil and a vacuum is applied to encourage volatile
chemicals to transfer from the soil to the air. Contaminants transferred to the
air by these processes, such as benzene, toluene, and trichloroethylene are
sometimes captured with activated carbon or destroyed by a combustion
process, such as incineration. Air stripping was employed to clean ground-
water contaminated with volatile organic chemicals, including trichloroeth-
ylene, benzene, toluene, and xylenes, at the General Mills/Henkel Superfund
site, a former technical center and research laboratory in Minneapolis, Min-
nesota. The contaminants in the ground water have stabilized since the
pump and treat system began in the early 1990s, with cleaned water being
discharged to the Minneapolis storm sewer system.
226
 Sustainable Development

Since the inception of SARA, the EPA has expressed a preference for
cleanup remedies that destroy contamination rather than transfer it. Conta- SUPERFUND SITE IN LIBBY,
minants may be destroyed by microorganisms that biodegrade chemicals or MONTANA
by incineration processes that transform the chemical with extreme heat. In Libby, Montana, the remedia-
One billion pounds of contaminated soil were incinerated at the Sikes Dis- tion of soil and groundwater
posal Pits near Crosby, Texas, where hazardous waste from petrochemical contaminated with pentachloro-
companies had been dumped in unlined pits during the 1960s. The inciner- phenol (PCP) and polycyclic aro-
ation was completed in 1994 and the site is now planted with local grasses. matic hydrocarbons (PAHs) has
The excavation of contaminated soil for hauling to a landfill is an example of been under way since 1985. PCP
the removal and transfer of contamination to another area. The concern with and PAHs are chemicals used to
“removal technologies” is that the contamination may create a future hazard preserve wood products such as
to human health or the environment. For this reason, the EPA has come to telephone poles and railroad
discourage the use of removal technologies. ties. The responsible party,
Champion International Corpora-
Pros, Cons, and Other Countries tion, caused soil and groundwa-
Superfund’s proponents argue that the EPA must have the authority and ter contamination at its lumber
resources to clean up hazardous waste sites. Otherwise, reluctant responsible and plywood mill in Libby. The
parties will have no incentive to bear the burden of cleanup. In such cases, the EPA determined that wastewater
protection of public health and remediation of damages to the environment and sludge from the wood-
would be left for taxpayers to finance. Those against Superfund reauthoriza- treating process were the sources
tion claim that many industries are responsibly handling the matter of haz- of contamination. To address the
ardous waste sites and have invested sizable resources to clean up such issue of contamination, drinking
locations. Furthermore, these industries have a vested interest in achieving a water from a public water supply
cost-effective cleanup in a timely manner. was provided to residents of the
Libby area, and the use of pri-
Many developed countries have implemented hazardous waste remedia-
vate wells prohibited. Contami-
tion programs. Some countries pay for site cleanup from general government
nated soil and groundwater are
revenues (taxes, etc.), whereas others rely on special taxes on industry (simi-
undergoing cleanup using biore-
lar to Superfund). S E E A L S O Abatement; Bioremediation; Brownfield;
mediation, a technology that
Cleanup; Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and
employs microorganisms to
Liability Act (CERCLA); Hazardous Waste; Radioactive Waste.
transform hazardous chemicals
Bibliography into environmentally acceptable
LaGrega, Michael D.; Buckingham, Phillip L.; and Evans, Jeffrey C. (2001). Hazardous products.
Waste Management, 2nd edition. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Watts, Richard J. (1997). Hazardous Wastes: Sources, Pathways, Receptors. New York:
John Wiley & Sons.

Internet Resources
Federal Remediation Technologies Roundtable. “Remediation Technology.” Available
from http://www.frtr.gov.
“Libby, Montana, Groundwater Contamination.” Available from http://www.epa.gov/
superfund.
Thomas D. DiStefano

Sustainable Development
The term sustainable development gained international recognition after the
World Commission on Environment and Development (the Brundtland
Commission) released its report Our Common Future in 1983. In this report,
sustainable development was defined as “development that meets the needs
of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to
227
Sustainable Development

meet their own needs.” The International Union for Conservation of Nature
and Natural Resources had introduced the term earlier in its 1980 publica-
tion World Conservation Strategy, stating, “Development and conservation
operate in the same global context, and the underlying problems that must be
overcome if either is to be successful are identical.” It thus recommended a
strategy entitled, “Towards Sustainable Development.”
Development refers to any systematic progress toward some improved or
advanced condition. In the international development field, in which the
term sustainable development is most often encountered, development refers
to the establishment of the physical and social conditions that make eco-
nomic progress possible. In the past this has at times involved the transfor-
mation of forests, wetlands, soil, and other resources in ways that ultimately
undermined the capacity of the natural environment to produce conditions
able to sustain future advances in the quality of people’s lives. The concept of
sustainable development thus suggests an alternative strategy in which eco-
nomic progress and environmental protection go hand in hand.
The negative environmental impacts of some forms of economic devel-
opment had been recognized long before the term sustainable development
was popularized in the 1980s. The earliest settled communities subjected the
harvesting of important food and raw materials to rules, customs, and eventu-
ally formal laws and regulations designed to protect renewable resources for
the future. In his book Man and Nature published in 1867, George Perkins
Marsh drew attention to the environmental changes he had witnessed in both
the United States and the Mediterranean region. His alarm was echoed by
early American conservationists Gifford Pinchot and John Muir at the begin-
ning of the twentieth century and again by Rachel Carson in her 1962 book
Silent Spring. Then in 1972 an environmentally aware group of industrialists
known as the Club of Rome issued a report, The Limits to Growth, that warned
of inadequate natural resource supplies and disruption to global ecosystems if
population and economic growth were to continue on their current path. In
1971 the International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED)
was established in Britain with a mandate to seek ways to achieve economic
progress without destroying the environmental resource base.
In June 1992 the United Nations Conference on Environment and
Development (UNCED) further refined the term by developing an agenda
for nations to follow that would move the world toward sustainable develop-
ment. Agenda 21, as it was called, was a three-hundred-page plan for achiev-
ing sustainable development in the twenty-first century. To assist in follow up
and monitor the progress of Agenda 21, and to report on the implementation
of related agreements, the United Nations created the Commission on Sus-
tainable Development (CSD), to report to the UN Economic and Social
Council (ECOSO).
Although the concept of sustainable development has received consider-
able attention in international diplomatic and policy circles, it does have its
critics. Many claim sustainable development is an oxymoron. They argue that
nothing, least of all economic development, is sustainable forever. For them,
the concept of sustainable development is wishful thinking that distracts
nations from the necessary transformations of the global economy. Others
claim that a determined focus on sustainability is likely to lead to economic
stagnation and continued underdevelopment.
228
 Swallow, Ellen

The proponents of sustainable development believe that the current

mode of economic development is fundamentally destructive and must be
radically reformed, and although nothing is absolutely sustainable, the effort
to hold development activities accountable for the environmental conditions
they produce makes both long-term economic and ethical sense. They argue
that this approach, when combined with efforts to reduce population growth
rates, reduce consumption among the richest nations of the world, promote
the substitution of renewable for nonrenewable natural resources, reduce
waste from manufacturing processes, and improve efficiency in the use of
materials, is the only approach that offers a positive future outlook for the
welfare of the global community.
In the decade since Agenda 21 was accepted as a strategy for sustainable
development, progress has been made. International agreements have been
promulgated that will have a positive effect on sustainable development.
These include, among others, the efforts of the United Nations in formulat-
ing a framework convention on climate change, a convention on biological
diversity and a global compact that combines concerns for human rights,
labor, and the environment. In addition, standards for business activity that
consider environmental consequences have been agreed to by the Interna-
tional Organization for Standardization (ISO 14000), and the international
business community has created the World Business Council for Sustainable
Development. The World Bank has applied the concept of sustainable devel-
opment with its reformed lending practices requiring recipients to demon-
strate sound environmental criteria. Cities around the world are adopting
sustainable criteria for land-use planning and zoning, and individuals are
making personal consumption choices with sustainable development in mind.
Though the problems of a sustainable future are far from solved, there is
much about which to be optimistic. S E E A L S O Earth Summit.
Bibliography
Carson, Rachel. (1963). Silent Spring. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. (1980).
World Conservation Strategy.
Marsh, George Perkins. (1867). Man and Nature. New York: Scribners.
Meadows, Donella H.; Meadows, Dennis L.; Randers, Jorgen; and Behrens, William
W. III. (1972). The Limits to Growth. New York: Universe Books.
Pinchot, Gifford. (1947). Breaking New Ground. New York: Hartcourt, Brace, and Co.
World Commission on Environment and Development. (1987). Our Common Future.
New York: Oxford University Press.

Internet Resource
U.S. Department of Energy Center for Excellence for Sustainable Development.
Available from http://www.sustainable.doe.gov.
Jack Manno and Ross Whaley

Swallow, Ellen
Ellen Swallow Richards (1842–1911) was the first female chemist in the
United States and the mother of the science of ecology. As she walked to the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) each day, this sanitary chemist
noticed horse wagons carrying uncovered food over Boston’s dirty, unpaved
229
Systems Science

streets, which were often flooded with pools of stagnant waste from the open
sewers. She saw filth, disease, suffering, and poverty that took the lives of half
the children living in these conditions.
She determined that chemistry should be used to provide a meaningful
service to society by improving people’s health and environment. Her pioneer-
ing work on the effects of industrial pollution and sewage on human health led
to the world’s first sanitary engineering program and water-purity testing for-
mulas, which are so precise that they are still being used. Her work in food
additives led to the creation of the first pure food laws in the United States.
In an 1892 speech to other scientists, she first introduced the word and
concept ecology, referring to the relationships of organisms to their environ-
ments, whether natural, domestic or industrialized and human created. Her
book, Euthenics: The Science of Controllable Environment: A Plea for Better Liv-
ing Conditions as a First Step toward Higher Human Efficiency, which was pub-
lished in 1910, introduced ecology to the public. Swallow’s dedication
brought environmental concerns about clean air, water, sanitation, and pure
Ellen Swallow. (Courtesy of the food to the societal, home, and individual levels and called for the integration
MIT Museum. Reproduced by of all the sciences to solve environmental and health problems.
permission.)
Swallow’s difficult but successful entry to higher learning also paved the
way for other women. In 1871 she overcame substantial obstacles to become
the first woman to attend MIT, where she was denied a doctorate in chem-
istry because MIT did not allow women to be awarded doctorate degrees.
She then became the first female member of the faculty at MIT, resulting in,
for example, both women and men having access to the school’s new chem-
istry lab in 1878. S E E A L S O Industry; Environmental Movement; Settle-
ment House Movement.
Bibliography
Internet Resources
Chemical Heritage Foundation. Available from http://www.chemheritage.org/
EducationalServices/chemach/hnec/esr.html.
MIT Institute Archives and Special Collections. “Ellen Swallow Richards.” Available
from http://libraries.mit.edu/archives/exhibits/esr.
Susan L. Senecah

Systems Science
Most traditional science works within a very restricted disciplinary domain
requiring a careful and often technically rigorous and demanding approach
that includes, at least in theory, the use of the Baconian scientific method of
test and control in a restricted laboratory environment. This is how most sci-
ence operates, and it is often a very successful approach. However, such an
approach is very difficult to apply to many real problems, including those in
the complex natural or seminatural world outside the laboratory where many
interacting variables can render laboratory results rather meaningless. For
example, cleaning up sewage in a treatment plant can increase air pollution
both directly and through the energy required.
One antidote to this problem is systems science, which seeks to find and
use general principals, concepts, and equations that are applicable across, and
can integrate, many disciplines. Numerous thinkers throughout history have
230
 Systems Science

used some kind of systems approach (e.g., Isaac Newton realized that billiard
balls and planets both followed the same laws of motion). General systems
theory was formalized and popularized by Ludwig von Bertalanffy in a book
by that name; he founded the Society for General Systems and advanced its
studies. This society is still active, continuing to attract ecologists, physicians,
psychologists, engineers, mathematicians, economists, and others who seek
new ideas in other disciplines.
There are, generally speaking, two approaches to systems science. The
first undertakes analysis of the properties of systems as a whole. For example,
one might ask what is the photosynthesis of an entire ecosystem or indeed of
the globe as a whole. The most comprehensive, and some might say most
controversial, application of this approach is the Gaia hypothesis of deep
ecologists James Lovelock and Lynn Margulis. This hypothesis postulates
that the earth as a living system itself regulates the chemical and other char-
acteristics of the atmosphere (and other entities) in order to maintain optimal
conditions for life. In other words, life maintains its own environment. This
concept, or one somewhat like it, has been called self-design by Howard
Odum and others, and Odum applies the view especially to ecosystems.
The second general approach is a “systems” analysis of how parts of a
system interact and generate the behavior of some entire entity. Such an
approach, originally used to link radar, artillery, and aircraft during the Bat-
tle of Britain in World War II, has been especially well developed in the engi-
neering sciences. For example, computers are used routinely in designing
automobiles to model how springs and shock absorbers interact with wheels
and terrain so that automobiles with smoother rides can be designed. Here
and elsewhere in a systems approach, the feedback of one motion or opera-
tion on the subsequent behavior of the system is of paramount importance.
Many systems investigators try to capture the essence of the behavior and
other attributes of their ecosystem of interest through the construction of
mathematical and/or computer simulation models.
Examples of how systems science has contributed to science include the
use of techniques originally designed for measuring photosynthesis and res-
piration in aquatic ecosystems to understand the metabolism of the Northern
Hemisphere. It has also included the application of fisheries analysis tech-
niques to assess the success of drilling for oil. Oil return per unit effort spent
in acquiring it, like fishing for fish, decreases with increasing effort.
A systems approach can be applied in many ways, including modeling the
fate and transport of pollutants dumped into a river or groundwater. The clas-
sic example is the Streeter Phelps model, developed in the 1930s, that predicts
the oxygen level in a river as a function of sewage load, dispersion, microbial
activity and interactions with the atmosphere. A general systems approach has
been most thoroughly developed for the environmental sciences by Odum in
General and Systems Ecology. Other specific examples include its use in com-
bined hydrological, biological, and economic models to determine the cheap-
est way to clean up the Delaware estuary; combined atmospheric and
pollutant generation models to predict, for example, acid rain deposition
downwind; and models to generate groundwater pollution and its impact.
More recently, some efforts to integrate economics into traditional systems
analyses of natural systems have evolved. An extensive systems approach has
been used, for example, to examine the economy of Costa Rica, not just with
231
TCE (Trichloroethylene)

the conventional tools of economics but also through a biophysical approach

originally developed for natural ecosystems (Hall, 2000). In fact, some kind of
systems approach is almost a necessity in any sophisticated environmental
impact statement. S E E A L S O Environmental Impact Statement; GIS (Geo-
graphic Information System); Global Warming; Groundwater; Risk.
Bibliography
Hall, C.A.S., and C.J. Cleveland. (1981). “Petroleum Drilling and Production in the
United States: Yield per Effort and Net Energy Analysis.” Science 211:576–579.
Hall, C.A.S., ed. (2000). Quantifying Sustainable Development: The Future of Tropical
Economies. San Diego: Academic Press.
Odum, Howard T. (1994). Ecological and General Systems. Niwot: University of Col-
orado Press.
von Bertalanffy, Ludwig. (1968). General Systems Theory. New York: George Brazillier.

Internet Resource
Principia Cybernetica Project (PCP) Web site. Available from http://pespmc1.vub.ac.be/
DEFAULT.
Charles Hall

TCE (Trichloroethylene) See Dry Cleaning

T Technology, Pollution Prevention

A pollution prevention (P2) technology is one that creates less pollution in its
life cycle than the one it replaces. P2 can be achieved in many ways, from bet-
ter housekeeping and maintenance to redesign of products and processes.
The range of P2 technologies is therefore very broad. It includes relatively
cleaner technologies, technologies that help other technologies to be cleaner,
and certain mass-market technologies. All of them reduce environmental
impacts compared to their alternatives. It is important to understand that P2
technology does not include pollution-control or -treatment technologies
that do not make the technology producing the pollution any cleaner itself.
They just manage the resulting waste.

Relatively Cleaner Technologies

Technology is always advancing and improving. Many new technologies are
naturally more energy efficient and less polluting than the ones they replace.
Sometimes, this is because they were designed with environmental improve-
ment in mind. Usually, however, it is simply the result of using newer and
better materials and components. Therefore, pollution-preventing technolo-
gies can be found in every area of a product’s life cycle.
Life cycle analysis (LCA) is needed to determine if a particular technol-
ogy really pollutes less than its alternatives. LCA is the examination of the
environmental impacts of a product, from its origins as raw material through
processing and production to use and final disposal. This can be a complex
process. For example, fluorescent light bulbs may seem to be less polluting
than incandescent light bulbs because they use much less energy. However,
they actually use polluting chemicals such as mercury that are not found in
incandescent light bulbs. So they use less energy, but more toxic chemicals.
The choice of indicators for P2 performance and LCA, such as toxicity or
energy efficiency, is important for evaluation.
232
 Technology, Pollution Prevention

Facilitative Technologies
Some technologies are important for helping other technologies reduce pol-
lution. For example, process controls such as meters and sensors can make
many production processes more efficient and less polluting by providing
improved control, which reduces waste and defects. Centrifuges can reduce
the amount of solids in wastewaters, thereby reducing water pollution. Cat-
alytic converters on engine exhaust systems can reduce air pollution. There
are many such examples of technologies that help other technologies be
cleaner. This is important in situations where there is a large investment in an
existing technology already installed that cannot be easily or economically
replaced with new and cleaner technology.

Technologies Designed to Prevent Pollution

Some technologies are designed specifically for protecting the environment
while also improving business performance. For example, recycling technolo-
gies can help recover valuable materials from wastes, cutting manufacturing
costs, while also preventing pollution. Examples include gene-engineered
plants that do not need protection using chemical insecticides and fuel cells
for generating electricity. However, it is surprisingly challenging to identify
such technologies. Most technologies that stop pollution were usually created
to simply reduce costs and save on materials. Technologies designed to pre-
vent pollution usually rely on cost efficiency, rather than pollution prevention,
as their main selling point. EU COMMISSION ON THE
ENVIRONMENT
One important and fundamental exception is P2 in chemical design.
Thousands of chemicals are used in industry, commerce, and daily life. Many Each citizen of the European
of them have environmental impacts, from mild to serious. By developing Union produces an average of
alternative chemicals with better environmental performance, significant 3.5 tonnes (3.85 U.S. tons) of
reductions in pollution can be obtained throughout product life cycles. A total waste annually. In view of
common application of green chemistry is in the design of environmentally this, on May 27, 2003, the
benign solvents. Traditional solvents such as acetone, xylene, and methylene European Union Commission
chloride are being replaced by new chemicals designed specifically to be less announced a formal communica-
hazardous or less polluting. tion or policy statement aimed at
reducing waste generation and
the use of natural resources, and
Mass-Market P2 Technologies developing a coherent policy on
Mass-market P2 technologies are those that can be used in many different recycling. Current recycling regu-
industries or even in consumer households. These technologies create new lations in the EU are inconsis-
markets because their production creates jobs and spin-offs, and they gener- tent. For instance, cardboard and
ate ready demand from producers who want to reduce input costs. Each has paper packaging are recycled but
the following criteria: office paper and newsprint are
not. Recycling also often costs
1. The technology is widely applicable across a variety of industry types
more than landfilling or incinera-
and sizes.
tion. More industry involvement,
2. The technology does not require very large capital expenditures. tradable environmental permits,
national landfill bans and taxes,
3. The technology’s usefulness has been proven through years of imple-
pay-as-you-throw schemes, and
mentation experience.
producer responsibility initiatives
4. The technology has demonstrated free-market feasibility, that is, a pos- are among the communication’s
itive payback in the productivity of materials, not including reductions proposals.
in disposal costs.
233
Terrorism

5. The technology can be supported in the field by local technicians with

basic competence.
6. Parts for repair are locally available at reasonable cost.
Example mass-market technologies for P2 include household water-
conservation fixtures, variable-speed motors, programmable heating and air
conditioning controls, citrus-based solvent cleaners, plastic films for reducing
heat transmission through windows, and many others.

International P2 Technologies
The major differences in P2 technologies among countries lie in the age of
the technology and the level of process control. In less developed countries,
much of the technology is old and would be considered out of date and
uncompetitive in developed countries. Consequently, it usually produces
much more pollution per unit of output. Less developed countries also tend
to use fewer process controls and instrumentation. Much of the operation is
controlled by hand or based on experience, rather than real-time data.
Human error thus potentially creates more waste and pollution in such situ-
ations. But there are no hard and fast rules for differences in P2 technologies
between countries. In Thailand, for example, there has been significant
investment in new factories in the electronics and auto parts industries.
These plants use the latest technology and management practices and are
much less polluting than older plants in the same industries operating nearby.
S E E A L S O Catalytic Converter; Energy Efficiency; Green Chemistry;
Life Cycle Analysis.
Bibliography
European Environment Agency. (1997). Comparing Environmental Impact Data on
Cleaner Technologies, Copenhagen: European Environment Agency.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (2001). Cleaner Technologies Substitutes Assess-
ment, Washington: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
Burt Hamner

Terrorism
Terrorism, as defined by the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), is “the
unlawful use of force or violence against persons or property to intimidate or
coerce a government, the civilian population, or any segment thereof, in fur-
therance of political or social objectives.”
The destruction inherent in any act of mass terrorism inevitably causes
secondary environmental pollution effects, many of them serious. Acts of ter-
rorism can also be directed against the environment itself, or specific natural
resources such as freshwater, oil, or agricultural products.

Terrorist Attack on the World Trade Center

The secondary environmental effects of terrorism can often be as significant
as its primary effects. The attack on the World Trade Center (WTC) in New
York City on September 11, 2001, had negative health consequences beyond
the staggering loss of life. The collapse of the structures and subsequent fires
spewed an enormous cloud of dust and toxins into the air over the city.
234
 Terrorism

Pulverized concrete, building materials, heavy metals, and human remains Map showing long-term
contamination due to
were inhaled by residents and rescue workers in lower Manhattan until a
detonation of cobalt bomb in
heavy rain three days later washed away most of the dust. New York City, illustration.
(Gale.)
The immediate environmental fallout from the WTC collapse contained
asbestos and fibrous glass from the building structure; mercury, dioxins,
furans, and other cancer-causing toxins from the burning of fluorescent light
bulbs and computer screens; heavy metals such as cadmium and lead and
volatile organic compounds like benzene. Federal, state, and local agencies
went right to work monitoring air quality and cleaning up dust and debris
from the WTC collapse, but these actions themselves have serious environ-
mental consequences. One in four cleanup workers at Ground Zero report-
235
Terrorism

South tower of the World

Trade Center collapsing as
black smoke billows from the
burning north tower following
the terrorist attack on
September 11, 2001, by
members of al-Qaeda.
(AP/Wide World Photos.
Reproduced by permission.)

edly suffer from asthma and respiratory illness brought about by dust inhaled
at the site. Some airborne pollutants and dust were resuspended as a result of
ongoing cleanup efforts.
The secondary pollution concerns include possible contamination of
waterways around lower Manhattan as well as the challenge of where to dis-
pose of the catastrophe’s 1.2 million tons of waste. Fresh Kills landfill on
Staten Island has been accepting WTC debris, some containing asbestos and
other toxic materials, despite being slated to close December 31, 2001. Since
Fresh Kills was not designed to accept hazardous waste, there is concern
about whether or not contaminants could leach from the landfill into sur-
rounding groundwater.
236
 Terrorism

COMMON POLLUTANTS FROM SEPTEMBER 11, 2001, ATTACK

AND THEIR HEALTH EFFECTS

Contaminant Health Effects Source

Asbestos Carcinogenic. Causes tissue damage in the Used as an insulator and fire
lungs when inhaled over long periods and retardant, applied to steel
can lead to asbestosis, mesothelioma, and beams.
lung cancer.

Benzene Flammable and carcinogenic. Short-term Combustion of plastics.

effects include dizziness, headaches, and
tremors. Long-term exposure can lead to
leukemia.

Biohazards Exposure to blood and body parts can Human remains.

transmit infectious diseases such as
hepatitis and AIDS.

Chromium Carcinogenic when inhaled at high Video and computer monitors.

concentrations; can cause skin ulcers.

Copper Can cause dizziness, headaches, vomiting, Electrical wiring and cables.
liver and kidney damage.

Diesel fumes Asthma trigger. Can aggravate symptoms in Truck traffic and heavy
asthmatics. machinery.

Dioxins Chloracne is a short-term effect of exposure. Combustion of polyvinyl

Strong evidence for carcinogenic, chloride found in electrical
teratogenic, reproductive, and immuno- cables and other insulating
suppressive effects. materials.

Freon Damages the ozone layer. When burned, can Refrigeration and air-
produce phosgene, a potent cause of conditioning equipment.
severe and life-threatening pulmonary
edema.

Lead Neurotoxin. Damages the central nervous Video and computer monitors,
system, especially in children. Can also rustproofing paint used on
cause kidney damage and reproductive steel beams.
damage in adults.

Mercury Neurotoxin. Damages the peripheral nervous Thermometers and other

system, especially in children. precision instruments.

Particulate matter Asthma trigger. Can also aggravate cardio- Pulverized concrete and other
vascular disease. materials, smoke, dust and
soot.

Polychlorinated Carcinogen. May also cause reproductive Electrical equipment.

biphenyls and developmental abnormalities.

Sulfur dioxide Pulmonary toxicant. Can cause severe airway Combustion.

obstruction when inhaled at high
concentrations.
SOURCE: Adapted from Environmental Health Perspectives, Vol. 109, No. 11, November 2001.

With the passage of time, and through the cleansing effect of rainfall and
the specialized cleanup efforts of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA), air quality in lower Manhattan has now returned roughly to pre-9/11
levels. However, despite reassurances from the EPA and the Occupational
Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), residents of lower Manhattan
worry about the long-term health effects of dust and particulates deposited on
rooftops and windowsills, and in the ventilation systems of nearby buildings.
Only now are the long-term effects of exposure to Ground Zero being studied.

Renewed Efforts to Protect Environmental Infrastructure

After the attacks of September 11, 2001, federal and state authorities began
to wonder what else might offer a tempting target for terror attacks. New
237
Terrorism

York City and other large cities immediately took steps to protect their water
systems by guarding the infrastructure and testing the water for known con-
taminants. In 2002 President George W. Bush’s administration passed the
Public Health and Bioterrorism Preparedness and Response Act, which
required, among other actions, that all water utilities across the country con-
duct security assessments to gauge possible vulnerability and take steps to
protect their water.

Bioterrorism
The environment can also be a conduit for terrorism. Biological elements
such as disease-causing bacteria and viruses can become potent weapons
when taken out of their natural environment. Shortly after the attack on the
WTC, several pieces of mail in and around Florida, Washington, D.C., and
New York City tested positive for the biocontaminant anthrax. Anthrax is a
bacterium that, in its most potent inhaled form, has a fatality rate of over 90
percent. Over ten thousand people may have been exposed, and five people
inhalation drawing into the died of inhalational anthrax before the contaminated mail was quarantined.
lungs by breathing The FBI and the Postal Service have offered a $2.5 million reward for infor-
mation leading to those responsible, and medical researchers have been
working on a cure. Authorities have not yet determined if the anthrax-con-
taminated mail is connected to al-Qaeda and the events of September 11, but
the combined effect of these two attacks occurring in close proximity served
to heighten the perception that America is under siege.

Nuclear Terrorism
Biocontamination is not the only threat to safety in the United States. One
of the most frightening terror scenarios that government officials must con-
sider is the possibility of a nuclear device, or “dirty bomb,” being detonated
in a U.S. city. Quite separate from the direct human health consequences, the
environmental effects of even a low-yield (five kiloton) nuclear weapon are
severe: The shock wave will disperse radioactive fallout over a wide area, poi-
soning wildlife and groundwater. The heat (thermal radiation) will destroy
plants and trees. And although the global nuclear winter theory (cooling of
the earth’s surface due to airborne fallout, thus blocking sunlight) has largely
been discredited, this phenomenon can have devastating effects on local
agriculture and ecosystems.

Relationship between Resource Competition

and Terrorism
asymmetrical warfare conflict The United States is often a target of asymmetrical warfare, such as terror-
between two forces of greatly ism, because of its military superiority and worldwide economic interests.
different sizes; e.g., terrorists
versus superpower Many scholars studying peace have reasoned that, in order to defeat terror-
ism, we must remedy the conditions that give rise to it.
One of the most pressing American national security interests is ensuring
continued global access to natural commodities such as oil, minerals, and tim-
ber. However, the United States already consumes approximately 30 percent
of all raw materials consumed by humans in a given year and is perceived as a
nation that seeks more than its fair share of the world’s resources. One con-
cern is that as the world population grows and resources are stretched to cover
its needs, supplies will fall and prices will rise, making necessary commodities
238
 Terrorism

ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES OF THE GULF WAR

Although there is some debate among scholars The environmental effects of these acts
about the difference between war and terrorism, were clearly immense. A plume of soot and
the retreating Iraqi army committed two particu- oil droplets spread over 1.3 million square
larly wanton acts of environmental destruction miles, contaminating the air with pollutants
during the 1991 Persian Gulf War. First, they such as nitrous oxides, sulfur dioxide,
released six million barrels of oil from the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and vast
Kuwaiti Sea Island offshore loading terminal, and amounts of CO2. The oil lakes on land have
scuttled five fully loaded oil tankers at the Mina contaminated the fragile desert ecosystem,
Ahmadi terminal. They also set fire to 732 oil virtually guaranteeing that it will not
wells across Kuwait. These burned for months regenerate for decades. The oil in the Gulf
before they were extinguished. The combined oil itself destroyed mangrove thickets, fish,
pollution output from these acts totaled 1.5 bil- shrimp, marine mammals, and sea birds.
lion barrels, or 6,000 times the amount spilled Ten years after the war, this region is still
from the Exxon Valdez. environmentally degraded.

available only to wealthy countries or the upper class within a country. This
means that the rich would get richer and the poor poorer, and such inequity
of supply and distribution might give rise to unilateral actions on the part of
those who feel they are on the losing end of this globalization gap.
To reduce this potential for conflict, developed societies are being
encouraged to recognize that global resource consumption and international
security are connected, and that obtaining resources cooperatively rather
than competitively will enhance long-term security. International agencies
can help to ensure the equitable distribution of critical resources both
between and within countries. In addition, nations can contribute their rela-
tive expertise to finding new sources of natural resources, to developing sub-
stitutes for commodities such as oil and natural gas, and to enhancing
conservation and efficiency technology to certify that existing resources are
used to their maximum benefit. If poorer citizens can be assured they have
access to the resources needed to live, they are less likely to adopt combative
ideologies that lead to terrorism. S E E A L S O Ecoterrorism; War.
Bibliography
Gugliotta, Guy, and Matsumoto, Gary. (2002). “FBI’s Theory on Anthrax Is Doubted.”
Washington Post, October 28, 2002, A1.
Hawley, T.M. (1992). Against the Fires of Hell: The Environmental Disaster of the Gulf
War. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
Klare, Michael T. (2001). Resource Wars: The New Landscape of Global Conflict. New
York: Henry Holt.
Makhijani, Arjun; Hu, Howard; and Yih, Katherine, eds. (2000). Nuclear Wastelands: A
Global Guide to Nuclear Weapons Production and Its Health and Environmental Effects.
Special Commission of International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War
and the Institute for Energy and Environmental Research. Cambridge, MA: MIT
Press.
Nordgren, Megan D.; Goldstein, Eric A.; and Izeman, Mark A. (2002). The Environ-
mental Impacts of the World Trade Center Attacks: A Preliminary Assessment. New York:
Natural Resources Defense Council.

Internet Resources
Federation of American Scientists. (2002). “Special Weapons Primer: Biological War-
fare Agents.” Available from http://www.fas.org/nuke.

239
Thermal Pollution

New York State Department of Environmental Protection. (2001). “Statement on

Water Supply Security.” Available from http://www.nyc.gov/html.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Web site. Further information on the envi-
ronmental and human health effects of 9/11 available from http://www.epa.gov/wtc.
Elizabeth L. Chalecki

Thermal Pollution
The broadest definition of thermal pollution is the degradation of water
ambient surrounding or quality by any process that changes ambient water temperature. Thermal
unconfined; air: usually but pollution is usually associated with increases of water temperatures in a
not always referring to outdoor
air stream, lake, or ocean due to the discharge of heated water from industrial
processes, such as the generation of electricity. Increases in ambient water
temperature also occur in streams where shading vegetation along the banks
turbid containing suspended is removed or where sediments have made the water more turbid. Both of
particles these effects allow more energy from the sun to be absorbed by the water and
thereby increase its temperature. There are also situations in which the
effects of colder-than-normal water temperatures may be observed. For
example, the discharge of cold bottom water from deep-water reservoirs
behind large dams has changed the downstream biological communities in
systems such as the Colorado River.

Sources
The production of energy from a fuel source can be direct, such as the burn-
ing of wood in a fireplace to create heat, or by the conversion of heat energy
into mechanical energy by the use of a heat engine. Examples of heat engines
turbine machine that uses a include steam engines, turbines, and internal combustion engines. Heat
moving fluid (liquid or gas) to engines work on the principal of heating and pressuring a fluid, the per-
gas to turn a rotor, creating
mechanical energy formance of mechanical work, and the rejection of unused or waste heat to a
sink. Heat engines can only convert 30 to 40 percent of the available input
sink hole or depression where
a compound or material col- energy in the fuel source into mechanical energy, and the highest efficiencies
lects; thermodynamics: part of are obtained when the input temperature is as high as possible and the sink
a system used to collect or temperature is as low as possible. Water is a very efficient and economical
remove heat
sink for heat engines and it is commonly used in electrical generating sta-
tions.
The waste heat from electrical generating stations is transferred to cool-
ing water obtained from local water bodies such as a river, lake, or ocean.
Large amounts of water are used to keep the sink temperature as low as pos-
sible to maintain a high thermal efficiency. The San Onofre Nuclear Gener-
ating Station between Los Angeles and San Diego, California, for example,
has two main reactors that have a total operating capacity of 2,200
megawatt one million watts megawatts (MW). These reactors circulate a total of 2,400 million gallons
per day (MGD) of ocean water at a flow rate of 830,000 gallons per minute
for each unit. The cooling water enters the station from two intake structures
located 3,000 feet offshore in water 32 feet deep. The water is heated to
condenser apparatus used to approximately 19°F above ambient as it flows through the condensers and is
condense vapors
discharged back into the ocean through a series of diffuser-type discharges
diffuser something that that have a series of sixty-three exit pipes spread over a distance of 2,450 feet.
spreads out or dissipates
another substance over a wide The discharge water is rapidly mixed with ambient seawater by the diffusers
area and the average rise in temperature after mixing is less than 2°F.
240
 Thermal Pollution

These ASTER false-color

images were acquired over
Joliet 29, a coal-burning power
plant in Illinois. Joliet 29 can
be seen in the VNIR image
(top) as the bright blue-white
pixels just above the large
cooling pond. Like many
power plants, Joliet 29 uses a
cooling pond to discharge
heated effluent water. In the
bottom image a single ASTER
Thermal Infrared band was
color-coded to represent heat
emitted from the surface. The
progression from warmest to
coolest is shown with the
following colors: white, red,
orange, yellow, green, blue,
and black. (Image courtesy
NASA/GSFC/MITI/ERSDAC/
JAROS, and U.S./Japan Aster
Science Team. Reproduced
by permission.)

Environmental Effects
The primary effects of thermal pollution are direct thermal shock, changes thermal shock rapid tempera-
in dissolved oxygen, and the redistribution of organisms in the local commu- ture change beyond an organ-
ism’s ability to adapt
nity. Because water can absorb thermal energy with only small changes in
temperature, most aquatic organisms have developed enzyme systems that
operate in only narrow ranges of temperature. These stenothermic organ- stenothermic living or growing
isms can be killed by sudden temperature changes that are beyond the toler- within a narrow temperature
range
ance limits of their metabolic systems. The cooling water discharges of
power plants are designed to minimize heat effects on local fish communities.
However, periodic heat treatments used to keep the cooling system clear of
241
Thermal Pollution

fouling organisms that clog the intake pipes can cause fish mortality. A heat
treatment reverses the flow and increases the temperature of the discharge to
kill the mussels and other fouling organisms in the intake pipes. Southern
California Edison had developed a “fish-chase” procedure in which the water
temperature of the heat treatment is increased gradually, instead of rapidly, to
drive fish away from the intake pipes before the temperature reaches lethal
levels. The fish chase procedure has significantly reduced fish kills related to
heat treatments.
Small chronic changes in temperature can also adversely affect the
reproductive systems of these organisms and also make them more suscepti-
ble to disease. Cold water contains more oxygen than hot water so increases
in temperature also decrease the oxygen-carrying capacity of water. In addi-
tion, raising the water temperature increases the decomposition rate of
organic matter in water, which also depletes dissolved oxygen. These
decreases in the oxygen content of the water occur at the same time that the
metabolic rates of the aquatic organisms, which are dependent on a sufficient
oxygen supply, are rising because of the increasing temperature.
The composition and diversity of communities in the vicinity of cooling
water discharges from power plants can be adversely affected by the direct
mortality of organisms or movement of organisms away from unfavorable
temperature or oxygen environments. A nuclear power-generating station on
Nanwan Bay in Taiwan caused bleaching of corals in the vicinity of the dis-
charge channel when the plant first began operation in 1988. Studies of the
coral Acropora grandis in 1988 showed that the coral was bleached within two
days of exposure to temperatures of 91.4°F. In 1990 samples of coral taken
thermotolerance ability to
withstand temperature change
from the same area did not start bleaching until six days after exposure to the
same temperature. It appears that the thermotolerance of these corals was
protein complex nitrogenous
organic compound of high
enhanced by the production of heat-shock proteins that help to protect
molecular weight made of many organisms from potentially damaging changes in temperature. The
amino acids; essential for populations of some species can also be enhanced by the presence of cooling
growth and repair of animal
water discharges. The only large population of sea turtles in California, for
tissue; many, but not all, pro-
teins are enzymes example, is found in the southern portion of San Diego Bay near the dis-
charge of an electrical generating station.
planktonic that portion of the
plankton community com-
prised of tiny plants; e.g.
algae, diatoms
Abatement
thermal infrared imaging pho- The dilution of cooling water discharges can be effectively accomplished by
tographs in which contrast various types of diffuser systems in large bodies of water such as lakes or the
depends on differences in tem- ocean. The only thermal effects seen at the San Onofre nuclear generating
perature
station are the direct mortality of planktonic organisms during the twenty-
effluent discharge, typically five-minute transit through the cooling water system. The effectiveness of
wastewater—treated or
untreated—that flows out of a
the dilution systems can be monitored by thermal infrared imaging using
treatment plant, sewer, or either satellite or airborne imaging systems. The use of cooling towers has
industrial outfall; generally been effective for generating stations located on smaller rivers and streams
refers to wastes discharged
that do not have the capacity to absorb the waste heat from the cooling water
into surface waters
effluent. The cooling towers operate by means of a recirculating cascade of
cascade waterfall; a system
water inside a tower, with a large column of upwardly rising air that carries
that serves to increase the sur-
face area of the water to the heat to the atmosphere through evaporative cooling. Cooling towers
speed cooling have been used extensively at nuclear generating stations in both the United
evaporative relating to transi- States and France. The disadvantages of cooling towers are the potential for
tion from liquid to gas local changes in meteorological conditions due to large amounts of warm air
242
 Times Beach, Missouri

entering the atmosphere and the visual impact of the large towers. S E E A L S O
Electric Power; Energy; Fish Kills; Visual Pollution; Water Pollu- Thermal pollution from power
tion plants in Florida turned out to be
a lifesaver for the state’s threat-
Bibliography
ened manatee population. The
Brown, Richard D.; Ouellette, Robert P.; and Chermisinoff, Paul N. (1983). Pollu- ecology changed when irrigation
tion Control at Electric Power Stations: Comparisons for U.S. and Europe. Boston:
Butterworth-Heinemann. wells and diversion channels that
Henry, J. Glenn, and Heinke, Gary W. (1996). Environmental Science and Engineering. support Florida’s agricultural
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall. development severely impacted
Hinrichs, Roger A., and Kleinbach, Merlin. (2001). Energy: Its Use and the Environment, the natural springs that moder-
3rd edition. Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole Publishing Company. ate river-water temperatures.
Langford, Terry E. (1990). Ecological Effects of Thermal Discharges. New York: Elsevier Manatees cannot survive in cold
Applied Science. water and naturalists feared that
Larminie, James, and Dicks, Andrew. (2000). Fuel Cell Systems Explained. New York: irregular cold snaps would put
John Wiley & Sons.
the sea mammals at risk. Mana-
Liu, Paul Ih-fei. (1997). Introduction to Energy and the Environment. New York: John tees, however. discovered the
Wiley & Sons.
power-plant discharge zones and
Ristinen, Robert A., and Kraushaar, Jack J. (1998). Energy and the Environment. New
York: John Wiley & Sons. today, naturalists take advantage
Slovic, Paul. (2000). The Perception of Risk. London: Earthscan Publications Ltd.
of cold weather to tally manatee
population as the herds gather
Other Resources at local power plants.
California Energy Commission. “Energy-Related Environmental Research.” Available
from http://www.energy.ca.gov/pier/energy/energy_aquatic.html.
Larry Deysher

Times Beach, Missouri

According to former mayor Marilyn Leistner, the 2,000 residents of Times
Beach, Missouri, a community located along the Meramec River, endured a
lasting toxic waste episode throughout the Christmas holiday season of 1982.
In 1974 the U.S. Centers for Disease Control (CDC) identified dioxin-
contaminated waste oil as the cause of death for an unspecified number of
dogs and songbirds in Times Beach. In the early 1970s, many municipalities,
including Times Beach, commissioned the use of waste oil to control dust on
unpaved roads.
On December 3, 1982, in response to local complaints spurred by the
CDC’s earlier findings, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
conducted soil tests in Times Beach. Floodwaters from the Meramec forced
the evacuation of the entire community the very next day. On December 23
the CDC received the EPA’s Times Beach soil test results. Because dioxin lev-
els in the soil significantly exceeded public health standards, officials recom-
mended that Times Beach residents not return home.
The Times Beach episode exemplifies how agencies can use their finan-
cial and legal resources to address environmental risks to public health. On
February 23, 1983, for instance, former EPA Director Anne Burford
announced a $25 million plan to buy out the homes and businesses of Times
Beach through the Superfund program. Later, a presidential commission on
this environmental pollution episode fined Syntex Agribusiness $200 million
for their culpability. Syntex Agribusiness produced the dioxin as a waste
product in manufacturing pesticides. Russell Bliss, a commercial waste
243
Tobacco Smoke

hauler, transported the dioxin from Syntex Agribusiness, mixed the chemical
with waste oil, and then, for a fee, sprayed the oil on Times Beach roads.
Between 1996 and 1997 Missouri officials, using an environmentally contro-
versial incineration technique, restored the former Times Beach site and
turned what was Times Beach into a state park on and dedicated to U.S.
Route 66. S E E A L S O Dioxin; Superfund; U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency.
Bibliography
Humphrey, Craig R.; Lewis, Tammy L.; and Buttel, Frederick H. (2002). Environment,
Energy, and Society: A New Synthesis. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

Internet Resources
Leistner, Marilyn. (1985). “The Times Beach Story.” In Proceedings of the 3rd Annual
Hazardous Materials Management Conference, Philadelphia, PA, June 1985. Available
at www.greens.org/s-r/078/07-09.html.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Web site. “History.” Available from http://
www.epa.gov/history.
Craig R. Humphrey

Tobacco Smoke
Tobacco smoke has long been recognized as a major cause of mortality and
morbidity, responsible for an estimated 434,000 deaths per year in the United
States. It is also a source of indoor air pollution due to the release of harmful
chemicals, particles, and carcinogens. Exposure to tobacco smoke affects
everybody. Children are more vulnerable than any other age group because
they are still growing and developing.

Chemical Composition and Health Effects

Tobacco smoke from cigarettes, cigars, and pipes is composed of more than
4,000 different chemicals including carbon monoxide and formaldehyde.
More than forty of these compounds are known to cause cancer in humans or
animals, and many of them are strong irritants.
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has concluded that
exposure to tobacco smoke in the United States poses a serious and signifi-
cant public health threat. New long-term studies estimate that about half of
all regular cigarette smokers die of smoking-related diseases. However, con-
troversy still surrounds the exact extent of such health effects.
Attempts have been made to study the effect of tobacco smoke on indi-
viduals exposed to other toxic chemicals. The risk of developing lung cancer
among asbestos workers grows when they smoke an increasing number of cig-
arettes per day and their cumulative asbestos exposure increases. Cigarette-
smoking asbestos workers tend to develop both restrictive lung disease
(decreased lung capacities) and chronic obstructive lung disease, as compared
to nonsmoking asbestos workers who have a tendency to develop only restric-
tive lung disease.
In recent years, there has been great concern that nonsmokers may also
be at risk for some of the above health effects as a result of their exposure to
the tobacco smoke (known as secondhand smoke) that occurs in various envi-
ronments occupied by smokers.
244
 Todd, John

The tobacco industry has denied the claim of such health hazards and has
legally challenged the EPA over its secondhand smoke findings. In addition,
some researchers argue that a number of the studies involve flawed data or
the selective interpretation of findings. Many of these critics contend that the
health risks involved with secondhand smoke are not as extensive as reported.

Regulations on Smoke-free Environment

As of December 31, 1999, smoke-free indoor air laws of one type or another
had been enacted in forty-five states and the District of Columbia. Smoking
in private work sites is limited in twenty states and the District of Columbia.
Forty-one states and the District of Columbia have laws restricting smoking
in state government work sites. Thirty-one states have enacted laws that reg-
ulate smoking in restaurants, and out of these, only Utah and Vermont com-
pletely prohibit smoking in restaurants.
Most European countries have regulations that either ban or restrict
smoking to designated areas in public places such as government/private
work sites, health care facilities, and educational facilities. Japan and Singa-
pore also have enacted laws that restrict smoking to designated areas, whereas
other Asian countries such as India have no regulations in place. South Africa
introduced a ban on tobacco smoking in public places, including the work-
place, in 1999. S E E A L S O Asbestos; Asthma; Cancer; Health, Human;
Indoor Air Pollution.
Bibliography
American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists. (1998). Industrial Venti-
lation: A Manual of Recommended Practice, 23rd edition. Cincinnati, OH: Author.
Wadden, Richard A., and Scheff, Peter A. (1983). Indoor Air Pollution: Characterization,
Prediction and Control. New York: Wiley.

Internet Resources
American Lung Association. “Trends in Tobacco Use.” Available from http://www.
lungusa.org/data.
National Cancer Institute. “Health Effects Associated with Tobacco Smoke.” Available
from http://cis.nci.nih.gov/fact.
National Tobacco Information Online System. “Laws and Regulations.” Available
from http://apps.nccd.cdc.gov/nations.
Ashok Kumar and Sunil Ojha

Todd, John
INNOVATIVE ECOLOGICAL DESIGNER
(1939–)
John Todd is an internationally recognized biologist and pioneer in ecologi-
cal design. He has been a practical activist in the ecology movement since
1969 when he cofounded the New Alchemy Institute in order to explore sci-
ence and engineering based on ecological principles. Todd developed earth-
based technologies to grow food, generate fuel, transform waste, and purify
water.
Todd is best known for his wastewater treatment systems in which float-
ing structures support plants whose roots grow in the wastewater, becoming
home to a variety of introduced creatures, including bacteria, fungi, snails,
245
Toxic Release Inventory

insects, and fish. Underwater baffles direct water through the plant roots, and
bubbled air increases oxygen and microbial activity. As the bacteria and other
organisms feed off the waste and purify the water, they reproduce to form an
efficient ecological living machine. Because they utilize natural processes,
these systems require little energy to operate, minimize the use of chemicals,
produce only small amounts of sludge, and cost less to install than traditional
wastewater treatment plants. More than one hundred such systems are cur-
rently operating worldwide.
Todd is president of Ocean Arks International, a nonprofit organization
that is dedicated to ecological research, education, and development. A pro-
fessor at the University of Vermont, he has authored over two hundred arti-
cles on biology and earth stewardship. He is involved in developing a
zero-emissions community food center in Burlington, Vermont, where
wastes from food production are recycled as resources. Spent grain, for
example, can be used to grow mushrooms. He has received a number of
awards for his innovative wastewater treatment system, including the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency’s Environmental Achievement Award in
John Todd. (Courtesy of Ocean
Arks International. Reproduced
1996. S E E A L S O Wastewater Treatment.
by permission.) Bibliography
Todd, Nancy Jack, and Todd, John. (1994). From Eco-Cities to Living Machines: Princi-
ples of Ecological Design. Berkeley, CA: North Atlantic Books.

Internet Resource
Ocean Arks Web site. Available from http://www.oceanarks.org.
Patricia Hemminger

Toxic Release Inventory

In 1986 the U.S. Congress passed a federal law called the Emergency Plan-
ning and Community Right-to-Know Act (EPCRA), which gives the public
the right to know about industrial toxic chemicals that are released into the
environment. At present this law, which is also known as Title III of the
Superfund Amendment and Reauthorization Act, requires businesses in cer-
tain industries that manufacture, process, or otherwise use any chemical
from a list of 651 designated chemicals or chemical groups in amounts
greater than a certain threshold to report annually to the U.S. Environmen-
tal Protection Agency (EPA) on their releases of these chemicals. The EPA
maintains this information in a database called the Toxics Release Inventory
(TRI), which is available to the public over the Internet.

TRI Reporting Requirements

A plant, factory, or other facility must report chemical releases if it has ten or
more full-time employees and manufactures, processes, or imports any of the
listed chemicals in amounts greater than 25,000 pounds per year—or 10,000
pounds per year if any of the listed chemicals are otherwise used but not
incorporated into a final product. The TRI classifies the chemicals according
to their chemical and physical characteristics and contains information on
release location. The TRI reports amounts that are released each year to the
air, water, and land, as well as information on chemicals sent to waste-
management facilities. Air emissions are separated into passive emissions
246
 Toxic Release Inventory

TOP TEN TRI CHEMICAL ON-SITE AND OFF-SITE REPORTED RELEASES (IN POUNDS) FOR FACILITIES IN
ALL INDUSTRIES, UNITED STATES, 2000

Underground Total On-

Chemical Air Water Injection Land and Off-Site

Copper compounds 1,656,106 426,419 1,737,251 1,346,061,845 1,367,338,006

Zinc compounds 7,513,386 1,276,151 22,580,44 828,086,567 1,037,602,367
Hydrochloric acid 645,632,582 96,763 54,125 15,549 647,112,538
Manganese compounds 2,214,810 5,696,403 10,829,146 4,048,797,705 479,942,409
Arsenic compounds 240,956 166,482 1,809,735 469,413,711 476,640,941
Lead compounds 1,225,794 80,510 8,512,731 328,875,879 357,844,917
Nitrate compounds 336,731 232,960,319 57,203,694 13,041,063 317,119,741
Barium compounds 2,850,794 1,749,324 2,099,443 243,702,122 299,780,394
Methanol 183,176,226 3,753,931 18,353,232 1,828,212 208,566,348
Ammonia 139,047,851 7,560,654 27,335,270 5,772,773 184,124,675
SOURCE: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

TRI TOTAL RELEASES BY INDUSTRY, 1998–2000. (DOES NOT

INCLUDE PBT CHEMICALS.)

Total On- and Off-Site

Releases, 2000, Change 1998–2000,
Industry in Pounds in Pounds and Percentage

Manufacturing Industries 2,267,118,555 –154,218,664; –6.4

Metal Mining 3,310,956,485 –252,183,558; –7.1
Coal Mining 15,327,860 19,334,956; 14.4
Electric Utilities 1,120,615,348 –9,834,598; –0.9
Chemical Wholesale Distributors 1,611,790 91,350; 6.0
Petroleum Terminals/Bulk Storage 3,725,152 –786,620; –17.4
Hazardous Waste/Solvent Recovery 7,001,138,027 –409,262,569; –5.5
SOURCE: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

from storage or production and “stack” or point emissions. Releases to water

include the name of the receiving water body.
Businesses required to report to TRI have expanded from the original
manufacturing facilities and now include manufacturing, metal mining, coal
mining, electric utilities that combust coal and/or oil, chemical wholesale dis-
tributors, petroleum terminals, bulk-storage facilities, hazardous-waste treat-
ment and disposal facilities, solvent-recovery services, and federal facilities.

PBT Emissions
Persistent bioaccumulative toxic (PBT) chemicals are a class of compounds
that persist and bioaccumulate in the environment. They have the potential to
result in greater exposure to humans and the environment over a longer
period of time, making even smaller quantities of these chemicals of concern.
In 2000 the TRI was expanded to include new PBT chemicals, and the
reporting threshold was lowered for both the newly added chemicals and cer-
tain PBT chemicals already on the TRI list. The reporting criteria for most
PBT chemicals was lowered to a threshold of one hundred pounds if manu-
factured, used, or processed. A threshold of ten pounds was established for
another subset of PBT chemicals that are highly persistent and highly bioac-
cumulative, including mercury compounds, pesticides such as chlordane,
247
Toxic Release Inventory

COMPANIES WITH LARGEST EMISSIONS; TOTAL SURFACE WATER

DISCHARGES

Surface Water Principal

Companies with Discharges, Chemical
Largest Discharges in Pounds, 2000 Releases

AK Steel Corp., PA 28,048,653 Nitrate Compounds

BASF Corp., TX 21,515,040 Nitrate Compounds
AK Steel, IN 12,211,850 Nitrate Compounds
Vicksburg Chemical Co., MS 7,966,805 Nitrate Compounds
IBP Inc., NE 6,700,250 Nitrate Compounds
Smithfield Packing Co., NC 5,129,795 Nitrate Compounds
SOURCE: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

COMPANIES WITH LARGEST EMISSIONS; TOTAL AIR EMISSIONS

Total Air Principal

Companies with Emissions, Chemical
Largest Emissions in Pounds, 2000 Releases

Magnesium Corp. of America, UT 43,932,001 Chlorine, Hydrochloric Acid

CP&L Roxboro Steam Electric Plant, NC 19,247,325 Hydrochloric Acid
Reliant Energies Inc., Keystone Power Plant, PA 18,460,972 Hydrochloric Acid, Sulfuric Acid
Bowen Steam Electric Plant, GA 17,807,778 Sulfuric Acid, Hydrogen Fluoride
Lenzing Fibers Corp., TN 17,345,982 Carbon Disulfide
Gulf Power Co. Crist Plant, FL 16,621,882 Hydrochloric Acid, Sulfuric Acid
SOURCE: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

COMPANIES WITH LARGEST EMISSIONS; TOTAL LAND RELEASES

Total Releases Principal

Companies with to Land, Chemical
Largest Releases in Pounds, 2000 Releases

Kennecott Utah Copper Mine, UT 813,758,255 Copper, Zinc, Antimony

Red Dog OPS Mine Facility, AK 445,322,528 Cadmium, Lead
Barrick Goldstrike Mines Inc., NV 346,539,178 Arsenic, Manganese, Zinc
Newmont Mining Corp., Twin Creeks Mine, NV 219,922,901 Arsenic, Antimony
ASARCO Inc. Ray Complex Mine, AZ 155,098,189 Copper
Newmont Mining Corp., Carlin, NV 154,157,564 Arsenic, Zinc, Antimony
SOURCE: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

heptachlor, methoxychlor, and toxaphene, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs),

and polycyclic aromatic compounds (PACs). Since dioxins are highly persist-
ent but are produced in extremely small amounts, the threshold for dioxin and
dioxin-like compounds was set at 0.1 grams, with the provision that reporting
include dioxin and dioxin-like compounds that are present as contaminants in
a chemical or that are created during the manufacture of another chemical.

Reporting Trends
From 1998 to 2000, total TRI releases by all industries fell by 409.3 million
pounds, or more than 5 percent. The largest decrease from 1999 to
2000 occurred in the metal mining industry. S E E A L S O Comprehensive
248
 Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA)

Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA);

Hazardous Waste; Resource Conservation and Recovery Act.
Internet Resource
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. “Toxics Release Inventory Program.” Avail-
able from http://www.epa.gov/tri.
Joan Rothlein

Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA)

The Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA), enacted by Congress in 1976,
gives the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) the responsibility for
checking the relative safety of all chemical substances not already covered
under other federal laws. The EPA can control or ban a chemical if it poses
an unreasonable risk to human or environmental health. Manufacturers must
give the EPA information about new chemicals before they are commercially
produced or marketed. The EPA then reviews the information and can order
further testing to determine, for instance, whether the substance is persistent,
carcinogenic, or otherwise acutely toxic. The acute toxicity or short term poi-
soning effects of chemicals can be evaluated by the LD50 test that determines
the lethal dose required to kill fifty percent of test animals, usually rats or
mice. Microbial biotechnology products for use in industry have been subject
to EPA review under TSCA since 1997. Over 70,000 chemicals were in use
in the United States in 2002 according to the TSCA Chemical Substances
Inventory.
Pesticides, and substances used in cosmetics, food, and drugs are regu-
lated under other federal laws, but many chemicals, including polychlori-
nated biphenyls (PCBs), were not subject to review or regulation until TSCA
was passed. Studies showing PCBs to be dangerous to human health were an
impetus for TSCA. In 1977 the EPA outlawed PCBs and subsequently regu-
lated their disposal with strict safety requirements.
Amendments to TSCA in 1986, 1988, and 1992 were aimed at reducing
the health threats from asbestos, radon, and lead exposure. The amendments
required the EPA to test schools and federal buildings for radon contamination
and establish state programs for monitoring and reducing lead exposure levels.
The Asbestos Hazard Emergency Response Amendment (AHERA) imposed
stricter standards on the reduction of asbestos contamination in schools.
Any person or company not complying with TSCA can be fined or jailed.
Many landlords have been fined and required to remove lead-based paint as
a result of TSCA’s enforcement. In 2002 two landlords were also sentenced
to prison terms for noncompliance.
In Europe regulations for assessing the safety of new chemical sub-
stances were established in 1981 and for all existing chemicals in 1993. In
2001 the European Commission proposed a new policy called “Strategy for
a Future Chemicals Policy” aimed at determining the environmental risk
posed by thousands of chemicals that came on the European market before
1981. S E E A L S O Asbestos; Lead; Radon.
Internet Resources
EPA’s New Chemical Program Web site. Available from http://www.epa.gov/opptintr.

249
Toxicology

European Commission Environment Web site. Available from http://www.europa.eu.int/

comm.
Patricia Hemminger

Toxicology
Toxicology is the science of poisons, which are sometimes referred to as tox-
ins or toxicants. The former term applies to all natural poisons produced by
organisms, such as the botulinum toxin produced by the bacteria Clostridium
botulinum. The latter more generic term includes both natural and anthro-
pogenic (human-made) toxicants like dichlorodiphenyl trichloroethane
(DDT), which is perhaps the most commonly recognized toxicant.
Even though the botulinum toxin is extremely toxic to humans, and DDT
is relatively toxic to insects, it is important to recognize that virtually any ele-
ment or compound will become toxic at some concentration. For example,
hemoglobin oxygen-carrying iron, which is an essential component of hemoglobin, can cause vomiting,
protein complex in red blood liver damage, and even death if it is ingested in excess. This concept of toxi-
cells
city was recognized five centuries ago by the Swiss alchemist and physician
ingest take in through the Paracelsus (1493–1541), who stated that, “The right dose differentiates a poi-
mouth
son from a remedy.” How much of the toxicant an organism receives depends
on both the exposure and dose. Exposure is a measure of the amount of a tox-
icant that comes into contact with the organism through air, water, soil,
and/or food. Dose is a measure of the amount of toxicant that comes into con-
tact with the target organ or tissue, within the organism, where it exerts a toxic
effect. The dose is largely determined by how effectively the toxicant is
metabolize chemically trans- absorbed, distributed, metabolized, and eliminated by the body.
form within an organism
As a consequence, basic toxicological studies include measurements of
the effects of increasing doses of a toxicant on an organism or some compo-
nent of that organism (e.g., tissue, cell, subcellular structure, or compound).
The measurements are commonly plotted as dose–response curves. A dose–
response curve typically ranges from relatively low concentrations that do
not elicit a toxic effect to higher concentrations that are increasingly toxic.
One of the great challenges to the science of toxicology is the prediction
and discovery of chronic, sublethal responses. For example, in the 1920s,
excessive exposure of workers to tetraethyl lead (the lead in leaded gasoline)
in several United States gasoline production facilities caused approximately
fifteen deaths, and over three hundred cases of psychosis. Despite this dis-
covery of the apparent hazard of lead in gasoline, and the concerns of many
at the time, rigorous scientific studies were required to demonstrate the sub-
tle, sublethal dangers of chronic lead exposure, including adverse neurologi-
cal effects in children, which eventually led to the ban of lead additives in
gasoline in the United States.

Characterizing Toxicity
One measure of response is acute toxicity, which is the amount of a toxicant
that will cause an adverse effect within a relatively short period of time (e.g.,
from instantaneous to within a few days). Another measure of response is
chronic toxicity, which is the long-term response to a toxicant. Although the
same types of dose–response curves are used to measure the chronic toxicity
250
 Toxicology

D O SE– R E SP O NS E C U R V E

100

90

80

70

60
% Mortality

50

40

30
LC50
20

10

0
0.1 1 10 100 1000
Dose (mg/kg)

of toxicants, those measurements are more difficult to quantify because the

responses are often less absolute and more complex. For example, chronic
benzene toxicity causes lung cancer, but it may be years before that benzene-
induced cancer appears, and many other factors may retard the development
of that cancer (antagonistic effect), contribute to its development (syner- antagonistic working against
gistic effect), or independently cause lung cancer (e.g., smoking cigarettes). synergistic combination of
effects greater than the sum of
Forms of toxicity can also be characterized by the type of adverse the parts
response they create. Carcinogens cause cancer, either by the initiation or
promotion of an uncontrolled growth of cells. Mutagens cause mutations by
altering the DNA sequences of chromosomes. Teratogens cause mutations in
the DNA structure of developing fetuses that can result in developmental
abnormalities. The latter form of toxicity includes the infamous teratogen
thalidomide, which was prescribed as a sedative for pregnant women before sedative substance that
it was found to cause severe birth defects in their children. reduces consciousness or
anxiety

Differences in Sensitivities
Resolving the adverse effects of a toxicant are further complicated by the
variations in those effects in different species. Some species are more sensi-
tive to certain toxicants than others, and the effects of toxicants on different
tissues often vary between species. Because such variations occur between
humans and rodents, in spite of the similarity (95%) in their DNA, extrapo-
lations of laboratory studies on the effects of toxicants on rats and mice to
human health must always take this into account. Moreover, the toxic effects
of a pollutant on the gall bladder of humans cannot be determined in studies
involving rats because rats do not have gall bladders.
There are also relatively large differences in the sensitivities and effects
of toxicants between individuals of the same species. Fetuses, neonates, and neonate newborn
infants are more sensitive to the neurotoxic effects of lead than older indi- neurotoxic harmful to nerve
viduals, because lead interferes with the development of the central nervous cells

251
Toxicology

system, which is formed during the first few years of life. Finally, healthy
TOX TOWN individuals are generally less sensitive to pollutants than individuals with
A user friendly website, Tox Town weakened immune systems who are less capable of responding to additional
http://toxtown.nlm.nih.gov/main threats to their health.
.html has been developed by the Genetics also plays a major role in the sensitivities of individuals.
National Institutes of Health to Although some differences have been observed in humans, the most com-
provide information on toxic sub- monly recognized genetic differences in toxic responses have been observed
stances likely to be encountered in other species. These include the acquired genetic resistance of some mos-
in everyday situations and the quitoes to DDT and some bacteria to antibiotics. However, the development
health risks associated with of molecular techniques to genotype humans has now made it possible to
them. The site can be searched identify individual sensitivities to different toxicants.
by clicking on an individual toxic
such as mercury, toluene or Risk Assessment
asbestos to see where it might
occur, or by clicking on a loca- Another important aspect of toxicology is risk assessment, which is a charac-
tion, such as a school building, terization of the potential adverse effects resulting from exposure to a toxi-
or drinking water to see what cant. Risk is the probability of an adverse outcome. The basic steps involved
toxics could be encountered. in risk assessment are the identification of the magnitude of the hazard,
Links to sites describing the which is the potential for harm of a toxicant, and the resultant characteriza-
health and environmental effects tion of risk, which is the probability of realizing that harm. The results of risk
of each toxic substance are eas- assessments are routinely used by regulators to establish acceptable concen-
ily accessed. trations of toxicants in the environment.

Environmental Toxicology
Environmental toxicology is a relatively recent field that examines the occur-
rence of, exposure to, and form of toxicants in the environment, and the com-
parative effects of these toxicants on different organisms. DDT, for example,
is a pesticide that has been used to control mosquitoes responsible for spread-
ing malaria. Although this pesticide is effective in combating the spread of
malaria, DDT and its chemical products have also been found to affect
reproduction in birds by causing egg shell thinning, and in other organisms
(e.g., alligators) by altering their estrogen balance. Consequently, studies of
toxicology now extend well beyond dose–response assays of toxicants on spe-
cific target organisms to analyses of their impact on entire ecosystems.
In addition to anthropogenic toxicants like pesticides, environmental tox-
icologists also study naturally occurring toxicants, such as metals and metal-
loids. Selenium, for example, is a naturally occurring element that is essential
at low concentrations in the diet of many animals. Excessive intake of selenium,
however, can be toxic to organisms. In the 1980s scientists working at Kester-
son Slough in the San Joaquin Valley, California, observed a large number of
deformed and dying waterfowl. The slough was part of a water project
designed to receive and evaporate excess irrigation water and remove pesticides
from the highly productive agriculture regions in the San Joaquin Valley. The
observed effects on the waterfowl were eventually linked to an excess of sele-
nium in the water. The selenium accumulated in the slough because the soils
and runoff from the valley were naturally rich in selenium, and because evap-
oration in the slough further increased its concentration in the water. In this
example, it was discovered that a rare, but naturally occurring and essential ele-
ment was unwittingly concentrated to toxic levels in the environment by
human activity. S E E A L S O Cancer; DDT (Dichlorodiphenyl trichloro-
ethane); Hazardous Waste; Health, Human; Lead; Risk.
252
 Tragedy of the Commons

Bibliography
Crosby, Donald G. (1998). Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry. New York: Oxford
University Press.
Needleman, H.L. (1998). “Clair Patterson and Robert Kehoe: Two Views of Lead Tox-
icity.” Environmental Research 78(2):79–85.
Ohlendorf, H.M.; Hoffman, D.J.; Daiki, M.K.; and Aldrich, T.W. (1986). “Embryonic
Mortality and Abnormalities of Aquatic Birds—Apprent Impacts of Selenium from
Irrigation Drainwater.” Science of the Total Environment 52(44).
Williams, P.L.; James, R.C.; and Roberts, S.M., eds. (2000). Principles of Toxi-
cology: Environmental and Industrial Applications, 2nd edition. New York: John Wiley
& Sons.

Internet Resource
Society of Toxicology. Available from http://www.toxicology.org.
A. Russell Flegal and Christopher H. Conaway

Tragedy of the Commons

The term tragedy of the commons was coined by Garrett Hardin who hypothe-
sized in 1968 that, as the size of the human population increased, there would
be mounting pressures on resources at the local and global levels, leading to
overexploitation and ruin. Partly the tragedy would occur because some “com-
moners” (or users of common resources) would reap the full benefit of a par-
ticular course of action while incurring only a small cost, while others would
have to share the cost but receive none of the benefits. The classic examples of
such overexploitation are grazing, fishing, and logging, where grasslands, fish
stocks, and trees have declined from overuse. Hardin suggested that govern-
mental intervention and laws could become the major method of solving such
overexploitation. More recently, the concept of the commons has been
expanded to include air, water, the Internet, and medical care.
Much controversy has developed over whether commoners are caught in
an inevitable cycle of overexploitation and destruction of resources, or
whether the wise use and management of natural resources are possible.
Although many examples of overexploitation exist, particularly in fisheries,
Elinor Ostrom, Bonnie McCay, Joanna Burger, and others have argued that
there are also examples of local groups effectively managing commonly held
resources, and that such local control requires accepted rules, with appropri-
ate sanctions and some governmental control to prevent exploitation by out-
side interests. That is, a fishing cooperative can succeed only if outside
fishermen agree to adhere to existing rules or laws. In an age with increasing
populations, understanding how different societies and groups have managed
a common pool of resources allows us to apply successful methods in man-
aging these resources. S E E A L S O Ehrlich, Paul; Limits to Growth, The;
Malthus, Thomas Robert.
Bibliography
Burger, Joanna, and Gochfeld, Michael. (1998). “The Tragedy of the Commons—30
Years Later.” Environment 41:4–13, 26–28.
Ostrom, Elinor; Burger, Joanna; Field, Christopher B.; Norgaard, Richard B.; and
Policansky, David. (1999). “Revisiting the Commons: Local Lessons, Global Chal-
lenges.” Science 284:278–282.

253
Treaties and Conferences

Internet Resource
Hardin, Garret. (1968). “The Tragedy of the Commons.” Science 162:12–13. Also
available from http://dieoff.org/page95.htm.
Joanna Burger

Treaties and Conferences

Treaties, conventions, protocols, and conferences are tools for creating and
shaping international law, and for establishing sanctions in the event of
noncompliance.
A treaty is a compact, or contract, made between or among sovereign
nations, involving matters of each country’s public interest. It has the force of
law within each signing nation. Treaties are the formal conclusion of the
negotiating process rather than an intermediate step. Ideally, they include
both the formal commitment of nations and mechanisms for enforcement,
although many international environmental treaties fall short on the ade-
quacy of enforcement mechanisms.
A convention is also an international agreement, although it often has a
narrower scope and is less politically motivated than a treaty. In addition, a
convention may consist of agreed-upon arrangements that precede a formal
treaty or that serve as the basis for an anticipated treaty.
A protocol is an agreed-upon document or instrument that provides the
template for subsequent diplomatic transactions, serving, in a manner of
speaking, as a first draft that is subject to further refinement.
Conferences are diplomatic meetings conducted in order to agree upon
policy statements in lieu of formal, and more time-consuming, international
negotiations. In addition to such bilateral or even multilateral agreements
between nations, international organizations may create mechanisms for
examining and resolving international disputes and other issues. Most
notably, the United Nations, through its Environmental Programme, and
joined by the World Meteorological Organization, was instrumental in estab-
lishing the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in 1988.
The IPCC created working groups and special committees that assessed the
scientific information related to various components of climate change,
including, specifically, data regarding the emissions of major greenhouse
gases, analyzed that information in environmental and socioeconomic con-
texts, and then formulated realistic response strategies for the management of
climate change. The IPCC’s analysis and recommendations thus became the
template for subsequent attempts to draft international agreements. The Cli-
mate Change Convention, discussed below, was one such result.
These various tools and arrangements are unique to international law,
which imposes constraints not typically present in national, or “domestic,”
law. International law has traditionally differed from the domestic law of
nation-states in that it is fundamentally voluntary, notwithstanding the fact
that political or military pressures may have prompted the parties to negoti-
ate or enter into any compacts in the first place. Hence, ultimate enforce-
ment, short of political or military responses, can be problematic.
The contrast with a nation’s own regulatory law is instructive. When a
country enacts and enforces laws that have an effect within its boundaries or
254
 Treaties and Conferences

with respect to its citizens or other residents, it does so by virtue of its inter- Hiroshi Oki, Japanese
Environment Minister,
nationally recognized sovereign power to coercively regulate within its own
addressing the final plenary
boundaries. However, with the possible exception of an evolving European session of the United Nations
Union, no supranational authority exists to regulate conduct among countries. Global Warming Conference,
Thus, treaties and other international agreements historically evolved as a Kyoto, Japan, December 1–10,
1997. (Photograph by Aizawa
means of controlling the behavior of nations and, by less direct means, their Toshiyuki. Hulton/Archive.
businesses and citizens. These compacts then operate between nations at a Reproduced by permission.)
level that traditionally was often beyond the realm of domestic regulation. As
such, they have traditionally been more akin to contracts, into which countries
voluntarily enter, rather than manifest regulatory authority. However, in
recent decades, particularly on matters where international environmental law
and trade law intersect, there has been an interesting convergence. The dis-
tinctions between these contractual remedies that characterize treaties and the
enforcement remedies that characterize regulations in which a tribunal issues
supposedly binding decisions on disputes, have been merging in interesting
ways. For instance, the World Trade Organization (WTO), of which the U.S.
is a member, and whose rule the U.S. has agreed to submit, ruled against
efforts by the United States to protect dolphins and sea turtles. The WTO
decision had included trade sanctions, and found that such unilateral Ameri-
can efforts violated the WTO’s free trade rules. Hence, the U.S. was faced
with a choice between submitting to this suprasanctional “regulation,” sup-
posedly binding, or pursuing conservation-oriented treaty-making that was
inconsistent with some of the tenets of free trade.
Treaty making extends to all aspects of international dealings. It is most
often associated with a declaration of war or the end of an armed conflict, or
the allocation of resources between or among countries, with those two broad
areas historically related. Interestingly, international environmental treaties
and law have usually addressed resource conservation rather than resource
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Treaties and Conferences

exploitation, although, naturally, various parties may seek to maximize their use
of resources within the scope of international environmental treaties. In terms
of transnational pollution, international sensitivities have evolved that recog-
nize the drastic regional and potentially global impact of uncontrolled or
poorly regulated disposal practices. Thus, it is also interesting that although
treaties traditionally acknowledged the political and jurisdictional sovereignty
of nation-states, present international environmental treaty making effectively
underscores the geographic and climate-related commonality of nation-states.
Therefore, in an era when globalism is much discussed as an emerging eco-
nomic paradigm, environmental factors highlight the global consequences of
many environmental events and policies formerly viewed through only local or
domestic legal prisms. Perhaps as a consequence, treaties and conventions are
assuming significantly wider reach, and are entered into, or participated in, by
many more numerous parties than was historically typical in international law.
Despite concerns about the ultimate effectiveness of international envi-
ronmental law developed by means of treaties and other agreements, recent
history provides the basis for some optimism. As of 2002 approximately 140
multinational agreements on numerous international environmental issues
(or including environmental provisions) have been reached. Preliminary
studies indicate that notwithstanding weak or even nonexistent enforcement
mechanisms, the general trend has been one of compliance. However, it has
also been pointed out that nations often enter such agreements when it
appears the price of their cooperation will be low, with the result that many
such agreements are successfully negotiated by only minimally addressing the
particular environmental problems at hand.
Modern treaty making has also demonstrated a greater tendency to
accommodate equitable goals, although the ability to effectively resolve dis-
putes on the basis of common principles has not been an easy matter. The
best treaties, as with contracts, are pragmatic. And, of course, all is not equi-
table. The usual methods used to influence other parties still prevail.
The influence of the United States is a case in point on how national
attributes may affect the outcome of international environmental agree-
ments. It is hard to generalize about the direction of U.S. policy. The eco-
nomic clout of the United States, especially the manner in which American
business interests mesh with other national economies, and the sheer dimen-
sion of U.S. consumption of the world’s resources, continue to influence the
outcome of international environmental negotiations. Recent official U.S.
policy has demonstrated a reluctance to enter into agreements that would
require a significant reduction in resource or energy use by or within the
United States. On the other hand, U.S. environmental activists and national
policy have often taken the lead in highlighting significant international
environmental issues. Nongovernmental organizations, such as Environ-
mental Defense, the Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC), and the
Sierra Club, all headquartered in the United States, not only assert a global
presence but often shape both international and U.S. domestic policies. The
manner in which the United States formulates its own environmental policies
has especially complicated its international role on environmental matters.
With power divided between a powerful presidency and a strong but often
fragmented legislative branch, with various leaders elected in different
regions from different political parties at different times, a balance on domes-

256
 Treaties and Conferences

tic issues may be reached, but often at the expense of a coherent and consis-
tent foreign policy. This dynamic, resulting in a diffuse and often contradic-
tory U.S. voice on international environmental issues, still requires some
development in the relatively young field of international environmental law.
International agreements in recent years have paralleled the recognition
of international environmental problems, even if they have not always effec-
tively mitigated those issues. Early examples include the Convention on
International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora
(CITES), which enumerates specific compliance mechanisms and has gener-
ally been successful in banning the international trade of endangered species
or products derived from such species; the Intergovernmental Conference on
the Dumping of Wastes at Sea, also known as the London Dumping Con-
vention, which banned the maritime dumping of radioactive wastes and
spurred enactment of the U.S. Ocean Dumping Ban Act; the Convention on
Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat, also
known as the Ramsar Convention, which addressed the loss of migratory
waterfowl habitat.
More recent agreements include the Montréal Protocol on Substances
That Deplete the Ozone Layer, known generally as the Montréal Protocol,
which entails formal compliance mechanisms and has enjoyed significant suc-
cess in reducing the use of CFCs (chloroflurocarbons) despite the absence of
actual sanctions; the 1994 protocol to the 1979 Convention on Long-Range
Transboundary Air Pollution on Further Reduction of Sulphur Emissions,
known generally as the Sulfur Protocol, largely directed against acid rain, for
which compliance provisions have been negotiated; and the previously men-
tioned Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, which matured into the
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, effective in
1994, now known as the Climate Change Convention.
Other regional and global environmental crises have been addressed
under the auspices of the United Nations Commission on Environment and
Development, including the Convention on Biological Diversity; the Con-
vention to Combat Desertification in Those Countries Experiencing Serious
Drought and/or Desertification; and the Convention on the Prior Informed
Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in Inter-
national Trade, also known as the Rotterdam Convention. This latter conven-
tion sought to transfer the responsibility for regulating hazardous materials
trade to exporting nations rather than leaving regulatory control only to
importing nations that, for various reasons, might be ineffective regulators.
Most recently, the Kyoto Protocol has been the subject of much negotia-
tion and perhaps even greater controversy. An outgrowth of the Climate
Change Convention, it seeks the global reduction of greenhouse gases below
1990 levels by targeted dates and provides for an international emissions trad-
ing program. The actual reductions proposed are not evenly distributed, and
equitable factors have been cited as the justification for the reductions
required of, and exemptions afforded to, particular nations. Although the need
for an effective mechanism to reduce hydrocarbon emissions as a means of
addressing incipient global warming has been widely acknowledged, the best
mechanisms for achieving this goal have been sharply debated. The Kyoto
Protocol is not yet in force, and the United States is one of several large indus-
trialized nations that have not signed it. S E E A L S O Agenda 21; Earth Summit;
257
Trichloroethylene

Laws and Regulations, International; Montréal Protocol; NAFTA

(North American Free Trade Agreement); Precautionary Principle.
Kevin Anthony Reilly

Trichloroethylene See Dry Cleaning

TSCA See Toxic Substances Control Act

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

U Established in 1775, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (otherwise known as
the corps) is the world’s largest public, engineering, design, and construction
management agency. The corps obtains its authority from the secretary of
the army and is a division serving the chief of engineers within the Depart-
ment of the Army. Funded by Congress, the corps’ primary responsibilities
include the management and execution of civil works programs in or adjacent
to the nation’s waterways (e.g., rivers, harbors, and wetlands), administration
of environmental laws to protect and preserve these waterways, and the
review of applications and issuance of permits for proposed projects affecting
such bodies of water. As part of its responsibility, the corps assesses the con-
sequences of proposed activities on water bodies, balancing environmental
and developmental need and concerns. This often brings environmental and
business groups into conflict such as in the case of dredging. Environmental
groups oppose dredging due to its adverse effects on aquatic species whereas
industry asserts that such dredging reduces the costs of river transportation
by allowing larger ships to pass through waterways with fuller cargo loads.
The corps reviews and issues permits under the Clean Water Act or Rivers
and Harbor Act, ensuring that proposed activities do not adversely affect or
impede U.S. waterways. Under the Clean Water Act, the corps primarily
issues permits for the discharge of excavated material or fill, whereas under
the Rivers and Harbor Act, the agency issues permits for the construction of
structures such as bridges, dams, dikes, or causeways. With respect to both
laws, the corps considers reasonable and alternative locations and methods
for a proposed project, potential effects on private and public uses, and the
need for a specified project. During the past several years, however, senators
have introduced legislation such as the Corps of Engineers Modernization
and Improvement Act of 2002, in an effort to reform the corps’ project
review and authorization procedures. These procedures have been criticized
for allowing a number of projects to go forward that have had few economic
benefits and high environmental costs. Agencies similar in purpose to the
corps exist in countries such as Australia, Britain, and Canada, but they func-
tion on a much smaller scale in comparison.
Bibliography
National Research Council, Committee to Assess the U.S. Army Corps of Water
Resources Planning Procedures. (1999). New Directions in Water Resources Planning
for the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.

Internet Resource
Services for the Public. Available at http://www.usace.army.mil/public.html
#environmental.
Robert F. Gruenig

258
 U.S. Department of Agriculture

U.S. Coast Guard

Established in 1790 as the Revenue Marine Service but named as such after
combination with the U.S. Lifesaving Service, the U.S. Coast Guard provides
support for the protection and preservation of the United States’ marine and
natural resources. Although a branch of the armed forces, the agency operates
under the jurisdiction of the Department of Transportation during times of
peace. The agency is responsible for managing the nation’s seas and coastal
waters, with environmental issues primarily handled by two offices: Marine
Safety, Security, and Environmental Protection, and Law Enforcement and
Defense Operations. Two primary agency functions are the enforcement of
environmental laws (e.g., Clean Water Act, Marine Protection, Research, and
Sanctuaries Act, and Oil Pollution Act) and the provision of an emergency
response system to mitigate the release of pollution (e.g., garbage discharges,
hazardous substance releases, and oil spills) into seas and coastal waters. With
respect to enforcement, the agency enforces U.S. environmental laws along
with all treaties and international agreements that allow the Coast Guard to
assess penalties for violations under the law. With respect to its emergency
response system, the agency is proactive by serving as a lead agency under the
National Oil and Hazardous Pollution Plan by coordinating federal, state,
local, and responsible party resources in conducting spill response efforts in
the containment, removal and disposal of oil, and hazardous substance dis-
charges in the country’s coastal zone areas. The agency also assesses move-
ments of potential pollutants (e.g., discharges and spills), accounts for wind
and ocean currents, and evaluates potential chemistry changes due to those
caused by evaporation, mixing, and sunlight. S E E A L S O Clean Water Act;
Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act; Petroleum.
Bibliography
Goldsteen, Joel B. (1999). The ABCs of Environmental Regulation. Rockville, MD: Gov-
ernment Institutes.

Internet Resource
Marine Safety, Security and Environmental Protection. Available from http://
www.uscg.mil/hq/g-m/gmhome.htm.
Robert F. Gruenig

U.S. Department of Agriculture

Established in 1862, the U.S. Department of Agriculture (DOA) works with
landowners to maintain the productive capacity of their land while helping
them to protect soil, water, forests and other natural resources. The depart-
ment conducts a large part of this work through two of its agencies: the For-
est Service and Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS). The
Forest Service is charged with the oversight of 191 million acres of federal
land. In advancing its pollution-control efforts, the Forest Service relies on a
number of practices to inhibit air, land, and water pollution, including ero-
sion and flood control, timber-harvesting methods to protect water bodies,
and the minimization of pollution created by natural resource extraction. It
also invokes a number of laws (the Clean Air Act, Clean Water Act, and
National Forest Management Act) to penalize individuals or industries oper-
ating contrary to its efforts. The NRCS oversees pollution management of
259
U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. agricultural and range lands. Such management is conducted coopera-

tively with farmers, ranchers, and landowners who utilize technical assistance
provided by the NRCS to address such things as the environmental effects of
pesticides on agricultural and ranch lands. Among the programs that the
NRCS has jurisdiction over are the Natural Resources Inventory, Rural
Abandoned Mines, and Wetlands Reserve Program. A number of countries,
including Australia, Britain, Canada, France, Germany, and Spain, have taken
the DOA’s lead in conducting similar pollution control activities. S E E A L S O
Agriculture; Pesticides.
Internet Resources
U.S. Department of Agriculture Web site. Available at www.usda.gov/energyandenvi-
ronment/faq.html.
U.S. Forest Service Web site. Available at www.fs.fed.us.
Robert F. Gruenig

U.S. Department of the Interior

Established in 1849, the U.S. Department of the Interior has primary man-
agement and conservation responsibility for all federal lands and minerals,
national parks, water resources, and wildlife refuges. Its secretary reports
directly to the president, and the department’s responsibilities are divided
among a number of agencies, including the Bureau of Land Management,
Bureau of Mines, Bureau of Reclamation, Fish and Wildlife Service, Geolog-
ical Survey, National Park Service, and Office of Surface Mining Reclamation
and Enforcement. Among its primary objectives are the wise use of land and
natural resources, the protection of animal and plant species, the promotion of
environmental values among U.S. citizens, and environmental protection bal-
anced with mineral resource needs. Its responsibilities include the coordina-
tion of its agencies’ activities, data collection and analysis concerning natural
resources, and minimization and mitigation of mining and other human activ-
ities adversely affecting public lands. Serving in a complementary role to the
department’s management responsibilities, the U.S. Environmental Protec-
tion Agency enforces a number of environmental laws (e.g., the Clean Air Act,
Clean Water Act, Endangered Species Act, National Environmental Policy
Act, Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act, Wild and Scenic Rivers
Act, and Wilderness Act) which help to protect the resources under the
department’s jurisdiction. S E E A L S O Mining; National Park Service.
Bibliography
Goldsteen, Joel B. (1999). The ABCs of Environmental Regulation. Rockville, MD: Gov-
ernment Institutes.

Internet Resource
“Orientation to the U.S. Department of the Interior.” Available at http://
www.doiu.nbc.gov/orientation.
Robert F. Gruenig

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is the primary regulatory
agency of the federal government responsible for pollution control. EPA’s
260
 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

A worker is undergoing a
decontamination process.
(U.S. EPA. Reproduced by
permission.)

stated mission is to protect human health and to safeguard the natural

environment—air, water, and land—on which life depends. The EPA was cre-
ated in 1970 as an outgrowth of the burgeoning environmental movement in
the United States during the 1960s. President Richard M. Nixon signed the
Reorganization Plan No. 3 of 1970, the legal document that established the
EPA. Although at that time a number of federal environmental programs
already existed, they were scattered throughout several different federal agen-
cies. For example, the Federal Water Quality Administration of the Depart-
ment of the Interior was responsible for certain water pollution programs, the
Department of Agriculture was responsible for the regulation of pesticides,
and the Department of Health, Education and Welfare was responsible for air
pollution and solid waste management. The creation of the EPA was an
attempt to consolidate these environmental programs in a coordinated way
under the control of one agency with clear-cut responsibility for environ-
mental protection. The EPA opened its doors for business on December 2,
1970, less than eight months after the first Earth Day celebration.

Organization and Administration

The EPA is one of many independent agencies of the executive branch of the
U.S. government. It derives its authority to carry out pollution-control
261
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

programs through statutes passed by Congress. Although there have been

several unsuccessful efforts over the years, especially during the late 1980s
and early 1990s, to make the EPA a cabinet-level department, it remains
an independent agency. EPA’s administrator is appointed by the president,
but must be confirmed by the Senate. Although not a member of the cabinet,
the administrator is directly responsible to the president. The EPA has a
number of assistant administrators who oversee offices with responsibility for
EPA’s primary programs, including air and radiation; enforcement and com-
pliance assurance; international affairs; prevention, pesticides, and toxic
substances; research and development; solid waste and emergency response;
and water.
In addition, the EPA has ten regional offices throughout the United
States. Each of these is responsible for working with the states in its region
to implement and enforce EPA’s regulations. Within these various offices and
Seal of the U.S. Environmental regional centers, the EPA carries out wide-ranging duties related to environ-
Protection Agency (U.S. EPA.
Reproduced by permission.)
mental protection, including:
• Researching the causes and effects of specific environmental problems
• Monitoring environmental conditions
• Determining how to best regulate activities causing environmental
harm
• Setting specific standards for particular pollutants of concern
• Administering environmental permitting programs
• Providing financial and technical assistance to states
• Coordinating and supporting research activities of states and other
private and public organizations
• Providing oversight of states that have assumed responsibility for fed-
eral environmental program
• Enforcing environmental laws
The EPA receives its funding through congressional appropriation. In
1970 EPA’s annual budget was slightly over $1 billion. In 2002 its annual
budget was in excess of $7.3 billion. EPA’s workforce has grown from approx-
imately 4,000 employees in 1970 to more than 17,000 employees in 2002.

Activities and Accomplishments

The EPA is responsible for implementing and enforcing more than twenty-
four major environmental statutes. Some of the most significant environ-
mental statutes include the Clean Air Act; the Clean Water Act; the
Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act
(Superfund); the Toxic Substances Control Act; the Federal Insecticide,
Fungicide and Rodenticide Act; and the Safe Drinking Water Act.
The EPA has achieved many significant successes in implementing these
programs. One of the agency’s earliest accomplishments was banning the pes-
ticide DDT in 1972 after it was found to accumulate in the food chain, where
it threatened wildlife populations. This ban, enacted fewer than two years
after the formation of the EPA, had particular significance because the envi-
ronmental risks associated with DDT, about which Rachel Carson warned
262
 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

the public about in her 1962 book Silent Spring, were in large part publicized
and disseminated by the environmental movement. Some of EPA’s other
early accomplishments include the 1973 ban on lead in gasoline; funding to
build an advanced network of sewage-treatment facilities to prevent raw
sewage from flowing into the nation’s waters; establishing discharge limita-
tions for industrial water pollution under the Clean Water Act; the estab-
lishment of health-based standards to protect the public water supply under
the Safe Drinking Water Act; the 1978 ban on the use of chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs) as propellants in most aerosol cans to protect the ozone layer; and the
1980 establishment of the Superfund program for hazardous waste cleanup.
In the 1990s some of EPA’s major accomplishments included the annual
release of information on the location and nature of toxic chemical releases
in communities throughout the country through the Toxics Release Inven-
tory (TRI); the 1990 establishment of the first public–private partnership to
reduce industrial emissions under the Pollution Prevention Act; obtaining
the largest environmental criminal damage settlement in history in 1991
(totaling over $1 billion) for the 1989 Exxon Valdez oil spill; and establishing
pollution-control standards under the Clean Air Act to reduce toxic air pol-
lutants by 90 percent. During this same decade, in response to the rapid
development of biotechnology products, the EPA established new regulatory
programs to address the risks from the release of genetically modified organ-
isms into the environment. In addition, one of EPA’s most significant roles
remains that of enforcer of the nation’s environmental laws. In 1997 alone,
the EPA levied nearly $170 million in administrative penalties, and referred
278 criminal cases to the Department of Justice (DOJ) for prosecution. In
that same year the EPA referred 426 civil cases to the DOJ and assessed $95
million in civil penalties.

Relationship to Other Environmental Agencies

Although the EPA is the primary federal agency responsible for environ-
mental protection in the United States, there are several other federal agen-
cies that bear some responsibility for environmental protection in specified
areas. The EPA is primarily concerned with regulatory programs, such as
pollution-control programs, designed to protect human health and the envi-
ronment. Other federal agencies are responsible for other types of programs,
such as the management of public lands and natural resources and the pro-
tection of threatened and endangered species.
In addition to other federal agencies with environmental responsibility,
virtually every one of the fifty states has an agency responsible for pollution
control. The type and extent of state regulation vary widely. The EPA has
delegated the majority of federal environmental laws it administers to state
environmental agencies. However, when the EPA delegates a program to a
state, it retains oversight authority over that program.
Outside the United States, many other developing countries, particularly
those in the West, have agencies responsible for environmental protection
that are very similar in scope and structure to the EPA. For example, Ger-
many, France, and Great Britain all have national environmental agencies with
primary responsibility for the regulation of air and water pollution and public
and hazardous waste disposal. Other countries have taken somewhat different
approaches. For example, in Japan, although a national Environmental
263
U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA)

Agency was established in 1971, the national government initially did not play
“It seemed to me important to an active role in environmental regulation. Instead, many of Japan’s large cities
demonstrate to the public that developed their own environmental protection programs. Rather than rely on
the government was capable of formal laws and regulations, these cities sought to achieve environmental pro-
being responsive to their tection through agreements between the local governments and industry
expressed concerns; namely, that there. The pollution-control agreements resulting in environmental protec-
we would do something about tion within Japan stand in contrast to the regulatory systems of many Western
the environment. Therefore, it countries.
was important for us to advocate
strong environmental compli-
Conclusion
ance, back it up, and do it; to
actually show we were willing to During its existence, despite its numerous successes and accomplishments,
take on the large institutions in EPA often has been the target of criticism, both by industries asserting that
the society which hadn’t been EPA’s regulations are too stringent and are imposing too great an economic
paying much attention to the cost, and by environmentalists who claim that EPA is not doing enough to
environment.” protect public health and the environment. Despite these debates, public
opinion polls consistently show a strong support for environmental protec-
—William D. Ruckelshaus, on his
tion programs. Nevertheless, controversy continues over the appropriate
expectations when named the
direction and scope of EPA’s specific regulatory programs. S E E A L S O Agen-
first EPA Administrator in Decem-
cies, Regulatory; U.S. Army Corps of Engineers; Environment Canada;
ber 1970.
Environment Mexico; U.S. Coast Guard.
Bibliography
Antista, James V.; Boardman, Dorothy Lowe; Cloud, Thomas A.; et al. (2001). “Fed-
eral, State, and Local Environmental Control Agencies.” In Treatise on Florida
Environmental and Land Use Law, Vol. 1. Tallahassee, FL: The Florida Bar.
Carson, Rachel. (1962). Silent Spring. New York: Houghton Mifflin.
Ferrey, Steven. (2001). Environmental Law: Examples and Explanations, 2nd edition.
New York: Aspen Publishers.
Lovei, Magda, and Weiss, Charles, Jr. (1998). Management and Institutions in OECD
Countries: Lessons from Experience. Washington, D.C.: World Bank.
Moya, Olga L., and Fono, Andrew L. (2001). Federal Environmental Law: The User’s
Guide, 2nd edition. St. Paul, MN: West Publishing Company.
Rodgers, William H., Jr. (1994). Environmental Law, 2nd edition. St. Paul, MN: West
Publishing Company.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (1995/1996). Information Resource Manage-
ment. Access EPA 220-B-95-004. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing
Office.

Internet Resource
Government Institutes. (1994). “How EPA Works: A Guide to EPA Organization and
Functions.” Rockville, MD. Available from http://www.epa.gov/html.
Mary Jane Angelo

U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA)

Established in 1927, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) protects
public health by guarding against impure and unsafe foods, drugs, cosmetics,
and other potential hazards. The FDA carries out this role through regula-
tion, testing, studies, and consumer advisories. In addition, the FDA actively
enforces a number of laws, including the Food Quality Protection Act and
Lead-Based Paint Poisoning Prevention Act, to protect the public against
unsafe foods and other products. Foods can be adversely affected by dioxins,
264
 U.S. Geological Survey

mercury, and lead that are ingested or absorbed by, or adhere to animals and
plants intended for human consumption. The FDA takes the necessary meas-
ures to ensure that these substances do not make the food supply unsafe. It
monitors dairy and seafood products for dioxin residues created by fuel
burning and material incineration. With respect to mercury, the FDA tests
for its bioaccumulation in fish because fetuses and infants are especially sen-
sitive to and can be adversely affected by its presence. Lead, existing in food
cans (often imported from foreign countries), plumbing, solder, and brass
faucets, has led to the FDA’s establishment of a contaminants branch in the
office of plant and dairy foods and beverages and the creation of a test kit to
screen for the presence of lead. S E E A L S O Dioxin; Lead; Mercury.
Bibliography
Parisian, Suzanne. (2001). FDA Inside and Out. Front Royal, VA: Fast Horse Press.

Internet Resource
“Dioxins: FDA Strategy for Monitoring, Method Development, and Reducing Human
Exposure.” Available at http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~lrd/dioxstra.html.
Robert F. Gruenig

U.S. Geological Survey

Established as part of the Department of the Interior in 1879 and funded by
Congress, the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) provides support to federal
agencies (e.g., the Environmental Protection Agency or EPA, the National
Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration or NOAA, and the U.S.
Coast Guard) in the form of useful information for decision-making pur-
poses concerning the management of U.S. environmental and natural
resources. As part of this support, the USGS examines the relationship
between humans and the environment by conducting data collection, long-
term research assessments, and ecosystem analyses, and providing forecast
changes and their implications. One example of this support is the provision
of information about earthquake and seismic activities that is used to assess
the potential impact of such activities on water quality. In addition to its fed-
eral agency support, the USGS also manages some of the following programs
that address the problems of environmental pollution: (1) coastal and marine
geology program; (2) contaminants program; (3) energy program; (4) fish-
eries and aquatic resources; and (5) global change/wetland ecology program.
These external support activities and internal programs have been similarly
adopted by countries such as Australia, Britain, Finland, and Japan, although
not to the same degree as provided by the USGS. S E E A L S O Environmental
Protection Agency; Interior Department, United States; National
Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA); U.S. Coast
Guard.
Bibliography
Natural Research Council, Committee on Geosciences, Environment and Resources.
(2001). Future Roles and Opportunities for the U.S. Geological Survey. Washington,
D.C.: National Academy Press.

Internet Resource
Coastal and Marine Geology Program Site. Available from http://marine.usgs.gov.
Robert F. Gruenig

265
Ultraviolet Radiation

Ultraviolet Radiation
Ultraviolet (UV) radiation is a form of electromagnetic radiation that lies
between visible light and x rays in its energy and wavelength. It is a compo-
nent of the radiation that reaches the Earth from the sun. The broad UV
band, having wavelengths between 190 nanometers (nm) and 400 nm, is con-
ventionally divided into three parts: UV-A or near-UV (315 to 400 nm), UV-
B or mid-UV (280 to 315 nm), and UV-C or far-UV (190 to 280 nm). Much
incident solar sun energy that of the incident solar UV radiation is absorbed by gases in the earth’s atmos-
hits a particular spot phere and never reaches the earth’s surface. This is fortunate, because UV
radiation can chemically alter important biological molecules, including pro-
teins and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), and thereby cause damage to living
systems. The most familiar effect on humans is sunburn, which is the mani-
festation of UV’s damage to outer skin cells. Long-term effects of excessive
suppression reduction in or UV exposure include skin cancer, eye damage (cataracts), and suppression of
prevention of an effect the immune system.
Among the atmospheric gases that are the major absorbers of UV radia-
tion is ozone (O3), which lies predominantly in the upper atmospheric region
known as the stratosphere. Stratospheric ozone is particularly important in
absorbing UV-B radiation. A current environmental issue concerns the
depletion of stratospheric ozone (the ozone layer) by human-made chemicals
such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and halons. With even small percentages
of ozone depletion, more UV-B radiation reaches the surface of the earth and
the harmful effects of UV increase. S E E A L S O CFCs (Chlorofluorocar-
bons); Halon; Ozone.
Bibliography
World Meteorological Organization. (2003). Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion:
2002. Global Ozone Research and Monitoring Project, Report No. 47. Geneva:
Author.

Internet Resource
NASA Advanced Supercomputing Division Web site. “Ultraviolet Radiation.” Avail-
able from http://www.nas.nasa.gov/About/Education/Ozone/radiation.html.
United Nations Environment Programme. (1998). “Environmental Effects of Ozone
Depletion 1998 Assessment.” In the Global Change Research Information Office
Web site. Available from http://www.gcrio.org/ozone/toc.html.
World Meteorological Organization. “UV Radiation Page.” Available from http://
www.srrb.noaa.gov/UV.
Christine A. Ennis

Underground Storage Tank

Leaking underground storage tanks (LUSTs) containing hazardous liquids,
primarily petroleum products such as gasoline, diesel, kerosene, or oil have
groundwater the supply of contaminated the groundwater and drinking water of thousands of com-
freshwater found beneath the munities across the United States.
Earth’s surface includes;
aquifers, which supply wells Following the boom in automobile sales after World War II, gasoline sta-
and springs tions mushroomed across the county to meet the demand for personal mobil-
drinking water water used or ity. At these new stations, gasoline was stored underground in tanks made of
with the potential to be used bare steel, which were not protected from corrosion—the oxidation, or rust-
for human consumption
ing, of other metals as well as iron metal in steel that can cause metals to
266
 FOULING THE WATER
Gasoline and its additives, leaking
from underground storage tanks,
threaten the drinking water in
residential wells. At greatest risk
res
in Bergen County are Wyckoff,
Midland Park, Glen Rock, and
Ridgewood, because all their
water comes from wells.

gro
well

Residential
groundwater
well

Spille
Spilled
gasoline
ne

SOURCE: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, U.S. Geological Survey.

267
Underground Storage Tank

crack or disintegrate and leak. The average life expectancy of steel tanks
installed in the 1950s and 1960s was thirty to fifty years. This statistic sug-
gests that petroleum products have been leaking from these tanks, spread
throughout the country, since the early 1980s. By 2001, the U.S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency (EPA) was dealing with cleanups at 379,243
LUST sites in the United States.
Corrosion usually causes tanks to leak slowly. Leaks from older tanks are
often difficult to detect because inventory control is imprecise. Once released
unsaturated capable of dis- from a tank, gasoline sinks through unsaturated soil and, because gasoline is
solving more solute, i.e., water less dense than water, floats on the surface of the water table. Because most
water table the level of water components of gasoline are fairly volatile—they readily become a vapor at a
in the soil relatively low temperature—leaks often go undetected until the vapors are
volatile any substance that present at the ground’s surface. In addition to the risk to water supplies, leak-
evaporates readily ing gasoline also presents risk of fire and explosion when vapors from leaking
tanks can travel through sewer lines and soils into buildings.
Because nearly half of all Americans depend on groundwater for their
drinking water, leaking underground storage tanks represent a significant
public health threat. The most hazardous components of petroleum products
are the BTEX compounds—benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylenes.
Benzene is the most hazardous of these compounds due to the risk of cancer
maximum contaminant level in from drinking and bathing in water containing benzene. The maximum
water: the maximum permissi- contaminant level set by the EPA is 5 parts per billion (ppb).
ble level of a contaminant in
water delivered to any user of Another potentially hazardous compound in gasoline is methyl tertiary
a public system; MCLs are
enforceable standards butyl ether (MTBE). Ironically, MTBE is added to gasoline to combat air
pollution by making the fuel burn cleaner. At concentrations as low as 20
ppb, MTBE makes drinking water unfit for human consumption. (This
assessment is based on standards that correlate unfitness with the taste and
odor left in the water by MTBE.) MTBE is currently classified as a potential
carcinogen any substance that human carcinogen, but there is no maximum contaminant level for MTBE
can cause or aggravate cancer in drinking water. As many as 9,000 community water wells in thirty-one
states may be affected by MTBE contamination, and many states are phasing
out its use in gasoline.
Once LUSTs are identified and the extent of soil and groundwater con-
tamination is determined, remediation can include removal of the leaking
tanks, the contaminated soil, and the contaminants from the groundwater.
Tank and contaminated soil removal is accomplished by excavation. Removal
of groundwater contaminants is accomplished by the suction pumping of
gasoline floating on the water table by air stripping, a process in which air
is pumped through the water to cause the volatile compounds to evaporate,
biodegradation decomposition and by natural attenuation, the biodegradation of contaminants by microor-
due to the action of bacteria ganisms. Remediating contaminated groundwater can take decades, and
and other organisms
some waters will never be made safe enough to drink. Dozens of communi-
ties have had to find alternative sources of drinking water because of gasoline
contamination.
remediation cleanup or other
methods used to remove or The primary responsibility for the licensing, operation, and regulation of
contain a toxic spill or haz- underground storage tanks (USTs) and the cleanup of LUSTs falls to the
ardous materials from a Super-
state. Most states fund remediation of LUST sites through licensing fees
fund site or for the Asbestos
Hazard Emergency Response and surcharges on most petroleum products. The EPA oversees the state pro-
program grams and augments their remediation efforts through grants to support
268
 Unintended Consequences

LUST program staffing, and through direct assistance with emergency

responses and cleanup.
To prevent future problems, the EPA established UST standards in 1988
and gave tank owners ten years to upgrade or replace old tanks. New tanks
must have corrosion protection and improved leak-detection systems. Nearly
1.5 million USTs and LUSTs have been closed. S E E A L S O Petroleum;
Superfund; Water Pollution.
Bibliography
American Petroleum Institute. (1989). “Recommended Practices on Underground
Petroleum Storage Tank Management.” RP 1650. Washington, D.C.: Author.
American Society for Testing and Materials. (1998). “Standard Guide for Performing
Evaluations of Underground Storage Tank Systems for Operational Conformance
with 40 CFR, Part 280 Regulations.” Report ASTM E 1990-98. West Con-
shohocken, PA: ASTM.

Internet Resources
Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response. (1998). “Technical Standards and
Corrective Action Requirements for Owners and Operators of Underground Stor-
age Tanks (Section 610 Review).” 63 FR 22709. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency. Also available from http://www.epa.gov/swerust1.
Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response. (2000). Catalog of EPA Materials on
Underground Storage Tanks. EPA Report 510-B-00-001. Washington, D.C.: U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency. Also available from http://www.epa.gov/swerust1.
Joseph N. Ryan

Unintended Consequences
Solutions to environmental problems occasionally create unintended conse-
quences, that is, solving one problem creates another. Scientists and engi-
neers must carefully evaluate potential negative results before implementing
new remediation programs. For example, burying wastes in landfills may
cause groundwater contamination, incinerating wastes reduces waste vol-
umes but can cause air pollution, and excavating abandoned waste sites as
part of a remediation effort may expose workers to contamination. Recycling
can have a net negative environmental impact if air pollution associated with
transportation outweighs environmental benefits. Stimulating the biodegra- biodegradation decomposition
dation of trichloroethylene (TCE) in contaminated groundwater can lead to due to the action of bacteria
and other organisms
the formation of vinyl chloride, a more hazardous chemical. Two examples
are described here: MTBE and disinfection by-products.

MTBE
Methyl tertiary-butyl ether (MTBE) is a fuel additive that has improved air,
but degraded groundwater. Its primary use in the United States began in the
1990s as a fuel oxygenate added to gasoline to help meet the requirements oxygenate increase the con-
of the Clean Air Act. By providing a source of oxygen during gasoline com- centration of oxygen within an
area
bustion, MTBE reduces carbon monoxide levels. It has been used in a num-
ber of localities to help combat significant air pollution problems, and studies
have identified important air quality and public health benefits from its use.
Unfortunately, the addition of MTBE to fuels resulted in unintended
consequences. MTBE is highly soluble in water and relatively nonbiodegrad-
able. It has been detected in groundwater across the United States, primarily
269
Unintended Consequences

from fuel leaks and spills. For example, the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS)
analyzed drinking water information from over one thousand community
water systems (CWS) in the Northeast and Mid-Atlantic regions of
the United States for the period from 1993 to 1998. MTBE was found in
drinking water from 8.9 percent of the CWSs. Levels over 20 µg/l were deter-
mined in 1 percent of those same cases. Once introduced to groundwater,
MTBE’s high solubility makes it very mobile. The U.S. Environmental Pro-
tection Agency (EPA) did issue a drinking water advisory for MTBE in 1997.
Although there are no data on the effects of drinking MTBE-contaminated
water on humans, cancer and other deleterious effects occur in animals at high
exposure levels. Furthermore, MTBE has an unpleasant taste and odor.

Disinfection By-Products
Disinfection, one of the primary tools of water treatment, is the removal and
inactivation of pathogenic microbes, that is, small organisms such as viruses,
bacteria, and protozoa, that can cause disease. Disinfection has historically
been accomplished using chlorination, the destruction of microbes by
hypochlorous acid and the hypochlorous ion, formed by the reaction of chlo-
rine gas and water or added directly as hypochlorite salts. Large improve-
ments in public health occur when pathogen-free waters are available for
human consumption, and significant portion of the life span increase
achieved in the modern era is the result of safe drinking water.
However, there have been unintended consequences of disinfection by
chlorination. If organic compounds are present in the water, halogenated
disinfection by-products (DBPs) may be formed. Two halogenated DBPs reg-
ulated by U.S. drinking water standards are trihalomethanes (THM) and
haloacetic acids. Both can increase the risk of cancer. THMs can also cause
liver, kidney, and central nervous system problems. A USGS study found
THMs in the drinking water of 45 percent of some 2,000 CWSs randomly
selected in the Northeast and Mid-Atlantic regions of the United States. For-
tunately, there are a number of ways CWSs can limit the generation of halo-
genated DBPs, including using water sources with low organic content,
removing organic compounds before chlorination, and using disinfectants
that produce fewer or no halogenated DBPs, such as ozone or chloramines.
S E E A L S O Abatement; Disinfection; Vehicular Pollution.

Bibliography
Grady, S., and Casey, G. (2001). “Occurrence and Distribution of Methyl tert-Butyl
Ether and Other Volatile Organic Compounds in Drinking Water in the Northeast
and Mid-Atlantic Regions of the United States, 1993–98.” Washington, D.C.: U.S.
Geological Survey.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (1997). “Drinking Water Advisory: Con-
sumer Acceptability Advice and Health Effects Analysis on Methyl Tertiary-Butyl
Ether (MtBE).” EPA-822-F-97-009. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Environmental Pro-
tection Agency.
U.S. Geological Survey, Water Resources Investigations Report 00-4228.

Internet Resources
Davis, J. Michael. “How to Avert the Problems of MTBE.” Available from http://
www.epa.gov/ord.
Reshkin, K. “EPA Student Center.” Available from http://www.epa.gov/students.
Jess Everett

270
 Urban Sprawl

Union of Concerned Scientists

The Union of Concerned Scientists (UCS) is a nonprofit alliance of some
fifty thousand scientists and citizens across the United States. The group’s
stated goal is to combine rigorous scientific analysis with committed citizen
advocacy in order to build a cleaner environment and a safer world. The
group focuses on issues such as global warming and the environmental
impact of vehicles and various energy sources.
The UCS was formed in 1969 at the Massachusetts Institute of Technol-
ogy, where a number of faculty members and students banded together to
protest what they saw as the abuse of science and technology for military pur-
poses. The new group called for greater emphasis on the application of sci-
entific research to solve social and environmental problems. In its early
years, the organization issued statements urging an end to the nuclear arms
race and a ban on space weapons research. In recent years, the group has
focused more on environmental issues.
In 1992, seventeen hundred of the world’s leading scientists, including
many Nobel prize winners, issued an emotional appeal through the UCS.
Their statement, titled “World Scientists’ Warning to Humanity,” noted that
“human activities inflict harsh and often irreversible damage on the environ-
ment and on critical resources.” It urged the world community to take action
by moving away from fossil fuels and giving high priority to more efficient
use of natural resources such as water.
In 1997, the UCS issued another statement at the Kyoto Climate Sum-
mit in Japan. This statement, which addressed the threat of global warming,
was signed by more than fifteen hundred scientists from sixty-three coun-
tries, including sixty U.S. National Medal of Science winners. UCS efforts
helped set the stage for the adoption of an international treaty on climate
change. Such joint appeals are influential, because they show world leaders
that there is growing agreement among scientists on key issues.
In the United States, the UCS has been a force for social change as well.
For example, in California, the UCS and other environmental and public
health groups helped convince the state to begin requiring sport utility vehi-
cles, light trucks, and diesel cars to meet the same tailpipe emissions stan-
dards as gasoline-powered cars. In Connecticut, the UCS and its allies helped
persuade the legislature to pass a law that included strong support for clean,
renewable energy sources. In short, the UCS continues to be a powerful
voice for concerned scientists and citizens. S E E A L S O Environmental Move-
ment; Global Warming; Treaties and Conferences.
Bibliography
Brown, Michael, and Leon, Warren. (1999). The Consumer’s Guide to Effective Environ-
mental Choices: Practical Advice from the Union of Concerned Scientists. New York:
Three Rivers Press.

Internet Resources
Union of Concerned Scientists. “World Scientists’ Call for Action” and “World Sci-
entists’ Warning to Humanity.” Available from http://www.ucsusa.org.
Linda Wasmer Andrews

Urban Sprawl See Sprawl

271
Vehicular Pollution

Vehicular Pollution
V The large majority of today’s cars and trucks travel by using internal com-
bustion engines that burn gasoline or other fossil fuels. The process of burn-
ing gasoline to power cars and trucks contributes to air pollution by releasing
a variety of emissions into the atmosphere. Emissions that are released
directly into the atmosphere from the tailpipes of cars and trucks are the pri-
mary source of vehicular pollution. But motor vehicles also pollute the air
during the processes of manufacturing, refueling, and from the emissions
associated with oil refining and distribution of the fuel they burn.
Primary pollution from motor vehicles is pollution that is emitted directly
into the atmosphere, whereas secondary pollution results from chemical reac-
tions between pollutants after they have been released into the air.
Despite decades of efforts to control air pollution, at least 92 million
Americans still live in areas with chronic smog problems. The U.S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency (EPA) predicts that by 2010, even with the bene-
fit of current and anticipated pollution control programs, more than 93
million people will live in areas that violate health standards for ozone (urban
smog), and more than 55 million Americans will suffer from unhealthy levels
of fine-particle pollution, which is especially harmful to children and senior
citizens.
While new cars and light trucks emit about 90 percent fewer pollutants
than they did three decades ago, total annual vehicle-miles driven have
increased by more than 140 percent since 1970 and are expected to increase
another 25 percent by 2010. The emission reductions from individual vehi-
cles have not adequately kept pace with the increase in miles driven and the
market trend toward more-polluting light trucks, a category that includes
sports utility vehicles (SUVs). As a result, cars and light trucks are still the
largest single source of air pollution in most urban areas, accounting for one-
quarter of emissions of smog-forming pollutants nationwide.

Ingredients of Vehicular Pollution

The following are the major pollutants associated with motor vehicles:
• Ozone (O3). The primary ingredient in urban smog, ozone is created
when hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides (NOx)—both of which are
chemicals released by automobile fuel combustion—react with sun-
light. Though beneficial in the upper atmosphere, at the ground level
ozone can irritate the respiratory system, causing coughing, choking,
and reduced lung capacity.
• Particulate matter (PM). These particles of soot, metals, and pollen
give smog its murky color. Among vehicular pollution, fine particles
(those less than one-tenth the diameter of a human hair) pose the most
serious threat to human health by penetrating deep into lungs. In
addition to direct emissions of fine particles, automobiles release
nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons, and sulfur dioxide, which generate
additional fine particles as secondary pollution.
• Nitrogen oxides (NOx). These vehicular pollutants can cause lung irri-
tation and weaken the body’s defenses against respiratory infections
such as pneumonia and influenza. In addition, they assist in the for-
272
 Vehicular Pollution

mation of ozone and particulate matter. In many cities, NOx pollution During the morning rush hour,
the Miguel Hidalgo area of
accounts for one-third of the fine particulate pollution in the air.
Mexico City is clogged with
• Carbon monoxide (CO). This odorless, colorless gas is formed by the traffic and smog. (©Stephanie
Maze/Corbis. Reproduced by
combustion of fossil fuels such as gasoline. Cars and trucks are the permission.)
source of nearly two-thirds of this pollutant. When inhaled, CO
blocks the transport of oxygen to the brain, heart, and other vital
organs in the human body. Newborn children and people with chronic
illnesses are especially susceptible to the effects of CO.
• Sulfur dioxide (SO2). Motor vehicles create this pollutant by burning
sulfur-containing fuels, especially diesel. It can react in the atmos-
phere to form fine particles and can pose a health risk to young chil-
dren and asthmatics.
• Hazardous air pollutants (toxics). These chemical compounds, which
are emitted by cars, trucks, refineries, gas pumps, and related sources,
have been linked to birth defects, cancer, and other serious illnesses.
The EPA estimates that the air toxics emitted from cars and trucks
account for half of all cancers caused by air pollution.

Vehicular Emissions That Contribute to Global Warming

Carbon monoxide, ozone, particulate matter, and the other forms of pollu-
tion listed above can cause smog and other air quality concerns, but there are
vehicular emissions that contribute to a completely different pollution issue:
global warming.
273
Vehicular Pollution

Morning rush hour traffic

waiting to pay the toll to cross
the Oakland Bay Bridge in
August 1989. (©James A.
Sugar/Corbis. Reproduced by
permission.)

The gases that contribute to global warming are related to the chemical
composition of the Earth’s atmosphere. Some of the gases in the atmosphere
function like the panes of a greenhouse. They let some radiation (heat) in
from the sun but do not let it all back out, thereby helping to keep the Earth
warm. The past century has seen a dramatic increase in the atmospheric con-
centration of heat-trapping gasses, due to human activity. If this trend con-
tinues, scientists project that the earth’s average surface temperature will
increase between 2.5°F and 10.4°F by the year 2100.
One of these important heat-trapping gasses is carbon dioxide (CO2).
Motor vehicles are responsible for almost one-quarter of annual U.S. emis-
sions of CO2. The U.S. transportation sector emits more CO2 than all but
three other countries’ emissions from all sources combined.

Curbing Vehicular Pollution

Vehicular emissions that contribute to air quality problems, smog, and global
warming can be reduced by putting better pollution-control technologies on
274
 Vehicular Pollution

FUEL ECONOMY BY MODEL YEAR

30

25
Average MPG

Cars
Both
20
Trucks

15

10
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000

Model Year

cars and trucks, burning less fuel, switching to cleaner fuels, using technolo-
gies that reduce or eliminate emissions, and reducing the number of vehicle-
miles traveled.

Pollution Control Technology

Federal and California regulations require the use of technologies that have
dramatically reduced the amount of smog-forming pollution and carbon
monoxide coming from a vehicle’s tailpipe. For gasoline vehicles, “three-
way” catalysts, precise engine and fuel controls, and evaporative emission
controls have been quite successful. More advanced versions of these tech-
nologies are in some cars and can reduce smog-forming emissions from new
vehicles by a factor of ten. For diesel vehicles, “two-way” catalysts and engine
controls have been able to reduce hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide emis-
sions, but nitrogen oxide and toxic particulate-matter emissions remain very
high. More advanced diesel-control technologies are under development, but
it is unlikely that they will be able to clean up diesel to the degree already
achieved in the cleanest gasoline vehicles.
Added concerns surround the difference between new vehicle emissions
and the emissions of a car or truck over a lifetime of actual use. Vehicles with
good emission-control technology that is not properly maintained can
become “gross polluters” that are responsible for a significant amount of
existing air-quality problems. New technologies have also been developed to
identify emission-equipment control failures, and can be used to help reduce
the “gross polluter” problem.

Burning Less Fuel

The key to burning less fuel is making cars and trucks more efficient and put-
ting that efficiency to work in improving fuel economy. The U.S. federal gov-
ernment sets a fuel-economy standard for all passenger vehicles. However,
275
Vehicular Pollution

these standards have remained mostly constant for the past decade. In addi-
tion, sales of lower-fuel-economy light trucks, such as SUVs, pickups, and
minivans, have increased dramatically. As a result, on average, the U.S. pas-
senger-vehicle fleet actually travels less distance on a gallon of gas than it did
twenty years ago. This has led to an increase in heat-trapping gas emissions
from cars and trucks and to an increase in smog-forming and toxic emissions
resulting from the production and transportation of gasoline to the fuel pump.
This trend can be reversed through the use of existing technologies that
help cars and trucks go farther on a gallon of gasoline. These include more
efficient engines and transmissions, improved aerodynamics, better tires,
and high strength steel and aluminum. More advanced technologies, such as
hybrid-electric vehicles that use a gasoline engine and an electric motor
plus a battery, can cut fuel use even further. These technologies carry
with them additional costs, but pay for themselves through savings at the
gasoline pump.

Zero-Emission Vehicles
As more cars and trucks are sold and total annual mileage increases, improv-
ing pollution-control technology and burning less fuel continues to be vital,
especially in rapidly growing urban areas. However, eliminating emissions
from the tailpipe goes even further to cut down on harmful air pollutants.
Hydrogen fuel-cell and electric vehicles move away from burning fuel
and use electrochemical processes instead to produce the needed energy to
drive a car down the road. Fuel-cell vehicles run on electricity that is pro-
duced directly from the reaction of hydrogen and oxygen. The only by-
product is water—which is why fuel-cell cars and trucks are called
zero-emission vehicles. Electric vehicles store energy in an onboard battery,
emitting nothing from the tailpipe.
The hydrogen for the fuel cell and the electricity for the battery must still
be produced somewhere, so there will still be upstream emissions associated
with these vehicles. These stationary sources, however, are easier to control
and can ultimately be converted to use wind, solar, and other renewable
energy sources to come as close as possible to true zero-emission vehicles.

Cleaner Fuels
The gasoline and diesel fuel in use today contains significant amounts of sul-
fur and other compounds that make it harder for existing control technology
to keep vehicles clean. Removing the sulfur from the fuel and cutting down
on the amount of light hydrocarbons helps pollution-control technology to
work better and cuts down on evaporative and refueling emissions.
Further large-scale reductions of other tailpipe pollution and CO2 can be
accomplished with a shift away from conventional fuels. Alternative fuels
such as natural gas, methanol, ethanol, and hydrogen can deliver benefits to
the environment while helping to move the United States away from its
dependence on oil. All of these fuels inherently burn cleaner than diesel and
gasoline, and they have a lower carbon content—resulting in less CO2. Most
of these fuels are also more easily made from renewable resources, and fuels
such as natural gas and methanol help provide a bridge to producing hydro-
gen for fuel-cell vehicles.
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 Vehicular Pollution

Reducing Driving
Because we are still dependent on fossil fuels and the number of cars on the
road is expected to double, a significant reduction in vehicular pollution
requires more than gains in fuel efficiency. Measures that encourage us to
drive less can help curb vehicular pollution and protect natural resources and
public health.
Alternatives that can reduce the number of vehicle-miles traveled include
• providing transportation alternatives to cars, including mass transit,
bicycle, and pedestrian routes;
• promoting transit-oriented, compact developments in and around
cities and towns; and adopting policies to improve existing roads and
infrastructure.

Personal Contributions
Individuals can also make a difference in the effort to reduce pollution from
cars and trucks. How we drive and how we take care of our vehicles affects
fuel economy and pollution emissions. The following are several ways peo-
ple can reduce the harmful environmental impact of cars.
• Driving as little as possible is the best way to reduce the harmful envi-
ronmental impact of transportation needs. Carpooling, mass transit,
biking, and walking are ways to limit the number of miles we drive.
Choosing a place to live that reduces the need to drive is another way.
• Driving moderately and avoiding high-speed driving and frequent
stopping and starting can reduce both fuel use and pollutant emissions.
• Simple vehicle maintenance—such as regular oil changes, air-filter
changes, and spark plug replacements—can lengthen the life of your
car as well as improve fuel economy and minimize emissions.
• Keeping tires properly inflated saves fuel by reducing the amount of
drag a car’s engine must overcome.
• During start-up, a car’s engine burns extra gasoline. However, letting
an engine idle for more than a minute burns more fuel than turning
off the engine and restarting it.
• During warm periods with strong sunlight, parking in the shade keeps
a car cooler and can minimize the evaporation of fuel.
S E E A L S O Air Pollution; Carbon Dioxide; Carbon Monoxide; Lead;
NOx; Ozone; Smog; VOCs (Volatile Organic Compounds).
Internet Resources
American Automobile Association. “Daily Fuel Gauge Report.” Available from http://
198.6.95.31/index.asp.
American Council for an Energy Efficient Economy. “GreenerCars.com.” Available
from http://www.greenercars.com/indexplus.html.
How Stuff Works. “How Ozone Pollution Works.” Available from http://science
.howstuffworks.com/ozone-pollution.htm.
U.S. Department of Energy. “Fuel Economy.” Available from http://www.fueleconomy
.gov.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. “Green Vehicle Guide.” Available from http://
www.epa.gov/greenvehicles.

277
Visual Pollution

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. “Light-Duty Automotive Technology and

Fuel Economy Trends: 1975 through 2003.” Available from http://www.epa.gov/
otaq/fetrends.htm.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. “Motor Vehicle Emissions.” Available from
http://www.epa.gov/otaq/ld-hwy.htm.
Weather Channel. “Health Forecast Search.” Available from http://www.weather
.com/activities/health/search.html?from=tabset.
David Friedman

Visual Pollution
Visual pollution is an aesthetic issue, referring to the impacts of pollution that
impair one’s ability to enjoy a vista or view. The term is used broadly to cover
visibility, limits on the ability to view distant objects, as well as the more sub-
jective issue of visual clutter, structures that intrude upon otherwise “pretty”
scenes, as well as graffiti and other visual defacement.
Visibility is a measure of how far and how well people can see into the
distance. Haze obscures visibility. It is caused when light is absorbed or scat-
tered by pollution particles such as sulfates, nitrates, organic carbon com-
pounds, soot, and soil dust. Nitrogen dioxide and other pollution gases also
contribute to haze. Haze increases with summer humidity because sulfate and
other particles absorb moisture and increase in size. The larger the particles,
The top of a ninety-five-foot- the more light they scatter.
tall wireless phone antenna
made to look like a cypress Haze is most dramatically seen as a brownish-grey cloud hovering over
tree, blending with the other cities, but it also obscures many beautiful vistas in U.S. national parks. At
cypress trees in a Metairie, Acadia National Park in Maine, visual range on a clear day can be 199 miles.
Louisiana, neighborhood.
(AP/Wide World Photos.
On a hazy day, that can be reduced to 30 miles. At its worst, haze at Grand
Reproduced by permission.) Canyon National Park was so severe that people could not see across the 10-
mile wide canyon. An enormous coal-fired electric plant, the Navajo Power
Generating Station, about 80 miles north of the Grand Canyon, was thought
to be the source of the pollution causing canyon haze. In 1985 researchers at
deuterium a hydrogen atom Colorado State University injected methane-containing deuterium into the
with an extra neutron, making power plant’s smoke emissions. Deuterium is not normally present in the air.
it unstable and radioactive
When monitors determined the presence of deuterium in canyon air,
researchers were able to demonstrate that the plant was responsible for much
of the canyon haze. The result was a landmark settlement in which Navajo’s
owners agreed to a 90-percent cutback in sulfur dioxide emissions by 1999.
Utility boilers and vehicular emissions are both major sources of haze-
causing pollution. The haze problem is greatest on the east coast of the
United States because of the higher levels of pollution and humidity in that
region. The pollution that causes haze can travel thousands of miles, and
improving regional visibility requires interstate cooperation. Wood smoke is
a contributor in the west, and forest fire smoke and windblown dust are nat-
ural sources of haze.
The pollutants that cause haze are also a health concern because they
often result in respiratory problems among humans and other species. Con-
trols designed to reduce the pollution from vehicular and smokestack emis-
sions will also reduce visual pollution. In addition, the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) has issued regional haze regulations that call on
278
 Visual Pollution

states to establish goals and strategies and to work together in regional The Los Angeles skyline with
mountain peaks visible in
groups to improve visibility in 156 national parks and wilderness areas.
the background. (© Mark L.
In Southeast Asia, haze caused by massive forest fires cost billions of dol- Stephenson/Corbis.
Reproduced by permission.)
lars in health care and lost tourist revenue in the last decade. Fires in Suma-
tra and Borneo affected not only Indonesia, but also Malaysia, Singapore, and
Thailand. Most fires were set deliberately, and often illegally, to clear land for
planting and development and to cover up illegal logging. Some of the fires
spread to peat deposits beneath the forest, and these may continue to burn
for years.
Visual blight—billboards, power lines, cell towers, even ugly buildings—
is literally in the eye of the beholder. It is subjective. To the businessman, a
well-placed billboard may be a thing of beauty. But to the traveler whose view
of the rolling hills or the rustic village is obstructed, it is visual pollution.
Billboards proliferated in the 1940s and 1950s, spurred by the growth of
automobile traffic and construction of interstate highway system, but in 1965
Lady Bird Johnson, wife of President Lyndon Johnson, attacked their grow-
ing presence on our nation’s roadways. “Ugliness is so grim,” the first lady
proclaimed, and she fought for and won passage of the Highway Beautifica-
tion Act of 1965. This groundbreaking law prompted a number of states,
including Alaska, Hawaii, Maine and Vermont, to ban billboards totally;
there were loopholes, however.
Sensitivity to visual pollution has led utility companies to bury power and
telephone lines in some communities. The latest fight against visual pollution
centers on cell towers, needed to provide cellular telephone service. One solu-
tion has been to disguise cell towers as trees or cacti. Graffiti, spray-painted
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VOCs (Volatile Organic Compounds)

A similar perspective of the names and messages, are a form of urban visual blight. Attempts to curb graf-
Los Angeles skyline, but with
fiti by banning the sale of spray paint to minors have had little effect.
much of the scenery obscured
by smog. (© Robert Bibliography
Landau/Corbis. Reproduced by
permission.) Gudis, Catherine (2003). Buyways: Automobility, Billboards and the American Cultural
Landscape. New York: Routledge.
National Research Council Board on Environmental Studies and Toxicology. (1991).
Haze in the Grand Canyon: An Evaluation of the Winter Haze Intensive Tracer Experi-
ment. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.
National Research Council Environment and Resources Commission on Geosciences.
(1993). Protecting Visibility in National Parks and Wilderness Areas. Washington,
D.C.: National Academy Press.

Internet Resources
Malm, William (National Park Service and Colorado State Institute for Research on
the Atmosphere). “Introduction to Visibility.” Available from http://www.epa.gov/
oar/visibility.
Scenic America Web site. Available from http://www.scenic.org/billboards.htm.
Richard M. Stapleton

VOCs (Volatile Organic Compounds)

volatile of any substance that
evaporates readily Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are small organic molecules that take
photochemical light-induced part in photochemical reactions in the atmosphere, resulting in smog. They
chemical effects have low boiling points and vaporize easily. When present in the atmosphere,
280
 War

VOCs, such as benzene and ethylbenzene, are not removed by passing the air
through a filter. The atmosphere also contains nonvolatile organic com- Environmental destruction as a
pounds and semivolatile species such as anthracene and nicotine. The latter tool of war is not new. In 146
separate partly on a filter and partly in the gas phase, depending on temper- B.C.E., at the end of the Third

ature. VOCs (isoprene and pinene) are emitted by living trees and decompo- Punic War, Roman soldiers
sition of vegetation. The process of refining crude oil to various fuels and the reportedly plowed salt into the
use, spillage, and incomplete combustion of those fuels in vehicles is another fields of Carthage, leaving them
major source of VOCs. When mixed with nitric oxide emissions, mainly infertile and ensuring that the
from combustion sources, and allowed to stagnate in intense sunlight, this North African city would never
mix forms ozone (a colorless gas) and oxidizes much of the VOCs to again be a challenge to the
involatile particulate matter that scatters and absorbs light. This combination Roman Empire.
is termed photochemical smog. S E E A L S O Air Pollution; Health, Human;
Risk; Smog.
Internet Resource
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. “Organic Gases (Volatile Organic
Compounds—VOCs).” Available from http://www.epa.gov/iaq.
Donald Stedman

Volatile Organic Compounds See VOCs

War
War, defined as armed conflict between nations or between opposing factions
within a nation, can have grave consequences for the environment, public
W
health, and natural resources. The impact of military tactics and weaponry
extends beyond military targets to affect civilian populations and their infra-
structure, air and water; armed forces directly target forests, jungles, and other
ecosystems in order to deprive enemy troops of cover, shelter, and food; mass
refugee movements and other disruptions caused by armed conflict can deplete
nearby sources of timber and wildlife; and the general atmosphere of lawless-
ness that often prevails during or after conflict can make it difficult to prevent
illegal logging, mining, and poaching. Even peacetime military activities and
preparation for war can be extraordinarily harmful to the environment.
Although wartime environmental damage is as old as war itself, it is mod-
ern, industrial warfare that has raised the possibility of destruction on an
ecosystem or global scale. From the use of poison gases in World War I and ecosystem the interacting sys-
atomic bombs in World War II to the use of chemical defoliants in Vietnam tem of a biological community
and its non-living environmen-
and land mines in numerous internal conflicts, war now leaves a legacy that tal surroundings
extends far beyond the battlefield and long past the duration of the original
defoliant an herbicide that
conflict. This problem has resulted in international treaties that attempt to removes leaves from trees and
constrain the adverse impacts of warfare on civilian populations and the envi- growing plants
ronment. It also has ensured that environmental issues are closely monitored
during wartime by the international community, in much the same way as
humanitarian or refugee issues.

History
Wartime environmental impacts were noted as far back as the ancient world,
when the Romans salted the earth around Carthage to keep the Carthagini-
ans from replanting their fields. Medieval sieges took a heavy toll on soldiers
and civilians alike. During the U.S. Civil War, General William Tecumseh
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War

A U.S. Air Force jet spraying Sherman’s “March to the Sea” laid waste to large areas of the South, includ-
Agent Orange along the ing civilian settlements and farms. In World War I, British forces deliberately
Cambodian border during the
Vietnam War. Bettmann/Corbis. set Romanian oilfields afire; in World War II, both Germany and the Soviet
Reproduced by permission.) Union engaged in “scorched earth” tactics; and in the Korean War, the
United States intentionally bombed North Korean dams to cause floods.
Such tactics have always been controversial and led to periodic attempts
to regulate them. The Old Testament (Deuteronomy 20:19–20) prohibits
armies from cutting down fruit-bearing trees, and the Qur’an similarly com-
mands against cutting trees or killing animals unless necessary for food. In
1863 the U.S. Army adopted the Lieber Code, which limited the actions of
Union troops and was a precursor of modern military manuals. Since the
twentieth century, international armed conflict has been governed by a series
Geneva Conventions humani- of treaties, the Geneva Conventions and the Hague Conventions, that
tarian rules governing treat- have progressively restricted military tactics and weaponry, such as banning
ment of soldiers and civilians
during war the targeting of civilian property or the use of poisonous gases. Occasionally,
this body of law was directed toward environmental damage. For example, at
Hague Conventions interna-
tional agreements governing the Nuremberg Trials, German General Alfred Jödl was found guilty of war
legal disputes between private crimes for his scorched earth tactics in occupied territory (although another
parties general who used similar tactics, Lothar Rendulic, was found not guilty on
the grounds that his actions were dictated by military necessity). However,
the primary purpose of the international law of war remained humanitarian,
aimed at eliminating inhumane weapons and reducing civilian casualties.
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 War

Burning oil wells in Kuwait,

which were sabotaged by
retreating Iraqi troops at the
end of the Persian Gulf War,
1991. (©Peter Turnley/Corbis.
Reproduced by permission.)

Vietnam War
The Vietnam War was the first conflict to highlight the devastating effects of
modern warfare on entire ecosystems. There, U.S. forces adopted a strategy
of defoliating jungle canopy, ultimately spraying “Agent Orange” and other
toxic herbicides over 10 percent of South Vietnam. In addition to destroying
vegetation, the public health implications of these actions—primarily birth
defects, diseases, and premature deaths—have since become apparent, both
in the Vietnamese population and U.S. war veterans. In his memoir My
Father, My Son, Admiral Elmo Zumwalt Sr., the commander of U.S. naval
forces in Vietnam, defended his order to defoliate Vietnamese river banks as
283
War

necessary to save American sailors from ambush, even though he acknowl-

edged that it ultimately may have caused cancer in his own son, who was serv-
ing there at the time. U.S. veterans eventually were compensated for illnesses
resulting from their exposure to Agent Orange, but proposals to compensate
the Vietnamese victims have remained controversial.
The defoliation campaign and other U.S. tactics in Vietnam led to an
international movement for treaties that specifically protect the environment
during wartime. This resulted in adoption of the Environmental Modifica-
tion Convention (1976), which prohibits manipulating the environment as a
weapon of war, and of Protocol Additional I to the Geneva Conventions
(1977), which includes a prohibition against “widespread, long-term and
severe damage to the natural environment.” However, many critics have
called these treaties vague and impractical, and in fact they have yet to be
applied to a specific case of wartime environmental damage. The U.S. gov-
ernment signed both treaties, but has never formally ratified Protocol Addi-
tional I.
This Vietnamese infant was
born with deformed arms and Persian Gulf War
legs caused by his parents’
exposure to Agent Orange. Wartime environmental damage again came to the fore during the 1990 to
(©Owen Franken/Corbis. 1991 Persian Gulf War, in which Iraq invaded and occupied neighboring
Reproduced by permission.)
Kuwait. Driven from Kuwait by a U.S.–led military alliance, Iraqi troops
deliberately ignited hundreds of Kuwaiti oil wells and diverted pipelines
directly into the Persian Gulf. The resulting smoke plumes and oil slicks
caused enormous harm to the Kuwaiti population and to desert and marine
ecosystems and wildlife. Smoke from the oil fires was reported as far away as
the Himalayas and was visible from space.
As images of the devastation circulated around the globe, the United
Nations Security Council passed Resolution 687, which held Iraq liable for
all damage, including environmental damage, resulting from the occupation
and liberation of Kuwait. This unprecedented action resulted in the estab-
lishment of a special commission, the United Nations Compensation Com-
mission, to verify damage claims and issue awards. Kuwait and other Gulf
countries filed more than sixty billion dollars in environmental, natural
resource, and public health claims against Iraq, which a decade later were still
tribunal committee or board
being resolved. The extraordinary nature of the Security Council’s action led
appointed to hear and settle to renewed calls for an international treaty or institution to regulate the envi-
an issue ronmental impacts of armed conflict. Subsequently, prohibitions against
environmental damage were included in the charter for the International
Criminal Court, a new tribunal that will have global jurisdiction over war
crimes.

Internal Conflicts
Although the best-known examples of wartime environmental damage
occurred during international conflicts, the vast majority of recent conflicts
have been civil wars or other internal strife, in places such as Angola, Cam-
bodia, Colombia, Congo, El Salvador, Ethiopia, Liberia, Nicaragua, Rwanda,
Sierra Leone, and the former Yugoslavia. These conflicts often take the form
of low-level guerrilla warfare that continues for years, with the same territory
changing hands several times. In addition to the tragic toll on civilian

284
 War

HERBICIDE SPRAY MAP

Quang Tri

Ashau

Da Nang

I Corps

Dak To

Phu Cat

Pleiku

II Corps
Nha Trang

Cam Ranh Bay

Bien Hoa

Cu Chi

III Corps

Saigon

IV Corps

Mekong
Delta

Note: This map is a representation of herbicide spray missions in Vietnam. The dark areas represent
concentrated spraying areas. This map only represents fixed-wing aircraft spraying, and does not
include helicopter spraying of perimeters, or other spray methods.

The III Corps area received the heaviest concentrations of spraying, followed by I Corps, II Corps, and
IV Corps.

285
War

populations, such conflicts have considerable environmental impacts: Oppos-

The pollution associated with ing armies engage in deforestation and defoliation, hunt wildlife for food, lay
military preparedness is substan- thousands of antipersonnel land mines, and clash over valuable natural
tial, ranging from the effects of resources (such as timber and diamonds) to finance their arms purchases.
housing, feeding, supplying, and
Because sovereign nations generally control their own affairs, it has been
moving large bodies of people,
very difficult for the international community to address internal conflicts
to the impacts of weapons prac-
and their human and environmental consequences. Most international
tice and war games. The closure,
treaties governing wartime environmental damage do not apply to internal
under protest, of the U.S. Navy’s
conflict, and even where they do, they are difficult to apply to loosely organ-
live-fire bombing and artillery
ized guerilla forces. Armed intervention or peacekeeping missions can solve
ranges on Vieques Island off the
some humanitarian and environmental problems while creating others. For
coast of Puerto Rico will require
example, the 1999 NATO bombing of Kosovo ignited a petrochemical plant
the cleanup of nearly sixty years
in the city of Pancevo, exposing thousands of civilians to a cloud of toxic
of accumulation of bomb frag-
fumes; during the Rwandan civil war, United Nations refugee camps stressed
ments, unexploded ordinance,
natural resources and wildlife reserves in neighboring Congo. Another
waste munitions, and landfills.
attempted solution has been global consumer boycotts of tropical timber,
The Navy is conducting an envi-
diamonds, and other commodities that originate in war-torn countries and
ronmental investigation under a
give rise to or finance armed conflict.
consent order signed with the
U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency. The Cold War Legacy
The Comprehensive Environmen- Military activities and preparations for war can have enormous environmen-
tal Response, Compensation, and tal impacts even without a shot being fired. The development of the atomic
Liability Act, or Superfund, bomb during the early 1940s, referred to as the Manhattan Project, not only
requires the military to clean up had devastating consequences in Hiroshima and Nagasaki, but also produced
hazardous waste on its bases. In a long-lasting legacy of deadly radioactive pollution in the United States. In
particular, this is required at 1939 Nobel Prize physicist Niels Bohr warned that although it was possible
bases being closed. The scope for the United States to build an atom bomb, it could not be done without
and cost of these cleanups are “turning the country into a gigantic factory.” Following the end of the Cold
staggering, even for the Depart- War in 1991, it became apparent to what extent that factory had contami-
ment of Defense. A RAND nated such diverse sites as Hanford, Washington; Oak Ridge, Tennessee; and
research study of the closure of Rocky Flats, Colorado; where the air, groundwater, surface water, soil, vege-
six California bases recom- tation, and wildlife all show signs of radioactivity. The Soviet Union’s nuclear
mended setting interim cleanup program created similar problems, concentrating production in “secret
goals, concluding that “cleanup cities” such as Chelyabinsk-7, which many have called the most polluted city
too long delayed—in the interest on earth. Given the highly toxic nature and extremely long half-life of most
of fulfilling a total cleanup radioactive waste, cleanup and containment of these sites will pose problems
program—is cleanup never for generations.
realized.”
The Cold War legacy brings into focus the “necessity” and “proportion-
ality” calculations that underlie most reasoned decisions about environmen-
tally damaging wartime actions: whether there are alternatives to taking a
consent order a legal agree-
ment requiring specific actions particular action, and whether the military advantage gained from taking
to remedy a violation of law such an action outweighs the environmental and other harm that potentially
half-life the time required for may result. Most scholars would agree that the development of the atomic
a pollutant to lose one-half of bomb was justifiable as a means of defeating fascism and winning World
its original concentration; for War II; they similarly agree that Iraq’s actions in retreating from Kuwait
example, the biochemical half-
life of DDT in the environment were indefensible, even on military grounds. Other cases, such as the
is fifteen years United States’ defoliation campaign in Vietnam or bombing of civilian infra-
structure in Kosovo, are more controversial. In any case, the historical
record, the continued development of international treaties and institutions,
and the increasing awareness that environmental issues must be considered
286
 Warren County, North Carolina

even during wartime, all should provide a basis for improved military tactics
and more environmentally aware decision making in the future. S E E A L S O Ever since the U.S.S. Arizona
Terrorism. sank in Pearl Harbor on Decem-
ber 7, 1941, a slow trickle of fuel
Bibliography
oil has seeped toward the sur-
Austin, Jay E., and Bruch, Carl, eds. (2000). The Environmental Consequences of War: face, casting a rainbow sheen on
Legal, Economic, and Scientific Perspectives. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University
Press. the now-still waters. The Arizona
Bloom, Saul; Miller, John M.; Warner, James; and Winkler, Philippa, eds. (1994). Hid- had 1.5 million gallons of oil in
den Casualties: The Environmental, Health and Political Consequences of the Persian Gulf its tanks when it was attacked,
War. Berkeley, CA: North Atlantic Books. and it is unknown how much
Browne, Malcolm W. (1991). “War and the Environment.” Audubon 93:89. remains. Although the current
Dycus, Stephen. (1996). National Defense and the Environment. Hanover, NH: Univer- 2.5-gallon-per-day leak does not
sity Press of New England. present much of an environmen-
Earle, Sylvia A. (1992). “Persian Gulf Pollution: Assessing the Damage One Year tal hazard, the caretakers of what
Later.” National Geographic 181:122.
is now the Pearl Harbor National
Feshbach, Murray, and Friendly, Albert. (1992). Ecocide in the U.S.S.R.: The Looming Monument have made plans to
Disaster in Soviet Health & Environment. New York: Basic Books.
minimize impacts if the Arizona’s
Hawley, T.M. (1992). Against the Fires of Hell: The Environmental Disaster of the Gulf
War. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. hull collapses and releases the
Lanier-Graham, Susan. (1993). The Ecology of War: Environmental Impacts of Weaponry
remainder into the harbor’s frag-
and Warfare. New York: Walker & Co. ile marine ecosystem.
Levy, Barry S., and Sidel, Victor W., eds. (1997). War and Public Health. New York:
Oxford University Press.
Rhodes, Richard. (1986). The Making of the Atomic Bomb. New York: Simon & Schuster.
Roberts, Guy B. (1991). “Military Victory, Ecological Defeat.” In Worldwatch,
July/Aug. 1991.
Webster, Donovan. (1996). Aftermath: The Landscape of War. New York: Pantheon.
Weinberg, William J. (1992). War on the Land: Ecology and Politics in Central America.
London: Zed Press.
Zumwalt, Elmo Jr.; Zumwalt, Elmo III; and Pekkanen, John. (1986). My Father, My
Son. New York: Macmillan.

Internet Resources
Environmental Change and Security Project. “Bibliographic Guide to the Literature.”
Available from http://wwics.si.edu/PROGRAMS.
Environmental Law Institute. (1998). “Addressing Environmental Consequences of War:
Background Paper for the First International Conference on Addressing Environ-
mental Consequences of War: Legal, Economic, and Scientific Perspectives.” Wash-
ington, D.C.: Environmental Law Institute. Available from http://www.eli.org/pdf.
Environmental Law Institute. (1998). “Annotated Bibliography: First International
Conference on Addressing Environmental Consequences of War: Legal, Eco-
nomic, and Scientific Perspectives.” Washington, D.C.: Environmental Law Insti-
tute. Available from http://www.eli.org/pdf.
Hoffman, Leslie. “Saving the Ghost Ship.” Albuquerque Tribune, July 31, 1998. Avail-
able from http://www.abqtrib.com/arc1.
United Nations Environment Programme. (1999). “The Kosovo Conflict: Conse-
quences for the Environment & Human Settlements.” Geneva: United Nations
Environment Programme. Available from http://www.grid.unep.ch/btf.
Jay Austin

Warren County, North Carolina

In 1982 residents of the predominantly African-American Warren County,
North Carolina, began to protest the construction of a hazardous waste land-
fill near Warrenton in which the state planned to bury 400,000 cubic yards of
287
Waste

soil contaminated with polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). The contamina-

tion occurred when a disposal contractor dripped approximately 12,850 gal-
lons of PCB-tainted fluids along 210 miles of roads in fourteen counties in
North Carolina in 1978. Soon after the spill was discovered, the state
acquired a 142.3-acre tract of land on which it proposed building a 19.3-acre
landfill to bury the wastes. Opponents of the Warren County site filed two
lawsuits in 1979 in their attempts to halt plans for the landfill.
At the time, the Warren County site, chosen from ninety sites considered,
had a higher percentage of African-American residents of any county in the
state. It was 64 percent black and the unincorporated Shocco Township, site
of the landfill, was 75 percent black. Warren County ranked ninety-seventh in
per capita income out of North Carolina’s one hundred counties.
In November 1981 the district courts ruled against landfill opponents.
Shortly thereafter protests began; these received widespread national atten-
tion. Local police and soldiers from the U.S. Army base at Fort Bragg (which
was also contaminated with PCBs) were called in to quell the protests. In
total, 523 people were arrested, including local congressman Walter Faun-
troy and members of the United Church of Christ Commission for Racial
Justice. Fauntroy and other protesters urged the General Accounting Office
(USGAO) to examine the relationship between the location of landfills in the
Southeast and the demographics of host communities. This led to the publi-
cation of the well-known 1983 USGAO study.
Four years later, the United Church of Christ (UCC) Commission for
Racial Justice published a national study examining the siting of hazardous
facilities and waste sites. Both of these widely cited studies had a significant
impact on mobilizing minority communities around environmental issues
and the growth of the environmental justice movement. They were among
the earliest studies to link race with the increased likelihood of close proxim-
ity to hazardous facilities and toxic waste sites. Unlike other studies of the
same genre, they were widely circulated among minority activists and in
minority communities. S E E A L S O Environmental Justice.
Bibliography
LaBalme, Jenny. (1988). “Dumping on Warren County.” In Environmental Politics:
Lessons from the Grassroots, edited by Bob Hall. Durham, NC: Institute for Southern
Studies, pp. 23–30.
Twitty v. State of North Carolina. (1981). 527 F. Supp. 778; 1981 U.S. District, Nov. 25.
UCC. (1987). Toxic Waste and Race in the United States. New York: United Church of
Christ.
U.S. General Accounting Office (USGAO). (1983). Siting of Hazardous Waste Landfills
and Their Correlation with the Racial and Socio-economic Status of Surrounding Com-
munities. Washington, D.C.: General Accounting Office.
Warren County v. State of North Carolina. (1981). 528 F. Supp. 276; 1981 U.S. District,
Nov. 25.
Dorceta E. Taylor

Waste
Waste has been defined as a moveable object with no direct use that is dis-
carded permanently. There are many different kinds of waste, including
solid, liquid, gaseous, hazardous, radioactive, and medical. Wastes can also be
288
 Waste

defined by generator, for example, municipal, commercial, industrial, or Garbage in bags and
containers accumulating at
agricultural.
curbside. (U.S. EPA.
Reproduced by permission.)
Waste Types
A solid waste does not flow like water or gas. Examples include paper, wood,
metals, glass, plastic, and contaminated soil. Solid wastes can be hazardous or
nonhazardous. Problems associated with nonhazardous solid waste include
aesthetic problems (litter and odors), leachate from the infiltration of water
through the waste, and off-gases resulting from biodegradation. Nonhaz-
ardous solid wastes are commonly handled by recycling, combustion, land-
filling, and composting.
Liquid wastes must be transported in containers or through pipes. Exam-
ples include sewage, contaminated groundwater, and industrial liquid dis-
charges. In some cases, direct discharge to the environment may be allowed.
However, depending on the waste’s characteristics, direct discharge may
cause unacceptable environmental harm. For example, large amounts of
sewage discharged into a stream can result in fish kills. Liquid wastes con-
taining excreta can contain pathogenic organisms. Other liquid wastes may
be toxic. Liquid wastes are often handled at wastewater treatment plants, fol-
lowed by discharge to the environment.
Sludges contain various ratios of liquid and solid material. They gener-
ally result from liquid waste-treatment operations, such as sedimentation
tanks. Depending on the percent of solids, sludge may have the characteris-
tics of a liquid or solid. Biological sludge can contain pathogenic organisms.
Some sludges contain heavy metals or other toxins. Sludges are commonly
handled with treatment, combustion, landfilling, and land application.
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Waste

Gaseous wastes, of course, consist of gases. They are primarily generated

by combustion (e.g., internal combustion engines, incinerators, coal-fired
electrical generating plants) and industrial processes. Depending on their
characteristics, gaseous wastes can be odiferous or toxic. Some are implicated
in global warming, ozone depletion, and smog. Gaseous wastes may
be released to the atmosphere or captured/treated with pollution control
equipment.
Hazardous wastes pose a substantial present or potential danger to
human health or the environment. They can be solid, sludge, liquid, or gas.
Hazardous wastes have at least one of the following characteristics: corrosiv-
ity, ignitability, reactivity, and toxicity. Hazardous wastes are commonly han-
dled by recycling, combustion, stabilization, chemical-physical-biological
treatment, and landfilling.
Radioactive wastes emit particles or electromagnetic radiation (e.g.,
alpha particles, beta particles, gamma rays, and x rays). Radioactive wastes
can be high level, transuranic, or low level. High-level radioactive wastes are
from spent or reprocessed nuclear reactor fuel. Transuranic wastes are from
isotopes above uranium in the periodic table. They are generally low in
half-life the time required for radioactivity, but have long half-lives. Low-level wastes have little radioac-
a pollutant to lose one-half of tivity and can often be handled with little or no shielding. Radiation can dam-
its original concentration; for
example, the biochemical half- age living cells and cause cancer. Although recycling and incineration may
life of DDT in the environment reduce waste amounts, the primary method for handling radioactive wastes is
is 15 years long-term storage.
Medical wastes, that is, wastes generated at medical facilities, can be
infectious, toxic, and/or radioactive. Though they may have hazardous char-
acteristics, they are not regulated as hazardous wastes. Some medical wastes
are sterilized, disinfected, or incinerated, especially infectious wastes. Recy-
cling and landfilling are also used to dispose of them.

Waste Amounts
The amount of waste generated by a given household is directly related to
lifestyle, culture, and economic status. Climate can also increase generation
rates (e.g., yard waste). General differences are great enough to produce dif-
ferent country-wide generation rates. The United States has the highest rate,
2.0 kilograms per person per day—probably the result of high economic sta-
tus, a culture of consumption, and a lifestyle that includes large amounts of
disposable items. However, the United States also has a relatively high recy-
cling rate, 27.8 percent in 1999. Some European countries have generation
rates varying from 0.9 to 1.7 kilograms per person per day. Developing
regions tend to have still lower rates, ranging from 0.3 to 1. S E E A L S O Air
Pollution; Hazardous Waste; Lifestyle; Medical Waste; Ozone;
Radioactive Waste; Solid Waste; Waste to Energy; Waste, Transporta-
tion of; Wastewater Treatment.
Bibliography
Davis, M., and Cornwell, D. (1998). Introduction to Environmental Engineering, 3rd edi-
tion. New York: WCB McGraw-Hill.
Reinhardt, P., and Gordon, J. (1991). Infectious and Medical Waste Management. Chelsea,
MN: Lewis Publishers.
Siegel, M. (1993). “Garbage and Other Pollution—How Do We Live with All the
Trash?” Information Plus. Detroit, MI: Gale.

290
 Waste, International Trade in

Tchobanoglous, G.; Theisen, H.; and Vigil, S. (1993). Integrated Solid Waste Manage-
ment. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Jess Everett

Waste, Hazardous See Hazardous Waste

Waste, International Trade in

During the past three decades, one of the most persistent international envi-
ronmental issues has been the toxic waste trade between industrialized coun-
tries and less developed nations. From 1968 to 1988 alone, more than 3.6
million tons of toxic waste—solvents, acetone, cobalt, cadmium, chemical
and pharmaceutical waste, and perhaps some low-level radioactive waste—
were shipped to less developed nations. The saga of the freighter Khian Sea
is a graphic example of this trade. In 1988 the ship departed from Philadel-
phia loaded with toxic incinerator ash. Four thousand tons of the waste,
which contained dioxin and furans, two of the most toxic chemicals known to
humans, were dumped on a beach in Haiti. No effort has ever been made to
clean it up. Another ten thousand tons were later dumped illegally at sea.
That same year, another international toxic waste shipment led to a major
diplomatic row in New Guinea. The government there jailed a Norwegian
consul and fined him $600 after a Norwegian ship transported fifteen thousand
tons of incinerator ash from the United States and dumped it in New Guinea.
Ironically, the growing clout of environmentalists in the United States
has driven much of this trade. Strict U.S. laws now regulating toxic waste dis-
posal have considerably increased the cost of disposing of toxic waste. In 2001
one U.S. official estimated that it cost from $250 to $300 a ton to dispose of
toxic wastes in the United States, whereas some developing countries have
accepted the same wastes for as little as $40 per ton.
Officials of some developing nations have called the trade “toxic terror-
ism” and “garbage imperialism,” and others worry that the developing world
will change from “the industrialized world’s backyard to its outhouse,” as an
African official said. Many developing countries have had little appreciation
of both the short- and long-term health and environmental risks of toxic
waste and the dangers it can create.
Those developing countries willing to accept shipments of toxic waste
are usually enticed by the prospect of millions of dollars that can be made for
their struggling economies. In one deal, for example, the local government of
Oro, New Guinea, negotiated a deal with Global Telesis Corporation, a firm
from California, to build in that province a $38 million detoxification plant,
which would process six million metric tons of toxic waste a month from the
West Coast. The deal fell through under pressure by the national govern-
ment and because of concerns that Global Telesis would not be able to raise
the necessary funding.
Since the 1980s, when the issue of international trade in toxic waste first
came to widespread attention, there has been a global movement to ban it. In
March 1989, 105 countries met under the auspices of United Nations Envi-
ronment Program (UNEP) in Basel, Switzerland, and passed the Basel Con-
vention on the Control of Transboundary Movement of Hazardous Wastes
291
Waste, Transportation of

and Their Disposal. When the convention went into effect in 1992, eighty-
eight countries signed it. In 1995 parties to the 1989 Basel Convention
agreed to make legally binding a voluntary export ban that was agreed to in
1994. Surprisingly, the United States, one of the original proponents of the
Basel Convention, has not thus far ratified the agreement. Supporters of
stronger international toxic trade laws insist that, for the Basel Convention to
have full force, the United States, as the world’s leading producer of toxic
waste, must be convinced to sign it.
Bibliography
French, Hilary. (2001). “Can Globalization Support the Export of Hazard.” In USA
Today (Magazine), May 2001, p. 20ff.
“Ratifying Global Toxic Treaties: The United States must Provide Leadership.” (2002)
In SAIS Review, Winter-Spring, 2002, p. 109ff.

Internet Resource
Lewis, Deana L., and Chepesiuk, Ron. “The International Trade in Toxic Waste; A
Select Bibliography.” Available from http://egj.lib.uidaho.edu/egj02/lewis01.htm.
Ron Chepesiuk

Waste, Transportation of
The transportation of waste is the movement of waste over a specific area by
trains, tankers, trucks, barges, or other vehicles. The types of wastes that may be
transported range from municipal garbage to radioactive or hazardous wastes.
Hazardous wastes may be transported to be treated, stored, or disposed
of. Facilities that generate hazardous waste are required to prepare a shipping
document, or “manifest,” to accompany the waste as it is transported from
the site of generation. This manifest must accompany the waste until its final
destination and is used to track the wastes from cradle-to-grave.
The potential for pollution releases during the transportation of waste
varies; the more hazardous the waste and the larger the volume that is trans-
ported, the more devastating the environmental/human health impact if an
accident occurs. Traffic accidents or train wrecks can result in waste spills and
releases of pollutants that may contaminate the air, water, and soil. Wastes
may also be released while being loaded or unloaded during transportation.
Approximately four billion tons of regulated hazardous materials are
shipped within the United States each year with more 250,000 shipments
entering the U.S. transportation system daily. The Emergency Response
Notification System (ERNS) database of the Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) shows that from 1988 to 1992 an average of nineteen trans-
portation accidents involving toxic chemicals occurred each day.

DOT Regulations
The U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT) requires that placards iden-
tifying the type of hazardous material being transported be placed on the out-
side of any vehicle transporting hazardous materials or wastes. Placards are
HAZMAT team hazardous used to determine potential hazards in the event of a spill and are placed on all
materials response group four sides of a vehicle so that HAZMAT teams, fire, emergency, medical, and
other personnel who respond to accidents may quickly identify the contents
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 Waste, Transportation of

and associated hazards. Placards are required if one thousand pounds or more
of a hazardous material is transported and if any amount of material classified
as explosive, poisonous, radioactive, or a flammable solid is transported. The
DOT classifies materials based on nine hazard classes represented by symbols.
The classes are explosives, gases, flammable liquids, flammable solids, oxi- flammable any material that
dizers, poisonous materials, biohazards, radioactive materials, corrosives, or ignites easily and will burn
rapidly
other regulated materials.
The routes that transporters of hazardous waste use must be carefully
considered to minimize the risk of an accidental release. If possible, densely
populated areas should be avoided. The type of highway or road and the
weather conditions along the route must also be considered. Risk analysis may
become important in selecting routes for hazardous waste transport in order
to minimize adverse impacts to human health in case of an accidental release.
MOBRO BARGE ACCOUNT
Municipal Waste Due to overcapacity at the Islip
Due to rapidly decreasing space in urban landfills, officials have been forced landfills, New York, officials nego-
to find alternate locations for municipal waste disposal. This has created sig- tiated with Jones County, North
nificant financial incentives for rural communities to accept garbage from Carolina, to accept 3,200 tons of
urban areas. Depending on the location of these rural facilities, it may be nec- municipal garbage in March 1987.
essary to transport large quantities of wastes by a variety of methods, most The garbage was transported on
often by truck, railway, or barge. Many citizens are concerned about the the Mobro barge. When officials
transportation of the waste through their communities and the risks involved. discovered hospital wastes in the
People are also concerned that the municipal waste from urban areas may be garbage, North Carolina refused
contaminated with toxic chemicals or substances that could contaminate to accept it for fear that it might
local drinking water supplies. contaminate local water supplies.
Louisiana, Mexico, Belize, British
Disposal of hazardous wastes in the United States can cost up to $2,500 Honduras, and the Bahamas all
per ton. This has led to the practice of selling waste to developing countries refused to accept the contami-
for disposal at a much lower cost. This international waste trade may be ille- nated garbage and the Mobro
gal in some instances, but the hefty sum paid to those who accept the wastes returned to New York. The Mobro
remains tempting to developing countries. However, the actual composition then began a six-thousand-mile,
of the wastes received by developing countries is often misrepresented by six-month voyage looking for
those selling the waste. In addition, most developing countries lack the some place to take the garbage.
resources and technical expertise to safely manage these hazardous wastes. After several court battles, the
Trade in hazardous wastes is a global issue. About ten percent of all haz- controversy ended when numer-
ardous wastes generated around the world cross international boundaries. A ous flatbed trucks were used to
large portion goes from industrialized countries to developing countries transport the garbage to a
where disposal costs are lower. Although developing countries may lack the Brooklyn incinerator where the
financial and technical capacities to clean up hazardous waste releases in their volume was reduced and the ash
countries, these countries nevertheless are sites for treatment, recycling, and was landfilled.
disposal of wastes from abroad. —Goff, Liz. “The Old Disaster:
Queens’ Garbage Standoff.” The
The Basel Convention on the Control of the Transboundary Movement
Queens Tribune. Available from
of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal is the first global environmental
http://queenstribune.com/archives
treaty to control the international trade of waste. Under the Convention,
/featurearchive/feature2001/0208
trade in hazardous wastes cannot take place without the consent of the
/feature_story.html
importing country and cannot occur under conditions that are assessed as not
environmentally sound. As of April 2002, 150 countries had ratified the con- —“The Voyage of the Mobro.”
vention. A new protocol adopted by the convention in 2000 provides the first Available from http://www.grace-
international framework establishing liability for damages that may result space.com/Hamilton/recycle.htm.
from the transportation or disposal of hazardous wastes across foreign
293
Waste Reduction

borders. S E E A L S O Economics; Hazardous Waste; Laws and Regulations,

United States; Radioactive Waste; Sewage Sludge; Solid Waste.
Bibliography
La Grega, Michael D.; Buckingham, Philip L.; Evans, Jeffrey C., and Environmental
Resources Management. (2001). Hazardous Waste Management. Boston: McGraw
Hill.
Watts, Richard J. (1998). Hazardous Wastes: Sources, Pathways, Receptors. New York:
John Wiley & Sons.

Internet Resources
U.S. Department of Transportation. “HAZMAT Safety.” Available from http://
hazmat.dot.gov.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. “Waste Transportation.” Available from
http://www.epa.gov/ebtpages/wastwastetransportation.html.
Margrit von Braun and Deena Lilya

Waste Reduction
Waste reduction, also known as source reduction, is the practice of using less
material and energy to minimize waste generation and preserve natural
resources. Waste reduction is broader in scope than recycling and incorpo-
rates ways to prevent materials from ending up as waste before they reach the
recycling stage. Waste reduction includes reusing products such as plastic and
glass containers, purchasing more durable products, and using reusable prod-
ucts, such as dishrags instead of paper towels. Donating products, from office
equipment to eyeglasses and clothing, reduces the amount of material man-
ufactured overall. Purchasing products that replace hazardous materials with
biodegradable ingredients reduces pollution as well as waste. In general,
waste reduction offers several environmental benefits. Greater efficiency in
the production and use of products means less energy consumption, result-
ing in less pollution. More natural resources are preserved. Products using
less hazardous materials are used. Finally, less solid waste ends up in landfills.
Waste reduction also means economic savings. Fewer materials and less
energy is used when waste-reduction practices are applied. Rather than using
the traditional cradle-to-grave approach, a cradle-to-cradle system is
adopted. In this cradle-to-cradle system, also called industrial ecology, prod-
ucts are not used for a finite length of time. Instead of disposing of materials,
or the components of a product after a single use, products are passed on for
further uses. This is considered a flow of materials. This can be applied
within an organization, or between organizations that may be considered
unrelated, on a cooperative basis. For example, a cotton manufacturer sends
its unwanted scraps to an upholsterer, who uses the scraps as stuffing in
chairs. When the life span of the chair is reached, the materials are returned
to the manufacturer, who reuses the parts with endurance. The damaged
upholstery, which was originally created using nonhazardous materials, is
sold to a local farmer who uses it in composting. Money is also saved through
reduced purchasing. Waste-disposal costs are decreased because fewer mate-
rials end up as waste.
Waste can be reduced by individuals, businesses, institutions such as hos-
pitals or educational facilities, organizations, municipalities, or government
294
 Waste Reduction

agencies. There are several ways individuals can practice waste reduction:
(1) Reusing products. This could mean reusing file folders rather than throw- ZERO EMISSIONS
ing them away after one use, or refilling water bottles; (2) Using products In natural ecosystems, what is
more efficiently. This could mean using both sides of paper in photocopying; waste for one species is food for
and (3) Donating or exchanging products or materials that may seem useless, another. The concept of zero
but that another party may find valuable. For example, the chair manufac- emissions, first elucidated in the
turer mentioned above had no internal use for the scrap upholstery leftover early 1990s by Gunter Pauli,
after recycling the more durable parts of the used chairs. However, a coop- applies this principle to business
erative agreement with a local farmer allowed the scraps to be used once endeavors and is being tested in
again, benefiting the farmer by adding to his compost. Burlington, Vermont. At a 3,200
square meter eco-industrial com-
The EPA’s WasteWise Program plex enclosing a number of
greenhouses. Waste heat from an
The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) lists waste reduction and reuse
existing power plant, fueled by
as top priorities in its solid waste management hierarchy, followed by recy-
discarded Christmas trees, will
cling, composting, waste-to-energy, and landfilling. Many governments
warm the greenhouses and fire
and businesses have adopted the practice of waste reduction.
up the brew kettle for a micro-
The EPA offers a free, comprehensive waste-reduction program to busi- brewery. Pilot tests have shown
nesses, organizations, and municipalities. The program, called WasteWise, that “wastes” from the brewing
offers educational and technical assistance in developing, executing, and process can be efficiently trans-
measuring waste-reduction activities. Through WasteWise, groups can formed into nutritious growing
design and maintain a waste-reduction program that is flexible to their spe- medium for marketable mush-
cific needs. The nationwide program was started in 1994, and it had over rooms, salad greens and fish.
eleven hundred participating partners in 2002. What remains can be sold as cat-
Large corporations, universities, and cities across the country have seen tle feed and soil amendment.
significant benefits, both economically and environmentally, by using
WasteWise.
waste-to-energy to convert
The National Recycling Coalition Recommendations solid waste into a usable form
of energy
The National Recycling Coalition lists several steps that purchasing depart-
ments of organizations can use in their waste-reduction strategies: landfills sanitary landfills are
disposal sites for nonhaz-
1. Reduce product use. Adopt the practice of printing on both sides of ardous solid wastes spread in
layers, compacted to the
office paper. smallest practical volume, and
2. Rent or lease products or equipment. This includes leasing, rather than covered by material applied at
the end of each operating day;
purchasing, equipment such as photocopiers, which can become obso- secure chemical landfills are
lete, leaving the organization with old, unnecessary, and sometimes haz- disposal sites for hazardous
ardous equipment to discard. waste, selected and designed
to minimize the chance of
3. Purchase remanufactured or rebuilt products, or products that can be release of hazardous sub-
stances into the environment
refurbished.
4. Purchase more durable products. Higher-quality products typically
have a longer life cycle.
5. Purchase products that use nonhazardous materials. Nonhazardous
materials are safer for individuals and landfills.
6. Purchase returnable, reusable, or refillable products. For instance,
transport containers can be reused.
7. Purchase products in bulk.
8. Purchase products that reuse packaging or use less packaging.
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Waste to Energy

9. Share and reuse resources within the organization. Companies can

implement an internal computer equipment and office supply exchange
before purchasing new products.
The EPA reports that 232 million pounds of waste were generated in
2000. The amount of waste produced per person has grown over the last
thirty-five years, from 2.7 to 4.6 pounds per day. In 1999, waste reduction
saved over fifty million tons of municipal solid waste from being dumped into
landfills. S E E A L S O Abatement; Composting; Green; Lifestyle; Recy-
cling; Reuse; Technology, Pollution Prevention.
Bibliography
National Recycling Coalition. (1999). Purchasing Strategies to Prevent Waste and Save
Money. Alexandria, VA: Author.

Other Resources
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. “WasteWise: Preserving Resources, Prevent-
ing Waste.” Available from http://www.epa.gov/wastewise.
Terra Lenihan

Waste to Energy
Waste to energy (WTE) is the term used to describe the conversion of waste
by-products into useful steam or steam-generated electricity. Typically,
WTE is produced by converting municipal solid waste (MSW), which is
defined as residential and commercial refuse, and makes up the largest source
of waste in industrialized countries. This industry has been producing heat
and power in the United States for a century, and there are currently more
than one hundred WTE plants nationwide. Recently, however, the definition
of waste has been expanded from MSW to include wastes such as wood,
wood waste, peat, wood sludge, agricultural waste, straw, tires, landfill gases,
fish oils, paper industry liquors, railroad ties, and utility poles. In 1999 these
by-products produced approximately 3.2 quadrillion BTUs (i.e., 1 × 1015
British thermal units, which is also known as a quad) of energy out of approx-
imately 97.0 quads of energy consumed in the United States.
Nearly thirty million tons of trash are processed each year in WTE facil-
ities to generate steam and electricity. The benefits to society include the fol-
lowing: preventing the release of greenhouse gases such as methane into the
atmosphere if the trash were landfilled; reducing the impact on landfills by
reducing the volume of the waste 80 to 90 percent; providing an alternative
to coal use, which prevents the release of emissions such as nitrogen oxides
into the atmosphere; and saving the earth’s natural resources by using less oil,
coal, or natural gas for electricity generation.

The Process of Converting Waste to Energy

Generally, WTE facilities can be divided into two process types: mass burn
and refuse-derived fuel (RDF). Mass burn facilities process raw waste that has
not been shredded, sized, or separated before combustion, although large
items such as appliances and hazardous waste materials and batteries are
removed before combustion. In mass burn systems, untreated MSW is sim-
ply burned, with the heat produced converted into steam, which can then be
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 Wastewater Treatment

passed through a steam turbine to generate electricity or used directly to turbine machine that uses a
supply heat to nearby industries or buildings. moving fluid (liquid or gas) to
gas to turn a rotor, creating
RDF is a result of processing MSW to separate the combustible fraction mechanical energy
from the noncombustibles, such as metals and glass. RDF is mainly com-
posed of paper, plastic, wood, and kitchen or yard wastes, and has a higher
energy content than untreated MSW. Like MSW, RDF is then burned to
produce steam and/or electricity. A benefit of using RDF is that it can be
shredded into uniformly sized particles or compressed into briquettes, both
of which facilitate handling, transportation, and combustion. Another bene-
fit of RDF rather than raw MSW is that fewer noncombustibles such as
heavy metals are burned.

Energy Production from Waste in the United States

and South America
South America, with its agrarian societies, surprisingly consumes very few
wastes for the production of steam or electricity. Brazil is the largest country
in South America and is also the largest energy consumer, consuming about
8.5 quads of energy each year as compared to 6.1 quads for Mexico, 12.5
quads for Canada, and 97.0 quads for the United States. Due to the large size
of Brazil’s agricultural sector, biomass is seen as the best future alternative biomass all of the living mate-
energy source. Currently, Brazil produces about 4,000 gigawatt (1 × 109) rial in a given area; often
refers to vegetation
hours annually (i.e., 0.1 quads equivalent) in the sugar industry to run its own
refineries and distilleries. At the same time, Brazil produces up to 3.9 billion
gallons of ethanol (i.e., 0.5 quads equivalent) for automobiles each year,
although it is manufactured from sugar and not waste materials. No other
South American countries produce significant quantities of energy from
waste; however, Argentina’s biomass energy use, like Brazil’s, is expected to
grow in the coming years.
In the United States, corn is the primary feedstock along with barley and
wheat that is currently being used to produce ethanol, although neither corn
or grains are considered wastes. Considerable ongoing research is exploring
the use of true biomass wastes such as corn stover or wood chips and sawdust
for ethanol production. One project at the U.S. Department of Energy
involves the cofiring of sawdust and tires with coal in utility boilers. S E E A L S O
Renewable Energy.
Internet Resources
Energy Information Agency. “Energy in the Americas.” Available from http://
www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/theamericas.html.
Energy Information Agency. “Renewable Energy Annual 2000.” Available from http://
www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/solar.renewables/page/rea_data/rea_sum.html.
Integrated Waste Services Association. “About Waste-to-Energy.” Available from
http://www.wte.org/waste.html.
Bruce G. Miller

Wastewater Treatment
Wastewater is simply water that has been used. It usually contains various
pollutants, depending on what it was used for. It is classified into two major
categories, by source:
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Wastewater Treatment

H O W SEP TI C E FFLUENT P E RCOLA TE S TO THE WA TE R TA BLE

Evaporation
Well

Septic tank
Drain
field

Percolation

Pumping
Level Water table

SOURCE: Adapted from U.S. EPA.

1. Domestic or sanitary wastewater. This comes from residential sources

including toilets, sinks, bathing, and laundry. It can contain body wastes
containing intestinal disease organisms.
2. Industrial wastewater. This is discharged by manufacturing processes
and commercial enterprises. Process wastewater can contain rinse
waters including such things as residual acids, plating metals, and toxic
chemicals.
Wastewater is treated to remove pollutants (contaminants). Wastewater
treatment is a process to improve and purify the water, removing some or all
of the contaminants, making it fit for reuse or discharge back to the environ-
ment. Discharge may be to surface water, such as rivers or the ocean, or to
groundwater that lies beneath the land surface of the earth. Properly treating
wastewater assures that acceptable overall water quality is maintained.
In many parts of the world, including in the United States, health prob-
lems and diseases have often been caused by discharging untreated or inade-
quately treated wastewater. Such discharges are called water pollution, and
result in the spreading of disease, fish kills, and destruction of other forms of
aquatic life. The pollution of water has a serious impact on all living crea-
tures, and can negatively affect the use of water for drinking, household
needs, recreation, fishing, transportation, and commerce.

Objectives and Evolution of Wastewater Treatment

We cannot allow wastewater to be disposed of in a manner dangerous to
human health and lesser life forms or damaging to the natural environment.
Our planet has the remarkable ability to heal itself, but there is a limit to what
it can do, and we must make it our goal to always stay within safe bounds.
That limit is not always clear to scientists, and we must always take the safe
approach to avoid it.
Basic wastewater treatment facilities reduce organic and suspended solids
to limit pollution to the environment. Advancement in needs and technology
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 Wastewater Treatment

have necessitated the evolving of treatment processes that remove dissolved

matter and toxic substances. Currently, the advancement of scientific knowl-
edge and moral awareness has led to a reduction of discharges through pol-
lution prevention and recycling, with the noble goal of zero discharge of
pollutants.
Treatment technology includes physical, biological, and chemical meth-
ods. Residual substances removed or created by treatment processes must be
dealt with and reused or disposed of in a safe way. The purified water is dis-
charged to surface water or ground water. Residuals, called sludges or
biosolids, may be reused by carefully controlled composting or land applica-
tion. Sometimes they are incinerated.
Since early in history, people have dumped sewage into waterways, rely-
ing on natural purification by dilution and by natural bacterial breakdown.
Population increases resulted in greater volume of domestic and industrial
wastewater, requiring that we give nature a helping hand. Some so-called
advancements in cities such as Boston involved collecting sewage in tanks and
releasing it to the ocean only on the outgoing tide. Sludge was barged out to
sea so as to not cause complaint.
Until the early 1970s, in the United States, treatment mostly consisted of
removal of suspended and floating material, treatment of biodegradable
organics, and elimination of pathogenic organisms by disinfection. Standards
were not uniformly applied throughout the country.
In the early 1970s until about 1980, aesthetic and environmental con-
cerns were considered. Treatment was at a higher level, and nutrients such as
nitrogen and phosphorus were removed in many localities.
Since 1980, focus on health concerns related to toxics has driven the
development of new treatment technology. Water-quality standards were
established by states and the federal government and had to be met as treat-
ment objectives. Not just direct human health but aquatic-life parameters
were considered in developing the standards.

Wastewater Treatment Types

Rural unsewered areas, for the most part, use septic systems. In these, a large
tank, known as the septic tank, settles out and stores solids, which are par-
tially decomposed by naturally occurring anaerobic bacteria. The solids have
to be pumped out and hauled by tank truck to be disposed of separately. They
often go to municipal wastewater treatment plants, or are reused as fertilizer
in closely regulated land-application programs. Liquid wastes are dispersed
through perforated pipes into soil fields around the septic tank.
Most urban areas with sewers first used a process called primary treat-
ment, which was later upgraded to secondary treatment. Some areas, where The liquid and solid material
needed, employ advanced or tertiary treatment. Common treatment schemes removed from domestic septic
are presented in the following paragraphs. tanks is called septage. Most
septage is hauled to municipal
Primary Treatment. In primary treatment, floating and suspended solids sewage treatment facilities and
are settled and removed from sewage. most septage haulers must be
Flow from the sewers enters a screen/bar rack to remove large, floating licensed.
material such as rags and sticks.
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Wastewater Treatment

It then flows through a grit chamber where heavier inorganics such as

sand and small stones are removed.
clarifier a tank in which solids Grit removal is usually followed by a sedimentation tank/clarifiers
settle to the bottom and are where inorganic and organic suspended solids are settled out.
subsequently removed as
sludge To kill pathogenic bacteria, the final effluent from the treatment process
is disinfected prior to discharge to a receiving water. Chlorine, in the
form of a sodium hypochlorite solution, is normally used for disinfection.
Since more chlorine is needed to provide adequate bacteria kills than
would be safe for aquatic life in the stream, excess chlorine is removed by
dechlorination. Alternate disinfection methods, such as ozone or ultravi-
olet light, are utilized by some treatment plants.
Sludge that settles to the bottom of the clarifier is pumped out and dewa-
tered for use as fertilizer, disposed of in a landfill, or incinerated. Sludge
that is free of heavy metals and other toxic contaminants is called
Biosolids and can be safely and beneficially recycled as fertilizer, for
example.
Secondary Treatment. Primary treatment provided a good start, but, with
outfall the place where efflu- the exception of some ocean outfalls, it is inadequate to protect water qual-
ent is discharged into receiving ity as required by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).
waters
With secondary treatment, the bacteria in sewage is used to further
purify the sewage. Secondary treatment, a biological process, removes 85
percent or more of the organic matter in sewage compared with primary
treatment, which removes about 50 percent.
The basic processes are variations of what is called the “activated sludge”
process or “trickling filters,” which provide a mechanism for bacteria, with
air added for oxygen, to come in contact with the wastewater to purify it.
In the activated sludge process, flow from the sewer or primary clarifiers
goes into an aeration tank, where compressed air is mixed with sludge that is
recycled from secondary clarifiers which follow the aeration tanks. The recy-
cled, or activated, sludge provides bacteria to consume the “food” provided
by the new wastewater in the aeration tank, thus purifying it.
In a trickling filter the flow trickles over a bed of stones or synthetic
media on which the purifying organisms grow and contact the wastewater,
removing contaminants in the process. The flow, along with excess organisms
that build up on the stones or media during the purification, then goes to a
secondary clarifier. Air flows up through the media in the filters, to provide
necessary oxygen for the bacteria organisms. Clarified effluent flows to the
receiving water, typically a river or bog, after disinfection. Excess sludge is
produced by the process and after collection from the bottom of the second-
ary clarifiers it is dewatered, sometimes after mixing with primary sludge, for
use as fertilizer, disposed of in a landfill, or incinerated.
Advanced or Tertiary Treatment. As science advanced the knowledge of
aquatic life mechanisms and human health effects, and the need for purer
water was identified, technology developed to provide better treatment.
Heavy metals, toxic chemicals and other pollutants can be removed from
domestic and industrial wastewater to an increasing degree. Methods of
advanced treatment include microfiltration, carbon adsorption, evaporation
/distillation, and chemical precipitation.
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 Wastewater Treatment

Industrial Waste Treatment. Depending on the type of industry and the

nature of its wastes, industries must utilize methods such as those used for
advanced treatment of sewage to purify wastewater containing pollutants
such as heavy metals and toxic chemicals before it can be discharged. Indus-
tries are permitted to discharge directly to receiving waters under the
National Pollution Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit system
or to municipal sewers under the Industrial Pretreatment Program. Pollution
prevention programs are very effective in helping industries reduce dis-
charged pollutants, by eliminating them at the source through recycling or
through the substitution of safer materials. More and more industries are
approaching or attaining zero discharge by cleaning and reusing their water
over and over and over.

Combined Sewer Overflows

Combined sewer systems are sewers that are designed to collect rainwater
runoff, domestic sewage, and industrial wastewater in the same pipe. Most of
the time, combined sewer systems transport all of their wastewater to a
sewage treatment plant, where it is treated and then discharged to a water
body. During periods of heavy rainfall or snowmelt, however, the wastewater
volume in a combined sewer system can exceed the capacity of the sewer sys-
tem or treatment plant. For this reason, combined sewer systems are
designed to overflow occasionally and discharge excess wastewater directly to
nearby streams, rivers, or other water bodies. Some designs utilize an over-
flow at the treatment plant that diverts the excess flow to chlorination facili-
ties for disinfection prior to discharge.
These overflows, called combined sewer overflows (CSOs), contain not
only storm water but also untreated human and industrial waste, toxic mate- SETTLING POND
rials, and debris. They are a major water pollution concern for the approxi- A settling pond, usually man-
mately 772 U.S. cities that have combined sewer systems. made, collects and slows water
CSO outfalls often result in violations of receiving stream-water quality flow so that suspended solids
standards and impairment to designated water uses. Violations can include (sediments) have time to precipi-
aesthetics (including floatables, oil and grease, colors, and odor), solids, tate or settle out of the water.
nutrients, harmful bacteria, metals, and reduced dissolved oxygen levels. Some applications of settling
ponds include capturing runoff
from farms (agricultural waste),
Historical and Regulatory Aspects construction projects (soil sedi-
Environmental awareness and activism is not a present-day concept: ment) and mines (sediment and
In the mid-1700s Benjamin Franklin and others petitioned the Pennsyl- toxic waste). Settling ponds
vania Assembly to stop dumping waste and attempted to regulate waste eventually fill and must be
disposal and water pollution. European countries were correlating sick- dredged to remain in operation.
ness with lead and mercury in the late 1700s. In 1855, Chicago became Polluted water from abandoned
the first U.S. city with a comprehensive sewer plan, and all U.S. towns mines is diverted to settling
with populations over 4,000 had city sewers by 1905. ponds to remove solids such as
iron oxide. When dredged, these
In 1899 the Refuse Act prevented some obvious pollution of streams sediments must be treated as
and placed the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers in charge of permits and contaminated waste. Pilot proj-
regulation. ects are underway to recapture
In 1914 U.S. government agencies began pollution surveys of streams iron oxide for use in paint
and harbors. Reports filed by the early 1920s showed heavy damage from pigments.
oil dumping, mine runoff, untreated sewage, and industrial wastes.
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Wastewater Treatment

In 1924 the Oil Pollution Control Act prohibited discharge from any
vessel within the three-mile limit, except by accident.
In 1948 the Federal Water Pollution Control Act and active House and
Senate Public Works Committee in water pollution came about.
In 1956 Congress passed the Water Pollution Control Act, in 1961 the
Clean Water Act, and in 1965 the Water Quality Act, setting standards
for states.
In 1970 Congress and the president established the EPA.
In 1972 Congress passed the Federal Water Pollution Control Act (the
“Clean Water Act”).
In 1973 EPA issued the first NPDES permits.
In 1974 Congress passed the Safe Drinking Water Act.
The Clean Water Act of 1972. Said to be one of the most significant pieces
of environmental regulations ever enacted, the federal Clean Water Act of
1972 was prompted by growing national concern for the environment in the
late 1960s, fueled by such concerns as the burning Cuyahoga River in Ohio,
an unfishable, unswimmable Potomac River, and a nearly dead Lake Erie.
National goals and objectives were established “to restore and maintain
the chemical, physical, and biological integrity of the Nation’s waters.” There
were two major goals:
1. Eliminate the discharge of all pollutants into navigable waters of the
United States; and
2. Achieve an interim level of water quality that provides for the protec-
tion of fish, shellfish, and wildlife and recreation (the “fishable, swim-
mable” goal).
To help do this, the following were established:
A state grant program to support the construction of sewage treatment
plants; the NPDES program, whose goal was to eliminate discharges to
U.S. waters; and technological standards or discharge limits that had to
be met, based on water-quality standards set by the states.
A minimum required percent removal of pollutants was added in 1985.
Secondary treatment was required, and limits were set for three major
effluent parameters: biological oxygen demand, suspended solids, and pH.
The Water Quality Act of 1987 made several changes, addressing
nonpoint source pollution pol- (1) excess toxic pollutants in some waters and (2) nonpoint source pollu-
lution originating from a broad tion. The construction grant program was phased out and replaced by
area, such as agricultural
runoff or automobile emissions financing projects with revolving fund, low-interest-rate loans. The amend-
ments passed in 1987 also addressed storm-water controls and permits, reg-
ulation of toxics in sludge, and problems in estuaries. Penalties were added
for permit violations. Also initiated were sludge-disposal regulations and
funding for studies relative to nonpoint and toxic pollution sources.
The 1972 act has provided remarkable achievements, but there is still a
long way to go. Forty percent of waters assessed by states still do not meet
water-quality standards, mostly due to pollution from nonpoint sources.
Other than from storm or combined storm sewer overflows, most of the
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 Wastewater Treatment

remaining problem is not from pipes (point sources) but from sources such as
farming and forestry runoff, construction sites, urban streets (storm water),
automobiles, and atmospheric depositions, such as from power-plant air
emissions (nonpoint sources). Current approaches to addressing nonpoint
pollution include targeting and permitting by given watersheds and TMDL
(total maximum daily load for a river stretch) assessments.
Many of the facilities funded by federal construction grants, which make
up the wastewater collection and treatment infrastructure, are wearing out
and are now undersized. Many, many dollars are needed to keep providing
adequate treatment to maintain the status quo, let alone meet the needs of a
growing populace.

Other Countries
Unfortunately, since the Industrial Revolution, most of Europe’s rivers (not
unlike in the United States) were utilized for transporting wastes to the sea,
resulting in harm to human and aquatic health and causing coastal pollution.
In earlier times, the rivers could handle the limited wastes discharged,
through dilution and natural purification.
Significant progress has been made in treating the wastewater entering
Europe’s rivers, with measurable improvements in water quality. The agri-
cultural sector (nonpoint pollution source) has not kept up, and nitrate levels
are still high.
The fifteen-nation European Union’s (EU) Urban Wastewater Treatment
Directive has resulted in significant improvements in wastewater treatment
capacity and methods. According to the European Environment Agency,
increased treatment capacity has been realized in all EU countries except Swe-
den, Finland, and the Netherlands, where it is already efficient. The largest aerobic life or processes that
increase will be in southern Europe and Ireland. As a result, the EU’s collec- require, or are not destroyed
by, the presence of oxygen
tion and treatment systems should be able to cope with all organic discharges
from most member states by 2005. In Finland and Sweden most of the waste- anaerobic a life or process
that occurs in, or is not
water was being treated in tertiary plants in the 1980s. S E E A L S O Abatement; destroyed by, the absence of
Biosolids; NPDES; Pollution Prevention; Water Pollution. oxygen

CONSTRUCTED WETLANDS
Constructed wetlands are wetlands that are spe- treatment process can be either aerobic or
cially built for the purpose of wastewater treat- anaerobic, depending on whether the wetlands
ment and are utilized in place of naturally are constructed with an exposed water surface
occurring wetlands. They provide a greater or one with subsurface flow. These wetlands
degree of wastewater treatment than natural can also be used to remove nitrogen, which is
wetlands, as their hydraulic loadings can be usually not removed during the standard waste-
managed as required. Because these wetlands water treatment process. Nitrogen removal is
are constructed specifically for wastewater treat- accomplished by the growth of cattails and
ment, they should not be included in the juris- reeds, which utilize the highly nutrient waste-
dictional group, which avoids the regulatory and water and consequently remove nitrogen in the
environmental entanglement associated with nat- process. Sometimes the cattails and reeds
ural wetlands. This is in accordance with Envi- must be harvested to complete the removal
ronmental Protection Agency regulations. The process.

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Water Pollution

Internet Resources
Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water. (1993). “Constructed Wetlands for
Wastewater Treatment and Wildlife Habitat.” Available from http://www.epa.gov/
owow/wetlands/construct.
Ohio State University Extension, Food, Agricultural, and Biological Engineering.
“Wastewater Treatment Principles and Regulations.” Available from http://ohio-
line.osu.edu/aex-fact/0768.html.
Raymond Cushman and George Carlson

Water Pollution
Water covers more than 70 percent of Earth’s surface. It is essential to all life.
Organisms can survive longer without food than without water. It is one of
our most valuable resources.
Pollute means to make impure or unclean. In that sense, water pollution
has always occurred as a natural phenomenon. Forest fires, storms, volcanoes,
or a heavy leaf fall can contaminate a water body. However, these organic
materials are broken down or biodegraded naturally.
Pollution as we know it began when humans started discarding waste
including sewage and toxic chemicals. By the middle of the twentieth century,
the extent of water pollution became apparent when Ohio’s Cuyahoga River
caught fire as a result of widespread oil pollution.
The Clean Water Act of 1972 and its subsequent amendments reduced
surface-water pollution by prohibiting the dumping of toxic chemicals
and medical waste, and by establishing a permitting system to reduce the
direct discharge of pollutants. The Safe Drinking Water Act of 1974, later
amended in 1987, set maximum allowable contaminant levels for drinking
water and called for the regular monitoring of groundwater. And the Ocean
Dumping Ban prohibited the marine disposal of sewage and industrial waste
after 1991.
Water pollution is described as point source or nonpoint source. Point
source means one can pinpoint and reduce pollution at its source. Point
source pollution may come from an industrial discharge pipe, a wastewater
treatment plant, or a capsized oil tanker. Nonpoint source pollution occurs
when substances such as fertilizer, pesticides, and soil from erosion enter
water bodies through rain runoff. Other pollutants include heavy metals such
as mercury, salt, acid rain, silt, hot water, petroleum products, excess nutri-
ents such as nitrogen and phosphorus, sewage, and animal waste. Since pol-
luted water is extremely difficult and costly to clean up, prevention is by far
the best approach to this form of environmental pollution. S E E A L S O Acid
Rain; Agriculture; Clean Water Act; Cryptosporidiosis; Fish Kills;
Hypoxia; Mercury; Nonpoint Source Pollution; PCBs (Polychlori-
nated Biphenyls); Rivers and Harbors Appropriations Act; Sedimenta-
tion; Water Pollution; Water Treatment; Wastewater Treatment.
Bibliography
EPA Clean Water Act. Available from http://www.epa.gov/r5water/cwa.htm.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. “Ocean Dumping Ban Act of 1988.” Available
from http://www.epa.gov/history.
Diana Strnisa

304
 Water Pollution: Freshwater

Liquid waste pouring from

pipe into flowing river. (United
States Environmental
Protection Agency. Reproduced
by permission.)

Water Pollution: Freshwater

Freshwater pollution is the contamination of inland water (not saline) with
substances that make it unfit for its natural or intended use. Pollution may be
caused by fecal waste, chemicals, pesticides, petroleum, sediment, or even
heated discharges. Polluted rivers and lakes are unfit for swimming or fishing;
polluted water is unsafe to drink.

Background
For centuries, fecal waste and other pollutants were dumped in rivers, with
“dilution the solution” to pollution. In the mid-twentieth century, many
305
Water Pollution: Freshwater

Steel mills in Indiana along the

southern coast of Lake
Michigan. (©Joel W. Rogers/
Corbis. Reproduced by
permission.)

American rivers and streams were open sewers, choking on everything from
human waste to highly toxic industrial discharges. New York City alone
pumped a half billion gallons of raw sewage into its harbor every day. As pol-
lution levels grew, so did the impacts. “No swimming” signs became the
norm. Lake Erie was dying. The Hudson River’s commercial striped bass
fishery, once valued at $40 million a year, was closed and it became illegal to
sell oysters from Oyster Bay, Long Island. And then, in June 1969, Ohio’s
Cuyahoga River caught fire.
The damning image of a river in flames is credited by many for passage
of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1972. The U.S. Environmen-
tal Protection Agency (EPA) set standards to regulate the discharge of indus-
trial and municipal waste—so-called end-of-the-pipe pollution. With them
came significant federal funding to help localities improve wastewater treat-
306
 Water Pollution: Freshwater

ment. Billions of dollars have been invested since 1972 building and upgrad- Firemen standing on a bridge
over Cuyahoga River to spray
ing sewage treatment facilities.
water on the burning tug boat
Improvements in municipal wastewater treatment have been matched by Arizona, which caused an oil
slick at the Great Lakes Towing
progress in the private sector. Nationally, more than thirty thousand major Company site, Cleveland,
industrial dischargers pretreat their wastewater before it enters local sewers. Ohio (November 3, 1952).
By 2000, some 75 percent of toxic discharges, including heavy metals and (©Bettmann/Corbis.
Reproduced by permission.)
PCBs, were being prevented.

Surface Water Pollution

Freshwater makes up less than three percent of earth’s water, but is the source
of virtually all drinking water. In 2002, each U.S. household used an average
of 94,000 gallons of water per year. Some 55 percent of that water comes
from reservoirs, rivers, and lakes, and a 2000 survey published in EPA’s
National Water Quality Inventory found almost 40 percent of U.S. rivers and
45 percent of lakes are polluted. These sources, called surface water, are vul-
nerable to pollution discharged out of pipes and precipitating out of the air
but the primary source of their pollution today is runoff, pollutants washing
off the land.
These nonpoint or scattered sources are not easily traceable. Pesticides
and fertilizers used in agriculture and on golf courses and suburban lawns
account for a major portion of nonpoint source pollution. Runoff from park-
ing lots and roads flush spilled oil and gasoline and road salt into lakes and
streams. Runoff containing manure from livestock and poultry producers has
307
Water Pollution: Freshwater

S O U R CE S OF LOA DI NG P HOS P HA TE S TO WA TERWA Y S

Other
Animal feeds 3%
5%

Detergents
12%

Fertilizers
80%

SOURCE: Adapted from International Fertilizer Industry Association.

been a major source of surface water pollution. More than 150 pathogens
found in livestock manure pose risks to humans. In 2003, concentrated ani-
mal feeding operation guidelines, or CAFO standards, were finalized requir-
ing inspection of waste lagoons and outdoor manure tanks, as well as permits
for applying manure on land.
Air pollutants such as dioxin and mercury along with sulfur and nitrogen
oxides precipitate into lakes and rivers by rainfall in the form of acid rain.
More than 95 percent of rainwater tested at four sites in Indiana between
2001 and 2002 contained unsafe levels of mercury according to a National
Wildlife Federation report.
Point sources, such as chemical and municipal wastewater treatment
plants, were the leading source of contamination for about ten percent of
river and lake water according to the 2000 National Water Quality Inventory.
Toxic chemicals, although now regulated, can still be discharged directly into
surface water. AK Steel Corporation in Pennsylvania discharged the largest
amount of any industrial pollutant, about 28 million pounds of nitrate com-
pounds, to surface water between 1998 and 2000, according to the Toxic
Release Inventory.
Other sources of surface water pollution include silt washed into streams
and lakes that smothers organisms on the lake floor, upsetting or destroying
aquatic ecosystems. Thermal pollution such as an influx of warm water from
cooling towers for power plants also has a detrimental effect on aquatic
ecosystems.
The recent discovery of surface-water contamination by minute amounts
of pharmaceuticals and personal-care products, including synthetic hormones
308
 Water Pollution: Freshwater

N IT R O G E N L O A D I N G B Y L A N D U S E O N C HES A P EA K E BA Y

6
Pounds per acre per year

0
d

cial

sity

mily

mily

st

s
Gras
Roa

Fore
mer

-den

le fa

ti-fa
Com

Low

Mul
Sing

SOURCE: Terrene Inst., 1994

from birth control pills, is being investigated to determine whether it poses a

threat to humans, aquatic species, or wildlife. Water Quality Act amendments
of 1987 established a $400-million program to help states to develop and
implement nonpoint source management programs based on watershed
protection.

Groundwater Pollution
Water contained in the pores of soil or in aquifers is called groundwater. aquifer an underground geo-
About 40 percent of U.S. municipal water comes from groundwater and an logical formation, or group of
formations, containing water;
additional forty million people, including most of the rural population, draw are sources of groundwater for
drinking water from domestic wells. Groundwater, while protected by the fil- wells and springs
tering action of soil, can be contaminated by leaking municipal landfills,
sewage lagoons, and chemicals from industrial activity. Centers for Disease
Control data shows that 318 waterborne disease outbreaks associated with
groundwater systems occurred between 1971 and 1996. Leaking under-
ground oil tanks and spills at gas stations account for oil and other chemicals
such as benzene and methyl-tertiary-butyl ether (MBTE) found in ground-
water. More than 400,000 leaking underground storage tanks were reported
in the United States in 2001. Pesticides and agricultural fertilizers drain into
groundwater polluting it with carcinogenic chemicals and nitrates.
The Safe Drinking Water Act of 1974 (SWDA) regulates groundwater.
More than eighty possible contaminants are monitored, including carcino-
gens such as tetrachloroethylene, discharged from dry cleaners. Health
effects of these contaminants range from increased cancer risk, intestinal
lesions, kidney damage, and reproductive difficulties, to gastrointestinal dis-
tress. Municipal and private water suppliers are responsible for seeing that
contaminants do not exceed the limits set by the EPA.
309
Water Pollution: Freshwater

Human and Environmental Health Effects

Fertilizer, animal manure, and waste-treatment plant effluent all contain nutri-
ents that stimulate excessive plant and algal growth in freshwater bodies. When
the plants die and decompose, dissolved oxygen is depleted, causing die-offs of
fish and other species living in the water. Persistent organochlorine insecti-
cides, such as DDT, deposited in lake sediments can bioaccumulate, harming
the fish and birds that eat them. Pyrethroid insecticides, though derived
from chrysanthemums, are extremely toxic to aquatic organisms. Estrogen-
mimicking substances such as some pesticides and industrially produced chem-
icals have been shown to interfere with the reproductive system of fish.
Human and animal fecal waste contain disease-carrying organisms such as
the bacterium Escherichia coli (E. coli) and pathogens that causes cholera,
typhoid, and cryptosporidiosis. Cholera is rarely seen in the United States, but
E. coli outbreaks are not rare, and in 1993, more than fifty people died, and an
estimated 400,000 became ill from a massive outbreak of cryptosporidiosis in
Milwaukee, Wisconsin. The outbreak was attributed to a failure in drinking
water treatment, allowing the cyst form of the parasite, introduced by animal
waste, to pass into tap water and be ingested. Ten outbreaks of crypto-
sporidiosis were reported in the United States between 1990 and 2000.
Mercury bioaccumulates in fish and can damage the nervous systems and
brains of humans. It can interfere with normal behavior in birds, such as
loons, causing them to spend less time looking for food or incubating eggs.
About one-quarter of breeding adult loons have higher-than-normal (10
parts per million) levels of mercury. To protect people from eating contami-
watershed the land area that nated fish, states and local governments post fish-consumption advisories
drains into a stream; the when contaminant levels become unsafe. There were 2,800 advisories posted
watershed for a major river
may encompass a number of in the United States in 2002, alerting people to high levels of mercury, PCBs,
smaller watersheds chlordane, dioxins, and DDT in fish.

Prevention and Abatement

You can help prevent water pol-
lution by simply not littering. Once water is contaminated, it is difficult, expensive, and sometimes impos-
Street trash that washes down sible to remove pollutants. Technologies to remove contaminants from
storm drains is a major source of groundwater are air stripping, granular activated carbon, and advanced oxi-
floatable debris. Properly dispose dation. Air stripping involves pumping out the contaminated water, then
of used oil; oil poured down heating it to evaporate the contaminant. The cleaned water is reinjected into
storm drains and sewers is a the ground. Pumping out contaminated water and absorbing the pollutant on
major source of petroleum pollu- activated charcoal can remove less volatile compounds. Ninety percent of
tion. Use nonphosphate deter- trichloroethylene was removed from NASA’s launch complex thirty-four
gents for dish and clothes groundwater cleanup site on Cape Canaveral Air Force Station by thermal
washing. Don’t overfertilize lawns treatment. In this method an electric current heats soil and water, evaporat-
and use integrated pest manage- ing some water and the contaminant, which is carried out of the ground by
ment practices to reduce pesti- the force of the steam and collected in recovery wells.
cide use. Use hazardous waste Preventing pollution is obviously important. Drinking water suppliers
collection programs to dispose of have discovered that watershed protection is cost-effective because it reduces
batteries, fluorescent lights that pollution and cuts the cost of drinking water treatment. A watershed is the area
contain mercury, unused oil, that drains into surface or groundwater and keeping that area free from devel-
paint remover, pesticides and old opment and agricultural runoff are among the goals of watershed protection.
household chemicals. The Barnes Aquifer in Massachusetts supplies water to sixty thousand residents
and the aquifer’s recharge area is under heavy development pressure from
310
 Water Pollution: Freshwater

large-scale residential subdivisions. Municipal wells have been contaminated

with traces of ethylene dibromide and trichloroethylene. After learning about The Great Lakes Basin includes
watershed protection, citizens voted against proposed changes to zoning that areas of the eight Great Lakes
would have increased the number of new homes and increased the potential for states: New York, Pennsylvania,
groundwater pollution. And by investing $1 billion in watershed protection, Ohio, Minnesota, Indiana, Illinois,
New York City, with an enormous reservoir system, has avoided having to Wisconsin, and Michigan. In
build water-filtration facilities, saving construction costs of some $8 billion. 1995, the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) and the
Great Lakes states agreed to a
Global
plan called the Great Lakes Initia-
The United Nations (UN) theme for World Environment Day 2003 was tive, aimed at reducing pollution
“Water: Two Billion People are Dying for It!” It was not en exaggeration. The and restoring the health of the
UN reports that one person in six lives without regular access to safe drinking Great Lakes. The plan included
water. Over twice that number—2.4 billion people—lack access to adequate setting water quality standards
sanitation. Water-related diseases kill a child every eight seconds, and are for twenty-nine pollutants. In
responsible for 80 percent of all illnesses and deaths in the developing world. 2000, the EPA initiated a ten-year
Cholera outbreaks, due to water contaminated with raw sewage, occur regu- phase-out of the use of mixing
larly in India and Bangladesh and less frequently in many other countries. In zones for bioaccumulative chemi-
Africa in 1997, 5,853 deaths due to cholera were reported to the World cals in the Great Lakes. The EPA
Health Organization. It is a situation, the UN said, “made all the more tragic says this ruling will reduce dis-
by our long-standing knowledge that these diseases are easily preventable.” charges of toxic chemicals by
S E E A L S O : Acid Rain; Agriculture; Clean Water Act; Cryptosporidiosis; 700,000 pounds a year.
DDT (Dichlorodiphenyl trichloroethane); Health, Human; Nonpoint
Source Pollution; PCBs (Polychlorinated Biphenyls); Point Source;
Snow, John; Wastewater Treatment; Water Treatment. recharge the process by which
water is added to a zone of
Bibliography saturation, usually by percola-
Pielou, E.C. (1998). Fresh Water. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press. tion from the soil surface; e.g.,
the recharge of an aquifer
Internet Resources
mixing zone an area of a lake
Natural Resources Defense Council. “What’s on Tap: Grading Water in 19 U.S. or river where pollutants from
Cities.” Available from http://www.nrdc.org/water/drinking/uscities/contents.asp. a point source discharge are
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Browse EPA Topics. Available from http:// mixed, usually by natural
www.epa.gov/ebtpages/alphabet.html. means, with cleaner water
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Clean Water Act. Available from http:// bioaccumulative relating to
www.epa.gov/r5water/cwa.htm. substances that increase in
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Concentrated Animal Feeding Operation concentration in living organ-
Final Rule. Available from http://cfpub.epa.gov/npdes/afo/cafofinalrule.cfm. isms as they take in contami-
nated air, water, or food
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. List of Drinking Water Contaminants and because the substances are
their MCLs. Available from http://www.epa.gov/safewater/mcl.html#mcls. very slowly metabolized or
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Polluted Runoff (Nonpoint Source Pollution). excreted
Available from http://www.epa.gov/OWOW/NPS/facts/point1.htm.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Proposed Groundwater Rule. Available from
http://www.epa.gov/OGWDW/gwr.html.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Safe Drinking Water Act. Available from
http://www.epa.gov/safewater/sdwa/sdwa.html.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2000 National Water Quality Inventory.
Available from http://www.epa.gov/305b/2000report.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s Water Science Great Lakes Initiative Topic.
Available from http://www.epa.gov/ost/GLI/mixingzones/finalfact.html.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Fish Advisories. Available from http://
www.epa.gov/waterscience/fish.
U.S. Geological Survey National Water Quality Assessment Program. Available from
http://water.usgs.gov/nawqa.
Patricia Hemminger

311
Water Pollution: Marine

Water Pollution: Marine

Marine pollution is the release of by-products of human activity that cause
harm to natural marine ecosystems. The pollutants may be sewage, farm
waste, toxic chemicals, or inert materials that may smother, choke, or stran-
gle living organisms.

Sewage, Animal Waste, and Fertilizers

Sewage, animal waste, and chemical fertilizers all have a high content of
nitrogen and phosphorus. Artificially high levels of these substances in the
macroscopic large enough to water promote excessive growth of microscopic or macroscopic plants, in a
be visible, in contrast to process called eutrophication. When these plants accumulate, die, and
microscopic
decay, they cause low oxygen content in the water. Even if sewage is treated
eutrophication in nature, the to remove solids, the liquid discharged contains high levels of nitrogen and
slow aging process during
which a lake, estuary, or bay phosphorus. Intensive cultivation of animals in feedlots, or application of
evolves into a bog or marsh more fertilizer than a crop can absorb, also cause runoff rich in nitrogen and
and eventually disappears; in phosphorus that find their way into rivers and estuaries. Vehicle exhausts and
pollution, excess algal growth
or blooms due to introduction
industrial chimneys are large sources of nitrogen compounds that are trans-
of a nutrient overload of nutri- ported in the atmosphere and deposited in coastal waters.
ents, i.e., from un- or poorly
treated sewage
On a global scale, agricultural runoff is the most important source of
eutrophication, but atmospheric deposition is the fastest-growing source. It
is the largest source of nitrogen off the coast of the northeastern United
States, in the western Baltic Sea, and in the western Mediterranean Sea.
International agencies consider that, worldwide, eutrophication is the most
serious pollution problem in coastal waters. For example, in the Gulf of Mex-
ico, off the mouth of the Mississippi River, water near the bottom has
severely reduced oxygen content over a very large area, sixteen thousand
square kilometers (6,200 square miles) by 1998. Mobile animals such as fish
and shrimp leave the hypoxic area, but sedentary animals such as clams and
worms are killed in large numbers.
A classic example of eutrophication and its treatment occurred in the
estuary of the River Thames, near London, England. In the 1950s the water
was severely hypoxic for thirty-five kilometers (twenty-two miles) below
London Bridge. After several sewage treatment plants were built, the water
returned to a well-oxygenated state and migratory fish such as salmon once
again ascend the river. In the case of the Mississippi River, treatment of the
eutrophication is more difficult because runoff from agricultural land is the
major cause of the problem, and more than half of the agricultural land in the
United States drains into the Mississippi basin. Cleaning up the pollution
would involve changes in farming methods on a national scale.
estuary region of interaction
between rivers and near-shore
Eutrophication has important indirect effects. The plants known as sea
ocean waters, where tidal grasses, which grow in the shallow water of estuaries, provide food and shel-
action and river flow mix fresh- ter for a wide range of animals, including geese, turtles, manatees, and fish.
and saltwater (i.e., bays, In eutrophicated water, the dense microscopic plant life significantly reduces
mouths of rivers, salt marshes,
and lagoons); these ecosys- the penetration of light and smothers the sea grasses. In Chesapeake Bay,
tems shelter and feed marine Maryland, eutrophication caused an area of sea grasses to decrease by two-
life, birds, and wildlife thirds between 1960 and 1980, and there was a corresponding decrease in
phytoplankton that portion of landings of fish and crabs. Similar effects have been observed in Australia.
the plankton community com-
prised of tiny plants; e.g. Red tides, or harmful algal blooms, are associated with eutrophication.
algae, diatoms Single species of phytoplankton multiply at the expense of all other species
312
 Water Pollution: Marine

Garbage strewn across a sandy

area. (S. Barnett, United States
Environmental Protection
Agency. Reproduced by
permission.)

and become so abundant that the water is discolored. Many bloom species
produce toxic substances. During the 1990s in estuaries located in the south-
eastern United States, there were numerous cases of blooms of Pfiesteria pis-
cida, a dinoflagellate that produced a toxin which killed thousands of fish. dinoflagellate single-celled
The source of the nutrients support Pfiesteria is believed to be agricultural aquatic organism
runoff or sewage discharge. Other types of blooms are ingested by shellfish,
which become toxic for humans who consume them, causing partial paraly-
sis, memory loss, or even death. Toxic blooms have been reported much more
frequently in the 1990s than in the past, and the spread of eutrophication is
believed to be a contributing factor.

Pollution and Coral Reefs

On coral reefs, eutrophication causes seaweed to grow and smother the
corals. Several kinds of environmental problems interact with eutrophication
to cause the deterioration of coral reefs. Overharvesting of the fish and
invertebrates that eat seaweed accelerates the smothering. Careless develop-
ment along coastlines and in river basins leads to soil erosion and the trans-
port of heavy loads of silt and clay, which settle on the corals and smother
them. Oil spills also take their toll. When corals are exposed to abnormally
high water temperature, they respond by discharging the microscopic algae
living within their tissues. Sometimes they recover, but often they die. These
episodes, called coral bleaching, became much more frequent during the
1990s and are believed to be caused by global warming. The result of pollu-
tion and global warming is that at least half of the area of coral reefs in south-
east Asia is in poor condition, and in parts of the Caribbean Sea only 5
percent of the reef area consists of living coral.
effluent discharge, typically
wastewater—treated or
Metals and Organic Contaminants untreated—that flows out of a
Industrial effluents often contain metallic compounds. For example, Halifax, treatment plant, sewer, or
industrial outfall; generally
a small city in eastern Canada, discharged into its harbor during the 1990s refers to wastes discharged
about thirty-three tons of zinc and thirty-one tons of lead per year, with into surface waters

313
Water Pollution: Marine

lesser amounts of copper and other metals. These metals are held in the sed-
Coral grows a new layer each iment in a relatively inert form, but if stirred up into the water column, they
year, much as a tree adds a new become oxygenated and toxic. Tin is another common pollutant in harbors.
ring each year. Scientists analyz- It occurs as tributyltin (TBT), which is used as a component of antifouling
ing layers of Bermudan coral paints on the undersides of ships. When taken up by shellfish, it accumulates
have discovered an environmen- in their tissues and has proved toxic to the shellfish and to organisms that
tal record dating back to the consume them. The United States began to phase out TBT in 1988, and it
mid-1800s. Marine pollution can will be banned internationally beginning in 2008.
be measured across the Indus-
Industry also produces organic compounds such as polychlorinated
trial Revolution. Marine levels of
biphenyls (PCBs) and various pesticides. These accumulate in the fatty tissue
lead have dropped dramatically
of plants and animals low in the food chain, and as they pass through the food
since the phaseout of leaded
web to larger and long-lived animals, there is an increase in concentration of
gasoline but levels of lead in the
the substances in their fat, a process known as bioaccumulation. The St.
Atlantic are still double their
Lawrence River, which drains the Great Lakes, has accumulated large amounts
preindustrial concentrations.
of organochlorines, which have amassed in the tissues of Beluga whales. Dur-
ing the 1990s, the level of this pollution was much reduced, and the whales
organochlorine chemical con-
have been protected from hunting, but their population fails to increase. Many
taining carbon and chlorine animals have tumors and disease. There is mounting evidence that chronic
exposure to contaminants causes suppression of the immune responses of
marine mammals. Similar problems have occurred with seals in the Baltic Sea.

Oil Pollution
The most serious types of oil pollution occur when an oil tanker goes ashore
or hits a reef and spills its contents. As the oil drifts ashore, great damage is
done to beaches, rocky shores, salt marshes, or mangrove forests. Cleanup is
often attempted using mechanical means, or the application of dispersants,
with mixed results. Usually, a proportion of native organisms are killed, but
given time, the lighter fractions of oil evaporate, while the heavier fractions
are decomposed by photochemical processes and microorganisms. Interna-
tional law now requires that vessel owners be responsible for any loss of oil,
damage to existing ecosystems, and the costs of recommended cleanup.
Chronic low levels of oil pollution, resulting from accidental spills when
loading or unloading, or from washing out oil tanks, are widespread and of
significant concern. For example, it has been determined that corals around
an oil terminal in the Red Sea have experienced lower growth rates and poor
reproduction as a result of chronic low-level oil pollution.
Oil pollution of the open ocean is also a major concern. When Thor
Heyerdahl crossed the South Pacific on the raft Kon-Tiki in 1947 he reported
pristine waters, but his Ra expedition across the Atlantic twenty-two years
later encountered oil slicks on forty-three of fifty-seven days at sea. The
International Convention for Prevention of Pollution from Ships was devised
in 1973 and modified by the Protocol of 1978. Oceangoing vessels are sub-
ject to strict regulations concerning the discharge of oil, bilge water, and bal-
last water, and are forbidden to dump garbage and other solid waste.
Accidental spills must be reported.

Marine Debris
Marine beaches serve as natural traps for marine debris. Globally, the most
common materials are plastics, followed by glass and metal. The chief
314
 Water Pollution: Marine

When Thor Heyerdahl, a Norwegian biologist report that floating lumps of solidified,
(1914–2002), sailed the balsa wood raft asphalt-like oil polluted over one thousand
named Kon-Tiki, from Peru to Polynesia in miles of the Atlantic Ocean. After seeing the
1947, he saw no pollution in the Pacific extent of the ocean’s pollution first hand,
Ocean. Just over twenty years later, in 1970, Heyerdahl became actively involved in fight-
when sailing a papyrus reed boat from ing marine pollution. In 1999, with the Nor-
Morocco to Barbados, Heyerdahl saw exten- wegian Shipowners Organization, he initiated
sive marine pollution including oily wastes, the Thor Heyerdahl International Maritime
plastic bottles and other trash floating in the Environmental Award to be given for
water. He radioed the United Nations to improvement of the global environment.

dangers to marine life result from the ingestion of these fragments, which
may block the gut, and from entangling, which may cause suffocation or pre-
vent locomotion and feeding. In a survey of U.S. beaches close to urban cen- locomotion self-powered
ters, cigarette butts were the most abundant debris, followed by packaging movement
items (boxes, bags, caps, lids), medical waste, and sewage. A high proportion
of this material reached the sea by way of sewers. Even street litter can be
washed into surface drains and then to the sea. The dumping of sewage and
waste by ships is another source. Public revulsion at the state of U.S. beaches
was a key factor in the enactment of stronger environmental protection laws,
like the Ocean Dumping Ban Act of 1988 that prohibited the dumping of
sewage into the ocean. On sites more remote from cities, pieces of rope and
netting are the most common types of marine debris.

Reduction and Regulation of Marine Pollution

There is much that individuals can do to prevent marine pollution: avoid put-
ting toxic substances into drains, avoid dropping litter, minimize the use of
pesticides and fertilizers, reduce automobile emissions, and pressure your
local government for sewage treatment in the community if it does not yet
exist. Larger-scale problems require legislation and enforcement, ranging
from the local laws of coastal states in the United States, through national
laws such as the Clean Water Act and Clean Air Act, to international con-
ventions such as the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollu- Thousands of volunteers in every
tion from Ships. Such laws are effective only if they have the support of the U.S. state and territory as well as
people. S E E A L S O Acid Rain; Clean Water Act; Cryptosporidiosis; Fish in more than fifty other countries
Kills; Hypoxia; Mercury; Ocean Dumping; PCBs (Polychlorinated pick up tons of marine debris
Biphenyls); Petroleum; Rivers and Harbors Appropriations Act; Snow, each fall in a one-day coastal
John; Water Treatment; Wastewater Treatment. cleanup. The Ocean Conservancy,
which organizes the annual
Bibliography cleanup, collects data on the
Clark, R.B.; Frid, C; and Attrill, M. (2001). Marine Pollution, 5th edition. Oxford, UK: debris to determine sources of
Oxford University Press. pollution. The most common
Pelley, J. (1998). “Is Coastal Eutrophication out of Control?” Environmental Science and item washed up on the shore-
Technology 32:462A–466A.
line? Cigarette butts and filters—
Internet Resources a total of 1,640,614 were picked
Global Investigation of Pollution in the Marine Environment (GIPME). “Marine Pol- up in 2001. Volunteers also
lution Programme.” Available from http://ioc.unesco.org/iocweb. found 259 entangled animals,
Ocean Conservancy. Available from http://www.oceanconservancy.org. most snared in nylon fishing line.
Kenneth H. Mann

315
Water Treatment

Water Treatment
The goal of water treatment, usually from surface sources such as lakes,
reservoirs, or rivers, is to remove contaminants and organisms through a
combination of biological, chemical, and physical processes to make it safe
for drinking. Some of these occur in the natural environment, whereas oth-
ers occur in engineered and constructed water treatment plants. The engi-
neered processes usually mimic or build on natural processes.

History of Water Treatment

Water-treatment concepts underlying those used today were developed in
Europe during the 1700s. An outbreak of cholera in London was linked to a
sewage-contaminated drinking water well in 1854. John Snow was credited
with this finding. At the point in which the United States began using chlo-
rine to disinfect drinking water (1908), Europe was also using chlorine but
exploring the possibility of employing ozone to treat drinking water. The
U.S. Public Health Service developed the first drinking-water regulations in
the United States in 1914. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) later assumed responsibility for this task when it was established in
1970. The Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) became law in 1974, and was
significantly revised in 1986 and 1996. The revisions reflected improve-
ments in analytical methods to detect contaminants at lower levels and
improvements in automated monitoring used to evaluate treatment plant
performance. The revisions also started to address the need to balance imme-
diate (acute) risks versus long-term (chronic) risks. The need to disinfect
water to kill pathogens to protect against acute illnesses, versus the formation
of disinfection by-products and their chronic health effects is an example of
this risk balance.
The United States has continued to examine water treatment practices in
Europe, particularly water-quality standards established by the World Health
Organization (WHO). Although there are some philosophical differences
between the United States and Europe relating to the treatment of the dis-
tribution system and its operations, the United States has benefited from the
European experience. One such philosophical difference is that the European
water treatment community does not see the maintenance of a disinfectant
residual to the end of the distribution system as a necessary public health pro-
tection measure. The United States drinking water community sees this as an
important step to protect customers and the water system from bacteriolog-
ical regrowth or recontamination. As the United States entered the twenty-
first century, researchers were collaborating with scientists around the world
to continuously improve water quality and treatment, and openly share their
research findings.

Water Quality Regulations in the United States

The EPA, under the requirements of the SDWA, regulates drinking water in
the United States. The EPA additionally regulates wastewater, but under the
requirements of the Clean Water Act (CWA). Storm water and discharges
into surface water are also regulated under the CWA.
The SDWA sets maximum contaminant levels (MCLs) and treatment
techniques (TTs) that drinking water must meet to be considered safe for
316
 Water Treatment

consumption. The list includes microorganisms, disinfectants and disinfec- Solid waste settling pond next
to manure fiber piles at the
tion by-products, inorganic chemicals, organic chemicals, and radionuclides.
Three Mile Canyon Farm near
Boardman, Oregon. (AP/Wide
The Water Cycle World Photos. Reproduced by
permission.)
The requirements of the CWA and SDWA are different, but interrelated.
Consider the water cycle and the water-use cycle. Water falls to the earth in
the form of precipitation. It drains into rivers, lakes, and streams either nat-
urally or via constructed storm-water-drainage systems. Industrial manufac-
turers and wastewater treatment plants discharge effluent from their effluent discharge, typically
processes into lakes and rivers. Under the CWA, these facilities have water- wastewater—treated or
untreated—that flows out of a
quality limits that their effluent must meet. These limits have been estab- treatment plant, sewer, or
lished to protect the water ecosystem and downstream users. Water suppliers industrial outfall; generally
withdraw water from lakes and rivers to be treated for human consumption refers to wastes discharged
into surface waters
and other uses. The water is treated and delivered to customers’ taps through
a system of pipes and storage facilities that make up the water distribution
system. After the water is used, it is conveyed to a wastewater treatment plant
and discharged back as effluent to a receiving water body. If the water is used
outside, it either seeps into the ground or drains to a storm-water system,
which may go to a treatment plant or directly to a river, lake, or another body
of water. The cycle continues as the water flowing to the ocean evaporates,
317
Water Treatment

TH E H Y DROLOGI C CY CLE

Condensation

River Overland
Flow
Precipitation Infiltration
Transpiration
Evaporation

Evaporation
Groundwater
Recharge

Groundwater
Flow
SOURCE: Montana Water Center.

ultimately falling again as precipitation. See the illustration for a diagram of

the water or hydrologic cycle.

Source Water Protection

Source water protection, often referred to as “watershed protection,” is the
reduction or prevention of water pollution at its source, represents a tradeoff
between treatment plant construction and operation costs. This kind of pro-
tection is not always possible, but it has been very effectively implemented by
several water systems. A water system that has access to a high-quality source
may not need as extensive a treatment plant as a system with a poorer-quality
source. This is especially true if a high-quality source, such as a reservoir in
an isolated natural area, can be protected by limiting human activity close to
that source. Water from such a source may not require the settling step, may
involve fewer chemicals or smaller doses of them, or might be able to kill
pathogens with strong disinfectants like ozone or ultraviolet light instead of
providing filtration.

The Water-Treatment Process

Whether in the natural environment or a constructed water-treatment plant,
there are several key processes that occur during water treatment: dilution,
coagulation and flocculation, settling, filtration, disinfection, and other
chemical treatments. The quality of the source water and the effectiveness of
source-water protection and management have a direct bearing on the com-
plexity of the treatment that is required. Source-water protection is the first
step in water treatment, with the natural and engineered processes following.
The processes in a water treatment plant are shown in the illustration.
Dilution. Prior to industrialization, the pollution of rivers and streams was
not as significant a problem. Waste products were released into water bodies,
but the quantity of such discharges was not as great as present-day levels. The
receiving waters were large enough and the mixing or detention time was
long enough that the contaminants were diluted to a level that reduced the
318
 Water Treatment

W AT E R– T R E A T M E N T PL A N T

Lake or Reservoir

Coagulation removes dirt and other particles suspended in water. Alum

and other chemicals are added to water to form tiny sticky particles
called "floc" which attract the dirt particles. The combined weight of the
dirt and the alum (floc) become heavy enough to sink to the bottom
during sedimentation.

Sedimentation:
The heavy
particles (floc)
settle to the Storage:
bottom and the Water is placed in
clear water a closed tank or
moves to reservoir for
filtration. disinfection to take
place. The water
then flows through
pipes to homes
Disinfection: A small amount of chlorine is added or and businesses in
some other disinfection method is used to kill any the community.
bacteria or microorganisms that may be in the water.

Filtration: The
water passes
through filters,
some made of
layers of sand,
gravel, and
charcoal that help
remove even
smaller particles.

SOURCE: AWWA Drinking Water Week Blue Thumb Kit.

amount of concern about risks. A common saying in the past was “the solu-
tion to pollution is dilution.” This is not the most efficient treatment method
because even small amounts of pollutants, such as some pesticides, can build
up, or bioaccumulate, in body fat over time. It is also not the preferred
319
Water Treatment

approach because it sends the message that polluting the environment is an

acceptable course of action.
Coagulation and Flocculation. Sometimes, the particles that need to be fil-
tered out during water treatment are very small. This makes them less likely to
settle out and less likely to be filtered out. Chemicals called coagulants and/or
filter aids are added to the water and mixed in (flocculated) to make the fine
particles stick together to form bigger particles that can better settle out or be
filtered out more effectively. Depending on the microbial and chemical makeup
of the water, different chemicals are used as coagulants. The purpose of these
two steps is to improve the performance of the remaining treatment processes.
Settling. For facilities treating water that contains a lot of solids, settling or
sedimentation is a common treatment step. The process slows the flow of the
water in a pond or basin so heavier items can settle to the bottom. If the water
is not sufficiently slowed down, these items are carried along to the next step
raw water intake water prior in the process, which is not desirable. For plants treating very polluted raw
to any treatment or use water, settling may be used as the first step in the treatment plant (presedi-
mentation) and again following the coagulation and flocculation steps.
Filtration. There are several methods of filtration used in water treatment.
The selection of which type to use is generally a function of the raw water
quality. As filtration implies, water flows through a material that removes par-
ticles, organisms, and/or contaminants. The material used is most often a
granular medium such as sand, crushed anthracite coal, or activated carbon.
Some facilities layer different types and sizes of media. Along with varying
the size and type of filter media, facilities are also designed to operate at dif-
ferent flow rates through the filter media. Traditional filtration plants include
diatomaceous earth a chalk- slow sand filtration, high-rate filtration, and diatomaceous earth filtration.
like material (fossilized
diatoms) used to filter out Another type of filtration that was more widely used in the late 1990s and
solid waste in wastewater early 2000s is membrane filtration. It occurs by forcing water through a
treatment plants; also used as membrane barrier. A membrane is like a high-tech coffee filter. As water
an active ingredient in some
powdered pesticides under pressure flows through the membrane, contaminants and organisms
are captured on the membrane and not allowed to pass through. Membranes
are not well suited to highly contaminated source waters because the solid
materials clog up the membrane almost immediately. Membrane filtration is
gaining use in the United States for special applications and in combination
with other types of filtration.
Disinfection. Filtration and the steps prior to filtration focus on the physi-
cal removal of contaminants in the water. In addition to physical removal, it
is still important to provide chemical disinfection. Disinfectants used include
chlorine, chloramines (chlorine plus ammonia), ozone, ultraviolet light, and
chlorine dioxide. Chlorine was first used in the United States in a water-
treatment plant in 1908.
The advantage of chlorination is that it continues to kill bacteria as water
moves through pipes to the tap. Its disadvantage is the possibility of disinfec-
tion by-products. Excess chlorine in water can combine with organic mate-
rial in the water to form substances such as trihalomethanes, which can cause
liver, kidney, or central nervous system problems, and are linked to an
increased risk of cancer over a lifetime exposure.
Disinfection is needed to inactivate (kill) bacteria and viruses that make
it through the physical removal (filtration) steps. Viruses and giardia are
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 Water Treatment

effectively killed by chlorine. Over time, scientists have found that some
organisms such as Cryptosporidium are resistant to chlorine. Cryptosporidium
rose to public attention in 1993 when it sickened over 400,000 people, killing
a hundred, in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. Largely because of this scare, new or
amended U.S. drinking-water regulations developed early in the twenty-first
century that expanded water treatment requirements specifically to address
Cryptosporidium. Although chlorine is not effective against Cryptosporidium,
alternative disinfectants such as ozone and ultraviolet light do appear to be
effective at killing it. In Europe, both of these disinfectants are often used
without chlorination to kill bacteria in the water supply.
An amendment to the SDWA requires that all sources of potable water
in the United States be filtered. In some locales throughout the nation, such
as Boston and Seattle, reservoir water is essentially free of organic matter, and
municipalities have been able to avoid filtration because they have extensive
watershed protection and management programs in place.
Other Chemical Treatments. Chemicals are added to drinking water to
adjust its hardness or softness, pH, and alkalinity. Water that is acidic is very pH an expression of the inten-
corrosive to the pipes and materials with which it comes into contact. The sity of the basic or acid condi-
tion of a liquid; may range
addition of sodium hydroxide can reduce corrosivity and extend the service from 0 to 14, where 0 is the
life of pipelines, storage tanks, and building plumbing systems. Pipes may most acid, 7 is neutral, and 14
also be coated with chemicals to prevent metals like copper from dissolving is most base; natural waters
usually have a pH between 6.5
in the water. In addition, chemicals are used to reduce the leaching of lead and 8.
from old lead pipes and lead-soldered copper supply pipes. Fluoride is fre-
quently added to the water in many communities to improve the dental
health of younger residents.

Groundwater Protection and Treatment

Wellhead protection is critical to preventing the contamination of ground-
water supplies. Groundwater is pumped out of an aquifer, which is like a
small underground lake surrounded by layers of rock and soil. Water from
the surface flows through the rock and soil to get to the aquifer. The earth
naturally provides filtration of microscopic pathogens. It does not always One of the problems in protect-
provide adequate protection against viruses or chemicals that are dumped on ing drinking water is that by the
the ground. Groundwater typically contains higher concentrations of metals time results of tests for E. coli or
like iron and manganese because these metals occur naturally in the earth. Cryptosporidium or even anthrax
Groundwater may also be much harder than surface water. Processes similar are known, an urban population
to those outlined above are also used to treat groundwater, except that the fil- can already be at risk. Inventors
tration steps are often focused on removing chemicals or metals rather than Gregory Quist and Hanno Ix are
pathogens. Some groundwater supplies are not treated at all, while others out to change that. They use
may be filtered and disinfected. As with surface waters, the quality of the laser beams to scan a flow of
source dictates what treatment steps are required. water; particles in the water scat-
ter the light beam and each
Regulatory Reporting and Public Education scatter pattern is different. A
Water systems in the United States submit reports each month to state or computer analyzes the pattern
federal regulatory agencies, summarizing treatment-plant performance and and provides continuous real-
sampling results. The majority of medium and large water systems in the time identification of micro-
United States have staff working twenty-four hours a day. If something were organisms. The system is being
to go wrong at the plant, the plant operators have procedures that they would tested at a Los Angeles, Califor-
follow to shut down the plant, switch to alternate equipment, adjust chemi- nia, water facility.
cal dosages, or collect additional samples. State and federal regulations
321
Whistleblowing

specify when the water plant operator must notify the state or federal agency,
and these requirements are built into the plant’s procedures. The regulations
also specify when the public must be notified. Orders to boil the water are
usually jointly issued by the state health agency and the drinking-water sys-
tem quickly after a problem has been discovered (most likely via telephone
and radio). Public notices about problems with routine monitoring results or
the failure to collect required samples would generally be distributed in the
newspaper or via the water utility’s annual water quality report (also called a
consumer confidence report). The requirement that all water systems com-
pile and distribute a user-friendly report began in 1998. This report provides
an overview of the water-system activities and compliance with regulations
for the year, as well as identifying ways that customers can get involved or
acquire more information. S E E A L S O Agriculture; Cryptosporidiosis;
Groundwater; Health, Human; Nonpoint Source Pollution; Snow,
John; Wastewater Treatment; Water Pollution.
Bibliography
American Water Works Association. (1999). Water Quality and Treatment, A Handbook
of Community Water Supplies, 5th edition. San Francisco: McGraw-Hill.
American Water Works Association and American Society of Civil Engineers. (1998).
Water Treatment Plant Design, 3rd edition. San Francisco: McGraw-Hill.
Peavy, Howard S.; Rowe, Donald R.; and Tchobanoglous, George. (1985). Environ-
mental Engineering. McGraw-Hill Series in Water Resources and Environmental
Engineering. San Francisco: McGraw-Hill.
Symons, James M. (1992). Plain Talk about Drinking Water: Answers to 101 Impor-
tant Questions about the Water You Drink. Boulder, CO: American Water Works
Association.

Internet Resource
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water Web site. Available from
http://www.epa.gov/ow.
Julie Hutchins Cairn

Whistleblowing
Employees are the eyes and ears of environmental protection. They bury waste,
operate incinerators, and witness the discharge of pollutants into the environ-
ment. However, employees who “blow the whistle” and report environmental
wrongdoing are often subject to harassment, dismissal, and blacklisting.
In 1972 as part of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act, Congress
recognized the critical role workers play in ensuring the enforcement of envi-
ronmental laws and enacted the first environmental whistleblower law. Retal-
iating against environmental whistleblowers was made illegal and the victims
of such misconduct finally benefitted from a government remedy at the fed-
eral level. By 1980 Congress passed six other environmental whistleblowers
laws, protecting employees who blow the whistle on violations of the Toxic
Substances, Safe Drinking Water, Solid Waste Disposal, Clean Air, Atomic
Energy, and Comprehensive Environmental Response (Superfund) Acts.
Nearly every American worker is protected under these laws. The types
of employees who have successfully filed suit include high-level managers
who exposed the dumping of raw sewage into rivers, quality-assurance
inspectors who reported nuclear safety violations, federal EPA scientists who
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 Wise-Use Movement

published papers documenting flaws in risk assessments, and state inspectors

who blew the whistle on a school built on a toxic waste dump. In each case
the public was able to learn about and prevent significant threats to the envi-
ronment and public health.
The federal environmental protection laws offer a remedy to the victims
of retaliation. The employee initiates the process by filing a complaint with
the U.S. Department of Labor (DOL) within thirty days of learning of the
discriminatory action. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration
(OSHA) investigates the complaint, and the whistleblower is entitled to a full
evidentiary hearing before the DOL. If the whistleblower wins, that individ-
ual is entitled to reinstatement, back pay, attorney fees, damages for loss of
reputation, and emotional distress. Under the Toxic Substances and Safe
Drinking Water laws, whistleblowers may also be awarded punitive damages.
Although hundreds of employees have obtained relief under these laws
(including some multimillion-dollar judgments), whistleblower cases are
hard fought, and many environmental whistleblowers with valid cases lose in
court. Some cannot afford attorneys experienced in this special area of the
law, whereas others miss the thirty-day statute of limitations for filing com-
plaints. Many whistleblowers are overwhelmed by the personal crises they
must face after losing their jobs.
Environmental whistleblowers have also received significant support
outside the legal system. For example, press coverage of Karen Silkwood’s
whistleblowing in the early 1970s called attention to the hazards of nuclear
power plants. Additionally, public interest groups, such as the National
Whistleblowers Center and Public Employees for Professional Responsibil-
ity, provide resources and assistance to environmental whistleblowers. S E E
A L S O Activism; Laws and Regulations, International; Laws and Regu-
lations, United States
Bibliography
Kohn, Stephen. (2001). “Environmental and Nuclear Whistleblowing.” In Concepts and
Procedures in Whistleblower Law. Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group.

Internet Resources
National Whistleblower Center. “Environmental Issues and Nuclear Safety.” Available
from www.whistleblowers.org.
U.S. Department of Labor Office of Administrative Law Judges. “Whistleblower.”
Available from www.oalj.dol.gov.
Stephen M. Kohn

Wise-Use Movement
The wise-use movement is a general term relating to an approach to the man-
agement of federal lands in the United States that encompasses many themes,
but emphasizes a preference for extractive (e.g., mining, oil drilling) or utili-
tarian (e.g., grazing) uses over ecological, scenic, wildlife, or aesthetic values.
The movement was founded in 1988 by Ron Arnold and Alan Gottlieb,
who run the Center for the Defense of Free Enterprise based in Seattle,
Washington. The movement is a loose coalition of individuals and organiza-
tions that initially advocated increased access to and development of federal
lands and resources. Although the movement has enlisted some support
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Wise-Use Movement

nationwide, its appeal has existed primarily in the West, where the percent-
age of land owned by the federal government is the highest. The federal gov-
ernment owns approximately one-third of U.S. lands, but the percentage is
much higher in many western states, a fact that has engendered considerable
resentment among corporations and individuals who want to use or develop
the resources on those lands. The movement had its ideological origins in the
Sagebrush Rebellion of the late 1970s and 1980s that focused on eliminating
federal ownership of many lands in the West. However, the wise-use move-
ment focuses less on ownership issues and more on changing public and
corporate access to and uses of federal lands, and encompasses other issues
as well.
“Wise use” was a phrase originally used by Gifford Pinchot, an early con-
servationist and the first head of the Forest Service in the early 1900s, who
advocated the use of federally owned natural resources for the greatest good
of the greatest number. However, the phrase is used by the wise-use move-
ment to encompass a wide range of issues, from eliminating environmental
controls, to defense of private property rights with compensation for all envi-
ronmental regulation, to local control of federal lands in order to permit
unrestricted logging, grazing, drilling, and mineral development—even in
national parks and wilderness areas. The movement is largely sustained by
corporate funding and contributions from other organizations. The move-
ment deliberately adopted the grassroots techniques and terminology of the
environmental movement to create a proworker and community image for
policies that actually furthered corporate and industrial goals (i.e., mining).
Many of the positions advocated by the wise-use movement continue to
be influential. Anti–big-government policies in general, greater nonfederal
control of federal lands, self-audits by corporations to determine environ-
mental compliance, increased emphasis on commodity development, and the
weakening of environmental laws are but a few examples. Some of the laws
the movement seeks to reverse or eliminate include the Clean Air and Clean
Water Acts, and the Endangered Species Act. Many wise-use movement
organizations have adopted names that camouflage the organization’s pro-
development, antienvironmentalist stance, such as the National Wetlands
Coalition, the Public Lands Council, Citizens for the Environment, Envi-
ronmental Conservation Organization, and Defenders of Property Rights.
Some aspects of movement positions also reflect the policies of other organ-
izations. For example, the American Enterprise Institute and Political Econ-
omy Research Center advocate the privatization of natural resources through
“free market environmentalism”—policies that overlap with some of those of
the wise-use movement. On the other end of the spectrum, the movement
has ties to more extreme organizations, such as militia groups. Its writings
range from constitutional interpretations supporting its viewpoint to vitriolic
attacks on “pagan” and “communist” environmentalists whose alleged goal is
a “totalitarian one-world government.”
Bibliography
Arnold, Ron, and Gottlieb, Alan M. (1998). Trashing the Economy: How Runaway Envi-
ronmentalism Is Wrecking America. Bellevue, WA: Free Enterprise Press.
Helvarg, David. (1994). The War Against the Greens: The Wise Use Movement, the New
Right, and Anti-Environmental Violence. San Francisco: Sierra Club Books.
Pendley, Perry. (1995). War on the West: Government Tyranny on America’s Great Fron-
tier. Washington, D.C.: Regnery.

324
 Workers Health Bureau

Internet Resources
Arnold, Ron. “Overcoming Ideology.” Available from Center for the Defense of Free
Enterprise Web site, http://www.cdfe.org/wiseuse.htm.
Environmental Working Group Clearinghouse on Environmental Advocacy and
Research (CLEAR). “The Wise Use Movement: Strategic Analysis and Fifty-State
Review.” Available from http://www.ewg.org/pub.
Pamela Baldwin

Workers Health Bureau

The Workers Health Bureau of America (WHB), active from 1921 to 1928,
was a grassroots organization run by Grace Burnham, Harriet Silverman, and
Charlotte Todes. Primarily an advocacy organization, WHB is known for
focusing public attention on occupational health and safety issues for the first
time. The bureau endorsed local trade labor unions’ efforts to improve work-
ers’ health conditions. WHB conducted investigations, wrote informational
reports, and organized union movements. During its eight years, WHB
enjoyed the membership of approximately 180 local trade unions and gar-
nered support from leading public health experts.
WHB contended that workers’ health problems resulted from a combi-
nation of industrial employment and urban living. The bureau had little con-
fidence in government agencies’ abilities to improve working conditions,
although it did advocate for changes in national labor laws. Considering
workers’ problems a class issue, WHB solicited memberships among work-
ers and unions in exchange for help in improving work conditions at the local
level. WHB advised employees and labor unions to solve problems at their
source. By advocating that unions add health and safety clauses into their
employment contracts, WHB hoped that employers would proactively
improve conditions in their plants.
The bureau concentrated on the most common occupational health
problems of the time. Some of WHB’s major campaigns addressed workplace
exposures to benzol, carbon dioxide, coal and silica dust, lead, and mercury.
The bureau used scientific studies and terminology to strengthen their argu-
ments in highly politicized debates. Ironically, WHB ended its work in 1928
because it was too successful. The Affiliated Federation of Labor (AFL) pres-
sured local unions to withdraw from WHB, perhaps to rein in their influence
over unions. In the end, WHB is best remembered for bringing labor health
issues to national attention, beginning the movement that eventually led to
the creation of the Occupational Safety and Health Bureau (OSHA) in 1970.
S E E A L S O Activism; Industry; Occupational Safety and Health Admin-
istration (OSHA); Public Policy Decision Making.
Bibliography
Rosner, David, and Markowitz, Gerald. (1987). “Safety and Health as a Class Issue:
The Workers Health Bureau of America during the 1920s.” In Dying for Work:
Workers’ Safety and Health in Twentieth-Century America, edited by David Rosner
and Gerald Markowitz. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.

Internet Resource
Robert F. Wagner Labor Archives and Tamiment Archives. Available from http://
www.nyu.edu/library.
Mary Elliott Rollé

325
World Trade Organization

World Trade Organization

The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) was an international
organization created in 1947 to reduce trade barriers through multilateral
negotiations. The World Trade Organization (WTO) was organized in Jan-
uary 1995 to replace GATT and improve international trade. Its membership
in 2002 totaled more than 140 nations.
Whereas GATT focused on tariff reduction, the WTO works to elimi-
nate so-called nontariff barriers, which can include environmental, health,
and other public-interest regulations that are considered impediments to
international trade. Any member country has the right to challenge other
members’ laws under the WTO dispute-settlement process. When this
occurs, the WTO forms a three-person tribunal to hold hearings on the case,
which take place in secret in Geneva, Switzerland. If the tribunal finds that
the law is illegal within the context of WTO policy, it has the power to order
the country to change the law or face trade sanctions.
The WTO’s first ruling involved a successful challenge to the U.S. Clean
Air Act. Brazil and Venezuela had complained that a part of the act that
required all foreign sources of U.S. gas imports to meet a certain cleanliness
standard was discriminatory. The U.S. government was ordered to amend its
regulation or face retaliatory trade sanctions of approximately $150 million
per year. It opted to modify the law.
This ruling unleashed a flood of other challenges against environmental
laws, such as U.S. dolphin and sea turtle protections, Japan’s ban on fruit
imports carrying invasive species, and the European Union’s ban on U.S. beef
injected with growth hormones.
The WTO does allow some exceptions for laws that are “necessary to
protect human, animal or plant life and health.” However, this exception has
proved virtually useless, since WTO panels have interpreted the language to
mean that laws must represent the “least trade-restrictive” way to achieve the
environmental goal.
Although WTO rulings have most often targeted environmental protec-
tions, the organization has also drawn strong criticism from labor unions.
Among other complaints, they argue that the WTO should adopt rules in
support of internationally recognized labor rights as a way to prevent corpo-
rations and governments from gaining an unfair trade advantage by abusing
workers.
In December 1999 tens of thousands of environmentalists joined with
trade unionists and other activists to protest the WTO Ministerial Meeting
in Seattle, Washington. The “Teamsters and Turtles” united in the streets,
combined with disputes among some member countries, forced the organi-
zation to abandon plans to launch a new round of negotiations. The “Battle
in Seattle” also thrust the WTO into the public limelight for the first time.
The next WTO meeting was sited far from angry crowds and international
media attention in isolated Doha, Qatar. Although it concluded with the
announcement of plans for a new round of discussion, the meeting was
fraught with tensions and the WTO’s future appears anything but smooth.
S E E A L S O Economics; Environmental Crime; Environmental Justice;
Laws and Regulations, International; Treaties and Conferences.
326
 Writers

Bibliography
Shrybman, Steven. (1999). The World Trade Organization: A Citizen’s Guide. Toronto,
Ontario: Canadian Centre for Policy Alternatives.

Internet Resource
World Trade Organization Web site. Available from http://www.wto.org.
Sarah Anderson

Writers “I went to the woods because I

Although writers have explored the relationship between humans and the wished to live deliberately, to
natural world for centuries, they primarily viewed the environment as subor- front only the essential facts of
dinate to the needs of civilization and human progress. However, by the mid- life, and see if I could not learn
dle of the nineteenth century, writers such as Henry David Thoreau and what it had to teach, and not,
Ralph Waldo Emerson began to reinterpret the significance of nature and when I came to die, discover that
our relationship to it. I had not lived.”

Although not writing of pollution specifically, these writers laid the —Henry David Thoreau, Walden
groundwork for an evolution in environmental thought and ethics in which (1854)
the environment was seen as more than just a natural resource. For example,
in Walden and other writings, Thoreau pointed out that our natural environ-
ment had far more to offer than material resources to be exploited. Rather,
Thoreau noted that nature and the environment were sources of spiritual
truth and support.
Although these writers and others, like John Muir and Aldo Leopold,
helped educate the public about nature and the environment, one of the first
“environmental” books published in the United States to include a discussion
of pollution was Man and Nature. In his 1865 book, author George Perkins
Marsh presented a comprehensive discussion of ecological problems brought
on by the impact of human civilization, including the growing problem of
water pollution.
By the beginning of the twentieth century, most writings about pollution
focused on how industrial pollution was affecting those in the workplace. For
example, Alice Hamilton, a University of Michigan Medical School graduate
of 1893, conducted studies of occupational diseases, including those brought
on by industrial pollution in the lead, rubber, and munitions industry. Her
books included the 1925 work called Industrial Poisons in the United States, an
early and compelling scientific look into pollution in the workplace and its
effects on workers.
Upton Sinclair’s novel The Jungle exposed the horrendous working and
living conditions of slaughterhouse workers in the meat packing industry of
Chicago. His exposure of the unsanitary slaughterhouse conditions led to the
first U.S. meat protection laws and raised public awareness of corporate “We abuse the land because we
greed and the plight of poorly paid workers and their families in dense, pol- regard it as a commodity belong-
luted sections of large urban areas. ing to us. When we see land as a
community to which we belong,
Leopold’s conversational essays compiled in A Sand County Almanac
we may begin to use it with love
(1949) argued persuasively that nature is not a machine of interchangeable
and respect.”
parts but an interdependent community and that humans are part of this
community, not detached from it. Because we are part of it and have the —Aldo Leopold
power to impact it so profoundly, we have an ethical obligation to act in ways
327
Writers

that preserve the integrity of the whole community. Leopold called this inte-
“As crude a weapon as the cave gration of science, aesthetics, and ethics “the land ethic” and it laid the prac-
man’s club, the chemical barrage tical foundation for systems thinking and the ecological perspective.
has been hurled against the fab-
ric of life.” Few would argue that Rachel Carson’s book Silent Spring was a seminal
work that launched both a growing public concern about pollution and the
—Rachel Carson, Silent Spring modern environmental movement. First published in serialized form in the
New Yorker magazine, Silent Spring was published in 1962 and exposed the
dangers posed by numerous pesticides and fertilizers, including DDT. The
book was a catalyst for a new view of industry and pollution that would over-
turn the long-held belief that scientific progress was always for the good.
Silent Spring’s publication set off a storm of controversy. The pesticide
industry tried to suppress the book’s publication and challenged its findings.
Carson’s book eventually led to a presidential commission to study the effects
of pesticides. The commission verified Carson’s findings, which eventually
led to the banning of DDT in 1972. More importantly, the book led to a
wave of public concern over the use of chemicals and pollution and how they
impact the environment and life. When the Modern Library published its list
of the 100 Best Nonfiction Books of the Century, Silent Spring was listed as
the fifth-most-important book of the twentieth century.
As public concern and interest in the environment and pollution grew,
more writers began to explore the possible catastrophic impact of ever-
increasing pollution. Many writers pointed out that it was important to look
at more than the impact of specific chemicals and pollutants on the environ-
ment. For example, in his 1968 book The Population Bomb, Paul Ehrlich took
the writings of Thomas Malthus (1766–1834) about overpopulation and
expanded them. Ehrlich stated that overpopulation not only would lead to
widespread starvation in the world but also affected the environment by cre-
ating more garbage and other pollutants.
In his 1971 book The Closing Circle, social commentator and one-time
presidential candidate Barry Commoner also placed the environmental mes-
sage about pollution into a broader context as he connected the growth of
technology to environmental degradation. Not only did Commoner discuss
the environmental crises in terms of population and “affluence” but also pro-
vided in-depth looks at how growing population and advancing technology
were the culprits behind such specific environmental problems as the haz-
ardous air pollution in Los Angeles and the polluted waters of Lake Erie.
Commoner argued three principles that became rallying cries of early envi-
ronmentalists: Everything has to go somewhere, nature knows best, and
there is no such thing as a free lunch.
Arne Naess, the Norwegian philosopher and founder of the deep ecology
movement, is another notable philosopher and writer who created a philos-
ophy of how to deal with issues such as pollution. In a 1973 article in Inquiry
magazine, Naess laid out her philosophy of shallow ecology versus deep ecol-
ogy. Naess argues that a shallow ecology philosophy fights against pollution
“To err is human, but to really
but continues to inadvertently support those who cause much of the world’s
foul things up you need a
pollution, namely those in healthy and affluent nations. Naess notes that
computer.”
deep ecology, on the other hand, focuses on changing the relationship
—Paul Ehrlich between civilization and the natural world, not only by fighting pollution but
also by establishing a philosophy of human respect for all species and nature.
328
 Writers

George Sessions played an important role in popularizing deep ecology in

North America and its emphasis on biocentrism (nature-centered, not “The invention of nuclear
human-centered philosophy) and social justice from exploitation of poorer weapons may actually have
countries by affluent ones. Deep ecology argues that nature has inherent marked the beginning of the end
value apart from human use. It traces the destruction of nature to industrial of nature: we possessed, finally,
society. Gary Snyder’s poetry reflects deep ecology through sensual images. the capacity to overmaster
nature, to leave an indelible
In 1989, Bill McKibben, prolific nature writer and environmental com- imprint everywhere all at once.”
mentator and historian, followed in the tradition of Silent Spring when he
changed the public’s deepest perceptions of the world with his book The End —Bill McKibben, The End of
of Nature. McKibben brought to the forefront a public and policy discussion Nature
about the latest scientific evidence concerning pollutants such as acid rain and
their impact on the greenhouse effect, the depletion of the ozone layer, and
global warming. In the book, McKibben points out that industrial society with
all of its pollutants has altered the chemistry of the atmosphere and changed
the most elemental process of life everywhere. In the end, McKibben states
that the only hope in stopping pollution and saving the environment is that
people will come to fully understand the dangers caused by pollution and
other environmental problems and make a conscious decision to live with less,
thus creating less pollution.
About two years after McKibben’s book was published, Earth in the Bal-
ance: Ecology and the Human Spirit appeared on bookshelves. The book’s
author Al Gore, at the time a United States senator, states that a fundamen-
tal change in how we view the world and interact with it is necessary if we are
to save the earth’s ecology for future generations. Gore discusses the deteri-
orating quality of air, water, and soil due to a variety of pollutants, including
those that cause a rise in carbon dioxide levels, which is leading to a deterio-
rating ozone layer. Like McKibben, Gore also points out that pollution
problems are no longer local or regional but global. Because of Gore’s high-
profile career and place of power on the American scene, the book received
worldwide attention from the public as well as political circles.
Like deep ecologists, ecofeminist authors, both men and women, are var-
ied in their understandings of the philosophy. Nevertheless, all ecofeminists
begin with the premise that the exploitive and abusive treatment of nature is
linked to the patriarchal (male-dominated) exploitation and violence towards
women. For example, see Susan Griffen’s Woman and Nature: The Roaring Inside
Her for a discussion of the metaphors of “the rape of nature” and “virgin land,”
and “Mother Earth/Nature.” Another theme of many ecofeminist writings is
the rediscovery and celebration of the goddess that was once the center of ear-
lier cultures and Native American spiritual teachings.
Sandra Steingrabber’s popular book Living Downstream highlights the
cumulative risks faced by river human and nonhuman communities living “We can believe in that future
downstream from pollution. She argues for the responsibility of upstream com- and work to achieve it and pre-
munities to act environmentally responsible for their downstream neighbors. serve it, or we can whirl blindly
Nature and environmental writing has exploded since the first Earth Day on, behaving as if one day there
in 1970. This article presents just a few representative writers of fiction, non- will be no children to inherit our
fiction, and poetry. legacy. The choice is ours; the
earth is in the balance.”
Because of writers like Carson, McKibben, and many others, few people
would argue that pollution is not a threat to the environment and the health —Al Gore, Earth in the Balance
of people and other species. More books and articles than ever are being
329
Yucca Mountain

written about pollution issues, and many writers are carrying on the legacy of
“When considering hormones Carson. For example, in 1996’s Our Stolen Future, the authors discuss the var-
such as estradiol, the most ious ways in which chemicals are disrupting human reproductive patterns and
potent estrogen, forget parts per causing such problems as birth defects, sexual abnormalities, and reproduc-
million or parts per billion. The tive failure. In 2002, Devra Lee Davis was nominated for the National Book
concentrations are typically parts Award in nonfiction for her book When Smoke Ran Like Water: Tales of Envi-
per trillion, one thousand times ronmental Deception and the Battle against Pollution. In the book, Davis dis-
lower than parts per billion. One cusses how industry and government have conspired to conceal the true
can begin to imagine a quantity effects of pollution on public health.
so infinitesimally small by think-
Man and Nature (1865) by George Perkins Marsh; Early scientific look at
ing of a drop of gin in a train of
the environment and how humans influence it, including the effects of
tank cars full of tonic. One drop
human pollution on water
in 660 tank cars would be one
part in a trillion; such a train Industrial Poisons in the United States (1925) by Alice Hamilton; Scientific
would be six miles long.” study of industrial pollutants and how they affect workers
—Theo Colborn, Our Stolen Silent Spring (1962) by Rachel Carson; Groundbreaking look at pesti-
Future cides that helped create the modern environmental movement and led to
government banning of DDT
The Closing Circle (1971) by Barry Commoner; Connected growth of
technology to pollution and environmental degradation
The End of Nature (1990) by Bill McKibben; Helped raise worldwide con-
cern over pollution, the greenhouse effect, and the depletion of the
ozone layer
When Smoke Ran Like Water (2002) by Devra Lee David; National Book
Award finalist that tells of government and industry coverups concerning
the effects of pollution on the populace
Bibliography
Carson, Rachel. (1962). Silent Spring. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Caulfield, Henry. (1989). “The Conservation and Environmental Movements: An
Historical Analysis.” In Environmental Politics and Policy: Theories and Evidence, ed.
James Lester. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.
Davis, Devra Lee. (2002). When Smoke Ran Like Water: Tales of Environmental Deception
and the Battle against Pollution. New York: Basic Books.
Ehrlich, Paul. (1968). The Population Bomb. New York: Ballantine.
Gore, Al. (1992). Earth in the Balance: Ecology and the Human Spirit. Boston: Houghton
Mifflin.
McKibben, Bill. (1989). The End of Nature. New York: Random House.
Naess, Arne. (1973), “The Shallow and the Deep: The Long-Range Ecology Move-
ment,” Inquiry 16:95-100.
Netzley, Patricia D., compiler. (1999). Environmental Literature: An Encyclopedia of
Works, Authors, and Themes. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
Thoreau, Henry David. (1995). Walden, or, Life in the Woods. New York: Dover
Publications.
David Petechuk

Yucca Mountain
Y The United States has accumulated more than forty thousand tons of spent
nuclear fuel and high-level radioactive wastes from commercial, research, and
defense activities with an estimated two thousand tons added every year. The
330
 Yucca Mountain

materials are currently stored in thirty-nine states at 131 temporary above-

ground facilities, requiring constant monitoring and maintenance. World-
wide, scientific consensus holds that deep geologic disposal, with robust
engineered barriers, can best contain and isolate these materials from the
accessible environment. The Nuclear Waste Policy Act of 1982 established
this approach as U.S. policy. If ultimately licensed by the Nuclear Regulatory
Commission, Yucca Mountain, in southern Nevada, could become the first
U.S. geologic repository for such materials. The Department of Energy
(DOE) plans to open the proposed repository by 2010 if a license is granted.
Between about fifteen and twelve million years ago, large volcanic erup-
tions deposited hot ash that solidified into the rock composing Yucca Moun-
tain. The proposed repository would be built about one thousand feet
underground and, on average, about one thousand feet above the water table
in rock that has remained undisturbed for millions of years. For about two
thousand feet under the mountain’s surface the rock is very dry, or unsatu-
rated, meaning its pore spaces are not completely filled with water.

Waste Forms and Other Engineered Barriers

All materials sent to a repository would be in solid form. Spent nuclear fuel
comprises hard ceramic pellets in sealed corrosion-resistant metal tubes.
Liquid wastes from defense-related activities would be solidified into glass
logs, inside sealed metal containers, before shipment.
At the repository, the materials would be sealed inside double-walled con-
tainers, called waste packages, made of stainless steel and a corrosion-resistant
alloy. Once underground, each waste package would be placed on its own
individual pallet, in one of dozens of miles of tunnels carved deep within the
rock. In addition, corrosion-resistant titanium drip shields would be placed
above the sealed containers as an added barrier to water. (See illustration.)

Potential Problems at Site

Groundwater contamination. Yucca Mountain’s climate is very dry, with
annual precipitation averaging about 7.5 inches (190 millimeters or mm).
About 95 percent either runs off, evaporates, or is taken up by vegetation.
Overall, very little water infiltrates the mountain and reaches the repository
level. The bulk of any water moves very slowly through the unsaturated rock.
Some data, however, suggest that water may reach the repository level in a few
decades by moving through fractures that are large enough to permit this.
Therefore, the sophisticated computer calculations used to estimate the
repository’s likely performance assume the presence of such fractures and their
impact. After water has infiltrated the repository level, it must move down
through approximately one thousand more feet of unsaturated rock to reach
the saturated zone. Only from this zone can water be pumped to the surface.
Earthquake activity. Southern Nevada has low to moderate seismic activ-
ity. Experts have analyzed potentially active faults within sixty miles of Yucca
Mountain. Although scientists expect earthquakes to occur at or near the
mountain, those working on the design of the Yucca Mountain repository
think that with modern techniques, repository facilities can be designed and
constructed to withstand the effects of earthquakes and other natural
phenomena. Contributing to underground safety is the fact that seismic
331
Yucca Mountain

Low water infiltration:

Any water would tend to
flow around the tunnels
rather than into them

Titanium drip shield

above the waste
packages:
Prevents water from
contacting the waste
package

Waste package:
Prevents water from
contacting waste
form for thousands
of years

Spent fuel claddng:

Delays water contacting
the spent nuclear fuel
after waste packages
have degraded

Waste form:
Limits radionuclide
release as a result of low
solubilities and leach rates

Invert below the waste packages:

Limits transport of radionuclides out
of the engineered barrier system

Cutaway illustrating natural and engineered barriers working together in an emplacement tunnel. Capillary action would cause
most available water to flow around, rather than into, the tunnels. Federal law limits the proposed repository to seventy
thousand metric tons of heavy metal “until such time as a second repository is in operation,” unless the law is changed. (From
Office of Public Affairs, U.S. Department of Energy. (2002). Why Yucca Mountain? Frequently Asked Questions. Washington, D.C.,
p. 10.)

ground motion diminishes with depth, so earthquakes have less impact deep
underground than they do on or near the surface.
Transportation. Some people fear that vehicles moving nuclear waste
across the country could be subject to accidents or become a target for ter-
rorists. Federal regulations require that transportation cask designs be certi-
fied to withstand a series of severe impacts and extreme conditions without
leaking radioactive materials. The regulations also require that shipments be
monitored and tracked by satellite twenty-hour hours a day and accompanied
by trained escorts, who must report in regularly. Armed escorts would be
required through heavily populated metropolitan areas.
Other Nations’ Approaches. Some nations using nuclear power do not
have economical sources of fresh uranium to make nuclear fuel. France and
the United Kingdom, for example, reprocess their own spent nuclear fuel for
a second usage; they also do reprocessing for other countries, such as Japan
and Switzerland. Current techniques for reprocessing involve complex
chemical and physical procedures and actually produce additional radioactive
332
 Zero Population Growth

waste. Most nations with nuclear power intend to build their own geologic
repositories.
Health and safety. For more than twenty years, scientists and engineers
have gathered technical data about the rock in Yucca Mountain, water move-
ment through it, expected earthquakes, and the potential for volcanic distur-
bance of the proposed repository. Applying advanced software and
high-powered computers to these data, scientists have estimated radiation
doses due to the repository for tens of thousands of years. The radiation pro-
tection standards set by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) require
that the calculations estimate the likely level of radiation that the most
exposed member of the public would receive from the repository for ten
thousand years after its closure. The standards require that this hypothetical
person be assumed to live about fifteen miles from the repository, to eat some
foods grown with local groundwater, and to drink two liters of water per day
drawn from the most concentrated plume of repository-caused contamina-
tion in the aquifer. The estimates indicate that, for at least ten thousand
years, the level of repository-yielded radioactivity this hypothetical person
would likely receive, through all potential exposure pathways, would be far
below fifteen millirem per year, the radiation protection standard for public
health and safety. S E E A L S O Cancer; Health, Human; Radioactive Waste;
Waste, Transportation of.
Bibliography
Board on Radioactive Waste Management, National Research Council, National
Academy of Sciences. (2001). Disposition of High-Level Waste and Spent Nuclear Fuel:
The Continuing Societal and Technical Challenges. Washington, D.C.: National Acad-
emy Press. Also available from http://www.books.nap.edu/books.
International Atomic Energy Agency. (2002). Institutional Framework for Long Term
Management of High Level Waste and/or Spent Nuclear Fuel. (IAEA-TECDOC-1323)
Vienna, Austria: IAEA Press. Also available from http://www.pub.iaea.org/mtcd.
Office of Public Affairs, U.S. Department of Energy. (2002). Why Yucca Mountain? Fre-
quently Asked Questions. Washington, D.C. Also available from http://www.ocrwm
.doe.gov/ymp.
Wheelwright, Jeff. (2002). “Welcome to Yucca Mountain.” Discover 23(9):66–75.

Internet Resource
Herne Data Systems Web site. “WasteLink: Guide to Radioactive Waste Resources on
the Internet.” Available from http://www.radwaste.org.
Donald J. Hanley

Zero Population Growth

Malthus’s Essay on Population, published in 1798, still plays a role in environ-
mental policymaking. The discrepancy between rates of human population
Z
growth and agricultural productivity lies at the heart of Malthusianism. One
dynamic leads to ever-increasing population; the other to diminishing food
and ecological degradation.
To avoid human suffering, Malthusians pursue worldwide zero popula-
tion growth (ZPG). Because worldwide mortality levels are low, a society can
attain ZPG through replacement fertility. If the average number of children
born to women in a particular society equals two, then it has reached
replacement fertility or ZPG. Governments today annually spend a total of
333
Zero Population Growth

$900 million to promote ZPG, mostly in less developed countries. ZPG is

also the name of a nongovernmental organization that advocates for popula-
tion awareness. Its origin in 1968 was inspired by Paul Ehrlich’s Population
Bomb. S E E A L S O Ehrlich, Paul; Malthus, Thomas Robert; Population;
Smart Growth.
Bibliography
Bongaarts, John. (1998). “Demographic Consequences of Declining Fertility.” Science
282:419–420.
Humphrey, Craig R.; Lewis, Tammy L.; and Buttel, Frederick H. (2002). Environment,
Energy, and Society: A New Synthesis. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
United Nations Fund for Population Action. (2000). Financial Resource Flows for Popu-
lation Activities in 1999. New York.
Craig R. Humphrey

334
 Glossary
24-hour standard: in regulations: the allowable average concentration over
24 hours
absorption spectrum: “fingerprint” of a compound generated when it
absorbs characteristic light frequencies
absorption: the uptake of water, other fluids, or dissolved chemicals by a cell
or an organism (as tree roots absorb dissolved nutrients in soil)
acetylcholine: a chemical that transmits nerve signals to muscles and other
nerves
acute: in medicine, short-term or happening quickly
adherence: substances: sticking to; regulation: abiding by
adjudicative: involving the court system
adsorption: removal of a pollutant from air or water by collecting the pollu-
tant on the surface of a solid material; e.g., an advanced method of treating
waste in which activated carbon removes organic matter from wastewater
advise and consent: the formal responsibility of a government body to pro-
vide counsel and approval for the actions of another body, especially the Sen-
ate to the president
aerate: process of injecting air into water
aerobic: life or processes that require, or are not destroyed by, the presence of
oxygen
affinity: physical attraction
afforestation: conversion of open land to forest
air scrubbers: pollution-control devices that remove pollutants from waste
gases before release to the atmosphere
air stripping: a treatment system that removes volatile organic compounds
(VOCs) from contaminated groundwater or surface water by forcing an
airstream through the water and causing the compounds to evaporate
allergen: a substance that causes an allergic reaction in individuals sensitive
to it

335
Glossary

alloy: mixture of two or more metals

alluvial: relating to sediment deposited by flowing water
alpha radiation: fast-moving particle composed of two protons and two neu-
trons (a helium nucleus), emitted by radioactive decay
ambient: surrounding or unconfined; air: usually but not always referring to
outdoor air
anaerobic: a life or process that occurs in, or is not destroyed by, the absence
of oxygen
antagonistic: working against
anthropogenic: human-made; related to or produced by the influence of
humans on nature
antimicrobial: an agent that kills microbes
aquaculture: practice of growing marine plants and raising marine animals
for food
aquifer: an underground geological formation, or group of formations, con-
taining water; are sources of groundwater for wells and springs
archetype: original or ideal example or model
arithmetic: increase by addition, e.g., 2, 4, 6, 8 . . . as opposed to geometric,
in which increase is by multiplication, e.g., 2, 4, 8, 16 . . .
arthropod: insects, spiders, and other organisms with jointed appendages and
hard outer coverings
asbestosis: a disease associated with inhalation of asbestos fibers; the disease
makes breathing progressively more difficult and can be fatal
asymmetrical warfare: conflict between two forces of greatly different sizes;
e.g., terrorists versus superpower
autoimmune: reaction of the body’s immune system to the body’s own tissues
baghouse: large fabric bag, usually made of glass fibers, used to eliminate
intermediate and large particles
ballast: material in a ship used for weight and balance
bed load transport: movement of sediments that remain at the bottom of a
moving water body
beta radiation: high-energy electron, emitted by radioactive decay
bilge: deepest part of a ship’s hold
bioaccumulation: buildup of a chemical within a food chain when a predator
consumes prey containing that chemical
bioaccumulative: relating to substances that increase in concentration in liv-
ing organisms as they take in contaminated air, water, or food because the sub-
stances are very slowly metabolized or excreted
bioaerosol: very fine airborne particles produced by living organisms
336
 Glossary

bioassay: a test to determine the relative strength of a substance by compar-

ing its effect on a test organism with that of a standard preparation

bioavailability: degree of ability to be absorbed and ready to interact in

organism metabolism

bioconcentrate: chemical buildup in an organism, i.e., fish tissue, to levels

higher than in the surrounding environment

biodegradation: decomposition due to the action of bacteria and other

organisms

biodegrade: to decompose under natural conditions

biodiversity: refers to the variety and variability among living organisms and
the ecological complexes in which they occur; for biological diversity, these
items are organized at many levels, ranging from complete ecosystems to the
biochemical structures that are the molecular basis of heredity; thus, the term
encompasses different ecosystems, species, and genes

biogeochemical interaction: interactions between living and nonliving com-

ponents of the biosphere

biological capital: oceans, forests, and other ecosystems that provide

resources or other values

biological effects: effects on living organisms

bioluminescence: release of light by an organism, usually a bacterium
biomass: all of the living material in a given area; often refers to vegetation
biomonitoring: the use of living organisms to test the suitability of effluents
for discharge into receiving waters and to test the quality of such waters
downstream from the discharge; analysis of blood, urine, tissues, etc. to
measure chemical exposure in humans

bioremediation: use of living organisms to clean up oil spills or remove other

pollutants from soil, water, or wastewater; use of organisms such as non-
harmful insects to remove agricultural pests or counteract diseases of trees,
plants, and garden soil

biosolid: solid or semisolid waste remaining from the treatment of sewage

bituminous: soft coal, versus the harder anthracite coal
boom: a floating device used to contain oil on a body of water; or, a piece of
equipment used to apply pesticides from a tractor or truck

boreal: northern, subarctic

botanical: derived from or relating to plants
breakdown product: part of a whole resulting from a chemical transformation
breakdown: degradation into component parts
brine: salty water
337
Glossary

British thermal unit (BTU): unit of heat energy equal to the amount of heat
required to raise the temperature of one pound of water by one degree
Fahrenheit at sea level
bush-fallow: practice of alternating between cultivating a piece of land and
leaving it unplanted
cabinet: in government: collective name for the heads of federal departments
that report directly to the president
carbamate: class of chemicals widely used as pesticides
carcinogen: any substance that can cause or aggravate cancer
carcinogenic: causing or aggravating cancer
cascade: waterfall; a system that serves to increase the surface area of the
water to speed cooling
casing: the exterior lining of the well
catalyst: a substance that changes the speed or yield of a chemical reaction
without being consumed or chemically changed by the chemical reaction
catalytic: of a substance that promotes reaction without being consumed
cesspool: holding compound for sewage in which bacterial action breaks
down fecal material
chelating agents: chemicals that trap metal ions (chele = claw)
chemically active: able to react with other chemicals
chloramination: use of chlorine and ammonia to disinfect water
chromatography: means of resolving a chemical mixture into its components
by passing it through a system that retards each component to a varying
degree
chronic: in medicine, long-term or happening over time
claim: legal statement of intent
clarifier: a tank in which solids settle to the bottom and are subsequently
removed as sludge
codify: put into law
coke: carbon fuel, typically derived from bituminous coal, used in blast fur-
naces for the conversion of iron ore into iron
combustion: burning, or rapid oxidation, accompanied by release of energy in
the form of heat and light
complex emergency: a humanitarian crisis in which there is a breakdown of
political authority
compliance: in law: meeting the terms of a law or regulation
computer model: a program that simulates a real event or situation
concordance: state of agreement
338
 Glossary

condenser: apparatus used to condense vapors

congener: a member of a class of chemicals having a of similar structure
consensus-building: negotiation to create agreement
consent order: a legal agreement requiring specific actions to remedy a vio-
lation of law

conservation easement: legal agreement restricting a landowner’s develop-

ment rights to preserve long-term conservation and environmental values

conservationist: a person who works to conserve natural resources

containment: prevention of movement of material beyond the immediate area
contaminant: any physical, chemical, biological, or radiological substance or
matter that has an adverse effect on air, water, or soil

control rod: a rod containing substance that absorbs neutrons inserted into a
nuclear reactor to control the rate of the reaction

conversion: chemical modification to another form

counterculture: a culture with social ideas that stand in opposition to the
mainstream culture

criteria pollutant: a pollutant for which acceptable levels can be defined and
for which an air quality standard has been set

crop rotation: alternation of crop species on a field to maintain soil health

cultivar: a plant variety that exists only under cultivation
DDT: the first chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticide chemical name: Dichloro-
Diphenyl-Trichloroethane); it has a half-life of fifteen years and can collect in
fatty tissues of certain animals; for virtually all but emergency uses, DDT was
banned in the U.S. in 1972

defoliant: an herbicide that removes leaves from trees and growing plants
defoliation: loss of vegetation
deicer: chemical used to melt ice
denitrification: the biological reduction of nitrate or nitrite to nitrogen gas,
typically by bacteria in soil

deposit: concentration of a substance, i.e., mineral ore

desertification: transition of arable land to desert
desiccant: a chemical agent that absorbs moisture; some desiccants are capa-
ble of drying out plants or insects, causing death

despoliation: deprivation of possessions by force

deuterium: a hydrogen atom with an extra neutron, making it unstable and
radioactive
339
Glossary

diatomaceous earth: a chalk-like material (fossilized diatoms) used to filter

out solid waste in wastewater treatment plants; also used as an active ingredi-
ent in some powdered pesticides
diffuser: something that spreads out or dissipates another substance over a
wide area
dinoflagellate: single-celled aquatic organism
dioxin: any of a family of compounds known chemically as dibenzo-p-dioxins;
concern about them arises from their potential toxicity as contaminants in
commercial products; tests on laboratory animals indicate that it is one of the
more toxic anthropogenic (man-made) compounds
disaster cycle: phases in the public response to a disaster: preparedness, dis-
aster, response, recovery, and mitigation of effects
dissolution into the oceans: dispersion in ocean water
dissolved oxygen: the oxygen freely available in water, vital to fish and other
aquatic life and for the prevention of odors; DO levels are considered a most
important indicator of a water body’s ability to support desirable aquatic life;
secondary and advanced waste treatment are generally designed to ensure
adequate DO in waste-receiving waters
distillation: the act of purifying liquids through boiling, so that the steam or
gaseous vapors condense to a pure liquid; pollutants and contaminants may
remain in a concentrated residue
double containment: use of two independent protection systems around a
potential pollutant
drier: a compound that increases the drying rate
drilling waste: material (soil, ground rock, etc.) removed during drilling
drinking water: water used or with the potential to be used for human
consumption
ecosystem: the interacting system of a biological community and its nonliv-
ing environmental surroundings
effluent: discharge, typically wastewater—treated or untreated—that flows
out of a treatment plant, sewer, or industrial outfall; generally refers to
wastes discharged into surface waters
efflux pump inhibitors: a drug that prevents a cell from expelling another
drug; used with antibiotics to increase their effectiveness
electoral consensus: the will of the voters
electrode: conductor used to establish electrical contact with a substance by
delivering electric current to it or receiving electric current from it
electromagnetic spectrum: the range of wavelengths of light energy, includ-
ing visible light, infrared, ultraviolet, and radio waves
emissions: substances, often polluting, discharged into the atmosphere
340
 Glossary

endocrine: the system of glands, hormones, and receptors that help control
animal function
endocrine disruption: disruption of hormone control systems in the body
environmental stewardship: human commitment to care for the environment
epidemic: rapid spread of disease throught a population, or a disease that
spreads in this manner
epidemiological: epidemiology: study of the incidence and spread of disease
in a population
epidemiology: study of the incidence and spread of disease in a population
epilepsy: seizure disorder
estrogenic: related to estrogens, hormones that control female sexual
development
estuary: region of interaction between rivers and near-shore ocean waters,
where tidal action and river flow mix fresh- and saltwater (i.e., bays, mouths
of rivers, salt marshes, and lagoons). These ecosystems shelter and feed
marine life, birds, and wildlife
eutrophication: in nature, the slow aging process during which a lake, estuary,
or bay evolves into a bog or marsh and eventually disappears; in pollution,
excess algal growth or blooms due to introduction of a nutrient overload of
nutrients, i.e., from un- or poorly treated sewage
evaporative: relating to transition from liquid to gas
excavate: dig out
excess death: deaths over the expected number
exothermic: releasing heat
fatalistic: of a person who believes that nothing one does can improve a
situation
fecal matter: animal or human excrement
fetus: unborn young of vertabrate animals; human: developing child in the
womb from eighth week to birth
filtration: process for removing particulate matter from water by means of
porous media such as sand or synthetic filter
flammable: any material that ignites easily and will burn rapidly
flux: 1. a flowing or flow; 2. a substance used to help metals fuse together
French drain: buried plastic tubing with numerous holes, to collect or disperse
water
friable: capable of being crumbled, pulverized, or reduced to powder by hand
pressure
fungicide: pesticide used to control, deter, or destroy fungi
341
Glossary

gamma radiation: very high-energy light with a wavelength shorter than

x rays
gelling agent: chemical used to thicken a substance, i.e., oil, to prevent it
from spreading out
genetic diversity: the broad pool of genes that insures variety within a species
Geneva Conventions: humanitarian rules governing treatment of soldiers and
civilians during war
geometric: by multiplication, e.g., 2, 4, 8, 16 . . ., as opposed to arithmetic, in
which increase is by addition, e.g., 2, 4, 6, 8 . . .
global warming: an increase in the near-surface temperature of the Earth; the
term is most often used to refer to the warming believed to be occuring as a
result of increased emissions of greenhouse gases
grassroots: individual people and small groups, in contrast to government
green choice: a product that is not harmful for the environment
greenhouse gas: a gas, such as carbon dioxide or methane, which contributes
to potential climate change
groundwater: the supply of freshwater found beneath the Earth’s surface
includes; aquifers, which supply wells and springs
guano: solid or semisolid waste from birds and bats, rich in nutrients
Hague Conventions: international agreements governing legal disputes
between private parties
half-life: the time required for a pollutant to lose one-half of its original con-
centration; for example, the biochemical half-life of DDT in the environment
is fifteen years
halogenated organic compounds: organic (carbon-containing) compounds
containing fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, or astatine
HAZMAT team: hazardous materials response group
heavy metals: metallic elements with high atomic weights; (e.g. mercury,
chromium, cadmium, arsenic, and lead); can damage living things at low con-
centrations and tend to accumulate in the food chain
hemoglobin: oxygen-carrying protein complex in red blood cells
herbicide: a chemical pesticide designed to control or destroy plants, weeds,
or grasses
heterotrophic phytoplankton: floating microorganisms that consume other
organisms for food
hexavalent: an oxidation state characterized by the ability to make six bonds;
symbolized by (VI)
hormone receptors: cell proteins that respond to hormones to influence cell
behavior
hormone: a molecule released by one cell to regulate development of another
342
 Glossary

host: in genetics, the organism, typically a bacterium, into which a gene from
another organism is transplanted; in medicine, it is an animal infected or par-
asitized by another organism
humus: rich soil component derived from plant breakdown and bacterial
action
hybridization: formation of a new individual from parents of different species
or varieties
hydraulic: related to fluid flow
hydrocarbon: compounds of hydrogen and carbon
hydrodynamic condition: related to flow of water
hydrology: the science dealing with the properties, distribution, and circula-
tion of water
hydromodification: any process that alters the hydrologic characteristics of a
body of water
immobile: not moving
immunocompromised: having a weakened immune system
impact: a change to the environment resulting from a human activity or
product
impermeable: not easily penetrated; the property of a material or soil that
does not allow, or allows only with great difficulty, the movement or passage
of water
in situ: in its original place; unmoved or unexcavated; remaining at the site or
in the subsurface
incident solar: sun energy that hits a particular spot
industrial metabolism: flow of resources and energy in an industrial system
inertness: inability to react chemically
infrastructure: the basic facilities, services, and installations needed for the
functioning of a system, i.e., the various components of a water supply system
ingest: take in through the mouth
inhalation: drawing into the lungs by breathing
injection well: a well into which fluids are pumped for purposes such as
underground waste disposal, improving the recovery of crude oil, or solution
mining
inorganic: compounds not containing carbon
integrative commons governance: a governing system which recognizes and
protects publicly shared resources, usually under local control
integrity: wholeness and stability
interest groups: corporate or citizen groups with a stake in influencing
legislation
343
Glossary

intergenerational sustainability: ability of a system to remain stable and pro-

ductive over several generations

ion: an electrically charged atom or group of atoms

isotope: a variation of an element that has the same atomic number of protons
but a different weight because of the number of neutrons; various isotopes of
the same element may have different radioactive behaviors, some are highly
unstable

labor market: the area or pool of workers from which an employer draws
employees

lake acre: an acre of lake surface

land subsidence: sinking or settling of land
landfills: sanitary landfills are disposal sites for nonhazardous solid wastes
spread in layers, compacted to the smallest practical volume, and covered by
material applied at the end of each operating day; secure chemical landfills are
disposal sites for hazardous waste, selected and designed to minimize the
chance of release of hazardous substances into the environment

late-onset: occurring in adulthood or old age

leach pad: in mining: a specially prepared area where mineral ore (especially
gold) is heaped for metal extraction

leach solution: in mining: chemical solution sprayed on ore to extract metal

leach: dissolve out
leachate: water that collects contaminants as it trickles through wastes, pes-
ticides, or fertilizers; leaching may occur in farming areas, feedlots, and land-
fills, and may result in hazardous substances entering surface water, ground
water, or soil

leguminous: members of the pea family, or legumes

lipophilicity: solubility in or attraction to waxy, fatty, or oily substances
locomotion: self-powered movement
loess: soil deposited by wind
low tillage: reduced level of plowing
maceral: organic remains visible in coal
macroscopic: large enough to be visible, in contrast to microscopic
Magna Carta: English charter giving landowners rights under the king’s
authority

malleable: able to be shaped and bent

Malthusian hypothesis: idea that populations always grow faster than their
food supply, from Thomas Malthus
344
 Glossary

maximum contaminant level: in water: the maximum permissible level of a

contaminant in water delivered to any user of a public system; MCLs are
enforceable standards
media: specific environments—air, water, soil—which are the subject of reg-
ulatory concern and activities
mediation: dispute resolution in which a neutral third party helps negotiate a
settlement
megawatt: one million watts
mesothelioma: malignant tumor of the mesothelium, a cell layer within the
lungs and other body cavities
metabolism: physical and chemical reactions within a cell or organism nec-
essary for maintaining life
metabolite: any substance produced by biological processes, such as those
from pesticides
metabolize: chemically transform within an organism
methanogenesis: creation of methane gas by microbes
microorganism: bacteria, archaea, and many protists; single-celled organisms
too small to see with the naked eye
mine workings: the parts of a quarry or mine that is being excavated
mineralize: convert to a mineral substance
mitigation: measures taken to reduce adverse impacts
mixing zone: an area of a lake or river where pollutants from a point source
discharge are mixed, usually by natural means, with cleaner water
mole: a chemical quantity, 6 x 1023 molecules. For oxygen, this amounts to
32 grams
molecule: the smallest division of a compound that still retains or exhibits all
the properties of the substance
molluscicide: chemical that kills mollusks
monoculture: large-scale planting of a single crop species
multilateral treaty: treaty between more than two governments
multisite: several sites
mutagenic: capable of causing permanent, abnormal genetic change
natural attenuation: reduction in a pollutant through combined action of
natural factors
nematocide: a chemical agent which is destructive to nematodes
nematode: worm-like organisms common in soil
neo-Malthusians: modern adherents to the ideas of Thomas Malthus
neonate: newborn
345
Glossary

neural: related to nerve cells or the nervous system

neurodegeneration: loss of function and death of brain cells
neurology: medical science relating to the nervous system
neurotoxic: harmful to nerve cells
neurotoxicant: chemical that is toxic to neurons, or brain cells
nitrate catch crop: crop planted to harvest soil nitrates
nitrification: the process whereby ammonia, typically in wastewater, is oxi-
dized to nitrite and then to nitrate by bacterial or chemical reactions
nonpoint source pollution: pollution originating from a broad area, such as
agricultural runoff or automobile emissions
nucleotide: building block of DNA and RNA in a cell
off-gas control: control of gases released into the air
open path monitor: detection device that employs a beam of light passing
through an open space
organic: referring to or derived from living organisms; in chemistry, any com-
pound containing carbon
organochlorine: chemical containing carbon and chlorine
organophosphate: pesticide that contains phosphorus; short-lived, but some
can be toxic when first applied
outfall: the place where effluent is discharged into receiving waters
overburden: rock and soil cleared away before mining
ovoid: shaped like an oval or egg
oxidize: react with oxygen
oxygenate: increase the concentration of oxygen within an area
ozonation: application of ozone to water for disinfection or for taste and odor
control
PAHs: polyaromatic hydrocarbons; compounds of hydrogen and carbon con-
taining multiple ring structures
particulate: fine liquid or solid particles such as dust, smoke, mist, fumes, or
smog, found in air or emissions; they can also be very small solids suspended
in water, gathered together by coagulation and flocculation
patent: legal document guaranteeing the right to profit from an invention or
discovery
pathogenic: causing illness
pathway: the physical course a chemical or pollutant takes from its source to
the exposed organism
PCBs: polychlorinated biphenyls; two-ringed compounds of hydrogen, car-
bon, and chlorine
346
 Glossary

per capita: per individual person in the population

percolating: moving of water downward and radially through subsurface soil
layers, usually continuing downward to groundwater; can also involve
upward movement of water
persistent bioaccumulative toxics: a group of substances that are not easily
degraded, accumulate in organisms, and exhibit an acute or chronic toxicity
pH: an expression of the intensity of the basic or acid condition of a liquid;
may range from 0 to 14, where 0 is the most acid, 7 is neutral, and 14 is most
base; natural waters usually have a pH between 6.5 and 8.5
photochemical: light-induced chemical effects
phthalate: particular class of complex carbon compounds
physical removal: digging up and carting away
phytoplankton: that portion of the plankton community comprised of tiny
plants; e.g. algae, diatoms
planktonic: that portion of the plankton community comprised of tiny
plants; e.g. algae, diatoms
plume: a visible or measurable discharge of a contaminant from a given point
of origin; can be visible, invisible, or thermal in water, or visible in the air as,
for example, a plume of smoke
PM-10: airborne particles under 10 micrometers in diameter
polymer: a natural or synthetic chemical structure where two or more
like molecules are joined to form a more complex molecular structure (e.g.,
polyethylene)
polyvinyl chloride (PVC): class of complex carbon compounds containing
chlorine
pore waters: water present in the pores or cavities in sediments, soil, and rock
porosity: degree to which soil, gravel, sediment, or rock is permeated with
pores or cavities through which water or air can move
priority pollutant: a designated set of common water pollutants
protein: complex nitrogenous organic compound of high molecular weight
made of amino acids; essential for growth and repair of animal tissue; many,
but not all, proteins are enzymes
protocol: in government: agreement establishing rules or code of conduct;
science: a series of formal steps for conducting a test
pyrethroid: chemicals derived from chrysanthemums and related plants
radionuclide: radioactive particle, man-made or natural, with a distinct
atomic weight number; can have a long life as soil or water pollutant
ratification: formal approval
raw water: intake water prior to any treatment or use
347
Glossary

reactive chemicals: chemicals likely to undergo chemical reaction

recharge: the process by which water is added to a zone of saturation, usually
by percolation from the soil surface (e.g., the recharge of an aquifer)
reclamation: in recycling: restoration of materials found in the waste stream
to a beneficial use which may be for purposes other than the original use
reevaporate: return to the gaseous state
refractory: resistant (to heat: difficult to melt; also to authority)
refrigerant: liquid or gas used as a coolant in refrigeration
regenerative: able to be regenerated or created anew
remediate: reduce harmful effects; restore contaminated site
remediation: cleanup or other methods used to remove or contain a toxic spill
or hazardous materials from a Superfund site or for the Asbestos Hazard
Emergency Response program
residue: the dry solids remaining after evaporation
respiratory: having to do with breathing
river mile: one mile, as measured along a river’s centerline
royalty: money paid by a user to an owner
scrubber: an air pollution control device that uses a spray of water or reactant
or a dry process to trap pollutants in emissions
sedative: substance that reduces consciousness or anxiety
sediment impoverishment: loss of sediment
sedimentary: related to or formed by deposition of many small particles to
form a solid layer
seep: movement of substance (often a pollutant) from a source into sur-
rounding areas
septic tank: an underground holding tank for wastes from homes not con-
nected to a sewer line
sick building syndrome: shared health and/or comfort effects apparently
related to occupation of a particular building
sink: hole or depression where a compound or material collects; thermody-
namics: part of a system used to collect or remove heat
smelting: the process in which a facility melts or fuses ore, often with an
accompanying chemical change, to separate its metal content; emissions
cause pollution
solubility: the amount of mass of a compound that will dissolve in a unit
volume of solution; aqueous solubility is the maximum concentration of a
chemical that will dissolve in pure water at a reference temperature
soluble: able to be dissolved in
348
 Glossary

solvent: substance, usually liquid, that can dissolve other substances

sorbent: a substance that absorbs (within) or adsorbs (on the surface) another
substance
source reduction: reducing the amount of materials entering the waste
stream from a specific source by redesigning products or patterns of produc-
tion or consumption (e.g., using returnable beverage containers); synonymous
with waste reduction
spatial: related to arrangement in space
spent radioactive fuel: radioactive fuel rods after they has been used for
power generation
spray dryers: dryer used to remove heavy metals and other pollutants from
incineration gases
standing: the legal right to pursue a claim in court
stenothermic: living or growing within a narrow temperature range
stewardship: care for a living system
stratosphere: the portion of the atmosphere ten to twenty-five miles above
the earth’s surface
subset: a smaller group within a larger one
subsidence: sinking of earth surface due to underground collapse
substrate: surface on which an organism, i.e. mold, grows
Superfund: the fund established to pay for the cleanup of contaminated sites
whose owners are bankrupt or cannot be identified
supersonic: faster than the speed of sound
suppression: reduction in or prevention of an effect
surface water: all water naturally open to the atmosphere (rivers, lakes, reser-
voirs, ponds, streams, seas, estuaries, etc.)
sustainable development: economic development that does not rely on
degrading the environment
sustainable: able to be practiced for many generations without loss of pro-
ductivity or degradation of the environment
synergistic: combination of effects greater than the sum of the parts
systemic: throughout the body
tailings: residue of raw material or waste separated out during the processing
of mineral ores
Takings impacts analysis: analysis of the impacts due to government
restriction on land use
teach-in: educational forum springing from a protest movement (derived
from sit-in protests)
349
Glossary

temperature inversion: temporary trapping of lower warm air by higher cold

air
teratogen: something that causes birth defects, may be radiation, a chemical
or a virus
teratogenic: causing birth defects
thermal infrared imaging: photographs in which contrast depends on dif-
ferences in temperature
thermal shock: rapid temperature change beyond an organism’s ability to
adapt
thermodynamic limitations: tendency of chemical reactions to reverse when
products remain in the reaction mixture
thermotolerance: ability to withstand temperature change
titleholder: the person or entity holding the legal title or deed to a property
toluene: carbon-containing chemical used in fuel and as a solvent
topography: the physical features of a surface area including relative eleva-
tions and the position of natural and man-made (anthropogenic) features
transient: present for a short time
transuranic waste: waste containing one or more radioactive elements heav-
ier than uranium, created in nuclear power plants or processing facilities
tribunal: committee or board appointed to hear and settle an issue
trophic: related to feeding
turbid: containing suspended particles
turbine: machine that uses a moving fluid (liquid or gas) to gas to turn a rotor,
creating mechanical energy
ultraviolet radiation: high-energy, short-wavelength light beyond human
vision
unitary system: a centralized system or government
unreactivity: lack of chemical reactivity
unsaturated: capable of dissolving more solute, i.e., water
variable vale control: a system for automatically adjusting engine valve tim-
ing for better fuel efficiency
vector: an organism, often an insect or rodent, that carries disease; plasmids,
viruses, or bacteria used to transport genes into a host cell: a gene is placed in
the vector; the vector then “infects” the bacterium
volatility: relating to any substance that evaporates readily
volatilize: vaporize; become gaseous
Warsaw Pact: nations allied with the former Soviet Union
waste-to-energy: to convert solid waste into a usable form of energy
350
 Glossary

water table: the level of water in the soil

watershed: the land area that drains into a stream; the watershed for a major
river may encompass a number of smaller watersheds
wetland: an area that is saturated by surface or ground water with vegetation
adapted for life under those soil conditions, as swamps, bogs, fens, marshes,
and estuaries

351
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 Index
Page numbers in boldface type indi- Acid mine drainage (AMD), 1:101, See also Antinuclear movement;
cate article titles; those in italic type 2:48 Earth Day 1970;
indicate illustrations. Environmental movement;
Acid rain, 1:3–6, 1:4, 1:5, 1:6,
1:206, 1:261 specific activists and
1002 Area of ANWR, 1:41–43 organizations
1996 Olympics, 1:49 fish kills from, 1:214
Acute, defined, 1:134
2002 World Summit on international conventions on,
Acute respiratory infections, 1:251
Sustainable Development, 1:24, 2:257 Acute toxicity, 1:127, 2:250
1:153 monitoring, 2:177 Adaptation, to climate changes,
24-hour standards, defined, 2:90 nitrogen oxides and, 1:36, 2:64 1:227, 1:228
from petroleum, 2:106 Adaptive management, 1:21
A from smelting, 2:205–206 Addams, Jane, 1:21–22, 1:22,
Abalone Alliance, 1:40 from soil pollution, 2:210 1:200, 1:246, 2:148, 2:202–203
Abandoned mines, 2:47 studies on, 1:15 Adenofibrosis, 2:92
Abatement, 1:1–3, 1:94 Adherence, defined, 2:192
sulfur dioxide and, 1:36, 2:224
dioxins, 1:123–124 Adjudication, defined, 1:110
surface water pollution from,
education for, 1:162–164 Adjudicative dispute resolution,
2:308 1:110
electric power generation,
U.S. program on, 1:175, 1:175, Administrative Procedures Act
1:169–170
of freshwater pollution, 2:310 2:199 (APA), 1:289, 2:18
of sedimentation, 2:201–202 Acid Rain Program, 1:175, 1:175, Adolescents
Thames River, 2:312 2:199 environmental health and,
of thermal pollution, 2:242–243 ACMs (Asbestos-containing 1:253–254
See also Cleanup; Pollution materials), 1:45–47 noise pollution and, 2:66–67
Adsorption
prevention Activated carbon, 2:310
for arsenic removal, 1:44
Aberfan, South Wales, 1:132 Activated sludge process, 2:300
for chemical spills, 1:128
Absorption, for indoor air Active attentives, 1:230 defined, 1:2, 2:129
pollution, 1:278 Activism, 1:7–20, 1:13, 1:14, 1:17, for indoor air pollution, 1:278
Absorption spectra, 2:195–197, 1:253 Advanced treatment, of wastewater,
2:197
1960s, 1:8–11, 1:202–204, 2:300
Acadia National Park, Maine, Advertising
2:154
2:278 consumerism and, 2:21
1970s, 1:11–13, 1:204–206
Accidents. See Disasters for Earth Day, 1:148
1980s, 1:13–16, 1:18
Acetylcholine, defined, 2:96 environmentalism in, 2:132–133
Acetylcholine (ACh), 2:96–97 1990s, 1:18–19
greenwashing and, 2:135
AcH (Acetylcholine), 2:96–97 environmental justice and,
Advise and consent, defined, 2:146
Acid drainage, from mining, 1:197, 1:197–199 AEC (Atomic Energy
1:129–130 historical roots, 1:7–8 Commission), 1:39–40
Acid gases, from incineration, student, 2:150–151 AEP (American Electric Power),
1:273–274 whaling, 1:203 1:183

353
Aeration

Aeration, defined, 1:107 critical levels of, 1:201–202 Algal blooms, 1:214, 1:215
Aerobic, defined, 2:303 electric power plants and, 1:169 Alien Torts Claims Act (ATCA),
Aerosol Connection, 2:71–72 global aspects of, 1:34–35 2:25
Affinity, defined, 2:92 history of, 1:261 Alkali Acts, 1:285
Afforestation, defined, 1:72 MTBE and, 2:269 Alkaline fuel cells, 1:217
Africa from petroleum, 2:106–107 Allergens, defined, 2:54
agriculture in, 1:27–28 point sources of, 2:117–119, Allergies
cholera in, 2:311 2:118 from indoor air pollutants,
population growth in, 2:138 prevalence of, 2:272 1:278
See also Developing countries protests and, 1:253 from molds, 2:53–54
Afterburners, 1:273 sampling and, 2:192
See also Asthma; Health
Afton, North Carolina, 1:220 from smelting, 2:204–206
problems
Agencies, regulatory. See from soil pollution, 2:210
Alliance for Sustainable Jobs and
Regulatory agencies from vehicle emissions, 1:219,
the Environment, 1:62
Agency for Toxic Substances and 2:106–107
Allkyllead, 2:93
Disease Registry, 1:257 See also Clean Air Act; Indoor
Alloys, defined, 2:14
Agenda 21, 1:24, 1:152, 1:234, air pollution; Smog; specific
Alluvial soils, defined, 1:25
2:77, 2:143–144, 2:228 pollutants and locations
See also Earth Summit Air pollution control, 1:37, 1:261 Alpha decay, 2:162, 2:168
Agent Orange, 1:122, 1:123, 2:282, EPA on, 2:263 Alpha radiation, defined, 2:167
2:283–284, 2:284 with incineration, 1:270–271, al-Qaeda, 2:238
Aging, environmental health and, 1:273–274, 1:274 See also Terrorist attacks,
1:255 indoor pollution, 1:275, September 11, 2001
Agitation dredging. See 1:278–279 Altamont Pass, California, 1:166
Hydrodynamic dredging nitrogen oxides and, 2:64 Alternating current, 1:165
Agricultural wastes, 2:176 Air Pollution Control Act (APCA) Alternative feedstock, 1:235–236
green chemicals from, of 1955, 1:8, 1:32, 1:38 Alternative fuels, 1:183, 1:189,
1:235–236 Air quality 1:246, 2:107, 2:276
water pollution from, activism and, 1:9 Alternative household products,
2:307–308, 2:312 indoor, 1:277–279 1:268
See also Animal wastes; managers, 1:79 Altgeld Gardens, 1:209
Pesticides mining and, 2:47 Aluminum
Agricultural workers. See Labor, NOAA and, 2:58 acid rain and, 1:3, 1:5
farm standards, 2:118 recycling, 2:170, 2:171, 2:206
Agriculture, 1:24–30, 1:25 See also Air pollution Ambient air, defined, 1:2, 2:66
acid rain and, 1:3 Air scrubbers, 2:129, 2:130 Amchitka Island, 1:11–12, 1:243
colonization and, 2:142 Air stripping, 2:130 AMD. See Acid mine drainage
education in, 1:84–85 defined, 1:97, 2:129
American Cancer Society, 2:121
green revolution in, 1:240–241 for groundwater contamination,
American Electric Power (AEP),
multinational corporations and, 1:97, 2:268, 2:310
1:183
1:241 at Superfund sites, 2:226
American Enterprise Institute,
nonpoint source pollution from, Air toxics. See Hazardous air
2:324
2:73–74, 2:76 pollutants (HAPs)
American Legion convention,
pollution prevention in, 2:126 Aircraft noise, 2:66–68
1:278
population growth and, 2:139 AK Steel Corporation, 2:308
sedimentation and, 2:201 Alabama, 1:209 American lore, 2:134–135
solar energy in, 2:177 Alaska National Interest Lands American Society of Heating,
sustainable, 1:28–29, 2:100 Conservation Act (ANILCA) of Refrigerating and Air-
See also Pesticides 1980, 1:41 Conditioning Engineers, 1:279
AHERA (Asbestos Hazard Albee, Edward, 1:159 Ammonia, 2:195
Emergency Response Act) of Aldicarb, 2:97 Ammonium, in acid rain, 1:5
1987, 1:46, 2:249 Aldrin, 2:94, 2:96 Anaerobic, defined, 2:176, 2:303
Air pollution, 1:30–38, 1:31, 1:32, Aleutian Islands, 1:11–12 Anaerobic water, 1:84
1:33, 1:34, 1:283 ALF (Animal Liberation Front), Analysis, environmental, 1:81
California regulations, 1:23 1:160 Analytical chemistry, green, 1:236

354
 Attainment areas

ANILCA (Alaska National Interest Union of Concerned Scientists The Articles of Confederation,
Lands Conservation Act) of and, 2:271 1:230–231
1980, 1:41 Antiwar activists, 2:154 Asbestos, 1:45–47, 1:46
Animal and Plant Health ANWR (Arctic National Wildlife in building materials, 1:266,
Inspection Service (APHIS), Refuge), 1:41–43, 2:107 1:268, 1:276
2:100 AOCs (Areas of concern), 1:121 as carcinogen, 1:67, 1:69
Animal diseases, fish kills from, APA. See Administrative in mining, 2:50
1:214–215 Procedures Act with tobacco smoke, 2:244
See also Aquatic species Apartheid, eco-, 2:25–26 Toxic Substances Control Act
Animal Liberation Front (ALF), APCA (Air Pollution Control Act) and, 2:249
1:160 of 1955, 1:8, 1:32, 1:38 from World Trade Center
Animal rights, 1:18, 1:160–161 APHIS (Animal and Plant Health terrorist attack, 2:235
Animal wastes Inspection Service), 2:100 Asbestos Hazard Emergency
in agriculture, 1:26 Appliances, 1:169, 2:212 Response Act (AHERA) of
electricity from, 1:29 Aquaculture, defined, 1:214 1987, 1:46, 2:249
in freshwater, 2:307–308, 2:310 Aqualung, 1:116 Asbestos identification surveys,
in marine water, 2:312–313 Aquatic species 1:47
Animals biomonitoring of, 2:197 Asbestos-containing materials
in Arctic National Wildlife exposure to PPCPs, 1:111–112 (ACMs), 1:45–47
Refuge, 1:43 fish kills, 1:213–215 Asbestosis, 1:45, 1:46
arthropods, 1:293
heavy metals and, 1:257–258 Ascension Parish, 2:141
biomonitoring of, 2:197
hydromodification and, 2:74 Ash, 1:103, 1:168–169, 2:115
hazards to, 2:187
hypoxia and, 1:270 Asia
livestock, 1:25–26, 2:44, 2:74
mercury exposure and, 2:42, fertilizers in, 1:28
mammals, 1:138–139,
2:310 green revolution in, 1:240
2:314–315
oil spills and, 1:127–128 on smoke-free environments,
oil spills and, 1:138–139
pesticides and, 2:98–99 2:245
See also Aquatic species; Birds;
sedimentation and, 2:200–202 See also Southeast Asia; specific
Wildlife
thermal pollution and, countries
Annan, Kofi, 1:153, 2:224
2:241–242 Aspergillosis, 2:53
Anne Anderson, et al. v. W.R. Grace
water pollution and, 2:310–315 Association of Metropolitan
& Co., et al., 1:69
See also Eutrophication Sewerage Agencies, 1:60
Antagonistic, defined, 2:251
Aqueous phase chemicals, 1:97 Asteroid impacts, 1:132
Antarctic ice sheets, 1:226, 1:227
Aquifers, 1:243–244, 1:292, 2:309, Asthma, 1:47–49, 1:48, 1:254
Antarctica. See Ozone hole
Anthracene, 2:281 2:321 from molds, 2:53–54
Anthrax, 2:238 Arab Oil Embargo (1973-1974), from ozone, 2:85
Anthropocentric environmental 2:102 from sulfur dioxide, 2:224
ethics, 1:211–212 Arbitration, 1:41, 1:110, 2:32 Astronomical research, light
Anthropogenic pollutants, 1:32, Archetypes, defined, 1:132 pollution and, 2:28–30
1:242 Arctic National Wildlife Refuge Asymmetrical warfare, defined,
defined, 1:3, 2:43 (ANWR), 1:41–43, 2:107 2:238
particulates, 1:35, 2:89 “Are We Scaring Ourselves to ATCA (Alien Torts Claims Act),
See also specific pollutants and Death?”, 2:35 2:25
sources Areas of concern (AOCs), 1:121 Atmosphere, ozone in, 2:85–86
Antibiotics. in wastewater, 1:112 Argentina, environmental law Atomic absorption spectroscopy,
Antifreeze. recycling, 2:172 enforcement in, 1:191 2:195
Antimicrobials. defined, 1:122 Argonne National Laboratory, 2:26 Atomic bombs, 1:38–39, 1:186,
Antinoise groups. See Noise Arithmetic, defined, 2:33 2:286
pollution Arizona, 2:307 Atomic energy. See Nuclear energy
Antinuclear movement, 1:38–41, Army Corps of Engineers. See U.S. Atomic Energy Act of 1954, 2:77
1:39, 1:202 Army Corps of Engineers Atomic Energy Commission
Brower, David, 1:61 Arnold, Ron, 2:323 (AEC), 1:39–40
Greenpeace, 1:11–12 Arsenic (As), 1:43–45, 1:69, 2:205 Atomic spectra, 2:195
Nader, Ralph in, 2:56 Arthropods, defined, 1:293 Attainment areas, 1:92

355
Audubon Society

Audubon Society. See National BCCs (Bioaccumulating of mercury, 2:42

Audubon Society chemicals), 1:121, 2:52, 2:311 of organochlorines, 2:96
Australia BCF (Bioconcentration factor), of PCBs, 2:92
environmental law enforcement 1:52 soil pollution and, 2:210
in, 1:191 Beaches, 2:314–315 See also specific chemicals
Kyoto Protocol, 1:229 Bean v. Southwestern Waste Bioaerosols, 1:276–277
on lead-based paint, 2:14 Management Corp., 1:197–198 Bioassays, defined, 2:82
light control policy, 2:31 BEAR (Business and Bioavailability, defined, 2:188
on medical wastes, 2:39 Environmentalists Allied for Bio-based IPM. See Bio-intensive
ocean dumping restrictions, Recycling), 1:61 IPM
1:57 Beatty, Nevada, 2:165 Biocentrism, 2:329
Autoimmune system, defined, Becquerel, Antoine Henri, 2:161 Biochemical oxygen demand
1:255 Bed load transport, defined, 2:200 (BOD), 2:84
Automobile emissions. See Vehicle Bees, 2:98 Bioconcentration, 1:50
emissions Belarus Ministry of Health, 1:135 defined, 2:96
Automobiles Bendiocarb, 2:97 of pesticides, 2:98
fuel economy, 1:218–219 Beneficial use, 1:50 Bioconcentration factor (BCF),
plastics in, 2:113–114 of biosolids, 1:58, 1:58 1:52
recycling, 2:171, 2:173 of dredged sediments, 2:82 Biodegradation, 1:52–53
Benign manufacturing, 1:236 defined, 2:15
used, 2:181, 2:183
Benomyl, 2:98
See also Vehicle emissions for groundwater remediation,
Benzene, 2:194, 2:281
2:268
as carcinogen, 1:67, 2:251
B of hazardous wastes, 1:249
in LUSTs, 2:266
Babies. See Infants lead and, 2:15
from World Trade Center
Bacteria for soil pollution, 2:211
terrorist attack, 2:235
biodegradation by, 1:53, of solid wastes, 2:216–217
Benzene hexachloride (BHC), 2:96
2:197–198 at Superfund sites, 2:226
Benzo(a)pyrene, 2:93
in bioterrorism, 2:238 Biodiesel, 2:176
Benzotriazoles, phytoremediation
chlorination for, 2:320–321 Biodiversity
of, 1:55
in wastewater treatment, 2:300 defined, 1:242
Bergen Declaration on Sustainable
Bacterial infections, 1:251 pesticides and, 2:98
Development, 2:145
indoor air pollution and, 1:277, Biogas, 2:176
Bertalanffy, Ludwig von, 2:231
1:278 Biogeochemical interaction,
Best management practices
Legionnaires’ disease, 1:278 defined, 2:200
(BMPs), 2:76
Baghouses, defined, 1:274 Bio-intensive IPM, 1:294
Beta decay, 2:162
Bald eagles, 1:82 Beta radiation, defined, 2:167 Biological capital, defined, 1:239
Ballschmiter, K., 2:91 Beverage industry, bottle deposit Biological control, of pests,
Bangladesh laws and, 1:60–61 1:293–294
cholera in, 2:311 Beyond the Limits, 1:239 Biological effects, defined, 1:171
climate change and, 1:227 BHC (Benzene hexachloride), 2:96 Biological sludges, 2:289
Bari, Judi, 1:161 Bhopal, India, 1:125, 1:127, 1:173, Biological treaties, 1:239
Barnes Aquifer, Massachusetts, 1:206, 1:263, 1:264, 2:99 Bioluminescence, defined, 2:192
2:310–311 Bifuel vehicles, 1:189 Bioluminescent reporter
Barrels, burn, 1:65 “Big Yellow Taxi,” 2:133 technology, 2:197–198
“Barry Commoner’s Contribution Bikini Atoll, 1:202 Biomagnification, 1:50, 1:51
to the Environmental Billboards, 2:279 Biomass
Movement,” 1:104 Bills, congressional, 2:16–17 defined, 1:72, 2:297
Basel Convention on the Binding arbitration, 1:41 as energy source, 2:175, 2:176,
Transboundary Movement of Bioaccumulating chemicals 2:297
Hazardous Waste (1989), 2:7, (BCCs), 1:121, 2:52, 2:311 ethanol from, 1:236
2:291–292, 2:293–294 Bioaccumulation, 1:50–52, 1:51 fuels from, 1:183
Batteries, 2:212 defined, 1:134, 2:91 gasification, 1:167
lead in, 2:14 dilution and, 1:121 Biomonitoring, 2:192, 2:197
recycling, 2:172, 2:206 marine pollution and, 2:314 Bioreactor landfills, 2:217

356
 Canada

Bioremediation, 1:53–56, 1:54, Branches of government, 1:229, Convention on Biodiversity,

1:98 1:231 1:152
for chemical spills, 1:128 Brazil on Kyoto Protocol, 1:149
defined, 1:98 activists and, 1:19 Bush, George W.
of hazardous wastes, 1:249–250 waste to energy in, 2:297 on Arctic National Wildlife
at Libby, Montana site, 2:227 Breakdown, defined, 1:87, 2:84 Refuge, 1:42
of metal-contaminated soils, Breakdown product, defined, 1:177 CEQ and, 2:147
1:59 Breast cancer, 1:69–70, 1:176, environmental reporting and,
for petroleum pollution, 2:106 1:254–255 2:36
Biosolids, 1:56–60, 1:57, 1:58, The Breast Cancer and the EPA reforms and, 2:159
1:59, 1:60 Environment on Long Island on fuel cell research, 1:216
composting, 1:105–108, 1:107, Study, 1:69–70 on Kyoto Protocol, 1:229, 1:261
1:108 “Breathers’ Lobby,” 1:9 terrorism legislation and, 2:238
defined, 1:50 A Brief History of Pollution, 1:282 on transportation of nuclear
reuse of, 2:299–300 Brine, defined, 1:292 wastes, 1:40
Bioterrorism, 2:238 British Columbia, Canada, 1:239 on Yucca Mountain, 2:165
Bioventing, 1:55 British thermal units (BTUs), Bush-fallow systems, defined, 1:27
Birds defined, 1:167 Business and Environmentalists
DDT and, 1:119, 1:119, 1:252 Broad Street well (England), 1:260 Allied for Recycling (BEAR),
light pollution and, 2:30 Broad-spectrum insecticides, 2:97 1:61
oil spills and, 1:138–139 Buzzards Bay watershed, 2:76
Brokovich, Erin, 2:134
pesticides and, 2:96, 2:98 BZ numbers, 2:91
Brominated flame retardants, 1:51,
population of, 1:90
2:93
Birth control, 2:137, 2:138, 2:140
Bromine, 2:87, 2:195
C
Birthrates, 2:138–139 CAA. See Clean Air Act
Brookhaven Town Natural
Bituminous coal, defined, 1:167 CAAA. See Clean Air Act
Resources Committee
Black mold, 2:53 Cabinet level, defined, 2:147
(BTNRC), 1:205
Black Monday, 1:201 Cadmium
See also Environmental Defense
Blair, Alasdair, 1:284 health hazards of, 1:248
Fund
Blaushild, David, 1:8 as priority pollutant, 2:117
Brower, David, 1:9, 1:61, 1:61–62
Bliss, Russell, 2:243–244 from smelting, 2:205
Brownfields, 1:62–64
Blowouts, in oil drilling, 2:104 from World Trade Center
Brundtland, Gro, 1:64, 1:64–65,
Blue mussels, 2:197 terrorist attack, 2:235
1:151
BMPs (Best management CAFE (Corporate Average Fuel
The Brundtland Report. See Our
practices), 2:76 Economy) standards,
BOD (Biochemical oxygen Common Future 1:189–190, 1:218
demand), 2:84 BTEX compounds, 2:266 CAFOs (Concentrated animal
Bohr, Niels, 2:286 BTNRC (Brookhaven Town feeding operations), 1:26, 2:308
Boilers, 1:181–182 Natural Resources Committee), Calcium carbonate, acid rain and,
Bombs, atomic, 1:38–39, 1:186, 1:205 1:3
2:286 BTUs (British thermal units), California
Bonaparte, Napoleon, 1:282 defined, 1:167 asthma studies in, 1:49
Booms, defined, 1:139 Building materials Corona, 2:223
Boreal forests, defined, 1:41 asbestos in, 1:45–47 pervious concrete use in, 2:77
Borlaug, Norman, 1:240 indoor air pollution from, 1:276 regulatory agencies, 1:23
Boston Harbor, 1:258 See also Sick building syndrome See also Los Angeles smog
Botanical insecticides, defined, Buildings, mold in, 2:52–53 California Air Resources Board,
2:97 Bullard, Robert, 1:198, 2:26, 2:141 1:23
Bottle deposit laws, 1:60–61, 1:61 Bullitt Foundation, 1:247 Callicott, J. Baird, 1:211
Bottles, recycling of, 2:112 Bunker Hill, Idaho, 1:59, 2:49 Calypso (ship), 1:116, 2:132–133
Botulinum toxin, 2:250 Burford, Anne, 2:243 “Calypso” (song), 2:132–133
Boycotts, consumer, 2:286 Burger, Joanna, 2:253 Campaign Against Pollution
BP Amoco, 1:238 Burn barrels, 1:65 (CAP), 1:204
Brain cancer, radio frequency and, Burnham, Grace, 2:325 Canada
1:67 Bush, George acid rain legislation, 1:5

357
Canada

Canada (continued) controlling emissions of, 1:37 C-BA (Cost-benefit analyses),

on bioaccumulation, 1:52 as criteria pollutant, 1:33, 1:35 1:114–116
consumerism in, 2:22 emissions trading and, 1:174 CCA (Chromated copper
Environment Canada, 1:121, IR spectroscopy for, 2:197 arsenate), 1:43
1:193–194 from petroleum, 2:106 CCHW (Citizens Clearinghouse
NAFTA and, 2:56–57 from vehicle emissions, 1:182, for Hazardous Wastes), 1:205,
National Pollution Release 2:273, 2:275 1:222
Inventory, 2:184–185 Carbon sequestration, 1:106 CDC. See Centers for Disease
National Water Resource Carbon tetrachloride, 1:67, 1:145 Control
Institute, 1:291 Carbon-14, 2:161 CEC (Commission for
parliamentary government in, Carbonyl groups, 2:114 Environmental Cooperation),
1:233 Carcinogens, 1:66–70, 2:251 1:194, 2:21–22, 2:57
petroleum use in, 2:101–102 from chemical accidents, 1:127 CEC (Council on Environmental
sewage sludge standards in, defined, 1:45, 2:99 Quality), 2:122, 2:146–147
2:190 electromagnetic fields, Cellular phones, cancer and, 1:67,
See also specific towns and 1:171–172 1:171–172
provinces in groundwater, 2:309 Center for Health, Environment
Cancer, 1:65–70, 1:66, 1:68, 1:69, PBT chemicals, 2:93 and Justice (CHEJ), 1:220,
1:255 PCBs, 2:92 1:222, 2:61
endocrine disruptors and, 1:176 PERC, 1:145 See also Citizens Clearinghouse
in Louisiana, 1:71, 2:141 for Hazardous Wastes
tobacco smoke, 2:244
See also Carcinogens; specific Center for the Defense of Free
from World Trade Center
types of cancer Enterprise, 2:323–324
terrorist attack, 2:235
Cancer Alley, Louisiana, 1:71, Centers for Disease Control
See also Hazardous air
1:209, 2:141 (CDC), 2:14, 2:38, 2:243, 2:309
pollutants; specific chemicals
Cancer clusters, 1:69–70, 1:71, Centrifugal scrubbers, 2:199
and products
2:187 Centrifuges, 2:233
Careers, in environmental
CAP (Campaign Against CEQ (Council on Environmental
protection, 1:75–82, 1:76, 1:78,
Pollution), 1:204 Quality), 2:122
1:80
Cape Canaveral Air Force Station, CERCLA. See Comprehensive
Caribou, 1:43
2:310 Environmental Response,
Carmody, Kevin, 2:35
Car emissions. See Vehicle Compensation, and Liability
Carpets, 1:269, 2:112
emissions Act
Carrying Capacity Network, 2:140
Carbamates, 2:96–97, 2:98 Ceres Principles, 2:8
Cars. See Automobiles
Carbaryl, 2:96–97 Cerrell Report, 2:143
Carbofuran, 2:97 Carson, Rachel, 1:8, 1:9, 1:82–84, Certification, international, 1:286,
Carbon, in fossil fuels, 1:215–216 1:83, 1:119, 1:202, 1:239–240, 2:8
Carbon dioxide (CO2), 1:72–73, 1:252, 2:34, 2:228, 2:328, 2:330 See also Laws and regulations
1:73 Carter, Jimmy Cesium-137, 1:134, 2:211
chemical structure of, 1:72 ANILCA and, 1:41 Cesspools, defined, 1:292
from coal burning, 1:102 on Love Canal, 1:221–222 CFCs (Chlorofluorocarbons),
emissions trading of, 1:175 on nuclear reprocessing, 1:188 1:87–88, 1:245
from fossil fuels, 1:216 President’s Council on chemical structure of, 1:87
global warming and, 1:242 Environmental Quality and, EPA on, 2:263
IR spectroscopy for, 2:196–197 2:146 global warming and, 1:242
Kyoto Protocol on, 1:34–35 Carver, George Washington, Montreal Protocol on, 1:34,
Persian Gulf War and, 2:239 1:84–86, 1:85 1:261, 2:257
from vehicle emissions, 1:182, Cascades, defined, 2:242 nongovernmental organizations
2:107, 2:274, 2:276 Casings, well, defined, 1:292 and, 2:71–72
Carbon monoxide (CO), 1:73–75, Catalysts, 1:189, 2:275 ozone layer and, 2:87
1:74 Catalytic, defined, 2:91 replacements for, 1:280–281
air quality standards on, 2:118, Catalytic converters, 1:86, CFR (Code of Federal
2:195 1:86–87, 2:198, 2:233 Regulations), 2:12, 2:78, 2:166
catalytic converters and, See also Vehicle emissions Champion International
1:86–87, 2:198 Cataracts, 2:266 Corporation, 2:227

358
 Clean Water Act (CWA)

Chávez, César E., 1:88–89, 1:89, China, birth control in, 2:137, Citizens for the Environment,
1:202, 2:1–2 2:140 2:324
Chavis Jr., Benjamin F., 1:198 The China Syndrome, 1:40, 1:135, Citric acid, 2:211
ChE (Cholinesterase), 2:96 2:133 A Civil Action, 1:69, 1:90, 1:109,
Checks and balances, 1:231 Chisso chemical plant, 1:294 2:133
CHEJ (Center for Health, Chloramination, defined, 1:255 Civil rights, 1:197–198
Environment and Justice), Chlordane, 2:94, 2:96, 2:247 Civil rights movement, 2:154
1:220, 1:222, 2:61 Chlorinated aromatic compounds, Civil wars, 2:284, 2:286
Chelating agents, 2:13, 2:211 2:209 Claims, defined, 2:51
Chelyabinsk-7, 2:286 Chlorination, 1:255, 2:270, 2:300, Clamshell Alliance, 1:40
Chemical accidents and spills, 2:316, 2:320–321 Clarifiers, defined, 2:300
1:124–129, 1:125, 1:127, 1:173, Chlorine, 2:87, 2:195 Clean Air Act (CAA), 1:91–92
1:206 Chlorobornanes. See Toxaphene acid rain and, 1:3, 1:5, 1:6
See also Oil spills Chlorofluorocarbons. See CFCs amendments to, 1:204
Chemical fertilizers, 1:26–27 Chloroform, as carcinogen, 1:67 on chemical accidents, 1:126
Chemical oxidation, for chemical Chloroparaffins, 2:93 Earth Day and, 1:149
spills, 1:128 Chlorophenol-based pesticides, on electric power plant
Chemical pollution, 1:263–265, 1:122 emissions, 1:102
1:294–295, 2:22, 2:35 Chloropicrin, 2:97 EPA and, 1:23
Chemical products, 1:122, 2:233 Cholera, from water pollution, federal government power and,
See also specific products and 1:259–260, 2:208–209, 2:310, 1:33–34, 2:122–123
classes of products 2:311, 2:316 Forest Service and, 2:259
Chemical warfare, 2:281 Cholinesterase (ChE), 2:96–97 on HAPs, 1:103
Chemically active, defined, 1:245 Chomophores, 2:114 incentives and, 2:158–159
Chemicals CHP (Combined heat and power), incineration and, 1:271
household, 1:266 1:189 lawsuits, 1:191
nontoxic, 1:236 Christmas Day Bird Count, 1:90 media coverage and, 2:35
in water treatment, 2:321 Chromated copper arsenate medical wastes and, 2:39
See also specific chemicals (CCA), 1:43 Nader, Ralph and, 1:239
Chemistry Chromatography, 2:192, 2:193–194 Nelson, Gaylord and, 2:62
environmental, 2:193–194 Chromium, 2:134 New Left and, 2:63
green, 1:235–237 health hazards of, 1:257 passage of, 1:8, 1:261, 2:121
Chemosynthesis, 2:106 as priority pollutant, 2:117 on point sources, 2:117–118
Cher, 2:133 Chronic, defined, 1:134 on scrubbers, 2:199
Cherney, Darryl, 1:161 Chronic toxicity, 1:127, 2:92, as single-medium approach,
Cherniak, Martin, 1:220 2:250–251 2:125–126
Chernobyl disaster, 1:40, Chrysotile, 1:45 smelting and, 2:206
1:134–135, 1:187, 1:264 Cigarette butts, 2:315 state laws and, 1:231
Chesapeake Bay, Maryland, 2:309, Cigarette smoke. See Tobacco wise-use movement on, 2:324
2:312 smoke World Trade Organization and,
Cheshire, Ohio, 1:183 Circumstances, of life, 2:131 2:326
Chicago, Illinois, 1:21–22, CITES (Convention on See also Air pollution
2:202–203 International Trade in Clean Air Act (England), 1:261,
Chicken manure, 1:29 Endangered Species of Wild 1:285
Chicxulub crater, 1:132 Fauna and Flora), 2:257 Clean fuels, 1:183
Children Citizen science, 1:89–90 Clean Water Act, 1:8
cellular phones and, 1:172 Citizen suits, 1:90–91, 1:191 Clean Water Act (CWA), 1:92–93,
environmental diseases in, Citizens 2:10, 2:121–123, 2:302–303,
1:251, 1:253–254 environmental responsibilities 2:304
heavy metals and, 1:257 of, 1:290, 1:291 amendments to, 1:204
lead poisoning in, 2:13–15, on hazardous material control, on beneficial use, 1:50, 1:149
2:49, 2:251–252 2:184 EPA and, 1:23
noise pollution and, 2:66–67 Citizens Clearinghouse for Forest Service and, 2:259
toxin sensitivity in, 2:251–252 Hazardous Wastes (CCHW), history of, 2:302
See also Infants 1:205, 1:222 mass media and, 2:35

359
Clean Water Act (CWA)

Clean Water Act (CWA) on environmental justice, 1:199, Colborn, Theo, 1:103–104, 2:330
(continued) 2:143 Cold War, 1:38–39, 1:187,
medical wastes and, 2:39 EPA reforms and, 2:159 2:286–287
on mining, 2:49 on green products, 1:238 College students, 2:150–151
Nader, Ralph and, 1:239 on World Trade Organization, Colleges, environmental careers in
Natural Resource Damage 1:239 See also specific colleges and
Assessment and, 2:61 Clive, Utah, 2:166 universities
Nelson, Gaylord and, 2:62 Clofibric acid, 1:112 Colonization, European, 2:142
on nonpoint source pollution, Cloracne, 2:92 Colorado River dams, 1:9–10
2:75 The Closing Circle: Man, Nature and Columbia Journalism Review, 2:35,
on ocean dumping, 2:80 Technology, 1:104–105, 1:204, 2:36
passage of, 1:260, 2:306–307 2:328, 2:330 Combined heat and power (CHP),
permits and, 2:9 Closures, mine, 2:47 1:189
on point sources, 2:116 Clothing, 2:181–182, 2:182, 2:183, Combined sewer overflows
vs. Rivers and Harbors 2:212 (CSOs), 2:301
Appropriations Act, 2:191 Club of Rome, 1:11, 1:14, 1:15, Combustion, 1:271–272,
as single-medium approach, 2:228 2:129–130
2:125–126 Coagulation, in water treatment, defined, 2:88
states and, 2:122 2:320 dioxin from, 1:122
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Coal, 1:100–103, 1:102, 1:215–216 indoor air pollution from, 1:275
and, 2:258 air pollution from, 1:102–103, mercury from, 2:43
on wastewater and surface 1:261 for municipal solid wastes,
water, 2:316 ash, 1:168–169 2:216
on whistleblowing, 2:322–323 cleaning, 1:102 See also Incineration
wise-use movement on, 2:324 electricity from, 1:166–167, Commercialism, 2:135
See also Water pollution 1:167 See also Materialism
Cleaner technologies, 2:232, 2:275, gasification, 1:67, 1:167 Commission for Environmental
2:276 mercury from, 2:43 Cooperation (CEC), 1:194,
Cleaning coal, 1:102 mining, 1:101 2:21–22, 2:57
Cleanup, 1:93–100, 1:94, 1:95 power plants, 1:180, 1:180–185, Commission for Racial Justice
vs. abatement, 1:1 2:107 (CRJ), 1:198, 2:288
of brownfields, 1:62 smog and, 2:206–207 Commission on Global
of chemical spills, 1:128 states’ usage of, 1:224 Governance, 2:224
of dredged sediment, 1:143–144 worldwide resources of, 1:180 Commission on Human
of Love Canal, 1:221 Coal Mine Health and Safety Act, Settlements (United Nations),
of military bases, 2:286 2:55 2:15
of oil spills, 1:139–140, 2:314 Coal-bed methane, 2:49 Commission on Sustainable
of Superfund sites, 2:225–227 Coast Guard. See U.S. Coast Development (CSD), 1:24,
voluntary programs, 1:286 Guard 1:152–153, 2:228
from World Trade Center Coastal Zone Management Act, Committee for a Sane Nuclear
terrorist attack, 2:235–236 2:9 Policy (SANE), 1:39
See also Abatement Coastal zones, 2:201 Common Sense Initiative, 2:128
Clearwater, 1:201 Cobalt, 1:256–257, 2:235 Commoner, Barry, 1:104–105,
Cleveland, Ohio, 1:253 Code of Federal Regulations 1:105, 1:204, 2:328, 2:330
Climate change, 1:18–19, (CFR), 2:12, 2:78, 2:166 Communications specialists,
1:224–229, 2:6, 2:49, 2:254 Codes of conduct, corporate, 2:7–8 1:77–78
See also Global warming Codex Alimentarius Commission, Community Service Organization
Climate Change Convention 2:6 (CSO), 1:88
(United Nations), 1:152, 2:6, Codify, defined, 2:146 Community Strategy on Waste
2:257 Coffee, shade-grown, 1:238 (European Environment
Clinical wastes. See Medical wastes Cogeneration, for energy Agency), 2:217
Clinton, Bill efficiency, 1:189 Community water systems (CWS),
CEQ and, 2:147 Cohn, Gary, 2:36 2:270
Chávez, César and, 1:89 COINTELPRO, 1:161 Competition, environmental
ecoterrorism and, 1:160 Coke, defined, 1:102 regulations and, 1:183–184

360
 Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ)

Competitive and Green: Sustainable Consensus, electoral, 1:239 Convention on Wetlands of

Performance in the Environmental Consensus building, 1:24, 1:110, International Importance
Age, 2:135 2:174–175 Especially as Waterfowl
Complex emergencies, defined, Consent orders, defined, 2:286 Habitat, 2:257
1:132 Conservation Convention to Combat
Compliance, defined, 2:55 careers in, 1:78–79 Desertification in Those
Composting, 1:55, 1:105–109, energy, 1:184, 2:170, 2:179 Countries Experiencing Serious
1:107, 1:108, 2:173–174, 2:213, groundwater, 1:244 Drought and/or Desertification,
2:215–216 See also Recycling 2:257
Comprehensive Environmental Conservation easements, defined, Conventions, 2:254
Response, Compensation, and See also specific conventions
2:62
Liability Act (CERCLA), Conversion, 1:98–99, 1:248–249
Conservationists, 1:78–79, 1:84
1:109–110, 2:10, 2:225 defined, 1:95
Consolidated Edison, 1:10
on brownfields, 1:62 of landfill gases to energy, 2:3–4
Constructed wetlands, 2:303
environmental justice and, Conway, Gordon R., 1:241
Consulting firms, environmental,
1:199 Cooling ponds, 2:240–242, 2:241
1:82
on friable asbestos, 1:47 Cooling towers, 2:242–243
Consumer pollution, 1:111–114,
heavy metals and, 1:258 Cooperative enforcement,
Love Canal and, 1:220, 1:222, 1:112 1:192–193
1:263 Consumerism, 2:19–23, 2:20 Copper, from smelting, 2:205
on military base cleanup, 2:286 Consumers Copper oxide regenerative
mining and, 2:48 of electricity, 1:169 scrubbers, 2:199
Natural Resource Damage petroleum pollution and, 1:139, Copper sulfate, 2:97
Assessment and, 2:61 1:141 Coprecipitation, for arsenic
passage of, 1:13–14, 1:206, plastic wastes and, 2:111, removal, 1:44
2:122, 2:123 2:111–113 Coral bleaching, 2:313
Compression Ignition Direct Containment, 1:99 Coral reefs, 2:313, 2:314
Injection engines, 1:189 defined, 1:95 Corona, California, 2:223
Computer models, defined, 2:31 double, 1:292 Corporate Average Fuel Economy
Computers Contaminants, defined, 2:205 (CAFE) standards, 1:189–190,
lead in screens, 2:14 Control rods, defined, 1:135 1:218
recycling, 2:172–173 Convent, Louisiana, 1:71, 1:209 Corporate codes of conduct, 2:7–8
Concentrated animal feeding Convention for the Application of Corporation for Public Access to
operations (CAFOs), 1:26, Prior Informed Consent (PIC) Science and Technology
2:308 Procedure for Certain (CPAST), 1:180
Concordance, defined, 1:255 Hazardous Chemicals and Corps of Engineers. See U.S. Army
Concrete, pervious, 2:77 Pesticides in International Corps of Engineers
Condea Vista (Conoco), 1:71 Corps of Engineers Modernization
Trade, 2:6, 2:7, 2:257
Condensation scrubbers, 2:199 and Improvement Act of 2002,
Convention on Biological
Condensers, defined, 2:240 2:258
Diversity (1992), 1:152, 2:145,
Confederation CorpWatch, 1:237–238
2:257
European, 1:231–232 Corrective justice, 1:210
Convention on International Trade
in pre-Revolutionary U.S., Corrosion, of underground storage
in Endangered Species of Wild
1:231 tanks, 2:266, 2:268
Fauna and Flora (CITES),
Conference on Environment and Corruption, political, 2:154
Development. See Earth 2:257 Costa Rica, 2:231–232
Summit Convention on Long-Range Cost-benefit analyses (C-BA),
Conference on the Human Transboundary Air Pollution, 1:114–116
Environment (United Nations), 2:6, 2:257 Costs
1:13, 1:151, 1:205, 2:72, 2:80 Convention on the Law of the Sea environmental business,
Conferences. See Treaties and (United Nations), 2:6 1:285–286
conferences Convention on the Prevention of of pollution, 1:157–159
Conflict resolution, 2:153–155 Marine Pollution by Dumping pollution economics and, 1:154
Congeners, defined, 1:122, 2:91 of Wastes and Other Matter. See Council on Environmental Quality
Congress (U.S.), 2:16–18 London Convention (CEQ), 2:122, 2:146–147

361
Counterculture

Counterculture Cyclodiene organochlorines, 2:96 in landfills, 2:216–217

defined, 1:148, 2:63 Czech Republic Decontamination. See Remediation
environmental activism and, light control policy, 2:31 Deep ecology, 1:150, 2:328–329
1:202 postindustrial site development Defenders of Property Rights,
Counterterrorism Division (FBI), in, 1:63 2:324
1:160–161 Defoliants, defined, 1:122, 2:281
Court adjudication, 1:110 D Defoliation
Cousins, Norman, 1:39 2,4-D, 2:97 defined, 1:148
Cousteau, Jacques, 1:11, 1:116, Dahlberg, Kenneth, 1:240 in Vietnam War, 2:283–284
1:116, 2:132–133 DaimlerChrysler, 1:216 Deforestation, carbon dioxide and,
Cousteau Society, 1:11 Dams, 2:74 1:72
Cover crops, 1:27 hydroelectric, 1:9–10, 1:61 Degradable plastics, 2:114
CPAST (Corporation for Public Serre de la Fare, demonstration Dehumidification, for indoor air
Access to Science and against building of, 2:120 pollution, 1:278
Technology), 1:180 Darwin, Charles, 1:141 Deicers, aircraft, defined, 1:53
Creeping disasters, 1:132 Data collection, 1:288–291 Delaney clause. See Section 409
Crime, environmental, 1:194–196, Databases, environmental data, (Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act)
1:195 1:290–291 Delaware Clean Air Coalition, 1:9
Criminal law, in environmental Davis, Devra Lee, 2:330 Delegated authority, 2:122
cases, 1:192 Dazomet, 2:97 Dell Computer, 2:173
Criteria pollutants, 1:33, 1:92, DBPs (Disinfection by-products), Deltamethrin, 2:97
2:106 2:270, 2:316, 2:320 Dematerialization, 1:279
air quality standards for, 2:118 DDE (Dichlorodiphenyl Demeton, 2:96
defined, 1:175 dichloroethylene), 1:252 Democracies, 1:230–234
See also specific pollutants DDT (Dichlorodiphenyl market, 2:19–21
CRJ (Commission for Racial trichloroethane), 1:118–120, sustainable environmental,
Justice), 1:198, 2:288 1:119, 2:94, 2:250 1:239
Cronkite, Walter, 2:34 chemical structure of, 1:118 Denitrification, defined, 2:64
Crop rotation, 1:25–26, 1:27–28 defined, 1:176, 2:1 Dense nonaqueous phase
Carver, George Washington discovery of, 2:96 chemicals (DNAPLs), 1:97,
and, 1:84 EPA and, 2:262–263 1:99, 2:69
defined, 1:84 estrogenic effects of, 1:176–177 Denver, John, 2:132–133
Crude oil, 2:101–107 ethics and, 1:211–212 Department of Agriculture. See
See also Petroleum health effects of, 1:252 U.S. Department of Agriculture
Cruel Tales of Japan: Modern Period, in India, 1:28 (USDA)
1:294 Nelson, Gaylord and, 2:62 Department of Energy. See U.S.
Cryptosporidiosis, 1:117–118, soil pollution and, 2:210 Department of Energy (DOE)
1:118, 2:310, 2:321 toxicology studies of, 2:252 Department of Health and Human
Cryptosporidium, 1:117, 1:118, 2:321 water pollution and, 2:310 Services. See U.S. Department
CSD. See Commission on See also Carson, Rachel of Health and Human Services
Sustainable Development DEA (Drug Enforcement Agency), (HHS)
CSO (Community Service 2:39 Department of Homeland Security.
Organization), 1:88 Deaths See U.S. Department of
CSOs (Combined sewer from air pollution, 1:142 Homeland Security
overflows), 2:301 excess, 1:30, 1:32 Department of Justice. See U.S.
Cultivars, defined, 1:25 from natural disasters, 1:132 Department of Justice (DOJ)
Curing stage, of humification, See also Health problems Department of Labor. See U.S.
1:107 Decay Department of Labor (DOL)
Customary international law, 2:5 of radionuclides, 2:161–162 Department of the Interior. See
Cuyahoga River, 1:7, 1:92, 1:203, of radon, 2:166–168 U.S. Department of the Interior
1:260, 2:304, 2:306, 2:307 “Decision Making,” 2:26 Department of Transportation. See
CWA. See Clean Water Act Decision making, public policy, U.S. Department of
CWS (Community water systems), 2:157–160 Transportation (DOT)
2:270 Decomposition Depletion, of ozone layer, 2:86–87
Cyanophenols, 2:98 of biosolids, 1:106–107 Deposits, defined, 2:51

362
 Doyle, Jack

Deregulation, in electric power Diapers, 2:212 nuclear accidents, 1:40,

generation, 1:169–170 Diarrheal diseases, 1:251 1:134–138, 1:137, 1:205–206,
Derris, 2:97 Diatomaceous earth, defined, 2:320 1:264–265, 2:160–161
DES (Diethylstilbestrol), 1:176 Diazinon, 2:96 See also Industrial accidents; Oil
Desalinization, 2:139 Dichlopropene, 2:97 spills; specific accidents
Desertification, 1:24, 1:132 Dichlorodiphenyl dichloroethylene Discrimination, environmental,
Desiccants, defined, 1:278 (DDE), 1:252 1:208–209
Design modifications, for Dichlorodiphenyl trichloroethane. Disease clusters, 1:69–71, 1:89–90,
abatement, 1:2 See DDT 1:109, 2:187
Despoliation, defined, 1:159 Dieldrin, 2:94, 2:96 Disinfection, in water treatment,
Detectors, 1:74–75, 2:194–197 Diesel, 1:120–121, 2:275 2:320–321
Detergents, pollution from, 2:209, Diesel, Rudolf Christian Karl, Disinfection by-products (DBPs),
2:310 1:120 2:270, 2:316, 2:320
Deterrent enforcement, 1:192–193 Diethylstilbestrol (DES), 1:176 Disposal. See Waste disposal
Detjen, Jim, 2:35 Diffusers, defined, 2:240 Dispute resolution, by consensus
Deuterium, defined, 2:278 Dilution, 1:121, 2:318–320 building, 1:110
Developed countries Dimethoate, 2:96 Dissolution into the oceans,
agriculture in, 1:27 Dinoflagellates, defined, 2:313 defined, 1:72
vs. developing countries, Dinosaur National Monument, Dissolved oxygen (DO), defined,
2:141–143 1:61 2:116
Kyoto Protocol and, 1:229 Dintrophenols, 2:98 Distillation
natural disasters in, 1:132–133 Dioxins, 1:121–124, 1:123, 2:94 column reboilers, 1:2
See also European Union; bioaccumlation of, 1:51 in solvent recovery, 1:146
specific countries in chemical accidents, 1:127 Distributive justice, 1:210, 1:212
Developing countries chemical structure of, 1:122 Disulfoton, 2:96
agriculture in, 1:27–28 cleanup of, 1:95 DNA
compliance with international defined, 2:216 cancer cells and, 1:66
standards by, 2:7 FDA on, 2:265–266 of molds, 2:54
vs. developed countries, gas chromatography for, 2:194 UV radiation and, 2:266
2:141–143 from open trash burning, 1:65 DNAPLs (Dense nonaqueous
Earth Summit and, 1:152 as PBT chemicals, 2:93 phase chemicals), 1:97, 1:99,
eco-apartheid in, 2:25 as priority pollutant, 2:117 2:69
energy sources in, 2:175 reporting requirements, 2:248 DOE. See U.S. Department of
green revolution and, at Times Beach, Missouri, Energy
1:240–241 2:243–244 Doe Run Smelting, 2:15, 2:15–16
injection wells in, 1:292 from World Trade Center DOJ. See U.S. Department of
natural disasters in, 1:132 terrorist attack, 2:235 Justice
nonpoint source pollution in, Diquat, 2:194 DOL. See U.S. Department of
2:76 Direct current, 1:165 Labor
P2 technologies in, 2:234 Direct methanol fuel cells, 1:217 Domestic wastewater. See Sanitary
poverty and environment in, Direct push technologies, 1:98 wastewater
2:140–142 Direct-action groups, 1:9, 1:204, Donora, Pennsylvania, 1:30, 1:142,
resource consumption in, 2:23, 1:206, 2:71 1:143, 1:201–202, 1:251, 1:261,
2:24 See also names of specific groups 2:207
trade disparities and, 2:24–25 Disaster cycle, defined, 1:132 Dose, of radiation, 2:161
use of DDT in, 1:120, Disasters Dose-response relationship,
1:211–212 chemical accidents and spills, 2:186–187, 2:188, 2:250–251,
waste trade in, 1:263, 1:124–129, 1:125, 1:127, 2:251
2:291–292, 2:293 1:173, 1:206 DOT. See U.S. Department of
water-contaminated diseases in, environmental engineers and, Transportation
2:311 1:79 Double containment, defined,
See also Africa; specific countries environmental mining 1:292
Development, of mines, 2:47 accidents, 1:129–130 The Doubly Green Revolution, 1:241
Diablo Canyon nuclear power natural, 1:130–134, 1:131, Douglas, Michael, 2:133
plant, 1:40, 1:61 1:133 Doyle, Jack, 1:284

363
Drake, Edwin L.

Drake, Edwin L., 2:101 mass media and, 2:35, 2:120 “Ecology of Images,” 2:134–135
Dredge spoils, 1:50, 2:83 Nelson, Gaylord and, 1:11, Economic development
Dredging, 1:142–145, 1:143, 1:204, 2:62 environmentalism and, 1:19–20,
2:81–82, 2:92, 2:258, 2:301 New Left and, 2:63 1:151, 2:154
Driers, defined, 2:14 recycling and, 2:169 pollution and, 1:7
Drilling wastes, defined, 1:42 Earth Day 1990, 1:149, 1:247, 2:35 See also Politics; Sustainable
Drinking water Earth Day 2000, 1:149 development
arsenic in, 1:44 Earth Day Network, 1:149 Economics, 1:153–159, 1:156,
contaminants, 1:257 Earth First!, 1:16, 1:19, 1:157, 1:158, 2:231–232
cryptosporidiosis from, 1:117 1:149–151, 1:150, 1:160–161, Eco-pornography, 2:135
defined, 2:266 1:204, 1:206 Ecosystems
disinfection by-products in, Earth First! The Radical defined, 1:129, 2:281
2:270 Environmental Journal, 1:150 industrial, 1:280
heavy metals in, 1:258 Earth in the Balance: Ecology and the oil spills and, 1:139
injection wells and, 1:292 Human Spirit, 2:329 systems science and, 2:230–231
LUSTs and, 2:266, 2:268 Earth Island Institute, 1:62 Ecotage. See Ecoterrorism
movies about, 2:133 Earth Liberation Front (ELF), Ecoterrorism, 1:16, 1:150,
MTBE in, 2:270 1:19, 1:160–161 1:159–162, 1:161
PPCPs in, 1:112 Earth Summit, 1:151–153 See also Earth First!
treatment of, 2:316–317 Earth Day and, 1:149 Ecotoxicity, from chemical
trichloroethylene in, 1:247 on environmental justice, accidents, 1:127–128
watersheds and, 2:310–311 2:143–144 ED (Effective dose), 2:186–187
See also Groundwater; Water Green movement and, 1:239 EDC (Ethylene dichloride), 1:71
treatment Greenpeace at, 1:242 EDTA, 2:211
Driveways, of pervious concrete, integrated environmental Education, environmental, 1:77,
2:77 policies, 2:158 1:81, 1:90, 1:162–164, 2:141
Drug Enforcement Agency (DEA), nongovernmental organizations Edward I (England), 1:30
2:39 at, 1:206–207, 2:72 EEA (European Environment
Drugs. See Pharmaceuticals and Strong, Maurice and, 2:224 Agency), 1:232, 2:217
personal care products on sustainable development, EF!. See Earth First!
Dry cleaning, 1:145–146 1:286, 2:228 EFA (Ecological footprint
Dry deposition, 1:3 on transboundary pollution, 2:5 analysis), 2:23, 2:23–25
Dry rot, 2:52 Earthquakes, 1:132–133, 2:265, Effective dose (ED), 2:186–187
Dry scrubbers, 1:274 2:331–332 Efficiency (Economics), 1:154,
DTPA, 2:211 ECO (Environmental Careers 1:236
Dumanoski, Dianne, 1:104 Organization), 1:81 Effluent limitations, 1:93
Dunlap, Riley, 2:132 Eco-apartheid, 2:25–26 Effluents
Durable goods, 2:211–212 Ecocentric environmental ethics, Clean Water Act on, 2:116
Dust, particulates from, 2:88–89 1:211–212 defined, 1:215, 2:242
Dust mites, house. See House dust Eco-efficiency, 1:286 Efflux pump inhibitors (EPIs),
mites Ecofeminism, 1:19, 2:329 defined, 1:112
Duvall, Robert, 2:133 Eco-footprints (EFs), 2:23, 2:23–25 E-FOIA (Electronic FOIA), 1:289
Ecological Consequences of EFs (Eco-footprints), 2:23, 2:23–25
E Artificial Night Lighting, 2:30 Ehrlich, Paul, 1:104, 1:164–165,
Earth Ecological footprint analysis 1:165, 1:202, 2:34, 2:328, 2:334
image from space, 1:10, 1:205, (EFA), 2:23, 2:23–25 EIA (Energy Information
2:29 Ecologists, 1:77 Administration), 1:180
orbital debris and, 2:220 Ecology, 1:9 EIS. See Environmental impact
oxone image, 2:85 deep, 1:150, 2:328–329 statements
Earth Charter, 2:72 Earth Day and, 1:148 Electoral consensus, defined, 1:239
Earth Day 1970, 1:146–149, industrial, 1:279–281, 1:280, Electric currents, 1:165
1:147, 1:262 2:294 Electric power, 1:165–170, 1:166,
Clearwater at, 1:201 Swallow, Ellen and, 2:230 1:167, 1:168, 1:170
direct action groups at, 1:9 See also Ecosystems from fuel cells, 1:216–217
Hayes, Denis and, 1:246 Ecology Center, Michigan, 2:184 from incinerators, 1:272

364
 Environmental industry careers

from manure, 1:29 Emissions, 1:32, 1:32, 1:34 Industrial Revolution pollution
nuclear, global, 1:186, 1:187 defined, 1:145 in, 1:282
renewable sources of, particles in, 2:89–90 population growth in, 2:138
2:175–179, 2:178, 2:179 recycling and, 2:170 See also London, England;
See also Waste-to-energy zero, 2:295 United Kingdom
Electric power plants See also Vehicle emissions Englund, Will, 2:36
sulfur dioxide removal, 1:102 Emissions trading, 1:102, Entertainment, environmental
waste heat from, 2:240 1:173–175, 1:175, 2:12, 2:119, issues in, 2:132–135
Electric vehicles, 2:276 2:199, 2:257 EnviroMapper, 1:290
Electrical currents, in human body, Employees. See Workers Environment and Business, 1:284
1:171 The End of Nature, 2:329, 2:330 Environment and Public Works
Electrical resistance heating, 1:98 “End of product responsibility,” Committee (Senate), 1:126
Electricity. See Electric power 2:173 Environment Canada, 1:121,
Electrodes, defined, 1:98 Endangered species, 2:257 1:193–194
Electromagnetic fields (EMFs), Endangered Species Act, 1:149, Environmental Action (Task force),
1:67, 1:171–172 2:324 1:204
Electromagnetic spectrum, 2:192, Endocrine disruption, 1:176–179, Environmental analysts, 1:81
2:195, 2:196 1:177, 1:178, 1:179, 2:110–111 Environmental Careers
Electro-Metallurgical Company, Endocrine system, 1:103, 1:178, Organization (ECO), 1:81
1:219 2:99 Environmental Conservation
Electron capture, 2:195
End-of-the-pipe treatments, Organization, 2:324
Electronic equipment, 2:212
2:124–125, 2:306–307 Environmental crime, 1:194–196,
Electronic FOIA (E-FOIA), 1:289
See also Industrial wastes; 1:195
Electronic reading rooms, 1:289
Municipal solid wastes Environmental Defense Fund,
Electrostatic precipitators, 2:205
Endosulfan, 2:96 1:10, 1:11, 1:205, 2:121
ELF (Earth Liberation Front),
Endrin, 2:94, 2:96 global presence of, 2:256
1:19, 1:160–161
Energy, 1:179–185, 1:180, 1:181, McDonald’s and, 1:19
ELF EMFs (Extremely low-
1:182, 1:183 on population growth, 2:140
frequency electric and magnetic
cleaner sources of, 1:279 Environmental destruction, in war,
fields), 1:67, 1:171–172
from landfill gases, 2:3–4 1:139, 1:185, 2:239, 2:281,
Embargos, oil, 2:102
renewable, 2:175–180, 2:176, 2:283–284, 2:286
Emelle, Alabama, 1:209
2:177, 2:178, 2:179 Environmental engineer careers,
Emergencies, complex, 1:132
See also specific energy sources 1:79–80
See also Disasters
Energy conservation, 1:184, 2:170, Environmental equity, 1:196, 1:210
Emergency personnel, 1:126, 1:128
Emergency Planning and 2:179 See also Environmental justice
Community Right to Know Act Energy consumption, 1:158, 1:181, Environmental factors,
of 1986 (EPCRA), 1:125, 1:182 carcinogenic. See Carcinogens
1:172–173, 1:263, 1:290, 2:10, Energy crisis, 1:184–185 Environmental groups, 1:204,
2:184, 2:246 Energy efficiency, 1:189, 1:287, 2:120–121
Emergency response 1:189–190, 2:107, 2:126 1960s, 1:9–10
in disaster cycle, 1:132 Energy Information 1970s, 1:11–13
EPCRA and, 1:173, 2:184–185 Administration (EIA), 1:180 1980s, 1:16, 1:18–19
by U.S. Coast Guard, 2:259 Energy Star, 1:169, 1:190 See also names of specific groups
Emergency Response and EnergyGuide label, 1:189, 1:190 Environmental health. See Health,
Notification System (EPA), Enforcement, 1:190–193, 2:254 human
1:126 Engineers, environmental, 1:79–80 Environmental impact. See
Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 2:327 Engines Impacts, environmental
EMFs. See Electromagnetic fields diesel, 1:120 Environmental Impact Assessment
Emission control systems gasoline, 1:180–181, 1:189, Directive (EU), 2:49
incinerators, 1:273–274, 1:274 1:261, 2:107 Environmental impact statements
for vehicles, 2:208, 2:274–275 heat, 2:240 (EIS), 1:10, 1:196, 2:49,
See also Vehicle emissions steam, 1:282 2:57–58, 2:146, 2:152–153
Emission spectra, 2:195 England Environmental industry careers,
Emission spectroscopy, 2:195 air pollution in, 1:285 1:82

365
Environmental Intern Program

Environmental Intern Program. on drinking water, 2:316 responsibilities of, 1:22–23,

See Environmental Careers on education, 1:163 1:191–192, 1:195, 2:12,
Organization on electric appliances, 1:169 2:122–123, 2:158–159
Environmental journalists, 1:78 on electric power plant on sewage sludge, 2:189–190
Environmental justice, 1:196–200, emissions, 1:102–103 sidescan sonars and, 2:198
1:197, 1:206, 1:210, 2:143 on endocrine disruptors, 1:179 on sulfur dioxide, 2:199, 2:224
eco-apartheid and, 2:25–26 on energy efficiency, 1:190 Superfund sites, 1:129–130
National Toxics Campaign and, on environmental justice, 1:199 on TCA, 1:99
2:60–61 GIS, 1:222 on Times Beach, Missouri,
public participation and, 2:156 on green product labeling, 2:243
Toxic Release Inventory and, 1:238 on tobacco smoke, 2:244–245
2:184 on HAPs, 1:37 Toxic Substances Control Act
Environmental law, 1:10, 1:11 on hazardous wastes, and, 2:249
Environmental mining accidents, 1:247–248, 2:180 U.S. Department of the Interior
1:129–130 on haze and visibility, and, 2:260
Environmental Modification 2:278–279 on vehicle emissions, 1:92
Convention (1976), 2:284 on heavy metals, 1:258 on waste reduction, 2:295
Environmental movement, on indoor air pollution, World Trade Center terrorist
1:200–208, 1:201, 1:203, 1:205 1:278–279 attack and, 2:237
effective group politics in, 2:120 on injection wells, 1:292 See also Laws and regulations;
industrial pollution and, 1:285 on landfills, 2:3–4 Toxic Release Inventory
public participation and, 2:154 legislative process and, 2:17 Environmental racism, 1:196–198,
See also Activism on Love Canal, 1:221–222 1:219–220, 2:143
Environmental outreach, 1:77–78 LUSTs and, 2:268–269 consumerism and, 2:25–26
Environmental planners, 1:81 on medical wastes, 2:38 public participation and, 2:156
Environmental policies, 2:157–160 on mercury levels, 2:42 Warren County, North
See also Laws and regulations; Mexican Secretariat for Natural Carolina and, 2:287–288
specific agencies and Resources and, 2:45 Environmental research careers,
regulations on mining, 2:48–49 1:76–77
Environmental protection on mixing zones, 2:52 Environmental reviews, 2:57–58
careers in, 1:75–82, 1:76, 1:78, on MTBE, 2:270 Environmental rights, 1:9–10
1:80 Multimedia Enforcement Environmental science, 1:15, 1:18,
U.S. government agencies, Division, 2:130–131 1:79–80
1:230 on municipal solid wastes, Environmental stewardship,
Environmental Protection Act of 2:211–217 defined, 1:239
1969, 2:62 National Park Service and, 2:59 Environmental toxicology, 2:252
Environmental Protection Agency on nitrogen oxides, 2:64 Environmentalism. See
(EPA), 2:260–264, 2:261, 2:262 on noise pollution, 2:65 Environmental movement
on air pollution prevalence, on nonpoint source pollution, EnviroScape™, 1:163–164
2:272 2:75 Enzymes, environmental health
on arsenic levels, 1:44 ocean dumping and, 2:33, 2:80, and, 1:252
on asbestos, 1:45–47 2:81, 2:83 EPA. See Environmental
on bioaccumulation, 1:121 on ozone pollution, 2:87–88 Protection Agency
on biosolids, 1:56, 1:58–59 on particulates, 2:90 EPCRA. See Emergency Planning
on carbon monoxide, 1:73–74 on PBT chemicals, 2:93 and Community Right to Know
on carcinogens, 1:67 on pesticides, 2:99–100 Act of 1986
careers at, 1:81 on petroleum pollution, Epidemiology, defined, 1:171, 2:53
CERCLA and, 1:109 2:106–107 EPIs (Efflux pump inhibitors),
on chromated copper arsenate, on point source pollution, defined, 1:112
1:43 2:115–119 EPR (Extended producer
Clean Water Act and, 1:93 on pollution monitoring, 2:192 responsibility), 2:19
creation of, 1:12, 1:149, 2:302 on pollution prevention, 2:128 Epstein, Richard, 2:150
databases of, 1:290–291 radiation protection standards, Equity (Economics), 1:154
on dioxin, 1:122 2:333 Erin Brockovich, 1:257, 2:134
on Doe Run Smelting, 2:16 on radon, 2:168 Erosion. See Soil erosion

366
 Fetuses

Escherichia coli, 2:310 European Noise Directive, 2:65 Far-UV. See UV-C radiation
An Essay on the Principle of European Union (EU) Fatalistic, defined, 2:32
Population as it Affects the Future on automobile recycling, 2:173 Fauntroy, Walter, 1:220, 2:288
Improvement of Society, 2:32–33, on bioaccumulation, 1:52 FBI. See Federal Bureau of
2:138, 2:139, 2:333 emissions trading, 1:175 Investigation
Estrogen, 1:176 form of government, 1:231–232 FDA. See U.S. Food and Drug
Estrogenic effects, 1:176–177 ISO 14001 in, 1:296 Administration
Estuaries mining regulations of, 2:49 Fecal matter, defined, 1:117
defined, 1:142, 2:79 on noise pollution, 2:68 “Federal Actions to Address
petroleum pollution in, 2:106 pollution laws, 1:34 Environmental Justice in
Ethanol, 1:183, 1:236, 2:176, on pollution prevention, 2:233 Minority Populations and Low-
2:276, 2:297 precautionary principle and, Income Populations,” 1:199
Ethics, 1:211–213 2:145–146 Federal agencies. See Regulatory
Ethyl lactate, 1:237 Urban Wastewater Treatment agencies
Ethylbenzene, 2:194, 2:281 Directive, 2:303 Federal Bureau of Investigation
Ethylene dichloride (EDC), 1:71 See also Europe; specific (FBI)
EU. See European Union countries anthrax scare and, 2:238
Europe Euthenics: The Science of Controllable on ecoterrorism, 1:160–161
on biosolids, 1:60 Environment, 2:230 terrorism defined, 2:234
on CFCs, 2:71–72 Eutrophication, 2:108–109, Federal Environmental Pesticides
colonization, 2:142 2:312–313 Control Act of 1972, 2:122
drug environmental defined, 1:27, 2:312 Federal government
assessments, 1:113 fish kills from, 1:215 Canada, 1:233
Green Parliament, 1:239 Evaporation, defined, 2:242 Mexico, 1:233
Green parties, 1:12–13 Excavation United States, 1:230, 1:231,
Industrial Revolution pollution of contaminated soils, 1:96, 2:121–122, 2:182–183
in, 1:282 1:128, 2:268 See also Laws and regulations;
Kyoto Protocol, 1:229 defined, 1:96 specific countries and agencies
on lead-based paint, 2:14 Excess deaths, 1:30–31 Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and
on noise pollution, 2:65 Executive Order 12898, 2:143 Rodenticide Act (FIFRA),
ocean dumping restrictions, Exothermic processes, defined, 1:213, 2:99–100
1:57 1:107 Federal Register, 2:12
postindustrial site development, Exploration, for mining, 2:46 See also Code of Federal
1:63 Exports. See Imports and exports Regulations
precautionary approach in, Exposure, to hazardous materials, Federal regulatory agencies. See
2:5–6 2:188, 2:250 Regulatory agencies
resource consumption in, 2:23, Extended producer responsibility Federal Sewage Sludge Standards,
2:24 (EPR), 2:19 1:57
sewage sludge standards in, External recycling, 2:170–171 Federal Trade Commission (FTC),
2:190 Extraction, of ores, 2:47 on green product labeling,
on smoke-free environments, Extremely low-frequency electric 1:238
2:245 and magnetic fields (ELF Federal Water Pollution Control
spent radioactive fuels in, 2:165 EMFs), 1:67, 1:171–172 Act. See Clean Water Act
testing of new chemicals in, Exxon Valdez, 1:128, 1:139, 1:140, Federal Water Pollution
2:249 1:259, 1:263, 1:283, 2:35, Prevention and Control Act. See
waste amounts in, 2:290 2:104–105, 2:263 Clean Water Act
wastewater treatment in, 2:303 Federalism, regulatory, 2:122
water treatment in, 2:316 F Feedstock, alternative, 1:235–236
See also European Union; Factories. See Manufacturing Fenvalerate, 2:97
specific countries Fallout, from hydrogen bombs, Fertilizers, 1:26–27
European Economic Community, 1:39 in marine water, 2:312–313
on acid rain, 1:5 Fallout, radioactive, 2:160–161 in surface water, 2:307
European Environment Agency Farm labor. See Labor, farm See also specific chemicals
(EEA), 1:232, 2:217 Farming. See Agriculture Fetuses
European Green Parliament, 1:239 Farmworkers. See Labor, farm defined, 1:176

367
Fetuses

Fetuses (continued) See also Agriculture; U.S. Food Fresh Kills Landfill, Staten Island,
effect of endocrine disruptors and Drug Administration 2:4, 2:236
on, 1:176–179 Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act, Freshwater pollution, 2:305,
See also Infants 2:100 2:305–311, 2:306, 2:307, 2:308,
Fibrowatt, 1:29 Food and Drug Act (Canada), 2:309
FIFRA (Federal Insecticide, 1:113 See also names of specific rivers
Fungicide, and Rodenticide Food and Drug Administration. and lakes
Act), 1:213, 2:99–100 See U.S. Food and Drug Friable asbestos, 1:45, 1:47
Films. See Movies Administration (FDA) Friends of the Earth, 1:11, 1:61,
Filtration Food Quality Protection Act, 1:91, 1:206, 2:71, 2:121
in solvent recovery, 1:146 1:179, 2:264 Friends of the Earth v. Laidlaw
in water treatment, 2:320 Ford Company, 1:205 Environmental Services, 1:91
Financial industry, environmental Ford Foundation, 1:240 FTC (Federal Trade Commission),
careers in, 1:82 Foreign oil dependence, 2:102 on green product labeling,
Finney, Albert, 2:134 Foreman, Dave, 1:16, 1:19, 1:150 1:238
Fires Forest fires, 2:278–279 FTIR (Fourier transform IR
from coal mining, 1:101 Forest Principles, 1:152 spectroscopy), 2:197
forest, 2:278–279 Forest Service (U.S.), 2:133, 2:259 Fuel cells, 1:216–217, 1:217, 2:276
See also Cuyahoga River Foresters, 1:78–79 Fuel economy, 1:189–190,
First party data, 1:290 Forestry 1:218–219, 2:275, 2:275–276
Fish. See Aquatic species acid rain and, 1:5 Fuels
Fish and Wildlife Service. See U.S. DDT in, 1:118–119 cleaner, 2:276
Fish and Wildlife Service sedimentation and, 2:201 hydrogen, 1:216
(FWS) Forestry Department. See U.S. mining of, 2:45
Fish kills, 1:213–215, 1:214 Forestry Department MTBE in, 2:269–270
Fish-chase procedure, 2:242 Formaldehyde, 1:266, 1:276 from petroleum, 2:101–102
Fission, 1:185–186, 1:188 Fossil fuels, 1:179–185, 1:215–216, refuse-derived, 2:297
Fixed-hearth incinerators, 1:272 2:175, 2:179 vehicle, regulation of, 1:92,
Flame ionization, 2:194 acid rain and, 1:3 2:274–275
Flame retardants, brominated, carbon dioxide and, 1:72 See also Energy; Fossil fuels;
1:51, 2:93 ozone pollution from, 2:88 Spent radioactive fuels
Flammable, defined, 1:145 sulfur dioxide and, 1:36 Funding, for environmental
Flash floods, 1:132 worldwide distribution of, education, 1:163
Flex-fuel vehicles, 1:189 1:184–185 Fund-raisers, 1:78
Flocculation, in water treatment, Fourier transform IR spectroscopy Fungi, biodegradation by, 1:53
2:320 (FTIR), 2:197 Fungi pollution. See Mold
Floods, 1:132 Framework Convention on pollution
Florida Climate Change. See Climate Fungicides, defined, 2:98
light pollution in, 2:30 Change Convention (United Furans, 2:92, 2:93, 2:94, 2:235
MNA in, 1:100 Nations) Furniture, used, 2:181–182, 2:183
Fluoxetine, in wastewater, 1:111, France Further Reduction of Sulphur
2:195 environmental protection Emissions. See Sulfur Protocol
Flux, defined, 1:258 agency in, 2:263 Fusion, 1:185–186
Fly ash, 1:103 radioactive waste disposal in, FWS. See U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Fog, 2:206–207 2:333–334 Service
FOIA (Freedom of Information See also European Union
Act), 1:289 Franklin, Benjamin, 1:239, 2:301 G
Fonda, Jane, 2:133 Freedom of Information Act Gaia hypothesis, 2:231
Food (FOIA), 1:289 Galápagos Islands, 1:141
in composts, 2:173–174 Free-market environmentalism, Galena, Kansas, 2:48
international regulations on, 2:6 2:324 Gamma radiation, 2:162, 2:167
pesticides and safety of, 2:100 French drains, defined, 1:130 Garbage, 2:289, 2:313
plastic packaging of, 2:110 Freons. See CFCs barrel burning of, 1:65
population and, 2:33, 2:139 (Chlorofluorocarbons) collection, 1:21–22, 1:200,
Swallow, Ellen and, 2:230 Frequency, of sound waves, 2:66 1:231, 2:202

368
 Government agencies

See also Landfills; Municipal Genetically modified organisms, light pollution, 2:28–31
solid wastes 2:263 mining, 2:45–46
Gas chromatography, 2:193–195, Geneva Convention on Long- nongovernmental organizations
2:194 Range Transboundary Air on, 2:71–72
Gas turbine generators, Pollution, 1:205 nonpoint source pollution,
1:166–167 Geneva Conventions, 1:205, 2:282, 2:76–77
Gaseous wastes, 2:290 2:284 point source pollution, 2:119
Gasification, 1:167 Genomes, mold, 2:54 solid waste management,
Gasoline GEO (Geosynchronous Earth 2:217–218, 2:218
acid rain and, 1:3 orbit) debris, 2:220, 2:220 terrorism and, 2:238–239
bioremediation of, 1:54, 1:55 Geographic Information Systems. See also International laws and
as carcinogen, 1:67 See GIS regulations; Treaties and
engines, 1:180–181, 1:189 Geological Survey. See U.S. conferences; specific agencies
fuel economy and, 1:218–219 Geological Survey (USGS) and events; specific topics
underground storage tanks for, Geometric, defined, 2:33 Global Forum (1992), 2:72
2:266, 2:268–269 Geopolitical stability, 2:25 Global Learning and Observations
See also Leaded gasoline; Geosynchronous Earth orbit to Benefit the Environment
Vehicle emissions (GEO) debris, 2:220, 2:220 (GLOBE), 1:90
GASP (Group Against Smog and Geothermal energy, 2:176–177 Global Telesis Corporation,
Pollution), 1:9, 1:204 Germany 2:291
asthma studies in, 1:48–49 Global warming, 1:224,
GATT (General Agreement on
environmental protection 1:224–229, 1:225, 1:226, 1:227,
Tariffs and Trade), 1:286,
agency in, 2:263 1:228, 1:261
2:326
Green parties in, 1:239 carbon dioxide and, 1:72
Gauley Bridge, West Virginia,
incineration in, 1:270 controversy, 1:15–16
1:201, 1:206, 1:219–220
PPCP studies, 1:112 coral reefs and, 2:313
Gaye, Marvin, 2:133
precautionary principle in, defined, 1:241
GEF (Global Environmental
2:145 fuel economy and, 1:219
Facility), 1:152
recycling in, 2:169 nitrogen oxides and, 2:64
Gelling agents, defined, 1:139
GHGs, 1:27–28 petroleum and, 2:107
Gen. James M. Gavin generating
Giardia lamblia, 1:117 Union of Concerned Scientists
plant, 1:183
Gibbs, Lois, 1:205, 1:220–222, and, 2:271
Gene-engineering plants, 2:233
1:221, 1:295 from vehicle emissions,
General Accounting Office. See
Gilbert, J.H., 1:26 2:273–274
U.S. General Accounting Office
GIS (Geographic Information See also Greenhouse gases
(USGAO) Systems), 1:222–224, 1:223 Global Warming Conference
General Agreement on Tariffs and databases and, 1:290–291 (United Nations), 2:255
Trade (GATT), 1:286, 2:326 specialists, 1:79 Globalization, 1:19
General and Systems Ecology, 2:231 Glass GLOBE (Global Learning and
General Mills/Henkel Superfund in marine environments, Observations to Benefit the
site, Minnesota, 2:226 2:314–315 Environment), 1:90
General Mining Law of 1872, recycling, 2:171 GMA (Grocery Manufacturers of
2:51 Global Compact (United Nations), America), 1:60
General strike (Grape growers), 1:8 Golf courses, 2:75
2:1 Global Environment Outlook 2000, Gomel, Belarus, 1:135
Genes, environmental response, 2:119 The good life, 2:131–132, 2:135
1:255, 1:256 Global Environmental Facility Gore, Al, 1:239, 2:329
Genetic diversity, defined, 1:241 (GEF), 1:152 Gottlieb, Alan, 2:323
Genetic engineering, Global environmental issues, 1:24, Government agencies
bioremediation and, 1:53–54 1:207, 1:234 environmental careers in, 1:81
Genetic factors Brundtland, Gro and, public participation and,
in asthma, 1:48 1:64–65 2:151–156
in cancer, 1:66 green revolution and, 1:241 use of green products, 1:238
in diseases, 1:255 international standards for, See also Regulatory agencies;
in toxin sensitivity, 2:252 1:295–296 specific agencies

369
Governments

Governments, 1:229–235, 1:230, direct action and, 1:204, 1:206, Hague Convention, defined, 2:282
1:288–291 2:71 Hale Telescope, 2:29
See also Politics; specific ecoterrorism and, 1:160 Half-life, 1:134, 2:94, 2:161
countries formation of, 1:11–12 Halifax, Nova Scotia, 2:174,
Graffiti, 2:279 membership diversity, 1:19 2:313–314
Graham, Kevin, 2:150 on toxic dumping, 2:61 Haloacetic acids, 2:195, 2:270
Grand Canyon dam controversy, Green/Social Democrat coalition Halocarbons, 1:87, 1:245, 2:87
1:9–10, 1:61, 2:71 (Germany), 1:239 Halogenated organic compounds,
Grand Canyon National Park, Greenwashing, 1:238, 2:135 defined, 1:255
2:278 Greenwire, 2:35 Halons, 1:245, 2:87
Grape growers strikes, 2:1, 2:2 Griffen, Susan, 2:329 Hamilton, Alice, 1:200,
Grassroots, defined, 1:148 Grocery Manufacturers of America 1:245–246, 1:246, 2:148, 2:202,
Gravity, particulates and, 2:88–89 (GMA), 1:60 2:327, 2:330
Great Lakes Auto Pollution Gross domestic product, energy Hanford, Washington, 1:99
Alliance, 2:184 use and, 1:158 Hanshin-Awaji earthquake (Kobe,
Great Lakes Basin, 2:311 Groundwater, 1:243–245, 1:244, Japan), 1:133
Great Lakes Basin 2020 Action 1:248–249 HAPs. See Hazardous air
Plan, 1:121 air stripping and, 2:226, 2:310 pollutants
Great Lakes Initiative (EPA), defined, 1:62, 2:266 Hardin, Garrett, 1:202, 2:253
1:121, 2:52, 2:311 injection wells and, 1:292 Harr, Jonathan, 1:90
Great Lakes Programs at Libby, Montana site, 2:227 Harvard Center for Population and
(Environment Canada), 1:121 LUSTs and, 2:266, 2:268 Development Studies, 2:143
Great Lakes Towing Company, MTBE and, 2:269–270 Hassett, Eric, 2:176
2:307 petroleum in, 2:106 Hawaii, ocean energy in, 2:175
Green chemistry, 1:235–237, physical removal of The Hawk’s Nest Incident, 1:220
2:233 contaminants, 1:97–98 Hawk’s Nest Tunnel, 1:219
Green marketing, 1:237–238 pollution abatement in, 2:310 Hayes, Denis, 1:147–148, 1:149,
Green parties, 1:12–13, pollution of, 2:309 1:246–247, 1:247, 2:62
1:239–240, 2:3, 2:56, 2:120 protection and treatment of, Hays, Samuel, 1:201
Green permits, 2:127 2:321 Hazardous air pollutants (HAPs),
Green products RCRA on, 2:180 1:33, 1:36–37, 1:92, 1:103,
chemical accidents and, 1:128 Yucca Mountain site and, 2:331 2:118, 2:273
defined, 2:126 See also Drinking water Hazardous and Solid Waste
electric power generation, Groundwater mining, 1:244–245 Amendments (HSWA) of 1984,
1:169–170 Group Against Smog and Pollution 1:249, 1:271, 2:180
household, 1:268–269, 1:270 (GASP), 1:9, 1:204 Hazardous Communication
plastics, 2:109–110 Grove, Noel, 2:35 Standard Regulations, 2:184
Green revolution, 1:26, 1:240–241 Growth (Economics), 1:155 Hazardous materials
Greenhouse effect, 1:18–19, Guadalcazar, San Luis Potosi, bioconcentration factor and,
1:28–29, 1:224–225 Mexico, 1:13 1:52
See also Global warming Guano, defined, 2:53 EPCRA on, 1:173
Greenhouse gases, 1:242 Guerrilla warfare, 2:284, 2:286 NAPLs, 2:69
defined, 1:35, 2:44 Gulf War (1991). See Persian Gulf risks and, 2:185–191
emissions trading and, 1:174 War (1991) transportation of, 1:126–127,
Kyoto Protocol on, 1:34–35, Gwich’in Indians, 1:43 1:250, 2:163, 2:292–293, 2:332
1:261, 2:257 Hazardous Waste Directive, 2:49
measurement of, 2:196–197 H Hazardous waste disposal, 1:2,
methane, 2:44 HAA (Hormonally active agents), 1:13, 1:248–250, 2:41
reduction in emissions, 1:190 1:254 consumer, 2:310
Greenland, lead in ice core, Habit modification, 2:74–75 dry cleaning solvents, 1:146
1:282–283 Habitat. See Commission on illegal, 2:291
Greenpeace, 1:13, 1:242–243 Human Settlements (United with injection wells, 1:292
antiviolence, 1:16 Nations) in landfills, 2:287–288
Bhopal, India disaster and, Habitats, recycling and, 2:170 National Toxics Campaign and,
1:127 La Hague, France, 2:165 2:60–61

370
 House dust mites, asthma and

of radioactive wastes, 2:163–166 Love Canal, 1:221–222, Hexavalent, defined, 1:257

Superfund and, 2:225–227 1:262–263 Heyerdahl, Thor, 2:314, 2:315
See also Love Canal, New York from molds, 2:52–54 HFCs (Hydrofluorocarbons),
Hazardous wastes, 1:247–250, from noise pollution, 2:66–67 1:242
1:249, 2:290 from ozone, 2:85 HGP. See Human Genome Project
industrial societies and, 2:22 from PBT chemicals, 2:93 HHS. See U.S. Department of
industrial trade of, 1:250, 1:263 from PCBs, 2:92 Health and Human Services
minimization of, 1:248 from PERC, 1:145 HHW (Household hazardous
pharmaceutical, 2:40 from pesticides, 2:1–2, 2:99 waste), 1:248
racism and, 1:197–198 from POPs, 2:94 High frequency electric and
RCRA and, 2:180 population growth and, 2:139 magnetic fields. See RF EMFs
recycling, 2:171, 2:172 poverty and, 2:141 Highlander Center’s STP Schools,
specialists in, 1:79 from radiation, 2:163 2:61
Superfund and, 1:13–14, from smelting, 2:205 High-level radioactive wastes,
1:109–110 from smog, 2:207–208 2:290
See also Radioactive wastes from soil pollution, 2:210 High-performance liquid
Hazards, 1:131–132, 1:235, 2:186 from sulfur dioxide, 2:224 chromatography (HPLC),
See also Hazardous materials Swallow, Ellen and, 2:230 2:194
Haze, 2:278 from tobacco smoke, 2:244–245 High-rate water filtration, 2:320
HAZMAT team, defined, 2:292 from trichloroethylene, 1:247 Highway Beautification Act of
from UV radiation, 2:266
Health, human, 1:251–256, 1:253, 1965, 2:279
vehicle emissions and,
1:254 High-yielding varieties (HYVs),
2:272–273
population growth and, 1:240–241
from wastewater, 2:298
2:139–140 Hill, Gladwin, 2:34, 2:35
from water chlorination, 2:320
Yucca Mountain and, 2:333 Hill, Julia “Butterfly,” 1:14, 1:17
from water pollution, 1:251,
Health Canada, 1:113 Hinkley, California, 2:134
1:259–260, 2:309, 2:311
Health care risk wastes. See Hippocrates, 1:251
from World Trade Center
Medical wastes Hiroshima, Japan, 1:186
terrorist attacks, 2:236–237
Health problems History, 1:258–265, 1:259, 1:262,
See also specific diseases and
from Agent Orange, 2:283–284, 1:264, 1:281–282, 1:284–285,
disasters
2:284 2:95–96, 2:316
Hearing impairment, 2:66–67
from arsenic, 1:44 Hitchcock, David, 1:284
Heat engines, 2:240
from asbestos, 1:45–47, 1:46, Holistic environmental ethics,
Heavy metals, 1:256–258, 1:257,
2:50 1:212
2:163
from Chernobyl disaster, 1:135 biomonitoring of, 2:197 Home care, medical wastes and,
from dioxins, 1:123 conversion for, 1:99 2:40
from endocrine disruptors, defined, 1:96, 2:225 Homeland Security Department.
1:176–179 health problems from, See U.S. Department of
from fallout, 2:161 1:247–248 Homeland Security
of farm workers, 1:1–2 indoor pollution with, 1:276 Homelessness, 2:139
from fecal wastes in water, soil pollution from, 2:210–211 Homer, on pesticides, 2:95
2:310 from World Trade Center Honor the Earth Foundation, 2:3
Hamilton, Alice and, 1:245–246 terrorist attack, 2:235 Hooker Chemical Corporation,
hazards and, 2:186 Hemoglobin, defined, 2:250 1:220, 1:222, 1:262
from heavy metals, 1:247–248, Henry House, New York, 2:203 Horizontal expansion, of cultivated
1:257–258 Hepatocellular carcinomas, 2:92 land, 1:25
from household chemicals, Heptachlor, 2:94, 2:96, 2:248 Hormonally active agents (HAA),
1:266, 1:267 Herbicides, 2:97–98, 2:285 1:254
from indoor environments, defined, 2:97 Hormone receptors, defined, 1:176
1:276, 1:278 recycling, 2:172 Hormone-disrupting chemicals,
from lead, 1:246, 1:247–248, Herculaneum, Missouri, 2:15–16 1:104
1:253–254, 1:257, 2:13–15, Heterotrophic phytoplankton, Hormones, defined, 1:176, 2:146
2:49 defined, 1:140 Host organisms, defined, 2:200
from light pollution, 2:30 Hexachlorobenzene, 2:93, 2:94 House dust mites, asthma and, 1:49

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House of Representatives (U.S. Congress)

House of Representatives (U.S. See also specific hydrocarbons Impacts, environmental

Congress), 2:16–17 Hydrochloric acid, 2:211 of consumerism, 2:19–27, 2:27
Household hazardous waste Hydrodynamic condition, defined, defined, 2:18
(HHW), 1:248 2:200 of mining, 2:47–48
Household pollutants, 1:266–270, Hydrodynamic dredging, 1:144 of NAFTA, 2:56–57
1:267, 1:268, 1:276–277, Hydroelectric dams, 1:9–10, 1:61 of Persian Gulf War, 2:239
2:26–27, 2:27 Hydroelectric power. See of population growth,
See also specific pollutants Hydropower 2:139–140
Houston Post, 2:34 Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), of poverty, 2:141–142
How to Grow the Peanut and 105 1:242 of thermal pollution, 2:241–242
Ways of Preparing It for Human Hydrogen of wars, 2:281–287
Consumption, 1:85 in acid rain, 1:3 See also specific chemicals and
Howard, Albert, 1:106 in fossil fuels, 1:215–216 products
Howe, Sidney, 1:210 fuel cells and, 1:216–217, 2:107, Impermeability, defined, 1:54,
HPLC (High-performance liquid 2:276 1:292
chromatography), 2:194 Hydrogen bombs, 1:38–39 Imports and exports
HSWA. See Hazardous and Solid Hydrogen fluoride, 2:196 economic disparities in, 2:24–25
Waste Amendments (HSWA) of Hydrogen fuels, 1:216 of oil, 2:101–102
1984 Hydrogen sulfide, 2:195 of used products, 2:181
Hudson River, New York, 2:92, Hydrogen-3, 2:161 of wastes, 2:141, 2:292–293
2:306 Hydrologic cycle. See Water cycle In situ
La huelga en general, 2:1 Hydrology, defined, 1:130 bioremediation, 1:55
Huerta, Dolores, 2:1 Hydromodification, defined, 2:74 defined, 1:55
Hull House, 1:21–22, 1:200, 1:246, Hydropower, 1:170, 1:183, 2:175, soil remediation, 2:210, 2:211
2:202 2:177 Incentives, environmental,
Human Genome Project (HGP), Hypoxia, 1:270 2:158–159
1:255, 1:256 HYVs (High-yielding varieties), Incident solar, defined, 2:266
Human health. See Health, human 1:240–241 Incineration, 1:270–274, 1:273,
Human rights violations, 2:25 1:274
Humanitarian rules, for wartime, I of biosolids, 1:57
2:282 IADC (Interagency Space Debris dioxins from, 1:123–124
Humidity, indoor air quality and, Coordinating Committee), environmental justice and,
1:277–278 2:222 2:143
Humification, 1:106–107 IAP2 (International Association for of hazardous wastes, 1:249
Humus, defined, 1:106, 2:215 Public Participation), 2:155 of medical wastes, 2:40
Hunger, green revolution for, IARC. See International Agency for of municipal solid wastes, 2:213,
1:240–241 Research on Cancer 2:216
See also Poverty IBI (Index of biotic integrity), of plastics, 2:114–115
Hurricane Andrew, Florida, 1:133 2:197 recycling and, 2:170
Hybrid electric vehicles, 1:189, ICC (International Chamber of soil pollution and, 2:210
1:218, 2:107, 2:276 Commerce), 2:8 at Superfund sites, 2:227
Hybridization, defined, 1:84 ICMESA chemical plant, 1:127 Income, equitable distribution of,
Hydraulic, defined, 2:201 ICP-AES (Inductively coupled 1:154
Hydraulic dredging, 1:143–144 plasma emission spectra), 2:195 Index of biotic integrity (IBI),
Hydrocarbons IDA (International Dark Sky 2:197
catalytic converters and, Association), 2:29–30 Index of water indicators (IWI),
1:86–87, 2:198 IIED (International Institute for 1:291
as criteria pollutant, 1:33 Environment and India, 1:106
defined, 2:207 Development), 2:228 cholera in, 2:311
for dry cleaning, 1:145 IMF. See International Monetary fertilizers in, 1:28
from gasoline engines, 1:182 Fund population growth in, 2:138,
IR spectroscopy for, 2:197 Immigrants, 2:202–203 2:139, 2:140
in petroleum, 2:101, 2:103 Immobility, defined, 1:99 Indonesia, forest fires in, 2:279
smog and, 2:207–208 Immunocompromised, defined, Indoor air pollution, 1:274–279,
soil pollution from, 2:106, 2:209 1:117 1:275, 1:276, 1:277

372
 International Dark Sky Association

asthma and, 1:49 See also Hazardous wastes Insurance, for natural disasters,
household, 1:266, 1:267 Inertness, defined, 1:87 1:133
sources of, 1:275, 1:275–276 Infants Insurance industry, environmental
from tobacco smoke, 2:244–245 effect of endocrine disruptors careers in, 1:82
See also Air pollution on, 1:176–179 Intangible costs and benefits,
Indore, India, 1:106 environmental diseases in, 1:253 1:114–115
Inductively coupled plasma toxin sensitivity in, 2:251–252 Integrated pest management
emission spectra (ICP-AES), Infectious wastes, 1:287–288, 2:38, (IPM), 1:293–294, 2:100, 2:310
2:195 2:40 Integrative commons governance,
Industrial accidents. See Chemical See also Medical wastes defined, 1:239
accidents and spills; specific Information Integrity, defined, 1:292
accidents access to, 1:288–292, 1:289, Intensity, of sound waves, 2:66
Industrial chemicals 2:127 Intensive agriculture, 1:27–28
dilution of, 1:121 NGOs and, 2:70–72, 2:185–186 Intentional pollution shifting,
POPs, 2:94 in public participation, 2:152 2:129
Industrial ecology, 1:279–281, See also Environmental impact Interagency Space Debris
1:280, 2:294 statements Coordinating Committee
Industrial metabolism, defined, Infrared imaging, thermal, 2:242 (IADC), 2:222
1:279 Infrared (IR) spectra, 2:195–197 Interest groups, defined, 2:18
Industrial Poisons in the United Infrastructure, defined, 2:201 Intergenerational sustainability,
States, 1:246, 2:327, 2:330 defined, 1:239
Ingest, defined, 2:250
Industrial Pretreatment Program, Intergovernmental Conference on
Ingestion, defined, 1:44
2:301 the Dumping of Wastes at Sea.
Inhalation, defined, 2:238
Industrial Revolution, 1:261, 1:283, See London Convention
Inherited cancer susceptibility, 1:66
1:284 Intergovernmental Panel on
Injection wells, 1:248–249,
Industrial Toxics Project, 1:248 Climate Change (IPCC), 1:72,
1:292–293, 1:293
Industrial trade, of hazardous 1:227, 1:228, 2:254, 2:257
Inorganic arsenic, 1:43–44
wastes, 1:250, 1:263 Internal combustion engines, 1:261
Inorganic chemicals, 1:124, 2:96
Industrial warfare, 2:281 Internal conflicts, 2:284, 2:286
Inorganic contaminants
Industrial wastes Internal recycling, 2:170
See also specific contaminants
EPA and, 2:263 International Agency for Research
Inorganic contaminants, in soil,
incineration of, 1:272–273 on Cancer (IARC)
2:209
mercury in, 2:43 on ELF, 1:67
In-plant recycling, 1:2
point sources of water on ELF EMFs, 1:171
INPO (Institute of Nuclear Power
pollution, 2:116–117, 2:308 on trichloroethylene, 1:69
recycling of, 2:170 Operations), 1:265 International Association for
solid, 2:212 In-process recycling, 1:1 Public Participation (IAP2),
water pollution from, Inquiry magazine, 2:328 2:155
2:313–314 Insecticide Act of 1910, 2:184 International Atomic Energy
in water supply, 1:259–260, Insecticides. See DDT; Pesticides Agency Convention on Nuclear
2:305–307 Institute, West Virginia, 1:125, Safety (1994), 2:6
See also specific chemicals and 1:263 International Chamber of
products Institute for Sustainable Commerce (ICC), 2:8
Industrial wastewater, 2:298, 2:301 Communities, 1:163 International Convention for the
Industrialized countries. See Institute of Food and Agriculture Prevention of Pollution from
Developed countries Sciences, University of Florida, Ships, 1973 (MARPOL),
Industry, 1:281–287, 1:283 1:44 2:80–81, 2:314
developing nations and, Institute of Nuclear Power International Convention on Oil
2:141–142 Operations (INPO), 1:265 Pollution Preparedness,
energy efficiency in, 1:189 Institute of the Environment Response and Cooperation
environment and, 1:183–184 (UCLA), 2:30 (1990), 2:6
pollution prevention in, Insulation International Criminal Court,
2:126–127 air quality and, 1:277 2:284
reuse of products, 2:183 asbestos in, 1:45–47 International Dark Sky Association
toxic releases by, 2:247 urea-formaldehyde, 1:45–47 (IDA), 2:29–30

373
International environmental issues

International environmental issues. IPCC. See Intergovernmental Just-in-time manufacturing, 2:110

See Global environmental issues Panel on Climate Change
International Forum of NGOs and IPM. See Integrated pest K
Social Movements, 1:152 management Kalundborg, Denmark, 1:280,
International Institute for IR (Infrared) spectra, 2:195–197 1:280
Environment and Development Iraq. See Persian Gulf War Kanawha Valley, 1:125
(IIED), 2:228 Ireland, plastic bag tax, 2:181 Karabache, Russia, 2:210
International Joint Commission on See also United Kingdom Karr, James, 2:197
Great Lakes, 1:121 Iron Mountain Mine, California, Katonah, New York, 1:146
International laws and regulations, 1:130 Kauai, Hawaii, 2:30
2:5, 2:5–8 Iron sulfides, from coal cleaning, Keep America Beautiful, 2:132,
on mining, 2:49 1:102 2:133
on ocean dumping, 2:80–82, Iroquois Confederacy, 1:239 Keith, Carl, 2:198
2:81 Irrigation, 1:26 Kennedy, John F., 1:84, 2:62
on radioactive waste Ishimure, Michiko, 1:294–295 Kerr-McGee, 2:133
transportation, 2:163 ISO. See International Kesterson Slough, California,
on wartime, 2:282 Organization for 2:252
See also Laws and regulations; Standardization Kettleman City, California, 1:209
Treaties and conferences; ISO 14001, 1:295–296, 2:7–8, Keynes, John Maynard, 1:153
specific countries 2:229 Khian Sea, 2:291
Isobenzan, 2:96 KI (Potassium iodide) pills, 1:134
International Monetary Fund
Isoprene, 2:281 King Jr., Martin Luther, 2:154
(IMF), 2:24
Isotopes, of radon, 2:166–168 Kinlaw, D.C., 2:135
International Organization for
Italy, light control policy, 2:31 Kitt Peak National Observatory,
Standardization (ISO), 1:295,
See also European Union 2:29
2:7–8, 2:229
IWI (Index of water indicators), Kluczewo, Poland, 1:94
International trade
1:291 Knudson, Tom, 2:36
economic disparities in, 2:24–25
Ix, Hanno, 2:321 Koch, Robert, 2:208
industrial environmental costs
IXTOC 1, 1:139, 2:104 Koenig, Julian, 1:148
and, 1:286
Koh, Tommy, 1:151
laws and regulations on, 2:6–7
J Kon-Tiki, 2:314, 2:315
precautionary principle and,
Japan Korean War, 2:282
2:146
environmental regulations in, Kosovo, 2:286
of wastes, 2:291–292, 2:293
2:263–264 Kursk, 1:136–137
World Trade Organization and,
on noise pollution, 2:65 Kuwaiti oil fields, 1:185, 2:239,
2:255 recycling in, 2:169 2:283, 2:284
See also World Trade on smoke-free environments, Kyo Maru 1, 1:203
Organization 2:245 Kyoto Protocol, 2:6
International Union for See also Minamata disease on carbon dioxide emissions,
Conservation of Nature and Jehl, Douglas, 2:36 1:34–35, 1:72
Natural Resources, 2:228 Jödl, Alfred, 2:282 controversy over, 1:18–19,
Internet Johnson, Lady Bird, 2:279 2:257
hazardous material information Joliet 29, Illinois, 2:241 Earth Day 2000 and, 1:149
on, 2:184–185 Journalists emissions trading and, 1:174
information access and, environmental, 1:78 on greenhouse gas emissions,
1:290–291 environmental coverage by, 1:228–229, 1:242
public participation and, 2:156 2:34–35 on methane, 2:44
Tox Town, 2:252 JT&A, Inc., 1:163–164 national vs. international
Inupiat Eskimos, 1:42 The Jungle, 2:148, 2:327 policies, 1:234
Iodine-131, 1:134 Jurisdiction, of U.S. pollution- Union of Concerned Scientists
Ion exchange, for arsenic removal, control laws, 2:12–13 and, 2:271
1:44 See also specific laws and U.S. position on, 1:35, 1:261
Ion exchange chromatography, regulations
2:194 Justice, environmental. See L
Ions, defined, 1:99 Environmental justice Labeling

374
 Lead (Pb)

of energy efficient products, for municipal solid wastes, on noise pollution, 2:67–68
1:169, 1:190 2:213, 2:216–217 on ocean dumping, 2:80–82,
FIFRA and, 1:213 plastics in, 2:114 2:81, 2:83
of green products, 1:238 recycling and, 2:169–170 on PCBs, 2:91
laws and regulations on, 2:184 soil pollution and, 2:210 on pollution prevention,
of plastics, 2:112, 2:172 Warren County, North 2:125–127, 2:128–129
Labor, farm, 1:88–89, 1:202, 2:1–2 Carolina, 1:198, 1:209, property rights and, 2:149–150
Labor market, defined, 2:56 2:287–288 public participation in,
Labor reform, 1:22 Landlsides, 1:132 2:151–156, 2:155
Labor unions, 1:88–89, 2:1–2, Language, 2:134 public policy and, 2:158–159
2:121, 2:325, 2:326 Large-quantity generators (LQGs), on radioactive waste disposal,
Ladies of the Canyon, 2:133 1:250 2:166
LaDuke, Winona, 2:2–3, 2:3 Lasers, 2:196 on smelting, 2:206
Laidlaw dump, 1:197 Late-onset, defined, 1:255 on smoke-free environments,
Lake acres, defined, 2:117 Latest Findings on National Air 2:245
Lake Erie pollution, 1:7–8, 2:306 Quality: 2000 Status and Trends, on terrorism, 2:238
Lake Malawi, 1:291 2:118–119 United States, 2:9–13, 2:11
Lake Michigan, 2:306 Lava flow, 1:131 on used products, 2:183
Lake Nyasa. See Lake Malawi Law enforcement, 1:190–193 on water quality, 2:316–317
Lake Ontario, PCBs in, 1:51 ecoterrorism and, 1:160–161 on water treatment, 2:321–322
international regulations, 2:7 on whistleblowing, 2:322–323
Lakes, polluted. See Freshwater
of U.S. pollution-control laws, See also International laws and
pollution
2:12–13 regulations; Law enforcement;
Lambda-cyalothrin, 2:97
See also Laws and regulations Regulatory agencies; U.S.
Lamm, Barney, 1:8
Law Enforcement and Defense Environmental Protection
Lamm, Marion, 1:8
Operations (U.S. Coast Guard), Agency
Land
2:259 Lawsuits. See Litigation
amount of cultivated, 1:25
Law firms, environmental careers LCAs. See Life cycle analyses
damage to, from mining, 2:48
at, 1:82 LD (Lethal dose), 2:186–187,
public, 2:323–324
Lawes, J.B., 1:26 2:249
sludge application to, 2:189–191
Laws and regulations, 1:10, 1:11, Leach, defined, 2:14
See also Soil pollution
2:121–123 Leach pads, defined, 1:130
Land farming, bioremediation and,
1960s, 1:8–10 Leach solutions, defined, 1:130
1:54
1970s, 1:12–13 Leachate water, defined, 1:96,
See also Agriculture
1980s, 1:13–15 2:217
Land mines, 2:281 on acid rain, 1:5 Lead carbonate, 2:14
Land pollution, 1:262–263 on air pollution, 1:32–34 Lead (Pb), 1:258, 2:13–16, 2:14,
See also Soil pollution bottle deposit laws, 1:60–61, 2:15
Land rights. See Property rights 1:61 air quality standards on, 2:118,
Land rotation. See Crop rotation British, 1:285 2:195
Land subsidence citizen suits, 1:90–91 in contaminated soils, 1:59
defined, 1:244 costs of compliance, 1:286 controlling emissions of, 1:37
from mining, 2:48 electric power plants and, 1:169 as criteria pollutant, 1:33, 1:36,
Land use, sedimentation and, environmental careers and, 1:92
2:200–201 1:75, 1:80–81 FDA and, 2:264–265
Landfill Directive, 2:49 for farm labor, 2:2 health hazards of, 1:13–15,
Landfill Methane Outreach on incineration, 1:270 1:246, 1:247–248, 1:253–254,
Program, 2:3–4 information access and, 1:257, 2:49, 2:251–252
Landfills, 2:3–4, 2:4 1:288–289, 2:184–185 historical levels of, 1:282–283
for biosolid disposal, 1:57 on landfills, 2:3–4 in household materials, 1:266,
vs. composting, 2:174 legislative process, 2:16–18 1:268, 1:276
for contaminated soils, 1:96 on light pollution, 2:31 from mining, 2:49
defiined, 2:295 on marine pollution, 2:315 phytoremediaton for, 1:97
for hazardous wastes, 1:248–249 on mercury levels, 2:42–43 as priority pollutant, 2:117
methane in, 2:44 mining, 1:101, 2:48–49, 2:51 sampling air for, 2:192

375
Lead (Pb)

Lead (Pb) (continued) Life cycles, of mining, 2:46–47 National Toxics Campaign and,
Toxic Substances Control Act Life expectancy, poverty and, 2:143 2:60–61
and, 2:249 Lifestyles, 2:19–28, 2:20, 2:23, on pollution prevention, 2:127
toxicity of, 2:250 2:27 Locomotion, defined, 2:315
water pollution from, 2:314 Light nonaqueous phase chemicals Loess soils, defined, 1:25
from World Trade Center (LNAPLs), 1:97, 2:69 Loma Prieta, California
terrorist attack, 2:235 Light pollution, 2:28–31, 2:29 earthquake, 1:132–133
See also Leaded gasoline Light trucks, 1:218–219, 2:276 Lombardy Law, 2:31
Lead-Based Paint Poisoning Lights, efficiency of, 1:168, 1:169, London, England
Prevention Act, 2:14, 2:264 2:31 air pollution in, 1:32, 1:202,
Leaded gasoline, 1:36, 1:87, 1:92, Lignite, 1:167 1:251, 1:261, 1:284–285
1:258, 1:261, 2:14–15, 2:15, The Limits to Growth, 1:11, 1:15, cholera in, 2:208–209
2:106–107, 2:198, 2:250, 2:263 2:31–32, 2:228 settlement houses in, 2:202
Leadville, Colorado, 1:59 Limonene, 2:97 Thames River, 2:312
League of Conservation Voters, Lipophilicity, defined, 2:94 water pollution in, 1:260
1:11, 1:61, 1:204 Liquid chromatography, London Convention, 1:80–81,
Leaking underground gasoline 2:193–194, 2:195 2:33, 2:80, 2:257
storage tanks (LUSTs), 1:97, Liquid injection incineration, London smog, 2:206–207
2:266, 2:267, 2:268–269, 2:309 1:272–273 Long Island Sound, 1:258
Lear, Linda, 1:83 Liquid wastes, 2:289, 2:305 Longwall mining, 1:101
Lebow, Victor, 2:21 Los Angeles smog, 1:201,
incineration of, 1:272–274
Legionella pneumophila, 1:278 2:207–208, 2:280
injection wells for, 1:292
Legionnaires’ disease, 1:278 Los Angeles Times, 2:35–36
Liquids
Legislation. See Laws and Losses, from natural disasters,
Nonaqueous Phase, 2:69
regulations 1:132–133
sampling for pollutants, 2:192
Legislative process, 2:16–18, 2:17 Loudness measurement, 2:66
See also Liquid wastes
Leguminous crops, defined, 1:27 Love, William T., 1:220, 1:262
Litigation, 2:32
Leistner, Marilyn, 2:243 Love Canal: My Story, 1:221
Clean Air Act, 1:191
Lemmon, Jack, 2:133 Love Canal, New York, 1:109,
Greenpeace and, 1:243
LEO (Low Earth orbit) debris, 1:205, 1:220–222, 1:262–263,
on hazardous wastes, 2:180
2:220, 2:220 2:35
on indoor air pollution,
Leopold, Aldo, 1:200, 2:327–328 Lovelock, James, 2:231
1:278–279
LEPCs (Local Emergency Low Earth orbit (LEO) debris,
against public participation,
Planning Committees), 1:173 2:220, 2:220
2:156
Lesser developed countries. See Low exposure levels, 1:252–255
Developing countries See also Laws and regulations
Low tillage, defined, 2:201
Lethal dose (LD), 2:186–187, Litter, 2:310, 2:315 Low-hanging fruit, 2:126
2:249 Livestock, 1:25–26, 2:44, 2:74 Low-input agriculture, 1:27–28,
Leukemia Living Downstream, 2:329 1:29
clusters, 1:69, 1:89–90, 1:109 “Living Scared: Why Do the Low-level radioactive wastes, 2:290
electromagnetic fields and, Media Make Life Seem So LQGs (Large-quantity generators),
1:171–172 Risky?, 2:35–36 1:250
Liability LNAPLs (Light nonaqueous phase Luna (redwood tree), 1:14
with brownfields, 1:62–63 chemicals), 1:97, 2:69 Lung cancer, 1:69
criminal, 1:194–195 Lobbyist organizations, 1:82, 2:13 asbestos and, 1:45, 2:50, 2:244
See also Laws and regulations See also Nongovernmental causes of, 1:68–69, 2:251
Libby, Montana, 1:45–46, 2:50, organizations; specific from radon, 2:168
2:227 organizations LUSTs. See Leaking underground
“Licensing Requirements for Land Local Emergency Planning gasoline storage tanks
Disposal of Radioactive Committees (LEPCs), 1:173
Wastes,” 2:166 Local governments, 1:231 M
Lieber Code, 2:282 environmental laws and Macerals, defined, 1:101
Liebig, Justus von, 1:26 regulations, 2:9–10 MacInnes, Scott, 1:161
Life cycle analyses (LCAs), environmental policy reform Macroeconomics, 1:153
2:18–19, 2:232, 2:294 and, 2:159–160 Macroscopic, defined, 2:312

376
 Metaldehyde

MACT. See Maximum Achievable Marketing MCPA, 2:97

Control Technology green, 1:237–238 Meadowlands Plating and
Magna Carta, defined, 2:149 of recylclables, 2:171 Finishing Inc., 1:192
Malaria, DDT and, 1:118–119, Markham, Adam, 1:282 Meadows, Dennis, 1:239
1:211–212 MARPOL, 2:80–81, 2:314 Meadows, Donella, 1:239
Malleability, defined, 2:14 Marsh, George Perkins, 2:228, Measurement, of pollution,
Malnutrition, 2:139 2:330 1:157–159
Malthus, Thomas Robert, 2:32, Mass burn system, 2:296–297 Meat Inspection Act, 2:148
2:32–33, 2:137–138, 2:139, Mass media, 2:34–37 Mechanical dredges, 1:143
2:328, 2:333 Mass spectrometry, 2:194 Meda, Italy, 1:127
Malthusian hypothesis, 1:164, 2:32, Mass transfer pollution shifting, Media
2:33, 2:333 2:129, 2:130 defined, 1:93
Mammals Massachusetts General Hospital, Mediated politics, 2:18
marine, 2:314–315 1:176 Mediation, 2:32, 2:37,
oil spills and, 1:138–139 Massachusetts Institute of 2:174–175
Man and Nature, 2:228, 2:327, Technology (MIT) defined, 1:110
2:330 The Limits to Growth, 2:31–32 Medical Waste Tracking Act
Managed bioremediation, 1:54 Union of Concerned Scientists, (MWTA), 2:38
Management 2:271 Medical wastes, 1:272, 1:287–288,
adaptive, 1:21 women at, 2:230 2:38–42, 2:39, 2:40, 2:41,
environmental, 1:295–296, Massachusetts Student Public 2:290
2:8–9 Interest Research Group ocean dumping of, 2:33–34
See also Laws and regulations (MSPIRG), 2:151 Megawatts
Manatees, 2:243 Mass-market P2 technologies, defined, 2:240
Manhattan Project, 2:286 2:233–234 Membrane filtration, 2:320
Manufacturing, 1:282–287, 1:283 Material safety data sheets for arsenic removal, 1:44
benign, 1:236 (MSDS), 2:78, 2:184–185 MEO (Middle Earth orbit) debris,
of plastics, 2:109–111 Materialism, 2:19–21, 2:132 2:220, 2:220
recycling and, 2:170 Mauna Kea, Hawaii, 2:29 Mercury, 2:42–43
textile, 1:282 Mauna Loa Observatory, bioremediation and, 1:53
See also Industrial wastes 2:196–197 from electric power generation,
Manure. See Animal wastes Maximum Achievable Control 1:168, 1:169
Marginalism, 1:155 Technology (MACT), 1:37, FDA and, 2:264–265
Margulis, Lynn, 2:231 1:271 health problems from, 1:257
Marine debris, 2:314–315 Maximum concentration load as PBT chemical, 2:93
Marine environmental protection (MCL), of sewage sludge, as priority pollutant, 2:117
Cousteau, Jacques, 1:116 2:189–190 reporting requirements,
laws and regulations for, Maximum contaminant levels 2:247
2:80–82, 2:81 (MCLs), 2:316–317 from smelting, 2:205
sedimentation control and, defined, 2:268 water contamination, 1:8, 2:308,
2:200–202 Maximum tolerable dose (MTD), 2:310, 2:313–314
U.S. Coast Guard and, 2:259 of pesticides, 2:100 from World Trade Center
Marine mammals, 2:314–315 McCall, Thomas Lawson, 1:60 terrorist attack, 2:235
Marine pollution, 2:312–315, McCay, Bonnie, 2:253 “Mercy Mercy Me,” 2:133
2:313 McCloskey, Pete, 1:147 Mesophilic stage
from petroleum, 1:138–141, McDonald’s restaurants of humification, 1:107
2:105–106 packaging, 1:19 Mesothelioma, 2:50
from plastics, 2:111 McDowell, Mary, 1:200 defined, 1:45
Marine Protection, Research, and McGinty, Kathleen, 2:147 Metabolism
Sanctuaries Act of 1972, McKibben, Bill, 2:329, 2:330 defined, 1:176, 2:250
2:33–34, 2:80, 2:81 MCL (Maximum concentration industrial, 1:279
Marine Safety, Security, and load), of sewage sludge, Metabolites
Environmental Protection (U.S. 2:189–190 defined, 1:111
Coast Guard), 2:259 MCLs. See Maximum contaminant Metalclad Corporation, 1:13
Market democracies, 2:19–21 levels Metaldehyde, 2:97

377
Metals

Metals Microeconomics, 1:153 Mixed-use site development,

decontamination, 1:53 Microorganisms 1:63–64
environmental toxicology and, in bioremediation, 1:53–54, Mixing zones, 2:51–52, 2:311
2:252 1:54, 1:98–99 defined, 2:311
fingerprints of, 2:195 in biosolids, 1:56 MNA. See Monitored natural
as priority pollutant, 2:117 defined, 1:53, 2:52 attenuation
smelting of, 2:204–206 for oil spill cleanup, 1:139 Mobil Oil Corporation, 2:180
toxic, from incineration, Middle classes Mobile phones. See Cellular
1:273–274 Earth Day and, 1:148 phones
water pollution from, Middle Earth orbit (MEO) debris, Mobile source emissions, 1:92
2:313–315 2:220, 2:220 Mobro garbage barge, 2:212, 2:293
See also Mining Middle East, 1:259 Model Energy Code of 1993,
Metastasis, of cancer cells, 1:66 Middle East, oil from, 2:102 1:190
Meteorology. See Weather Mid-UV. See UV-B radiation Mojave Desert, 2:177
Metham sodium, 2:97 Migration Mold pollution, 2:52–54, 2:53
Methane (CH4), 2:43–44 population growth from, Molds
chemical formula of, 2:44 2:138–139 asthma and, 1:49
from coal mining, 1:101 Miguel Hidalgo, Mexico City, biodegradation by, 1:52–53
coal-bed, 2:49 2:273 Molecules
from crude oil, 2:49 Miles per gallon (MPG), defined, 2:109
global warming and, 1:242 Moles (units of measurement)
1:189–190, 1:218
IR spectroscopy for, 2:196 defined, 1:52
Milford Haven, Wales, 1:94
from landfills, 2:3–4 Molten carbonate fuel cells, 1:217
Military preparedness, 2:286
Methanogenesis Monitored natural attenuation
Milwaukee, Wisconsin, 2:310,
defined, 1:27 (MNA), 1:99–100
2:321
Methanogens, 2:44 Monitoring
Milwaukee (WI) Journal, 2:36
Methanol, 2:276 acid rain, 2:177
Mina Ahmadi terminal, 2:239
Methiocarb, 2:97 of pollution, 2:192–198
Minamata disease, 1:8, 1:294–295,
Methomyl, 2:97 Monitors, computer, 2:14
2:42
Methoxychlor, 2:248 The Monkey Wrench Gang, 1:159
Mine workings
Methyl bromide, 2:97 Monkey-wrenching. See
defined, 1:101
Methyl isocyanate, 1:125, 1:263, Ecoterrorism
Mineralization
2:97 Monoculture
defined, 1:52
Methyl mercury, 2:42 defined, 1:26
Mining, 2:45–50, 2:46
bioaccumlation of, 1:52 Montréal Protocol, 1:34, 1:88,
from electric power generation, accidents, 1:129–130 1:228, 1:245, 1:261, 2:54–55,
1:168 coal, 1:101 2:257
in Minamata Bay, 1:294–295 groundwater, 1:244–245 nongovernmental organizations
Methyl schradan, 2:96 Mining Law of 1872, 2:51 and, 2:72
Methyl tertiary butyl ether Minorities. See Environmental potential success of, 2:87
(MTBE), 2:268, 2:269–270 racism precautionary principle in,
phytoremediation of, 1:55 Mirex, 2:94 2:145
Methylene chloride, 1:247 Mississippi River, 2:312 Montréal Protocol Fund, 2:55
Metropolitan Washington Missouri, 2:15–16 Moody-Stuart, Mark, 1:284
Coalition on Clean Air, 1:9 Missouri Department of Natural Mooney, John, 2:198
Meuse Valley, Belgium, 1:30 Resources, 2:16 Morris, Illinois, 1:187
Mevinphos, 2:96 Mitchell, Joni, 2:133 Mortality. See Deaths
Mexican Secretariat for Natural Mitigation Mortality rates
Resources, 2:44–45 of climate changes, 1:227, 1:228 from cancer, 1:68
Mexico, 1:233 defined, 2:58 Moses, Marion, 2:1–2
environmental management in, in disaster cycle, 1:132 Mosquitoes
2:44–45 of space pollution, 2:222 DDT and, 1:118–119
green revolution in, 1:240 Mixed plastics, 2:114 Motor oil
NAFTA and, 2:56–57 Mixed wastes recycling, 2:172
Microbiologists, 1:77, 1:78 disposal of, 1:99 Mount Etna, Sicily, 1:131

378
 National Resource Recovery Act of 1975

Mount Palomar, California, 2:29 N National Environmental Policy Act

Movies, 2:133–134 (NEPA), 1:8, 1:196, 1:203–204,
NAAEC (North American
See also specific movies 1:206, 1:290, 2:9, 2:10, 2:57–58
Agreement on Environmental
MPG. See Miles per gallon on beneficial use, 1:50
Cooperation), 1:233, 2:57
MSDS (Material safety data on mining, 2:49
NAAEE (North American
sheets), 2:78, 2:184–185 on ocean dumping, 2:80
Association for Environmental
MSPIRG (Massachusetts Student See also President’s Council on
Education), 1:163
Public Interest Research Environmental Quality
NAAQS. See National Ambient Air
Group), 2:151 National Farm Workers
Quality Standards
MSWLFs (Municipal solid-waste Association (NFWA), 2:1
Nader, Ralph, 1:11, 1:239, 2:3,
landfills), 2:3 National Forest Management Act,
MSWs. See Municipal solid wastes 2:55–56, 2:56, 2:150 2:259
MTBE. See Methyl tertiary butyl Naess, Arne, 2:328 National Geographic, 2:35
ether NAFTA (North American Free National Institute of
MTD (Maximum tolerable dose), Trade Agreement), 1:233, Environmental Health Sciences,
of pesticides, 2:100 1:234, 2:56–57 1:255
Mueller, P.H., 1:118 Nagasaki, Japan, 1:186 National Institute of Occupational
Muir, John, 1:200, 2:147–148, Namche Bazar, Nepal, 2:175 Safety and Health (NIOSH),
2:228, 2:327 Nanwan Bay, Taiwan, 2:242 1:277, 1:277, 2:78
Mulluscicides, defined, 2:97 NAPLs. See Nonaqueous Phase National Institutes of Health
Multilateral treaties, defined, Liquids (NIH)
2:145 Napthelene, 2:198 Human Genome Project, 1:256
Multimedia approach, 2:130–131 NAS (National Academy of Tox Town, 2:252
Multinational corporations, 1:239, Sciences), 1:60 National Law Journal, 1:199
1:241, 2:7–8 NASA. See National Aeronautics National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Multisite, defined, 1:123 and Space Administration Administration (NOAA), 2:12,
Municipal point sources, 2:116, National Academy of Sciences 2:29, 2:58–59, 2:122
2:117 (NAS), 1:60 National Oil and Hazardous
Municipal sewage treatment, National Aeronautics and Space Pollution Plan, 2:259
2:116 Administration (NASA) National Park Service (NPS), 2:59,
Municipal Solid Waste in the United fuel cells and, 1:217 2:260
States: 1999 Facts and Figures, groundwater cleanup site, 2:310 National Park Service Organic Act
2:216 on orbital debris, 2:221 of 1916, 2:59
Municipal solid wastes (MSWs), National Agricultural Workers National parks, 2:59, 2:278–279
2:211–218, 2:214, 2:218 National People of Color
Union, 2:1
medical wastes, 2:38 Environmental Leadership
National Air Quality Information
transportation of, 2:293 Summit, 1:198
Archive (United Kingdom),
waste-to-energy, 2:296–297 National Pollutant Discharge
1:291
in water supply, 2:305–307 Elimination System (NPDES),
National Ambient Air Quality
Municipal solid-waste landfills 1:93, 1:121, 2:59–60, 2:116,
Standards (NAAQS), 1:33,
(MSWLFs), 2:3 2:117, 2:301, 2:302
1:33–34, 1:35–36, 2:64, 2:195
Municipal waste incineration National Pollution Prevention
National Audubon Society, 1:10,
dioxins from, 1:123–124 Roundtable (NPPR), 1:164,
fixed-hearth, 1:272 1:90, 1:202, 2:121, 2:140 2:128–129
Municipal water systems, 1:244, National Biosolids Partnership, National Pollution Release
2:309 1:60 Inventory (NPRI), 2:184–185
Music, 2:132–133 National Consumer’s League, National Pretreatment Program,
Muskie, Ed, 1:149 1:201 2:116–117
Mussels, blue, 2:197 National Emission Standards for National Priority List (NPL) of
Mutagens, 1:148, 2:251 Hazardous Air Pollutants CERCLA, 1:62, 2:225
MWTA (Medical Waste Tracking (NESHAP), 1:33, 1:37 National Recycling Coalition,
Act), 2:38 National Environmental Law 2:295–296
My Father, My Son, 2:283–284 Center, 1:126 National Research Council, 2:189
Mycology, 2:54 National Environmental National Resource Recovery Act of
Myers, John P., 1:104 Performance Track, 2:128 1975, 1:50

379
National Resources Defense Council

National Resources Defense Rivers and Harbors News & Observer (Raleigh, NC),
Council, 2:121 Appropriation Act, 2:191–192 2:36
National Survey of Lead and NCA (Noise Control Act) of 1972, Newspaper recycling, 2:171
Allergens in Housing (1998- 2:13, 2:65–66 Newspaper reporting, 2:34–37
2000), 2:14 Near-UV. See UV-A radiation Newspapers, 2:212
National Toxics Campaign (NTC), Needle sticks. See Sharps (Medical Newton, Isaac, 1:282, 2:231
2:60–61 supplies) NFWA (National Farm Workers
National Water Carrier (Israel), Neem, 2:97 Association), 2:1
1:259 Negative population growth, 2:138 NGOs. See Nongovernmental
National Water Quality Inventory, Negative Population Growth organizations
2:73–75, 2:117, 2:307, 2:308 (organization), 2:140 Niagara Falls Board of Education,
National Water Resource Institute Negotiated rule making. See 1:220–221, 1:262
(Canada), 1:291 Regulation negotiation Nickel, health hazards of, 1:257
National Wetlands Coalition, Nelson, Gaylord, 1:11, 1:147, Niclosamine, 2:97
2:324 1:204, 1:246, 2:62, 2:63 Nicotine, 2:97, 2:281
National Whistleblowers Center, Nematocides, defined, 2:97 Nieman Reports, 2:37
2:323 Nematodes, defined, 1:293 NIH. See National Institutes of
National Wild and Scenic Rivers Neo-Malthusians, defined, 2:32 Health
Act, 1:8 Neonates, defined, 2:251 NIMBY. See “Not in my backyard
National Wilderness Preservation See also Infants syndrome”
System, 1:61
NEPA. See National NIOSH. See National Institute of
National Wildlife Federation, 1:10,
Environmental Policy Act Occupational Safety and Health
2:26, 2:121, 2:140, 2:308
Nervous system, insecticides and, Nitrate catch crops, defined, 1:27
National Wildlife Refuge System,
2:96–97 Nitrates, 1:3, 1:5, 2:194
1:8
NESHAP (National Emission Nitric acid, 2:64, 2:211
Native Americans, 1:209, 2:2–3,
Standards for Hazardous Air Nitric oxide (NO), 1:36, 1:87, 2:64
2:132, 2:133
Pollutants), 1:33, 1:37 Nitrification, defined, 2:64
Natural attenuation, 1:96,
Netherlands Nitrogen
1:99–100
on automobile recycling, 2:173 in Chesapeake Bay, 2:309
Natural bioremediation, 1:54
climate change and, 1:227 from coal, 1:167
Natural disasters, 1:130–134,
recycling and, 2:174 detection of, 2:194
1:131, 1:133
See also European Union marine water pollution from,
See also Earthquakes
Neural, defined, 1:171 2:312
Natural gas, 1:215–216
Neurodegeneration, defined, 1:255 from soil pollution, 2:210
in car engines, 1:189, 2:276
methane in, 2:43–44 Neurological damage, 2:92 wetland removal of, 2:303
reserves of, 1:180 Neurology, defined, 2:92 Nitrogen dioxide (NO2), 2:64
See also Oil Neurotoxic, defined, 2:251 air quality standards on, 2:118,
Natural pollutants, 1:32 Neurotoxicants, defined, 1:253 2:195
Natural Resource Damage New Alchemy Institute, 2:245 controlling emissions of, 1:37
Assessment (NRDA), 2:61 New Guinea, 2:291 as criteria pollutant, 1:33, 1:36
Natural resources conservation. See New Left, 2:62–63 detection of, 2:194–195
Conservation New source review (NSR) process, Nitrogen oxides (NOx), 2:64–65
Natural Resources Conservation 1:102–103 catalytic converters and, 2:198
Service (NRCS), 2:259–260 New York City from coal burning, 1:102
Natural Resources Defense air pollution, 1:31 from electricity generation,
Council (NRDC), 1:205, 2:256 ocean dumping and, 2:83 1:168–169
Natural Resources Inventory, water pollution, 2:306 emission patterns, 1:4
2:260 watershed protection in, 2:311 emissions trading and, 1:175
Naturally occurring radioactive New York Times, 1:9, 2:34–36 IR spectroscopy for, 2:197
materials (NORMs), 2:77 Earth Day advertising in, 1:148 ozone pollution from, 2:87–88,
Navajo Power Generating Station, Grand Canyon controversy and, 2:119
2:278 2:71 from petroleum, 2:106
Navigation New Zealand, 1:12 sampling air for, 2:192
dredging for, 1:144, 2:81–82 Newell’s shearwaters, 2:30 smogs from, 2:207–208

380
 Occupational health and safety

from vehicle emissions, 1:182, Nonspecific detectors, 2:194 NRDC (Natural Resources
2:272–273 Nontariff barriers, 2:146, 2:326 Defense Council), 1:205, 2:256
Nitrogen/phosphorus detectors, Nonylphenol, 1:176 NSR (New source review) process,
2:194 No-observable-effect level 1:102–103
Nitrous oxide (N2O), 1:242, 2:196, (NOEL), 2:100 NSRB (Nuclear Safety Regulatory
2:239 NORMs (Naturally occurring Board), 2:12
Nixon, Richard radioactive materials), 2:77 NTC (National Toxics Campaign),
creation of EPA, 1:148–149, North America 2:60–61
2:261 consumerism in, 2:19–21 Nuclear accidents, 1:40,
NEPA and, 1:203–204 nonpoint sources of petroleum, 1:134–138, 1:136, 1:137,
President’s Council on 2:106 1:205–206, 1:264–265,
Environmental Quality, 2:146 resource consumption in, 2:23, 2:160–161
Watergate scandal, 2:154 2:24 See also specific accidents
NOAA. See National Oceanic and See also Canada; Mexico; Nuclear energy, 1:39–40, 1:170,
Atmospheric Administration NAFTA; United States 1:183, 1:185–188, 1:186, 1:187,
NOEL (No-observable-effect North American Agreement on 1:264, 2:56
level), 2:100 Environmental Cooperation See also Antinuclear movement
Noise Control Act (NCA) of 1972, (NAAEC), 1:233, 2:57 Nuclear fission, 1:185–186, 1:188
2:13, 2:65–66 North American Association for Nuclear power plants, 1:40, 1:187,
Noise pollution, 2:66–69, 2:67, Environmental Education 2:133, 2:162, 2:240–242
2:68
(NAAEE), 1:163 Nuclear reactors, 1:134–135,
indoor air quality and, 1:278
North American Free Trade 1:187, 1:188, 2:164–165
legislative control of, 2:65
Agreement. See NAFTA Nuclear Regulatory Commission
Nonanthropocentric
Northridge, California earthquake, (NRC), 1:136, 2:39, 2:77
environmental ethics,
1:133 Nuclear Safety Regulatory Board
1:211–212
North-South divide, 2:142 (NSRB), 2:12
Nonaqueous Phase Liquids
Northwood Manor, Houston, Nuclear submarines, 1:136–138,
(NAPLs), 1:97–98, 2:69
Texas, 1:197–198 1:188
Nonattainment areas, 1:92
Norway Nuclear terrorism, 2:238
Nonbinding arbitration, 1:41
Brundtland, Gro and, 1:64–65 Nuclear test ban treaties, 1:39,
Nondurable goods, 2:212
ocean energy in, 2:175 1:202
Nongovernmental organizations
See also European Union Nuclear Waste Policy Act of 1982,
(NGOs), 1:13, 2:69–73, 2:70,
Norwegian Shipowners 2:331
2:120–121
Organization, 2:315 Nuclear wastes. See Radioactive
at Earth Summit, 1:152,
1:206–207, 1:239, 1:287 “Not in my backyard syndrome” wastes
international environmental (NIMBY), 1:15, 1:270, 2:60 Nuclear weapons, 1:187,
issues and, 2:256 NPDES. See National Pollutant 2:160–161, 2:238
on pollution prevention, 2:128 Discharge Elimination System Nuclear weapons testing, 1:39
See also specific organizations NPL. See National Priority List Greenpeace and, 1:11–12, 1:243
Nonhazardous solid wastes, 2:289 (NPL) of CERCLA protests against, 1:202
Nonmetallic minerals mining, 2:45 NPPR (National Pollution Nuclear winter, 2:238
Nonpoint source pollution, Prevention Roundtable), Nuremberg Trials, 2:282
2:73–77, 2:74, 2:304 2:128–129
defined, 2:302 NPRI (National Pollution Release O
petroleum, 2:105–106 Inventory), 2:184–185 Oakland Bay Bridge, California,
of surface water, 2:307–309 NPS (National Park Service), 2:59, 2:274
water quality and, 2:302–303 2:260 Occult deposition, 1:3
Nonprofit organizations, NRC. See Nuclear Regulatory Occupational health and safety
environmental careers in, 1:82 Commission in cleanup projects, 1:94–95
See also specific organizations NRCS (Natural Resources Hamilton, Alice and, 1:246
Nonregenerative wet scrubbers, Conservation Service), mercury and, 2:42
2:199 2:259–260 movies on, 2:133
Nonrenewable resources. See NRDA (Natural Resource Damage in plastics manufacturing, 2:109
specific resources Assessment), 2:61 Workers Health Bureau, 2:325

381
Occupational Health and Safety Act of 1970

Occupational Health and Safety Oil Ores, 2:45

Act of 1970, 1:149, 2:55, 2:78 aggression and, 2:25 Organic, defined, 2:126
Occupational Safety and Health disposal of, 2:310 Organic acts (Legislation),
Administration (OSHA), 2:12, electricity from, 1:166 2:10–12, 2:128
2:78 pollution from, 2:104–107 Organic arsenic, 1:43–44
on asbestos, 1:46 reserves of, 1:180 Organic chemicals, 1:124
on hazardous materials labeling, U.S. imports of, 2:101–102 Organic contaminants
2:184 from U.S.S. Arizona, 2:287 bioremediation of, 1:55
on health care workers, 2:38, waste, 2:243 in soil, 2:209
2:39 See also Oil spills; Petroleum See also specific contaminants
on mercury, 2:42–43 Oil, Chemical and Atomic Organic farming, 1:28, 1:29, 1:294
on whistleblowing, 2:323 Workers Union, 2:133 Organic phosphates, 2:108
Workers Health Bureau and, Oil embargo (1973-1974), 2:102 Organization for Economic
2:325 Oil exploration, in Arctic National Cooperation and Development
World Trade Center terrorist Wildlife Refuge, 1:41–42 (OECD), 1:8, 2:217
attack and, 2:237 Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (OPA), Organization of the Petroleum
Ocean Arks International, 2:246 1:139, 1:263, 2:61 Exporting Countries (OPEC),
Ocean Conservancy, 2:315 Oil Pollution Control Act of 1924, 1:184–185, 2:102
Ocean dumping, 2:78–83, 2:79, 2:302 Organized labor, 1:88–89
2:81 Oil Pollution Prevention Act Organochlorines, 2:93, 2:94, 2:96
of biosolids, 1:57 (OPP), 2:10 bioaccumlation of, 1:51–52
of plastics, 2:111 Oil spills, 1:138–141, 1:140, 1:141, carcinogenicity of, 1:69–70
See also London Convention; 1:202–203, 1:259, 1:263, 2:102, defined, 2:96, 2:314
Marine pollution 2:103, 2:104–105, 2:314, 2:315 water pollution from, 2:314
Ocean Dumping Act. See Marine Arctic National Wildlife Refuge Organohalide pesticides, 2:195
Protection, Research, and and, 1:42 Organohalogens, 2:93
Sanctuaries Act of 1972 ectotoxicity from, 1:127–128 Organo-metal compounds, 1:52
Ocean Dumping Ban Act of 1988, Milford Haven, Wales, 1:94 Organophosphates, 2:96, 2:194
1:57, 2:33, 2:83, 2:257, 2:304 U.S. Coast Guard and, 2:259 OSHA. See Occupational Safety
Ocean energy, 2:175 Ojibway Indians, 1:8 and Health Administration
Ocean thermal energy conversion Oki, Hiroshi, 2:255 OSPIRG (Oregon Student Public
(OTEC) plants, 2:175 Oklawaha River Canal, 1:115 Interest Research Group), 2:151
O’Connor, John, 2:60 Old Left, 2:62–63 Ostrom, Elinor, 2:253
Octachlorostyrene, 2:93 1996 Olympics, 1:49 OTEC (Ocean thermal energy
ODA. See Marine Protection, ONAC (Office of Noise conversion) plants, 2:175
Research, and Sanctuaries Act Abatement and Control), 2:65, Our Common Future, 1:65, 1:151,
of 1972 2:67 2:227–228
Odum, Howard, 2:231 OPA. See Oil Pollution Act of 1990 Our Stolen Future, 1:104, 2:330
OECD (Organization for OPEC (Organization of the Outdoor air pollution. See Air
Economic Cooperation and Petroleum Exporting pollution
Development), 1:8, 2:217 Countries), 2:102 Outfall, defined, 2:300
Off-gas control, defined, 2:130 Open access, to pollution Outreach programs, 1:77–78,
Office of Civilian Radioactive information, 1:289–291 1:163–164
Waste Management, 2:165 Open path monitors, 2:195, 2:196 Overburden, defined, 1:101
Office of Environmental Justice, Open trash burning, 1:65 Overexploitation, 2:253
1:199 OPP (Oil Pollution Prevention Overpopulation, 1:164–165, 1:202,
Office of Environmental Act), 2:10 2:33, 2:328
Protection (Mexico), 1:13 Oppenheimer, Robert, 1:38 Ovoid, defined, 2:52
Office of Noise Abatement and Oral contraceptives, in wastewater, Oxamyl, 2:97
Control (ONAC), 2:65, 2:67 1:111 Oxidize, defined, 1:272
Office of Surface Mining Orbital debris, 2:219–222, 2:220, Oxygen
Reclamation and Enforcement, 2:221 carbon monoxide and, 1:74
2:260 Oregon Student Public Interest for combustion, 1:271
Office paper, 2:212 Research Group (OSPIRG), dissolved, 2:116
Off-site recycling, 1:2 2:151 fish suffocation and, 1:215

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 Pesticides

hypoxia and, 1:270 Particulates, 2:88–91, 2:89 Pearl Harbor National Monument,
See also Eutrophication air quality standards on, 2:118, 2:287
Oxygen demand, biochemical, 2:195 Peat, coal from, 1:100–101
2:84 from coal, 1:103 Peccei, Aurelio, 1:10
Oxygenate, defined, 2:269 control of, 1:37 PEM (Proton exchange
Ozonation, defined, 1:255 as criteria pollutant, 1:33, 1:35 membrane) fuel cells, 1:216,
Ozone hole, 1:15, 1:245, 1:261, defined, 2:47 1:217
2:71–72, 2:85, 2:86–87 ground level, 2:119 Pennsylvania Alliance for Aquatic
See also Montréal Protocol from incineration, 1:274 Resource Monitoring, 1:290
Ozone (O3), 2:84–88, 2:85, 2:86 from petroleum, 2:106 Pennsylvania Department of
air quality standards on, 2:118, scrubbers for, 2:199 Health, 1:135–136
2:195 smog from, 2:207–208 Pentachlorophenol (PCP), 1:122,
carbon monoxide and, 1:74 sulfates, 1:36 2:98, 2:227
CFCs and, 1:87–88 from vehicle emissions, People Against a Chemically
control, 1:37 2:272–273 Contaminated Environment
as criteria pollutant, 1:33, 1:36 Passive cleanup. See Natural (PACCE), 2:61
ground-level, 2:119 attenuation Per capita, defined, 2:33
nitrogen oxides and, 2:64 Patents, defined, 2:51 PERC (Perchloroethylene),
petroleum and, 2:106 Pathogenic, defined, 2:97 1:145–146
smog from, 2:207–208 Pathways (Chemical), defined, 2:16 Perception, public. See Public
UV spectra and, 2:196, 2:266 Patterson, Clair, 1:281 perception
from vehicle emissions, 2:272 PBT chemicals. See Persistent Perchloroethylene (PERC),
from VOCs, 2:281 bioaccumulative and toxic 1:145–146
in water treatment, 2:320–321 (PBT) chemicals Percolating, defined, 1:243
PCBs (Polychlorinated biphenyls), Pereira, Fernando, 1:243
P 2:91–93, 2:92, 2:93, 2:94 Performance Partnership Grants
P2. See Pollution prevention bioaccumulation of, 1:50–51, Program, 2:128
PACCE (People Against a 1:51 Permethrin, 2:97
Chemically Contaminated chemical structure of, 2:91 Permits, 2:9, 2:124, 2:127,
Environment), 2:61 defined, 2:209 2:191–192
Packaging, plastic, 2:110–114, detection of, 2:194 Persian Gulf, oil from, 2:102
2:113 disposal of, 1:220, 2:287–288 Persian Gulf War (1991), 2:284
PAHs. See Polycyclic aromatic PCDF in, 1:122 Kuwaiti oil fields, 1:185, 2:239,
hydrocarbons as priority pollutant, 2:117 2:283, 2:284
Paine, Thomas, 1:239 reporting requirements, 2:248 oil spill, 1:139
Paints sidescan sonars for, 2:198 Persistent bioaccumulative and
lead, 1:276, 2:14, 2:249 soil pollution from, 2:209 toxic (PBT) chemicals, 2:93–94,
recycling, 2:172 thyroid hormones and, 1:177 2:126, 2:247–248
reuse, 2:183 Toxic Substances Control Act Persistent organic pollutants
Palmerton, Pennsylvania, 1:59 and, 2:249 (POPs), 1:51, 1:122, 2:6, 2:93,
Palo Alto Hardware, 2:176 water pollution from, 2:314 2:94
Paper products, 2:212, 2:213 PCC (Primary combustion Personal care products. See
as energy source, 2:176 chamber), 1:272 Pharmaceuticals and personal
recycling, 2:171, 2:215 PCDD. See Polychlorinated care products
Paracelsus, 2:250 dibenzo[1,4]dioxins Personal responsibility, 2:26–27
Paradise in the Sea of Sorrow, 1:294 PCDF. See Polychlorinated Personnel protective equipment
Paraquat, 2:98 dibenzofurans (PPE), 1:95, 1:95
Parathion, 2:96 PCNs (Polychlorinated Pervious concrete, 2:77
Park, Marion Edward, 1:246 naphthalenes), 2:93 Pesticide Education Center, 1:2
Parkinson’s disease, 1:255 PCP. See Pentachlorophenol Pesticides, 2:95, 2:95–101, 2:96
Parks, national, 2:59, 2:278–279 PCSD (President’s Council on in agriculture, 1:25, 1:26–27
Parliamentary governments, Sustainable Development), Chávez, César and, 1:88–89,
1:232–233 2:147, 2:158 2:1–2
Particulate matter (PM). See Peace Corps, 1:163 dioxin in, 1:122
Particulates Peanut industry, 1:84–85 electron capture for, 2:195

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Pesticides

Pesticides (continued) Photodissociation, 2:64 National Pollutant Discharge

FIFRA and, 1:213 Photovoltaic (PV) systems, 2:178 Elimination System and,
in freshwater, 2:307, 2:310 Phthalates, 2:93, 2:146, 2:195 2:59–60
gas chromatography for, 2:194 Phyllis Cormack, 1:243 of surface water pollution, 2:308
green chemistry for, 1:237 Physical removal, 1:95, 1:96–98 Poison gases, in war, 2:281
integrated pest management Phytoextraction, 1:96 Poisoning
and, 1:293–294 Phytoplankton, 2:312–313 arsenic, 1:43–44
nitrogen/phosphorus detectors defined, 2:312 carbon monoxide, 1:35, 1:74
for, 2:194 heterotrophic, 1:140 fish kills from, 1:214
organochlorine, 2:93 Phytoremediation, 1:53–55, mercury, 2:42
POPs, 2:94 1:96–97 See also Lead (Pb); Toxicology
as priority pollutant, 2:117 for arsenic removal, 1:44 Poland, cleanup in, 1:94
risk factors, 2:188 of hazardous wastes, 1:249–250 Policy dialogue. See Regulation
water pollution from, 2:307, with petroleum products, 1:55 negotiation
2:314 for soil pollution, 2:211 Political corruption, 2:154
See also Carson, Rachel; specific PIC. See Prior informed consent Political culture, 1:234
pesticides Pinchot, Gifford, 2:147–148, “Political Difficulties Facing
PET (Polyethylene terephthalate), 2:228, 2:324 Waste-to-Energy Conversion
2:112 Pinene, 2:281 Plant Siting,” 2:143
Petroleum, 1:216, 2:101–108, Pipelines Political Economy Research
2:102, 2:103, 2:104, 2:105 in hydraulic dredging, Center, 2:324
Petroleum products, 1:124 1:143–144 Politics, 2:119–124, 2:120
acid rain and, 1:3 oil spills from, 1:138, 1:141, anti-environmental, 1:206
bioremediation and, 1:54, 1:55, 2:104–105 Earth Day and, 1:148–149
1:98–99 PIRGs. See Public interest research of energy, 1:184–185
leaking underground storage groups Green Party, 1:239–240
tanks and, 2:266, 2:267, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, 1:251 mediated, 2:18
2:268–269 Planktonic, defined, 2:242 Progressive Party, 1:200–201
See also Oil spills Planned Parenthood, 2:140 Pollutants
Petroleum transportation, 1:138, Planning, environmental, careers household, 1:266–270, 1:267,
1:141 in, 1:81 1:268
Pfiesteria, 1:26, 1:214, 2:313 Plant nutrients persistent organic, 1:51
pH, defined, 2:321 soil fertility and, 1:25–27 priority, 2:116–117
Pharmaceutical wastes, 2:40 water pollution and, 2:310 See also Pollution; specific
See also Medical wastes Plants pollutants
Pharmaceuticals and personal care biomonitoring of, 2:197 Pollution
products (PPCPs), 1:111–113, eutrophication and, 2:108–109, agricultural, 1:27–28
1:112, 2:308–309 2:310, 2:312–313 attitudes about, 2:132
Philadelphia Inquirer, 2:35 green chemicals from, 1:236 consumer, 1:111–114, 1:112,
Philippines, green revolution in, hazards to, 2:187 2:21–27
1:240 See also Aquatic species; economics of, 1:153–158
Phorate, 2:96 Phytoremediation from electric power generation,
Phosgene, 2:109–110 Plastic bag tax, 2:181 1:168–169
Phosphates, 2:108–109, 2:308 Plasticizers. See Phthalates energy and, 1:182–183
Phosphoric acid, 2:211 Plastics, 2:109–115, 2:110, 2:111, images of in popular culture,
Phosphoric acid fuel cells, 2:113 2:132–134
1:216–217 in marine environments, light, 2:28–31, 2:29
Phosphorus, 2:194, 2:312 2:314–315 mold, 2:52–54, 2:53
Phosphorus cycle, 2:108 recycling, 2:171–172, 2:215 monitoring, 2:192–198
Photochemical, defined, 2:86 Plumes, defined, 1:55 poverty and, 2:141–142
Photochemical oxidants Pluralist society, 1:234 See also Laws and regulations;
as criteria pollutant, 1:33 PM. See Particulates specific types of pollution
particulates from, 2:89 PM-10, defined, 1:103 Pollution control
Photochemical smog, 1:201, 2:86, Point sources, 2:115–119, 2:118, for health reasons, 1:251–252,
2:207–208, 2:280–281 2:304 1:251–256

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 Programme for the Further Implementation of Agenda 21

oil spills, 1:141 Population, 2:136–140, 2:137, Preparation, for natural disasters,
public policy decision making 2:138 1:132
and, 2:158–159 hazards, 2:186 Preparatory committee
regulatory agencies, 1:22–24 overexploitation and, 2:253 (PrepCom), 1:151–152
state vs. federal laws, 1:231 variability of hazard responses, Prepared bed systems, for
USDA on, 2:259–260 2:187–188 bioremediation, 1:54
See also Laws and regulations zero growth in, 2:333–334 Presidential vetoes, 2:17
Pollution prevention (P2), The Population Bomb, 1:104, President’s Climate Change Action
2:124–129, 2:125, 2:232–234 1:164–165, 1:202, 2:34, 2:328, Plan (1993), 2:49
for freshwater contamination, 2:334 President’s Council on
2:310–311 Porcupine caribou, 1:43 Environmental Quality (CEQ),
See also Abatement Pore waters, defined, 2:200 2:122, 2:146–147
Pollution Prevention Act (PPA), Pornography, eco-, 2:135 President’s Council on Sustainable
2:10, 2:124, 2:128, 2:263 Porosity, defined, 1:292 Development (PCSD), 2:147,
Pollution removal. See Portsmouth Recycling Center, 2:158
Remediation 2:170 President’s Science Advisory
Pollution shifting, 2:129–131 Postal Service, anthrax scare and, Committee (PSAC), 1:84
Polonium-214, 2:168 2:238 Pressure group-politics,
Polonium-218, 2:168 Postindustrial site development, 2:119–121
Polyacrylonitrile, 2:110 1:62–63 Price theory. See Microeconomics
Polyactic acid, 2:114 Postindustrialization,
Prices
Polyalkonates, 2:114 environmental health and,
oil, 2:102, 2:105
Polychlorinated biphenyls. See 1:251–252
of pollution, 1:158–159
PCBs Postwar society (World War II),
Primary combustion chamber
Polychlorinated 1:201, 1:251, 1:258–259,
(PCC), 1:272
dibenzo[1,4]dioxins (PCDD), 1:260
Primary industries, 1:282–283
1:122, 1:122–123 Potassium iodide (KI) pills,
Primary particulates, 2:89
See also Dioxins 1:134
Primary pollutants, 1:32
Polychlorinated dibenzofurans Potassium permanganate, 1:99
controlling, 1:37
(PCDF), 1:122, 1:122–123 POTWs (Publicly owned
from vehicles, 2:272
Polychlorinated naphthalenes treatment works), 1:2, 1:93
See also specific pollutants
(PCNs), 2:93 Poverty, 1:265, 2:140–145
Primary recycling, 2:171
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons environmental hazards and,
Primary treatment, of wastewater,
(PAHs), 2:93 1:210, 2:25–26
1:56, 2:300
carcinogenicity of, 1:69–70 green revolution for, 1:240
defined, 2:90 population growth and, 2:139 Prime ministers, 1:233
at Libby, Montana site, 2:227 See also Environmental justice; Prince William Sound, 1:128,
Persian Gulf War and, 2:239 Settlement House Movement 1:263–264, 1:283, 2:104–105
reporting requirements, 2:248 Power plants Prior informed consent (PIC), in
soil pollution from, 2:209 energy and, 1:181–183 international trade, 2:6, 2:7,
Polyethylene, 2:114 solar parabolic trough, 2:178 2:257
Polyethylene terephthalate (PET), See also specific types of power Priority pollutants, 2:116–117
2:112 plants Private property, 2:149–150
Polymer electrolyte membrane fuel PPA. See Pollution Prevention Act Process controls, 2:233
cells. See Proton exchange PPCPs. See Pharmaceuticals and Products
membrane (PEM) fuel cells personal care products life cycle analyses of, 2:18–19,
Polymerization, 2:109 PPE (Personnel protective 2:232, 2:294
Polymers, 2:109, 2:197 equipment), 1:95, 1:95 recylclables, 2:171
Polystyrene (PS), 2:112–113 Precautionary principle, 1:172, used, 2:181–183
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC), 1:212, 2:5–6, 2:145–146 See also specific products
2:110–111, 2:146 Precursor gases, 2:207–208 Profit-principle balance, 1:284
POPs. See Persistent organic Preindustrialization, Progestins, as carcinogen, 1:67
pollutants environmental health and, Programme for the Further
Popular culture, 2:131–136, 2:132, 1:251 Implementation of Agenda 21
2:133 Prejudices, racial, 1:208–209 (United Nations), 2:144

385
Progressive movement

Progressive movement, 1:200–201, political shaping of, 2:121 containment of, 1:99
2:147–148 of risks, 2:185–186 defined, 1:93, 2:160
See also Environmental Public policy decision making, in radioactive wastes, 2:161–163
movement; Settlement House 2:157–160 soil pollution from, 2:209, 2:211
Movement Public service announcements, Radium isotopes, 2:166–167
Project XL, 2:128 2:132 Radon, 1:67, 1:69, 1:276,
Property rights, of Native Publicly owned treatment works 2:166–169, 2:167, 2:249
Americans, 2:3 (POTWs), 1:2, 1:93 Radon-222, 2:167
Property rights movement, Pulitzer Prizes, 2:36 Railroads, spread of pollution and,
2:149–150 Pulp and paper industry, 1:236 1:284–285
Proteins, defined, 2:242 “Pump and treat,” for groundwater Rainbow Warrior, 1:243
Protest movements, 1:8–10 contamination, 1:97–98 Ralph Nader: Battling for Democracy,
See also Activism; Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906, 2:150
Environmental movement 2:148, 2:184 Ramsar Convention, 2:257
Protocol Additional I, Geneva PV (Photovoltaic) systems, 2:178 Rance River, France, 2:175
Convention, 2:284 PVC. See Polyvinyl chloride RAND study, 2:286
Protocol of 1978, 2:314 Pyrethroid insecticides, 2:97, 2:99, Ratification, defined, 2:56
Protocols, 2:54, 2:254 2:310 Raw water, defined, 2:320
Proton exchange membrane Pyrethrum, 2:97 Raymond, R.L., 1:54
(PEM) fuel cells, 1:216, 1:217 Pyrite, 2:48 Rays of Hope, 1:246
Provinces, Canadian, 1:194, 1:233 RBMK-type reactors, 1:134–135
See also specific towns and Q RCRA. See Resource Conservation
provinces Quality management, and Recovery Act
PS (Polystyrene), 2:112–113 environmental, 1:295–296 Reactive barriers, 1:99
PSAC (President’s Science Quiet Communities Act of 1978, Reactive chemicals, defined, 1:98
Advisory Committee), 1:84 2:65 Reading rooms, electronic, 1:289
Pteris vittata, 1:44 Quist, Gregory, 2:321 Reagan, Ronald, 1:14–15, 1:206
Puberty, environmental health and, CEQ and, 2:147
1:253–254 R New Left and, 2:63
Public Citizen, 2:56 Ra, 2:314 on property rights, 2:150
Public Employees for Professional Rachel Carson: Witness for Nature, Reboilers, distillation column, 1:2
Responsibility, 2:323 1:83 Recharge, defined, 1:244, 2:311
Public health, 1:255–256 Racial discrimination, 1:208–209, RECLAIM market, 1:175
See also Health problems 2:154, 2:203 Reclamation
Public Health and Bioterrorism Racism, environmental, 1:196–198, defined, 1:101
Preparedness and Response Act 1:206, 1:208–210, 1:219 mine, 1:129, 2:47, 2:49–50
of 2002, 2:238 Radar equipment, cancer and, 1:67 Recommended agricultural
Public Health Service. See U.S. Radiation exposure, 2:162–163, practices (RMPs), 1:28, 1:29
Public Health Service 2:333 Reconstruction, after natural
Public information access, 1:289, See also specific types of disasters, 1:132
2:127, 2:183–185 radiation Recovery, of recyclables,
Public interest research groups Radiation Exposure Compensation 2:170–171, 2:215–216
(PIRGs), 1:11, 2:55, 2:150–151 Act of 1990, 1:40 Recycling, 1:50, 2:125, 2:169–174,
Public lands, 2:323–324 Radio frequency (RF), 1:67 2:170, 2:172, 2:173
Public Lands Council, 2:324 Radioactive fallout, 2:160–161 bottle deposit laws and, 1:60–61
Public opinion polls, 1:159, 2:121, Radioactive pollution, 1:134–137, by composting, 1:106
2:132 1:187, 1:188, 1:264–265, 2:286 European Union on, 2:233
Public participation, 2:151–157, Radioactive wastes, 1:40, 1:183, of hazardous materials, 1:248
2:155 1:188, 1:265, 2:161–166, 2:162, in-plant, 1:2
Public perception 2:164, 2:290, 2:330–331 in-process, 1:1
environmental business costs See also Hazardous wastes of municipal solid wastes, 2:213,
and, 1:286 Radiofrequency electric and 2:215–216
of industrial polluters, magnetic fields (RF EMFs), off-site, 1:2
1:283–284 1:171, 1:172 of plastics, 2:111–113
opinion polls, 1:159 Radionuclides pollution prevention and, 2:233

386
 Rural Abandoned Mines

of PPCPs, 1:113 Republican governments. See Rio + 10, 1:24

symbol, 2:132, 2:133 Representative governments Rio Declaration, 1:152, 2:5–6
Red tides, 2:312–313 Research, environmental, 1:76–77 Risk, 2:185–191, 2:186, 2:188,
Reevaporation, defined, 2:92 Residence time, for combustion, 2:190
Refractories, defined, 1:272 1:271–273 Risk assessments, 2:123,
Refrigerants, defined, 1:87 Residue, defined, 1:177 2:186–191, 2:198, 2:252
Refuse Act. See Rivers and Harbors Resmethrin, 2:97 of biosolid hazards, 1:58, 1:60
Appropriation Act of 1899 Resolution 687 (UN Security of pesticides, 1:213
Refuse-derived fuels, 2:297 Council), 2:284 Risk-based cleanup standards,
“Reg neg.” See Regulation Resource competition, terrorism 1:62–63, 1:95–96
negotiation and, 2:238–239 Risser, James, 2:36
Regenerative, defined, 2:175 Resource Conservation and River mile, defined, 2:117
Regenerative fuel cells, 1:217 Recovery Act (RCRA) of 1976, River Watch Program, 1:90
Regenerative scrubbers, 2:199 1:23, 1:149, 1:247–248, 1:250, Rivers, polluted. See Freshwater
Regional Seas activities (United 2:10, 2:180–181 pollution
Nations), 2:201 incineration and, 1:271 Rivers and Harbor Act of 1890,
Regulated medical wastes. See on injection wells, 1:292 1:92, 2:80, 2:258
Infectious wastes on medical wastes, 2:39 Rivers and Harbors Appropriation
Regulation negotiation, 2:174–175 on mining, 2:49 Act of 1899, 2:191–192, 2:301
Regulations. See Laws and as single-medium approach, Rivers of Colorado Water Watch,
2:125–126 1:290
regulations
Resource Recovery Act (RRA), RMPs (Recommended agricultural
Regulatory agencies, 1:22–24,
1:271 practices), 1:28, 1:29
2:10–12, 2:44–45, 2:122–123
Respiratory problems Roberts, Julia, 2:134
See also Laws and regulations;
acute infections, 1:251 Rockefeller Foundation, 1:240–241
specific agencies and countries
haze and, 2:278 Rodrigo de Freitas lake, 1:214
Regulatory federalism, 2:122
from nitrogen oxides, Romero, Pablo, 2:1–2
Remediation, 2:261
2:272–273 Room-and-pillar mining, 1:101
vs. abatement, 1:1, 1:94
from smog, 2:206–207 Roosevelt, Theodore, 1:200
of brownfields, 1:62–63
from sulfur dioxide, 2:224 Roselle, Mike, 1:150
of contaminated soil, 2:210–211
from World Trade Center Ross, Andrew, 2:134–135
defined, 1:94, 2:16
terrorist attack, 2:235–236 Ross, Donald, 2:150
of dioxin-contamination, 1:124
See also Health problems Rotary kiln incineration, 1:272,
of groundwater, 1:243–244,
Responsibility, personal, 2:26–27 1:273
2:268
Restoration and recovery, from Rotenone, 2:97
of PCB sites, 2:92 natural disasters, 1:132 Rothamsted agricultural
of space pollution, 2:221–222 Reuse, 2:181–183, 2:182, 2:214, experiment station, 1:26
of Superfund mines, 1:130 2:215–216, 2:294–295 Rotterdam Convention, 2:257
See also Superfund Revenue Marine Service. See U.S. Royal Dutch Shell, 1:284, 2:25
Remodeling, household, 1:266, Coast Guard Royalties, defined, 2:51
1:269 RF. See Radio frequency RRA (Resource Recovery Act),
Rendulic, Lothar, 2:282 RF EMFs (Radiofrequency electric 1:271
Renewable energy, 2:175–180, and magnetic fields), 1:171, RTK (Right to know),
2:176, 2:177, 2:178, 2:179, 1:172 2:183–185
2:228 RIASON system, 1:291 Ruby Hill Mine, Nevada, 1:129,
See also specific energy sources Richards, Ellen Swallow. See 2:50
Reorganization Plan No. 3, 2:261 Swallow, Ellen Ruckelshaus, William D., 2:263
Replacement fertility, 2:333–334 Rickover, Hyman G., 1:187 Rugs. See Carpets
Replacement parts, 2:183 Riding the Dragon: Royal Dutch Shell Rummage sales, 2:183
Representative governments, 1:230 and the Fossil Fire, 1:284 Runoff, 2:307–308, 2:312
Reprocessing, 1:188, 2:171 Right to know (RTK), 2:183–185 nonpoint source pollution in,
Reproductive problems See also Information 2:74–75, 2:76–77, 2:106
fish, from water pollution, 2:310 Riis, Jacob, 2:148 storm-water, 2:116
from PCBs, 2:92 Rinehart and Dennis, 1:219 See also Water pollution
See also Health problems Rio + 5, 1:24, 1:206–207, 1:261 Rural Abandoned Mines, 2:260

387
Rural areas

Rural areas See also Education dredging, 1:142–144, 2:81–82,

groundwater in, 1:244 Science, 2:192–199, 2:193, 2:194, 2:92
septic tanks in, 2:299 2:196 nonpoint source pollution in,
urban waste disposal in, 2:293 Science, 1:281 2:74–75, 2:76
Russell, Kurt, 2:133 Scientific materialism, 2:20 remediation of, 1:97
Rwanda, 2:286 Scorched earth war tactics, 2:282 Seeps, 1:138–139, 2:106
Ryan, Teya, 2:35 U.S.S. Scorpion, 1:137 Segregation, 2:154
Ryania, 2:97 Scrubbers, 1:274, 2:199, SEJ (Society of Environmental
2:199–200 Journalists), 2:34, 2:35
S air, defined, 2:129, 2:130 SEJournal, 2:34
Sabadilla, 2:97 defined, 1:102, 1:273 Selenium
Sachsman, David B., 2:34 Scuba diving, 1:116 bioremediation and, 1:53
Sacramento (CA) Bee, 2:36 SDS (Students for a Democratic environmental toxicology and,
Safe Drinking Water Act (SWDA) Society), 2:63 2:252
of 1974, 1:244, 2:62, 2:122, Sea Empress, 1:94 from smelting, 2:205
2:123, 2:263, 2:304, 2:309, Sea grasses, 2:312 Self-design, 2:231
2:316–317, 2:321, 2:322–323 Sea level, rise in, 1:227 “Self-Implementing Alternate
Sagebrush Rebellion, 2:149, 2:324 Sea salt particulates, 2:88–89 Dilution Water Guidance,”
St. Gabriel, Louisiana, 1:71 Sea Shepherd Conservation 1:121
St. Helena Bay, South Africa, 1:215 Society, 1:16, 1:160 Self-regulating economic systems,
St. Lawrence River, 2:314 Sea Shepherd (ship), 1:16 1:155–157
Salvage, space, 2:222 Sea turtles, light pollution and, Sellafield, United Kingdom, 2:165
Salvage yards, 2:183 2:30 SEMARNAT. See Mexican
Salvation Army, 2:182 Seabrook nuclear power plant, 1:40 Secretariat for Natural
San Cristóbal Island, 1:141 Seattle, Washington, WTO Resources
San Francisco Bay, 1:258 meeting, 2:326 Semple Jr., Robert B., 2:36
San Joaquin Valley, California, Second party data, 1:290 Sen, Amartya, 1:240
2:252 Secondary combustion chamber Senate (U.S. Congress), 2:16–17
San Onofre Nuclear Generating (SCC), 1:272 Sensitivities, to toxins, 2:251–252
Station, California, 2:240 Secondary industries. See Separation, of plastics, 2:111–112
A Sand County Almanac, 2:327–328 Manufacturing SEPs (Supplemental
Sand water filtration, 2:320 Secondary particulates, 2:89–90 Environmental Projects), 2:127
SANE (Committee for a Sane Secondary pollutants, 1:32 Septage, 2:299
Nuclear Policy), 1:39 controlling, 1:37 Septic tanks, 1:292, 2:298, 2:299
Sanitary engineering, 2:230 from vehicles, 2:272 SERC (State Emergency Response
Sanitary wastewater, 2:298 from World Trade Center Commission), 1:173
Santa Barbara, California, 1:203 terrorist attack, 2:236–237 Serre de la Fare dam, demonstration
Santiago, Chile, 2:207 See also specific pollutants against building of, 2:120
SARA. See Superfund Amendments Secondary recycling, 2:171 Service industries, 1:279, 1:282–283
and Reauthorization Act Secondary treatment, of Sessions, George, 2:329
SARA Title III. See Emergency wastewater, 1:56, 2:300 Settlement House Movement,
Planning and Community Right Second-hand markets, 2:181–183 1:21–22, 1:200, 2:148,
to Know Act of 1986 Secondhand smoke, 2:244–245 2:202–203
Satellite measurements, 2:196 La Secretaría del Medio Ambiente Settling ponds, 2:301, 2:317, 2:320
Saturated zone, 1:55 y Recursos Naturales. See Seveso, Italy, 1:122, 1:127
Saturday Review, 2:34 Mexican Secretariat for Natural Sewage, water pollution from,
SB (Styrene-butadiene), 1:269 Resources 1:259–260, 2:305–307,
Scarce, Rik, 2:132 Section 409 (Food, Drug and 2:312–313
Scarlett, Harold, 2:34 Cosmetic Act), 2:100 Sewage sludge
SCC (Secondary combustion Sedatives, defined, 2:251 heavy metals in, 2:210
chamber), 1:272 Sediment impoverishment. ocean dumping and, 2:83
Schlichtmann, Jan, 2:133 defined, 2:201 risks from, 2:189–191
Schools Sedimentary, defined, 1:292 See also Biosolids
AHERA and, 1:46 Sedimentation, 2:200–202 Sewage treatment
Love Canal, 1:221, 1:261 Sediments EPA and, 2:263

388
 Sorting, of plastics

Hull House and, 1:200 SIPs. See State Implementation Sodium hydroxide, 2:211
point sources of water pollution Plans Sodium pentachlorophenate, 2:97
from, 2:116 Six-Day War, 1:259 Sodium-26, 2:161
PPCPs and, 1:111–112 Skin cancer, 2:266 Soil acidity, 1:3, 1:5
risks and, 2:189–191 Skyglow, 2:28 Soil erosion, 1:28–29, 1:132, 2:141,
Sewers, 2:301 Slade, Mrs. F. Louis, 1:246 2:200–201
Shabecoff, Phil, 2:35 Slag, 2:204–205 Soil fertility, 1:25–28
SHAC (Stop Huntingdon Animal SLAPP (Strategic Litigation composting for, 1:105–108
Cruelty), 1:160–161 against Public Participation), Soil organic carbon (SOC), 1:26,
Shantora, Victor, 2:22 1:91, 2:156 1:27
Shared decision making. See Slash and burn agriculture, 1:25 Soil pollution, 2:209–211, 2:210
Regulation negotiation Slow sand water filtration, 2:320 bioremediation and, 1:53–54
Sharps (Medical supplies), 2:38, Sludges, 1:247–248, 2:289, cleanup of, 1:93–100
2:39 2:299–300 at Libby, Montana site, 2:227
Shaw, David, 2:35–36 Small-quantity generators (SQGs), from metals, 1:59
Shearwaters, 2:30 1:250 moisture and, 1:225
Shell Oil, 1:286 Smart growth, 2:201 from petroleum, 2:106
Sherman, William Tecumseh, Smelting, 1:43, 2:204–206, 2:205 at Times Beach, Missouri,
2:281–282 Smith, J.W., 2:24 2:243–244
Sherman landslide, Alaska, 1:132 Smith, Robert Angus, 1:3 Soil vapor extraction, 2:226
Shifting cultivation. See Crop Smog, 1:201, 2:64, 2:119, Soil washing, 1:96
rotation 2:206–208, 2:207 Solar energy, 2:176, 2:177–178
Shintech, 1:71 photochemical, 1:201, 2:86, Solar Energy Research Institute,
Shiva, Vandana, 1:240 2:207–208, 2:280–281 1:246–247
Sick building syndrome, 1:269, from vehicle emissions, Solar parabolic trough power
1:278–279, 2:52 2:272–275, 2:273 plants, 2:178
Sidescan sonars, 2:198 See also Air pollution Solid oxide fuel cells, 1:217
Sierra Club, 1:202, 2:121 Smoke pollution, 2:148, The Solid Waste Dilemma: An
Brower, David and, 1:61–62 2:206–207, 2:278 Agenda for Action, 2:213
global presence of, 2:256 Smoke-free environments, 2:245 Solid Waste Disposal Act of 1965,
Grand Canyon controversy, Smokey the Bear, 2:133 1:8
1:9–10, 2:71 Smoking. See Tobacco smoke See also Resource Conservation
Greenpeace and, 1:11–12 Snow, John, 1:251, 1:260, and Recovery Act (RCRA) of
on population growth, 2:140 2:208–209, 2:316 1976
“The Sierra in Peril,” 2:36 Snowplowing, 1:231 Solid wastes, 2:211–219, 2:212,
Sikes Disposal Pits, Texas, 2:227 Snyder, Gary, 2:329 2:214, 2:218, 2:289, 2:317
Silent Spring, 1:8, 1:82–84, 1:119, SOC. See Soil organic carbon incineration of, 1:271–274
1:202, 1:252, 1:260–261, 2:228, SOC (Soil organic carbon), 1:26, landfills for, 2:3–4
2:328, 2:330 1:27 managers of, 1:79
The Silent World, 1:116 Social reform, 1:21–22, 1:265, radioactive, 2:331
Silicosis, 1:219–220 2:202–203 See also Municipal solid wastes
Silkwood, 2:133 environmental health and, Solids, sampling for pollutants,
Silkwood, Karen, 2:133, 2:323 1:256 2:192
Sill, Melanie, 2:36 Union of Concerned Scientists, Solubility, defined, 1:87, 2:91
Silt, 2:308 2:271 Solvents
Silverman, Harriet, 2:325 Social treaties, 1:239 defined, 1:87
Simplicity Social values, 2:132, 2:157–158 in dry cleaning, 1:145–146
voluntary, 1:20 Society green chemistry for, 1:237
as way of life, 2:132 role of government in, hazardous, 1:247
Sinclair, Upton, 2:148, 2:327 1:233–234 as priority pollutant, 2:117
Singapore, on smoke-free Society for General Systems, 2:231 recycling, 2:172
environments, 2:245 Society for Risk Analysis, 2:189 Sonars, sidescan, 2:198
Single-medium approaches, Society of Environmental Songs, 2:132–133
2:125–126, 2:128 Journalists (SEJ), 2:34, 2:35 Sorbents, defined, 1:97
Sinks, defined, 2:240 Sodium carbonate, 2:211 Sorting, of plastics, 2:112

389
Sound

Sound, 2:66–67, 2:67 See also Laws and regulations Steel underground storage tanks,
Source control, for indoor air Standing, defined, 2:123 2:266, 2:268
pollution, 1:278 Standing committees, Steingrabber, Sandra, 2:329
Source reduction, 1:1, 2:213–214, Congressional, 2:16–17 Stenothermic, defined, 2:241
2:215 Starr, Ellen, 1:21 Stewardship, defined, 1:279
South, poverty in, 2:142 Stars, light pollution and, 2:28–30 Stith, Pat, 2:36
South Africa, on smoke-free State Emergency Response Stockholm Convention on
environments, 2:245 Commission (SERC), 1:173 Persistent Organic Pollutants
South America, waste to energy in, State Implementation Plans (SIPs), (2001), 2:6, 2:7, 2:93
2:297 1:92, 2:64, 2:117–118 Stockholm Declaration (1972), 2:5
South (U.S.), 1:84–85 State Pollutant Discharge Stop Eco-Violence, 1:161
Southeast Asia Elimination System (SPDES), Stop Huntingdon Animal Cruelty
fertilizers in, 1:28 1:93 (SHAC), 1:160–161
forest fires in, 2:279 Staten Island, New York, 2:180 Storage, of hazardous wastes. See
Southern California Edison, 2:242 States Hazardous waste disposal
Southern Christian Leadership bottle deposit laws, 1:61 Storm King, 1:204–206
Conference, 1:220 coal producing, 1:102 Stossel, John, 2:35
Soviet Union coal usage in, 1:224 Strategic Litigation against Public
Cold War and, 1:38–39 delegated authority of, 2:122 Participation (SLAPP), 1:91,
radioactive pollution in, 2:286 environmental laws and 2:156
Space exploration, 1:10 regulations, 1:191, 2:9–10 Strategic Petroleum Reserve, 2:102
Space pollution, 2:219–222, 2:220, environmental policy reform “Strategy for a Future Chemicals
2:221 and, 2:159–160 Policy,” 2:249
Space salvage, 2:222 environmental reviews in, 2:57 Stratosphere, defined, 2:64
Space Shuttle, 2:220 EPA and, 2:262, 2:263 Stratospheric ozone, 2:86, 2:86–87,
Spacecraft, 2:219–222 governments of, 1:231 2:266
Spatial, defined, 1:222 hazardous waste production in, Streams, polluted. See Freshwater
SPDES (State Pollutant Discharge 1:250 pollution
Elimination System), 1:93 on infectious wastes, 1:288 Streep, Meryl, 2:133
Special interest groups. See LUSTs and, 2:268–269 Streeter Phelps model, 2:231
Environmental groups; Interest on mercury levels, 2:42 Strikes, labor, 2:1, 2:2
groups on nitrogen oxides, 2:64 Strip mining, 2:46
Spectroscopic detection, 2:195 on nonpoint source pollution, Strong, Maurice, 1:151,
Spent radioactive fuels, 2:162, 2:76 2:223–224, 2:224
2:164–165, 2:290 on point sources of air Strontium-90, 1:134, 2:162
defined, 1:134 pollution, 2:117–118 Students, college, 2:150–151
reprocessing, 2:332–333 on pollution prevention, 2:125, Students for a Democratic Society
storage of, 2:330–331 2:126–128 (SDS), 2:63
Sperm count, 1:179 in pre-Revolutionary U.S., Styrene-butadiene (SB), 1:269
Spinosad, 1:237 1:231 Styrofoam, 2:112
Spock, Benjamin, 1:39 recycling in, 2:169 Subbituminous coal, 1:167
Spores, mold, 2:52 regional EPA offices, 2:262 Submarines, nuclear, 1:136–138,
Sports utility vehicles (SUVs), regulatory agencies, 1:22–23 1:188
1:190, 1:218, 2:276 sewage treatment plants, 2:302 Subsets, defined, 1:245
Sprawl, 2:222, 2:223 on smoke-free environments, Subsidence, defined, 1:101
Spray dryers, defined, 1:274 2:245 Substrates, defined, 2:52, 2:200
Springfield, Vermont, 2:29 Stationary air pollution sources, Sudbury, Ontario, Canada, 2:205,
Sputnik I, 2:221 1:91–92 2:206
SQGs (Small-quantity generators), Steam engine, 1:282 Suffocation, fish kills from, 1:215
1:250 Steam injection, for groundwater Sulfates, in acid rain, 1:3, 1:5, 1:5,
Stability (Economics), 1:154–155 contamination, 1:98 2:224
Stakeholders, 2:152 Steam turbine power plants, Sulfide minerals, 2:48
Standard recyclables, 2:171 1:165–166, 1:189 Sulfur dioxide (SO2), 2:224–225
Standards, environmental, Steel mills, 2:306 air quality standards on, 2:118,
1:295–296, 2:7–8, 2:229 Steel recycling, 2:171 2:195

390
 Thermal pollution

from coal burning, 1:102 Sustainable development, Telecommunications industry,

controlling emissions of, 1:37, 2:227–229 2:196
2:199 defined, 1:241, 2:142 Television, 2:34, 2:35, 2:36, 2:134
as criteria pollutant, 1:33, 1:36 Earth Day and, 1:148 Temperature
emission patterns, 1:4 green revolution and, 1:241 biodegradation and, 1:52
Persian Gulf War and, 2:239 industrial costs and, 1:286 changes in, 1:224, 1:225, 1:228
from petroleum, 2:106 poverty and, 2:142, 2:143–144 for combustion, 1:271–273
from smelting, 2:205, 2:205, precautionary principle and, indoor air quality and,
2:205–206 2:145–146 1:277–278
from soil pollution, 2:210 SUVs. See Sports utility vehicles for PCB destruction, 2:92
from vehicle emissions, 2:273 Swallow, Ellen, 2:229–230, 2:230 See also Global warming
Sulfur hexafluoride (SF6), 1:242, SWDA. See Safe Drinking Water Temperature inversions, defined,
2:195 Act (SWDA) of 1974 1:142
Sulfur oxides Sweden, air pollution and, 1:205 TEPP (Tetraethyl pyrophosphate),
from coal, 1:167, 1:182–183 See also European Union 2:96
from electricity generation, Synergistic, defined, 2:251 Teratogens, 1:123, 2:33, 2:251
1:168–169 Syntex Agribusiness, 2:243–244 Terrestrial environment, 2:98
Sulfur Protocol, 2:257 Syringes. See Sharps (Medical See also Land
Sulphurous smog, 2:206–207 supplies) Terrorism, 2:234–240, 2:235,
Summerset at Frick Park, 1:63–64 2:236, 2:237
Systemic, defined, 2:96
Summitville Mine, Colorado, chemical plants and, 1:126
Systemic pollution prevention,
1:129–130 nuclear power plants and, 1:40,
2:126–127
Sunlight, smog and, 2:206–208 1:134
Systems science, 2:230–232
Superfund, 2:166, 2:225–227, spent fuels and, 2:165
2:226, 2:263 See also Ecoterrorism
See also Comprehensive
T Terrorist attacks, September 11,
2,4,5-T, 2:97
Environmental Response, 2001, 1:70, 2:234–237, 2:236,
Tableware, disposable, 2:212
Compensation, and Liability 2:237
Tailings, defined, 2:48
Act Tertiary industries. See Service
Taking Stock, 2:22
Superfund Amendments and industries
Takings, 2:149–150
Reauthorization Act (SARA), Tertiary recycling, 2:171
Takings: Private Property and the
1:109, 2:184, 2:225, 2:227, Tertiary treatment, of wastewater,
Power of Eminent Domain, 2:150
2:246 2:300
Takings impact analysis, defined,
Supersonic, defined, 1:148 Testing, of new pesticides,
2:150
Supplemental Environmental 2:99–100
Tangible costs and benefits, 1:114
Projects (SEPs), 2:127 Testosterone, 1:176
Supply and demand, energy Tankers, oil, 1:138–139, 1:141, 2,3,7,8-tetrachloro
efficiency and, 1:189–190 1:202–203, 2:104–405 dibenzo[1,4]dioxin (TCDD),
Suppression, defined, 2:266 See also Oil spills 1:122–123
“Surf Your Watershed,” 1:291 Tax reforms, ecological, 2:27 See also Dioxins
Surface air warming, 1:227 Taxes Tetrachloroethylene. See
Surface mining, 1:101 landfill, 2:174 Perchloroethylene
Surface Mining and Control Act of on plastic bags, 2:181 Tetraethyl lead, 1:14–15, 2:250
1977, 2:47 TBT. See Tributyltin Tetraethyl pyrophosphate (TEPP),
Surface waters TCA (Trichloroethane), 1:99 2:96
defined, 1:62 TCDD (2,3,7,8-tetrachloro Tetramethrin, 2:97
pollution control of, 1:93, dibenzo[1,4]dioxin), 1:122–123 Textile manufacturing, 1:283
2:59–60 TCE. See Trichloroethylene Thalidomide, 2:251
pollution of, 2:307–309 Teaching, environmental, 1:77 Thames River, London, England,
See also Water pollution Teach-ins, 1:147, 1:204, 1:246, 2:62 2:312
Suspected carcinogens. See Technology, pollution prevention, Thermal conductivity, 2:194
Hazardous air pollutants 2:232–234 Thermal infrared imaging, defined,
Sustainable, defined, 2:158 Teenagers. See Adolescents 2:242
Sustainable agriculture, 1:28–29, TEF (Toxicity equivalency factors), Thermal pollution, 2:240–243,
2:100 2:92 2:241, 2:308

391
Index

Thermal shock, defined, 2:241 Total ozone mapping spectrometer petroleum and, 1:138, 1:141,
Thermal treatment on the Earth probe satellite 2:101–102, 2:104–107
for groundwater contamination, (TOMS/EP), 2:196 of wastes, 2:292–294
1:98, 2:310 Total suspended particulate matter water, 2:258
for PCBs, 2:92 (TSP), 1:33, 1:35 See also Vehicle emissions
Thermionic ionization detectors, “Towards Sustainable Transuranic wastes, 2:163, 2:165,
2:194–195 Development,” 2:228 2:290
Thermodynamic limitations, 1:1 Tox Town, 2:252 Trash. See Garbage
Thermometers, mercury, 2:42 Toxaphene, 2:94, 2:96, 2:248 Trash-to-energy. See Waste-to-
Thermophilic stage, of Toxic air pollutants. See Hazardous energy
humification, 1:107 air pollutants Trash-to-steam plants. See Waste-
Thermoplastics, 2:112 Toxic chemicals, from mining, to-energy
Thermosets, 2:112 1:129 Travolta, John, 1:90, 2:133
Thermotolerance, defined, 2:242 See also specific chemicals Treaties and conferences, 2:5,
Third party data, 1:290 Toxic organics, as priority 2:254–258, 2:255
THM (Trihalomethanes), 2:270, pollutant, 2:117 on environmental issues, 1:13,
2:320 Toxic Release Inventory (TRI), 1:34–35
Thor Heyerdahl International 1:125–126, 1:173, 1:248, 1:281, Green Party, 1:239
Maritime Environmental 1:290, 2:61, 2:184–185, multilateral, 2:145
Award, 2:315 2:246–249, 2:247, 2:248, 2:263 nuclear test ban, 1:39, 1:202
Thoreau, Henry David, 1:7, 1:20,
AK Steel Corporation, 2:308 on ocean dumping, 2:80–82
2:327
in Louisiana, 1:71 on wartime activities, 2:282,
Thorium-234, 2:162
Toxic Release Report, 2:184 2:286
Three Mile Canyon Farm,
Toxic Substances Control Act See also specific treaties and
Oregon, 2:317
(TSCA) of 1976, 2:10, 2:122, conferences
Three Mile Island (TMI) disaster,
2:123, 2:249–250, 2:322–323 Treatment techniques (TT), for
1:40, 1:135–136, 1:136, 1:137,
Toxic waste disposal. See water, 2:316–317
1:205–206, 1:264–265
Hazardous waste disposal Treaty of Amsterdam, 2:145
3M Corporation. Product
Toxic Wastes and Race in the United Tree-spiking, 1:16, 1:150, 1:160
Responsibility Program, 1:283
States, 1:198 TRI. See Toxic Release Inventory
U.S.S. Thresher, 1:137–138
Toxicants, 2:250 Triana, Alabama, 1:209
Thrift shops, 2:183
Toxicity equivalency factors (TEF), Triazines, 2:98
Thyroid cancer, 1:135
2:92 Tribunals, defined, 2:284
Thyroid hormones, 1:176, 1:177
Toxicology, 2:250–253, 2:251 Tributyltin (TBT)
Tiber River, 1:259
Time, 2:34 See also Poisoning bioaccumlation of, 1:52
Times Beach, Missouri, 1:122, Toxins, 2:250 marine pollution from, 2:314
1:124, 1:206, 2:35, 2:243–244 Trade, international. See Trichloroethane (TCA), 1:99
Tires, 2:112, 2:212, 2:215 International trade Trichloroethylene (TCE), 1:247
Titleholders, defined, 2:149 Traffic noise, 2:66–68 as carcinogen, 1:69
TMI disaster. See Three Mile Tragedy of the commons, 1:202, phytoremediation of, 1:55
Island (TMI) disaster 2:253–254 2,4,5-Trichlorophenol, 1:127
TNC. See Multinational Transboundary pollution. See Trichlorophon, 2:96
corporations Global environmental issues Trickling filters, 2:300
Tobacco smoke, 2:244–245 Transient, defined, 2:97 Triclosan, 1:122
asthma and, 1:49 Transnational corporations (TNC). Trihalomethanes (THM), 2:270,
cancer and, 1:66–69, 1:69 See Multinational corporations 2:320
indoor pollution from, 1:275 Transportation Tritium, 2:163
Todd, John, 2:245–246, 2:246 alternatives to cars, 2:277 N-trityl morpholine, 2:97
Todes, Charlotte, 2:325 energy efficiency in, 1:189 Trophic, defined, 1:128, 2:96
Toluene, defined, 2:184 fuel cells in, 1:216–217 Tropospheric ozone, 2:85–86, 2:86
TOMS/EP (Total ozone mapping of hazardous materials, Trucks, light, 1:218–219, 2:276
spectrometer on the Earth 1:126–127, 1:250, 2:163, Truth in advertising, 1:237–238
probe satellite), 2:196 2:292–293, 2:332 TSCA. See Toxic Substances
Topography, defined, 1:129 of nuclear wastes, 1:40 Control Act

392
 United States

TSP (Total suspended particulate bioluminescent reporter Intergovernmental Panel on

matter), 1:33, 1:35 technology in, 2:197–198 Climate Change, 2:254
Tucson, Arizona, 2:29 emissions trading, 1:175 on PBT chemicals, 2:93
Tufts Medical Center, 1:176 environmental protection on POPs, 2:94
Tuna, dolphin-safe, 1:62 agency in, 2:263 on sedimentation abatement,
Turbidity, defined, 2:201 Friends of the Earth branch in, 2:201
Turbines, defined, 2:177 2:71–72 Strong, Maurice and, 2:224
Turbulence, for combustion, 1:271 Green parties, 1:12 United Nations Group of Experts
Turner Broadcasting, 2:35 Industrial Revolution pollution on the Scientific Aspects of
Tuskegee Institute, 1:84 in, 1:282 Marine Environmental
Tyndall Report, 2:35, 2:36 National Air Quality Protection, 2:201
Tyson, Rae, 2:35 Information Archive, 1:291 United Parcel Service, 1:216
nuclear electricity in, 1:187 United States
U oil spills in, 1:202–203 acid rain and, 1:4, 1:5, 1:6
UCC. See United Church of Christ radioactive waste disposal in, asthma in, 1:48
UCLA Institute of the 2:333–334 biosolids management, 1:57,
Environment, 2:30 unitary government in, 1:58–59
UCS (Union of Concerned 1:232–233 carbon dioxide emissions in,
Scientists), 1:11, 2:271 See also specific countries 1:72
UFW (United Farm Workers of United Mexican States. See Mexico carbon dioxide poisoning in,
America), 1:88–89, 2:1–2 United Nations 1:74
Ultraviolet (UV) radiation, 2:266 Climate Change Convention, Cold War and, 1:38–39
cancer and, 1:66–67 1:152, 2:6 compliance with international
CFCs and, 1:87–88 Commission on Human treaties, 2:7
defined, 2:85 Settlements, 2:15 consumerism in, 2:19–22
ozone and, 2:85 Compensation Commission, on DDT, 1:119–120
for water treatment, 2:320–321 2:284 dredging in, 1:144
UNCED. See Earth Summit Conference on the Human eco-apartheid in, 2:25–26
UNCHE (United Nations Environment, 1:151, 1:205, emissions trading in, 1:175
Conference on the Human 2:72, 2:80, 2:224 energy sources and
Environment), 1:151 Convention on the Law of the consumption, 2:179
Underground mining, 1:101 Sea, 2:6 energy statistics, 1:183
Underground storage tanks on global air and water environmental damage in
(USTs), 1:243, 2:180, pollution levels, 2:119 Vietnam, 2:283–284
2:266–269, 2:267 Global Compact, 2:8 ethanol in, 2:176
The Undersea World of Jacques Global Warming Conference, government of, 1:230,
Cousteau, 1:116 2:255 1:230–231, 1:234
UNEP. See United Nations population projections, Green parties in, 1:239–240
Environment Programme 2:138–139 history of water pollution in,
Unintended circumstances, Programme for the Further 1:260
2:269–270 Implementation of Agenda 21, hydropower in, 2:175
Union Carbide, 1:125, 1:127, 2:144 injection wells in, 1:292
1:206, 1:219, 1:263, 1:264 Strong, Maurice and, 2:224 ISO 14001 in, 1:296
Union of Concerned Scientists on sustainable development, Kyoto Protocol, 1:174, 1:229
(UCS), 1:11, 2:271 2:229 landfills in, 2:3
Union Oil Company, 1:203 on water pollution, 2:311 laws and regulations, 2:9–13,
Unions, labor. See Labor unions World Commission on 2:11
Unitary governments, defined, Environment and on lead-based paint, 2:14
1:232–233 Development, 1:64–65, 2:142 on leaded gasoline, 1:36, 2:15
United Church of Christ (UCC), See also Earth Summit light pollution in, 2:30–31
1:198, 1:209–210, 2:288 United Nations Economic mercury levels in, 2:42–43
United Farm Workers of America Commission for Europe, 2:6 mining laws in, 2:48–49
(UFW), 1:88–89, 2:1–2 United Nations Environment mold pollution in, 2:52
United Kingdom Programme (UNEP), 1:13, municipal solid wastes in,
air pollution control in, 1:261 1:228, 1:291, 2:76 2:212–213, 2:216

393
Thermal shock, defined

United States (continued) U.S. Bureau of Land Management, U.S. Environmental Genome
NAFTA and, 2:56–57 1:81, 2:260 Project, 1:255, 1:256
on nitrogen oxides, 2:64 U.S. Bureau of Mines, 2:260 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
on noise pollution, 2:67–68 U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, 1:9, (FWS), 2:12, 2:260
on nonpoint source pollution, 2:260 on 1002 Area, 1:42
2:75–76 U.S. Civil War, 2:281–282 on bald eagle endangerment,
nuclear power in, 1:187 U.S. Coast Guard, 2:33, 2:259 1:82
oil spills and, 1:140 U.S. Department of Agriculture environmental careers at, 1:81
on PCBs, 2:91 (USDA), 2:12, 2:259–260 U.S. Food and Drug
pesticides in, 1:27, 2:96 APHIS, 2:100 Administration (FDA), 2:12,
petroleum use in, 2:101–102, on biosolids, 1:58 2:264–165
2:106–107 extension program, 1:84–85 drug environmental
point source pollution in, on organic farming, 1:28 assessments, 1:113
2:118–119 on phytoremediation of soil, on pesticides in food, 2:100
pollutant emissions, 1:32, 1:34 2:211 U.S. Forest Service, 2:133, 2:259
pollution laws, 1:34 sedimentation abatement and, U.S. Forestry Department, 1:81
popular culture in, 2:131–135 2:201 U.S. General Accounting Office
population growth in, U.S. Department of Energy (USGAO), 1:209, 2:143, 2:288
2:138–140 (DOE) U.S. Geological Survey (USGS),
PPCP studies, 1:112–113 on alternative fuel vehicles, 1:111–113, 2:76, 2:260, 2:265,
precautionary principle and, 2:270
1:189
2:5, 2:146 U.S. Institute for Environmental
on energy efficient products,
radioactive pollution in, 2:286 Conflict Resolution, 2:155
1:190
recycling in, 2:169–170 U.S. Navy, 2:286
Energy Information
role in international U.S. Public Health Service
Administration, 1:180
environmental issues, APCA and, 1:38
on environmental justice, 1:199
2:256–257 on drinking water, 2:316
Human Genome Project, 1:256
secondhand market in, 2:181 Universities, environmental careers
nuclear waste disposal, 1:188
solar energy in, 2:178 in, 1:81
petroleum bioremediation, 1:99
spent radioactive fuels in, See also specific colleges and
on phytoremediation of soil,
2:164–165 universities
2:211
waste amounts in, 2:290 University of Florida. Institute of
on radioactive waste disposal,
waste to energy in, 2:297 Food and Agriculture Sciences,
2:165
water quality in, 2:316–317 1:44
radionuclide containment and,
World Trade Organization and, University of Michigan. School of
2:255 1:99 Natural Resources, 1:210
See also cities and states; specific solar energy and, 2:178 University of Padua, Italy, 2:29
federal agencies and laws; U.S. Department of Health and Unreactivity, defined, 1:87
specific topics Human Services (HHS) Unsaturated, defined, 2:268
United States Department of Energy Human Genome Project, 1:255 Upper Silesia, Poland, 1:59
1996 Annual Energy Review, on trichloroethylene, 1:69 Upstream emissions, 1:219
1:180 U.S. Department of Homeland Uranium, 1:185, 1:187–188, 1:276,
U.S. Army, 1:220 Security, 1:161 2:163
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, U.S. Department of Justice (DOJ), Uranium 235, 1:183
2:258 1:192, 1:195, 2:12, 2:263 Uranium 238, 1:183, 2:161, 2:162
404 permits, 2:9 U.S. Department of Labor (DOL), Urban areas
asbestos identification surveys, 2:323 brownfield development in,
1:47 U.S. Department of the Interior, 1:62–64
cost-benefit analyses by, 1:115 2:106, 2:260 pollution from runoff in, 2:75,
ocean dumping and, 2:33, 2:80, U.S. Department of 2:76, 2:106
2:81, 2:83 Transportation (DOT) poverty in, 2:25–26
Rivers and Harbors on fuel economy, 1:218 in Progressive Era, 2:148
Appropriations Act, hazardous materials placard rural waste disposal from, 2:293
2:191–192, 2:301 system, 1:126–127, 2:292–293 smart growth and, 2:204
wetlands permits, 1:93 medical wastes, 2:39 sprawl, 2:222, 2:223

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 Wastes

See also specific cities Vehicular pollution, 2:272–278, Voluntary simplicity, 1:20
Urban Ore, Berkeley, California, 2:273, 2:274, 2:275
2:183 Velsicol, 1:83–84 W
Urban sprawl. See Sprawl Ventilation, indoor air quality and, Waechter, Antoine, 2:120
Urban Wastewater Treatment 1:277, 1:278 Wald, Lillian, 2:203
Directive (EU), 2:303 Venturi scrubbers, 2:199 Walden, 2:327
Urban Wildlands Group, 2:30 VEPCO (Virginia Electric Power Walden Pond, 1:7
Urea-formaldehyde foam Co.), 1:191 Wales, Industrial Revolution
insulation, 1:276 Vermiculite, asbestos in, 1:45–46, pollution in, 1:282
USA Today, 2:35 2:50 See also United Kingdom
USDA. See U.S. Department of Vermont Southern State Wall Street Journal, 1:9, 2:198
Agriculture Correctional Facility, 2:29
Ward, Bud, 2:36, 2:37
Used automobiles, 2:171, 2:173 Vertical expansion, of cultivated
Warren County, North Carolina,
Used products, 2:181–183 land, 1:25
1:198, 1:209, 2:287–288
USGAO. See U.S. General Vetos, presidential, 2:17
Warrick, Joby, 2:36
Accounting Office Vienna Convention for the
Wars, 2:281–287, 2:282, 2:283,
USGS. See U.S. Geological Survey Protection of the Ozone Layer,
2:284, 2:285
U-shaped hypothesis, 1:156, 2:54
Warsaw Pact, defined, 1:94
1:156–157 Vieques Island, 2:286
U.S.S. Arizona, 2:287 Vietnam War, 1:122, 1:123, 2:154, Washington Post, 2:36
U.S.S. Scorpion, 1:137 2:282, 2:283–284, 2:284, 2:285 Waste disposal
U.S.S. Thresher, 1:137–138 Violence garbage collection, 1:21–22,
USTs. See Underground storage ecoterrorism, 1:159–162 1:200, 1:231
tanks in environmental activism, 1:16, of medical wastes, 2:39–40
Utility boilers, 2:278 1:18 of radioactive wastes, 2:163–166
Utility lines, 2:279 New Left and, 2:63 See also Hazardous waste
Utilization, coal, 1:102–103 Virginia Electric Power Co. disposal; Incineration; Ocean
UV radiation. See Ultraviolet (UV) (VEPCO), 1:191 dumping
radiation Viruses Waste exchanges, 1:2, 1:248
UV spectra, 2:195–197 in bioterrorism, 2:238 Waste Framework Directive, 2:49
UV-A radiation, 2:266 chlorination for, 2:320–321 Waste Isolation Pilot Project, New
UV-B radiation, 2:85, 2:266 Visibility, particulate matter and, Mexico, 2:165
UV-C radiation, 2:266 1:35 Waste management, radioactive,
Visual blight, 2:279–280 2:163
V Visual pollution, 2:278, 2:278–280, Waste oil, 2:243
Vadose zone, 1:55 2:279, 2:280 Waste treatment, for abatement,
Vail, Colorado ski resort, 1:160, VOCs. See Volatile organic 1:2
1:161 compounds
Wastes, 2:288–291, 2:289
Values, social, 2:132, 2:153–154 Volatile organic compounds
agricultural, 1:235–236
Variable vale control, defined, (VOCs), 1:36, 1:266, 1:269,
consumerism and, 2:21–22
1:218 2:280–281
dilution of, 1:121
Vectors, defined, 2:96 air stripping with, 2:130, 2:226
drilling, 1:42
Vehicle emissions, 1:35, 1:73, controlling, 1:37
from food production, 2:246
1:219, 1:261, 2:272 detection of, 2:194, 2:197
infectious, 1:287–288
catalytic converters and, incineration and, 1:272
1:86–87 ozone pollution from, 2:87–88 international trade in,
haze from, 2:278 from petroleum, 2:106 2:291–292, 2:293
IR spectroscopy for, 2:197 from World Trade Center inventories of, 1:1
petroleum in, 2:106–107 terrorist attack, 2:235 plastic, 2:111, 2:111–113
regulation of, 1:92 Volatility, defined, 1:97, 2:91 reduction, 1:1–2, 2:294–296
smog from, 2:208 Volatilization, defined, 1:97 reuse of, 1:279–280
water pollution from, 2:312 Volcanoes, 1:131 transportation of, 2:292–294
Vehicles Voluntary cleanup programs, 1:286 from World Trade Center
fuel cell-powered, 1:216–217 Voluntary corporate codes of terrorist attack, 2:236
fuel economy, 1:218–219 conduct, 2:7–8 See also specific types of wastes

395
Waste-to-energy (WTE)

Waste-to-energy (WTE), 1:272, thermal, 2:240–243 West Germany, Green parties, 1:12
2:114–115, 2:216, 2:217, 2:295, from wastewater, 2:298, See also European Union;
2:296–297 2:301–302 Germany
Wastewater treatment, 2:297–304, from World Trade Center Western society, consumerism in,
2:298, 2:306–307 terrorist attack, 2:236 2:19–23
biosolids from, 1:56–57 See also Clean Water Act; Wet deposition, 1:3, 1:5, 1:6
hazardous materials from, specific pollutants Wet scrubbers, 1:273–274, 2:199
1:247–248 Water Pollution Control Act of Wet weather point sources, 2:117
point sources of pollution from, 1956, 2:302 WET (Whole Effluent Toxicity),
2:116 Water quality 1:121
Wastewater treatment plants earthquakes and, 2:265 Wetlands
bioluminescent reporter international standards, 2:316 constructed, 2:303
technology in, 2:197–198 managers of, 1:80 defined, 2:149
mercury from, 2:43 NOAA and, 2:58 pollution control in, 1:93, 2:9
recycling from, 1:50 See also Water pollution sedimentation and, 2:201
Todd, John and, 2:245–246 Water Quality Act of 1965, 2:302 Wetlands Reserve Program, 2:260
WasteWise program, 2:295 Water Quality Act of 1987, 2:302, Whaling, 1:203
Watchdog agencies, 1:11 2:309 Greenpeace and, 1:12, 1:243
Water Water Quality Improvement Act, Sea Shepherds and, 1:16
acidification, 1:3, 1:5 1:92 WHB (Workers Health Bureau of
raw, 2:320 Water table, defined, 2:268 America), 2:325
scarcity of, 2:139 Water testing, 2:230 When Smoke Ran Like Water: Tales
terrorism and, 2:238 Water treatment, 2:316–322, of Environmental Deception and
See also Drinking water; 2:317, 2:318, 2:319 the Battle against Pollution, 2:330
Groundwater; Surface waters for cryptosporidiosis Where on Earth Are We Going?,
Water cycle, 2:317–318, 2:318 prevention, 1:117 2:224
Water Environmental Federation, disinfection by-products from, Whistleblowing, 2:322–323
1:60 2:270 White Earth Land Recovery
Water Framework Directive, 2:49 Watergate scandal, 2:154 Project, 2:3
Water pollution, 2:304, 2:305 Watersheds White House Conservation
agriculture and, 1:27–29, Buzzard Bay, 2:76 Conference (1962), 1:8
2:73–74 defined, 1:130, 2:76 White lead. See Lead carbonate
biological oxygen demand and, drinking water and, 2:310–311 WHO. See World Health
2:84 Green Party and, 1:239 Organization
biomonitoring and, 2:197 for nonpoint source pollution, Whole Effluent Toxicity (WET),
cholera from, 1:259–260, 2:76 1:121
2:208–209 for point source pollution, Wilderness Act, 1:8
cleanup of, 1:93–100 2:117 Wilderness Society, 1:10, 2:71,
diseases from, 1:251 protection of, 2:318 2:121, 2:140
freshwater, 2:305, 2:305–311, for sedimentation control, 2:201 Wildlands Project, 1:19
2:306, 2:307, 2:308, 2:309 Waterways, U.S., 2:258 Wildlife
history of, 1:259–261 Watson, Paul, 1:16 DDT and, 1:252
Lake Erie, 1:7–8 Watts riots, 2:154 endocrine disruptors and,
marine, 2:312–315, 2:313 Weapons, nuclear. See Nuclear 1:176–177
from mining, 2:48 weapons light pollution and, 2:30
movies about, 2:134 Weather mining and, 1:129
from NAPLs, 2:69 fallout and, 2:160–161 noise pollution and, 2:68
nonpoint sources, 2:73–77, haze and, 2:278 plastics and, 2:110, 2:110
2:105–106 smog and, 2:206–208 See also Animals
Persian Gulf War and, 2:239 Weathermen, 2:63 Willets, Peter, 2:71
from petroleum, 2:105–106 Webster, Pennsylvania, 1:142 Wilson, Pete, 1:89
point sources of, 2:116–117 The Weight of Nations, 2:22–23 Wind energy, 2:178–179
from radioactive waste disposal, Welch, Jim, 2:150 Wind turbines, 1:166, 2:178–179
2:165 Wellhead protection, 2:321 Winston-Salem (NC) Journal and
from soil pollution, 2:210 Wells, injection, 1:292–293, 1:293 Sentinel, 2:36

396
 Zumwalt, Sr., Elmo

Wise-use movement, 2:323–325 on leaded gasoline, 1:36, 2:15, World War I, 2:281–282
Woburn, Massachusetts 2:107 World War II, 1:186, 2:281–282
CERCLA and, 1:109 nongovernmental organizations Worldwatch Institute, 1:11, 1:246
leukemia clusters in, 1:69, and, 2:72 WPA (Works Progress
1:89–90 on poverty, 2:144 Administration), 1:114
movies about, 2:133 on sustainable development, W.R. Grace & Co., 1:69
Woman and Nature: The Roaring 2:229 WRI (World Resources Institute),
Inside Her, 2:329 World Business Council for 2:22–23
Women Sustainable Development, 2:228 Writers, 2:327–330
in antinuclear movement, 1:39 World Commission on WSP. See Women Strike for Peace
education and, 2:230 Environment and WTE. See Waste-to-energy
environmental activists, 1:19, Development, 1:64–65, 2:142, WTO. See World Trade
1:200–201 2:227–228 Organization
in Progressive movement, World Conservation Strategy, 2:228
2:148 World Environment Day 2003, X
See also names of specific 2:311 X factor, in risk assessment, 2:189
women; Settlement House World Health Organization
Movement (WHO) Y
Women Strike for Peace (WSP), on arsenic levels, 1:44 Yard wastes, 2:215–216
1:39 on childhood diseases, 1:251 Yeast biodegradation, 1:53
Wood on cholera, 2:311 “Yellowboy,” 2:48
as energy source, 2:175, 2:176 on EMF, 1:67 Yucatan Peninsula, 1:132
mold and, 2:52 on medical wastes, 2:38 Yucca Mountain, 1:40, 1:188,
Wood pallets, 2:212 water quality standards, 2:316 2:165, 2:330–333, 2:332
Workers World Meteorological
compensation, 1:220 Organization, 1:228, 2:254 Z
exposure to asbestos, 1:46 World population, 2:136–137, Zahniser, Howard, 1:61
whistleblowing and, 2:322–323 2:138 Zell, M., 2:91
See also Labor, farm; See also Population Zero emissions, 2:295
Occupational safety and World Resources Institute (WRI), Zero Population Growth
health 2:22–23 (organization), 2:140, 2:334
Workers Health Bureau of “World Scientists’ Warning to Zero population growth (ZPG),
America (WHB), 2:325 Humanity,” 2:271 2:333–334
Works Progress Administration 2002 World Summit on Zero-emission vehicles, 2:276
(WPA), 1:114 Sustainable Development, 1:24, ZID (Zone of initial dilution), 2:51
World Atlas of Artificial Night Sky 1:153, 2:144 Zinc (Zn), 1:59, 1:256, 2:313–314
Brightness, 2:29 World Trade Center, terrorist Zone of initial dilution (ZID),
World Bank attacks and disease clusters, 2:51
development loans from, 2:24 1:70, 2:234–237, 2:236, 2:237 Zoologists, 1:77
Global Environmental Facility, World Trade Organization ZPG (Zero population growth),
1:152 (WTO), 1:239, 2:255, 2:333–334
on green revolution, 1:240 2:326–327 Zumwalt, Sr., Elmo, 2:283–284

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